Roman Catholic religious order See also: Consecrated life (Catholic Church)

Catholic religious orders are organizations of laity and clergy in the Catholic Church who live under a common rule. They are to be distinguished from Holy Orders, the sacrament which bishops, priests, and deacons receive.

What distiguishes members of religious orders from the rest of the laity and the clergy is that they try to imitate Jesus of Nazareth by taking vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. They may additionally profess to obey certain guidelines for living,

There are actually two types of Catholic religious orders: congregations, which take simple vows, and orders proper, which take solemn vows. As an example, the Congregation of Holy Cross is a congregation because its members take simple vows, whereas the Society of Jesus is an order because its members take solemn vows.

List of Roman Catholic religious congregationsThe following list refers to some of the major religious institutes of the Catholic Church, both orders, and others; it should be understood that communities using the same name may exist in Anglican or Eastern Orthodox traditions as well, as well as more than one Catholic order with the same name. Each is accompanied by its official name in English as well as the acronym (or "post-nominal initials") commonly used to identify its members. In parenthesis is the year it was established.

1. Apostles of the Sacred Heart of Jesus - A.S.C.J. 2. Adorers (Adorers of the Blood of Christ) - A.S.C. 3. Adornos (Clerics Regular Minor) - C.R.M. 4. Angelic Sisters of St. Paul - A.S.S.P. 5. Assumptionists (Augustinians of the Assumption) - A.A. 6. Atonement, Society of the (Atonement Friars/Graymoor Friars/Sisters) - S.A.

(1909) 7. Augustinian Recollects - (Order of the Augustinians Recollects) - O.A.R. 8. Augustinian Sisters, Servants of Jesus and Mary - A.S.J.M. 9. Augustinians (Order of Saint Augustine) - O.S.A. (1256) 10. Baladites (Order of Lebanese Maronite) - O.L.M. 11. Barnabites (Clerics Regular of Saint Paul) - B., C.R.S.P. (1530) 12. Basilians (Congregation of St. Basil) - C.S.B. (1822) 13. Benedictines (Order of Saint Benedict) - O.S.B. (1216) 14. Benedictine Sisters of Perpetual Adoration (1874) 15. Bernardine Cistercian Sisters of Esquiermes 16. Bernardines (also see Cistercians) 17. Bethany Ashram (Order of the Imitation of Christ) - O.I.C. (1930) 18. Bridgettines (Order of Our Savior) - C.S.B. (1350) 19. Brotherhood of Hope - B.H. 20. Brothers of Christian Instruction of St Gabriel -S.G. (1711)

21. Brothers of the Christian Schools (Lasallian Brothers or Christian Brothers) - F.S.C. (1680)

22. Brothers Hospitallers of St. John of God (Order of Hospitallers) - O.H. (1100) 23. Brothers of Mercy of Our Lady of Perpetual Help - f.m.m. 24. Camaldolese (Camaldolese Benedictines) - O.S.B. Cam. 25. Camaldolese Hermits of the Congregation of Monte Corona - Er.Cam. 26. Camillians (Order of Saint Camillus) - O.S.Cam. 27. Canossians (Canossian Daughters and Sons of Charity) - F.D.D.C. 28. Canonesses of St. Augustine - C.R.O.S.A. 29. Canons Regular of the New Jerusalem - C.R.N.J. (2002) 30. Capuchins (Order of Friars Minor Capuchin) - O.F.M. Cap. (1520) 31. Capuchin Poor Clares 32. Carmelites (Order of Our Lady of Mt. Carmel) - O.Carm., O.C.D., O.C.D.S.

(1209) 33. Carmelites of Mary Immaculate - C.M.I. (1831) 34. Carmelite Sisters of the Aged and Infirm 35. Carmelite Daughters of the Divine Heart of Jesus - D.C.J. (1891) 36. Carmelite Sisters of the Most Sacred Heart of Los Angeles 37. Carthusians - O.Cart. (1084) 38. Celestines (defunct) (1244) 39. Christian Brothers of Ireland - C.F.C (1802) 40. Cistercians (Cistercians of the Ancient Observance)- O.Cist./S.O.Cist (1098) 41. Claretians (Claretian Missionaries) - C.M.F. 42. Columbans (Missionary Society of St. Columban) - S.S.C. 43. Companions of the Cross - C.C. 44. Congregatio Immaculatae Cordis Mariae (Congregation of the Immaculate Heart

of Mary), also Scheutfathers, Scheutists, or Missionhurst - C.I.C.M. (1862) 45. Congregation of the Disciples of the Lord - C.D.D 46. Congregation of Holy Cross - C.S.C 47. Congregation of Notre Dame - C.N.D. 48. Congregation of St. Therese of Lisieux , Cstbrothers, Kerala, India 49. Congregation of the Mother Coredemptrix - C.M.C. 50. Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary - SS.CC. (1800) 51. Congregation of the Sisters of Our Lady of Mercy (Divine Mercy Sisters) 52. Congregatio Fratrum Cellitarum seu Alexianorum (Alexians) (Cellites) - C.F.A 53. Conventual Franciscans (Conventuals or Order of Friars Minor Conventual) -

O.F.M. Conv. (1209) 54. Crosiers (Canons Regular of the Holy Cross) - O.S.C. 55. Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul - D.C. 56. Daughters of Divine Charity - F.D.C. (1868) 57. Daughters of Divine Love 58. Daughters of Mary of the Immaculate Conception 59. Daughters of St. Paul - F.S.P. (1915) 60. Daughters of the Holy Spirit - D.H.S. (1706) 61. Dehonians (Priests of the Sacred Heart of Jesus) - S.C.J. 62. Divine Word Missionaries - S.V.D. (1875)

63. Discalced Augustinians - O.A.D. (1592) 64. Discalced Carmelites - O.C.D. 65. Disciples of the Lord - C.D.D. (1931) 66. Dominicans (Order of Friars Preachers) - O.P. (1216) 67. Dominican Sisters of Hawthorne 68. Dominican Sisters of the Immaculate Conception - O.P. (1861) 69. Dominican Sisters of St. Cecilia - O.P. (1860) 70. Dominican Nuns of Our Lady of the Rosary 71. Dottrinari (Congregazione dei Preti della Dottrina Cristiana) - D.C. 72. Eudists (Congregation of Jesus and Mary) - C.I.M. 73. Felician Sisters (Congregation of the Sisters of St. Felix of Cantalice) - C.S.S.F. 74. Fathers of Mercy - (Congregatio Presbyterorum a Misericordia) 75. Franciscan Apostolic Sisters - F.A.S. (1954) 76. Franciscan Brothers of Brooklyn - O.S.F. 77. Franciscan Brothers of the Eucharist 78. Franciscan Brothers of Peace 79. Franciscan Friars (Order of Friars Minor) - O.F.M. (1209) 80. Franciscan Handmaids of Mary 81. Franciscan Hospitaller Sisters of the Immaculate Conception - F.H.I.C. (1876) 82. Franciscan Missionaries of the Eternal Word 83. Franciscan Friars of the Renewal 84. Franciscan Friars of the Third Order Regular - T.O.R. 85. Franciscan Missionaries of the Divine Motherhood - F.M.D.M 86. Franciscan Missionaries of Mary - F.M.M 87. Franciscan Missionary Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary 88. Franciscan Servants of Jesus 89. Franciscan Sisters of Christian Charity - O.S.F. 90. Franciscan Sisters of the Eucharist - O.S.F. 91. Franciscan Sisters of the Immaculate 92. Franciscan Sisters of Mary Immaculate 93. Franciscan Sisters of Penance of the Sorrowful Mother - T.O.R. 94. Franciscan Sisters of Perpetual Adoration - O.S.F. 95. Fransalians (Missionaries of St. Francis de Sales) - M.S.F.S. 96. Grey Nuns of the Sacred Heart - G.N.S.H 97. Grey Nuns of Montreal (Soeurs grises de Montréal) - S.G.M. 98. Good Shepherd Sisters - R.G.S 99. Handmaids of the Blessed Sacrament and of Charity - A.A.S.C. 100.Handmaids of the Precious Blood - H.P.B. 101.Handmaids of the Sacred Heart of Jesus - A.A.S.C. 102.Handmaids of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, Mary and Joseph 103.Holy Cross Fathers (Congregation of Holy Cross) - C.S.C. 104.Holy Spirit Adoration Sisters (Pink Sisters) 105.Infant Jesus Sisters (Nicolas Barre) - I.J 106.Institute of Christ the King Sovereign Priest - I.C.R.S.S. (1990) 107.Institute of the Incarnate Word - I.I.W. (1984) 108.Jesuits (Society of Jesus) - S.J. (1534)

109.Josephines of Asti (Oblates of St. Joseph) - O.S.I. 110.Josephite Fathers and Brothers (St. Joseph's Society of the Sacred Heart) - S.S.J. 111.Lazarists or Vincentians (Congregation of the Mission) - C.M. (1624) 112.Little Brothers of the Good Shepperd - B.G.S 113.Little Brothers of the Gospel - (1956) 114.Little Brothers of Jesus - (1933) 115.Little Brothers of St Francis 116.Little Sisters of the Assumption 117.Little Sisters of the Gospel - (1963) 118.Little Sisters of Jesus - (1933) 119.Little Sisters of Jesus and Mary 120.Little Sisters of the Poor - L.S.P. (ca. 1700s) 121.Loreto Sisters (Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary) - I.B.V.M. 122.Marian Fathers - M.I.C. 123.Marianists (Society of Mary) - S.M. 124.Marianist Sisters (Daughters of Mary Immaculate) - F.M.I. 125.Marianites of Holy Cross - M.S.C. 126.Marists (Society of Mary) - S. M.(1817) 127.Marist Brothers - F.M.S. (1817) 128.Maryknoll (Catholic Foreign Mission Society of America) - M.M. (1911) 129.Mercedarians (Order of Our Lady of Mercy) - O. de M. (1218) 130.Missionaries of Charity - M.C. (1950) 131.Missionaries of La Salette - M.S. (1852) 132.Missionaries of the Gospel of Life 133.Missionaries of the Poor 134.Missionaries of the Sacred Heart - M.S.C. 135.Monastic Fraternities of Jerusalem 136.Norbertines or Premonstratensians (Canons Regular of Prémontré) - C.R.P.,

O.Praem. (1120) 137.Olivetans (Order of Our Lady of Mount Olivet) (1313) 138.Oblates Of Mary Immaculate - O.M.I. (1816) 139.Oblates Of The Virgin Mary - O.M.V. (1827) 140.Oblate Sisters of Providence -O.S.P. (1829) 141.Oratorians (Oratory of St. Philip Neri) - C.O., Cong. Orat. (1500s) 142.Order of St. Elisabeth O.S.E. (1622) 143.Pallottines (Society of the Catholic Apostolate) - S.A.C. (1835) 144.Paris Foreign Missions Society (Missions Etrangères de Paris) - M.E.P. (1658) 145.Passionists (Congregation of the Passion) - C.P. (1720) 146.Passionist Nuns 147.Pauline Fathers (Order of Saint Paul the First Hermit) 148.Paulists (Congregation of St. Paul) - C.S.P. 149.Piarists (Clerics Regulars Poors of the Mother of God of the Pious Schools) -

Sch.P. (1617) 150.Poor Clares (Nuns of the Order of St. Clare/(Order of Poor Ladies) - O.S.C. 151.Poor Clare Nuns of Perpetual Adoration 152.Presentation Brothers - F.P.M.

153.Presentation Sisters - P.M. 154.Presentation Sisters or Sisters of the Presentation of the Blessed Virgin Mary -

P.B.V.M. 155.Priestly Fraternity of St. Peter - F.S.S.P. (1988) 156.Racine Dominican Sisters 157.Redemptorists (Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer) - C.Ss.R. (1732) 158.Religious of the Assumption - R.A. 159.Religious of the Cenacle - R.C. 160.Religious of the Sacred Heart of Mary - R.S.H.M.- *[1] - website 161.Religious Sisters of Mercy of Alma, Michigan - R.S.M. 162.Resurrectionists - C.R. 163.Rogationists of the Heart of Jesus - R.C.J. 164.Rosminians (Institute of Charity) - I.C. 165.Sacramentines (Congregation of the Blessed Sacrament) - S.S.S. 166.Salesians of St. John Bosco - S.D.B. (1857) 167.Salesian Sisters (Daughters of Mary Help of Christian) - F.M.A. 168.Salvatorians (Society of the Divine Savior) - S.D.S. (1881) 169.Scalabrians (Congregation of the Missionaries of St. Charles Borromeo) - C.S.

(1887) 170.School Sisters of Christ the King 171.School Sisters of Notre Dame - S.S.N.D. (1833) 172.School Sisters of the Third Order of St Francis 173.Servites (Order of Friars, Servants of Mary) - O.S.M. (1233) 174.Sinsinawa Dominican Sisters 175.Sister Adorers of the Precious Blood - R.P.G. (1861) 176.Sisters Adorers of the Royal Heart of Jesus Christ Sovereign Priest 177.Sisters of Charity - S.C. 178.Sisters of Charity of the Blessed Virgin Mary - B.V.M. 179.Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word 180.Sisters of the Apostolic Carmel 181.Sisters of the Holy Cross - C.S.C. 182.Sisters of Holy Cross - C.S.C 183.Sisters of the Holy Family 184.Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary - S.N.J.M. (1844) 185.Sisters of Jesus, Our Hope 186.Sisters of La Retraite 187.Sisters of Life - S.V. (1991) 188.Sisters of Mary, Mother of the Eucharist - O.P. (1997) 189.Sisters of Mercy - R.S.M. (1831) 190.Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur - S.N.D., S.N.D. de N. (1803) 191.Sisters of Our Lady of Mercy 192.Sisters of Saint Agnes 193.Sisters of St. Francis of Assisi 194.Sisters of St Francis of the Martyr St George - F.S.G.M. 195.Sisters of St Joseph - C.S.J. or S.S.J. (1650) 196.Sisters of St. Joseph of Peace [2]- C.S.J.P (1884)

197.Sisters of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart - S.S.J. (1866) 198.Sisters of St. Joseph of the Third Order of St. Francis 199.Society of the Precious Blood (Precious Blood Fathers) - C.PP.S. 200.Sisters, Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary – IHM – 1845 201.Sisters, Servants of the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus (Cresson, PA; Poland;

Vatican City) - S.S.C.J. 202.Society of Saint Paul - S.S.P (1914) 203.Spiritans or Holy Ghost Fathers (Congregation of the Holy Ghost) - C.S.Sp

(1703) 204.Stigmatines (Congregation of the Sacred Stigmata) - C.S.S. 205.Sisters of St Therese of the Child Jesus (St Therese Sisters - Tanzania) - S.S.Th. 206.Sulpician Fathers (Society of Saint Sulpice) - S.S., P.S.S. (1642) 207.Teutonic Order (1190) 208.Tertiary Sisters of St. Francis - Cameroon 209.Theatines (Congregation of Clerics Regular) - C.R. (1524) 210.Trappists (Order of Cistercians of the Strict Observance) - O.C.R., O.C.S.O.

(1662) 211.Trinitarians (Order of the Most Holy Trinity) - O.SS.T. (1194) 212.Ursulines (Ursuline Nuns of the Roman Union) - O.S.U. (1535) 213.Ursulines (Ursuline Sisters of Tildonck) - S.U. (1535) 214.Verbum Dei Missionary Fraternity - M.V.D.F 215.Viatorians (Clerics of Saint Viator) - C.S.V. (1831) 216.Vincentians or Lazarists (Congregation of the Mission) - C.M. 217.Vocationists (Clerics of the Divine Vocation) - S.D.V. 218.White Fathers 219.Xaverians or Xaverian Brothers (Missionary Society of St. Francis Xavier) - S.X.

Sources, references and external links• Institute on Religious Life - links to many Catholic religious communities • Vocations Online - directory of men's and women's Catholic religious

communities in the USA • Council of Major Superiors of Women Religious -religious congregations of

women • Leadership Conference of Women Religious -religious congregations of women

• Open Directory links to Catholic orders' websites • The Congregation for Insititues of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic

Life - Vatican • Catholic Encyclopaedia passim • Chart showing the place of members of Religious Institutes among the People of

God • Catholic.net - Catholic Religious Orders on the Internet • Legal Information for Religious Orders

laity

In religious organizations, the laity comprises all lay persons collectively. This can mean either any person who is not a member of the clergy or of any monastic order or, within such an order, a monastic who is not a priest (c.f., lay brother). The Roman Catholic Church during its Second Vatican Council defined the laity as those members of the Church whose role is to sanctify worldly realities. In recent centuries, the term is often used more generally, in the context of any specialized profession, to refer to those who are not members of that profession.

The word lay derives from the Anglo-French lai (from Late Latin laicus, from the Greek λαϊκός, laikos, of the people, from λαός, laos, the people at large).

Christian laity

Episcopal Church

In the Episcopal Church the laity can have say in legislation. At General Convention up to four lay persons from each diocese are elected to represent the diocese in the House of Deputies, one of the two governmental houses in the Episcopal Church. On the local parish level, lay persons are elected to a church council called a vestry.

The term laity can also refer to people who serve at the church and who are not ordained clergy. Vergers, acolytes, Lay Readers, Pastoral Leaders, Lay Preachers, Lay Eucharistic Ministers, and Catechists are considered lay people.

In many parishes, a verger is appointed by the rector.

Acolytes are often appointed only through the authority of the Acolyte Master rather than the rector. The Acolyte Master is typically appointed by the rector of the church. Acolyte positions include torch bearer (carries the torches), crucifer (carries the cross), thurifer (carries the brass thurible with coals and incense), boat boy or boat girl (carries the extra incense), server (assists clergy during communion), and subdeacon (assist clergy at the altar).

Lay Readers, Pastoral Leaders, Lay Preachers, Lay Eucharistic Ministers, and Catechists in the Episcopal Church are licensed by rector of the church. These licenses have expiration dates and are revocable by the rector of the church and by the bishop of that diocese.

Roman Catholicism

In previous years the laity had a much smaller role in the work of the Catholic Church. In the past, Church leaders felt that the role of the laity was little more than to "Pray, Pay, and Obey." The old Code of Canon Law defined them negatively: they are not clerics.

Second Vatican Council was a big step forward when it taught that the laity's specific character is secularity, i.e. as Christians who live the life of Christ in the world, their role is to sanctify the created world by directing it to become more Christian in its structures and systems: "It belongs to the laity to seek the kingdom of God by engaging in the affairs of the world and directing them according to God's will," stated the Council in "Lumen Gentium." The laity are full members of the Church, who fully share in Church's purpose of sanctification, of "inner union of men with God," (CCC 775) acting with freedom and personal responsibility and not as mere agents of the hierarchy. Due to their baptism, they are members of God's family, the Church, and they grow in intimate union with God, "in" and "by means" of the world. It is not a matter of departing from the world as the monks and the nuns do that they sanctify themselves; it is precisely through the material world sanctified by the coming of the God made flesh, i.e. made material, that they reach God. Doctors, mothers of a family, farmers, bank tellers, drivers, by doing their jobs in the world with a Christian spirit are already extending the Kingdom of God. According to the repeated statements of Popes and lay Catholic leaders, the laity should say "we are the Church," in the same way that the saints said that "Christ lives in me."

The role of the laity in the Church was also expanded to include lay ministers of various kinds. Also, as a result of the priest shortage, members of the laity have had to take on some of the roles previously performed by priests.

A more traditional view of lay involvement was through participation in unions of prayer and confraternaties as well as through parishes. See Unions of Prayer from the Catholic Encyclopedia.

clergy

Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given religion. The term comes from Greek κληρος (a lot, that which is assigned by lot (allotment) or metaphorically, heritage).

Depending on the religion, clergy usually take care of the ritual aspects of the religious life, teach or otherwise help in spreading the religion's doctrine and practices. They often deal with life-cycle events such as childbirth, baptism, circumcision, coming of age ceremonies, marriage, and death. Clergy of most faiths work both inside and outside formal houses of worship, and can be found working in hospitals, nursing homes, missions, armies, etc.

There is a significant difference between clergy and theologians; clergy have the above-mentioned duties while theologians are scholars of religion and theology, and are not necessarily clergy. A lay-person can be a theologian. The two fields, of course, often overlap. In some denominations clergy status is reserved for males. In other denominations both men and women serve as clergy.

Clergy are protected by special laws in many countries. In some cases clergy are financed (or co-financed) by the state, but usually they are financially supported by the donations of individual members of their religion.

In Christianity there is a wide range of formal and informal clergy positions, including deacons, priests, bishops, and ministers. In Islam, religious leaders are usually known as imams or ayatollahs.

Christian clergyIn general, Christian clergy are ordained; that is, they are set apart for specific ministry in religious rites. Others who have definite roles in worship but who are not ordained (e.g. laypeople acting as acolytes) are generally not considered clergy, even though they may require some sort of official approval to exercise these ministries.

Types of clerics are distinguished from offices, even when the latter are commonly or exclusively occupied by clerics. A Roman Catholic cardinal, for instance, is almost without exception a cleric, but a cardinal is not a type of cleric. An archbishop is not a distinct type of cleric, but is simply a bishop who occupies a particular position with special authority. Conversely, a youth minister at a parish may or may not be a cleric.

Different churches have different systems of clergy, though churches with similar polity have similar systems.

Roman Catholic clergy

Ordained Roman Catholic clergymen are deacons, priests, or bishops, i.e., they belong to the diaconate, the presbyterate, or the episcopate. Among bishops, some are metropolitans, archbishops, or patriarchs, and the Pope is the Bishop of Rome. With rare exceptions, cardinals are bishops, although it was not always so; formerly, some cardinals were unordained laymen and not clergymen. The Holy See supports the activity of its clergy by the Congregation for the Clergy ([1]), a dicastery of Roman curia.

Canon Law indicates (canon 107) that "by divine institution, there are in the Church [Latin: Ecclesia] clergy [Latin: clerices] distinguished from laics". This distinction of a separate class was formed in the early times of Christianity; one early source reflecting this distinction is the writings of St. Ignatius of Antioch. The original clerics were the bishops (the Twelve Apostles) and the deacons (their seventy appointed assistants); the presbyterate actually developed as a sort of semi-bishop (cf. the disused chorepiskopos, "rural bishop"). In the Catholic Church, only men can be members of the clergy.

Roman Catholic clerical organisation is hierarchical in nature: before the reforms after the Second Vatican Council, the tonsure admitted a man to the clerical state, after which he could receive the four minor orders (ostiary, lectorate, order of exorcists, order of acolytes) and then the major orders of subdiaconate, diaconate, presbyterate, and finally the episcopate, which is defined in Catholic doctrine as "the fullness of Holy Orders". Today the minor orders and the subdiaconate have been replaced by lay ministries and the tonsure no longer takes place, the clerical state being tied to reception of Holy Orders rather than being symbolically part of a bishop's household.

The exceptions are the Eastern Catholic churches where clergy status is extended to all holders of minor orders (which are retained in these traditions) and seminarians. Thus, it will be noted that deacons, priests, bishops, etc... are all called "Father," while those not in Holy Orders are addressed most often as "Brother," despite the monastic implications of the title. This distinction can lead to some inter-Ritual issues, such as the wearing of clerical apparel and the signing of one's name, especially if attending, living, or working in a mostly Roman Rite institution.

Monks and other religious are not necessarily part of the clergy, unless they have received the diaconate. The administration of sacraments seems to be the real distinguishing element between laity and clergy, and in this sense unordained monks, nuns, friars, and religious brothers and sisters should not be considered part of the clergy. Ordination to Holy Orders is considered one of the Seven Sacraments of Divine institution by Catholic doctrine, in many ways directly comparable to Holy Matrimony (i.e., marriage).

During the Middle Ages however, the term was used to indicate all the people with an education (having an education had been the exclusive privilege of clergy for epochs). The term also survives in students' organisations at some ancient universities (such as Goliardia, where they are often called clerici vagantes).

The term clerici vagantes comes indeed from the clerics that before 12th century were commanded at the service of a determined church (incardinatio); after that time, they were not forced any more to reside in the church (if they had no privileges or other related rights), and they could go living and residing wherever they liked (then vagantes, wandering). The Council of Trent vainly tried to abolish this use, and only in recent times the rule was restored that a clericus has a perpetual and absolute obligation to serve the diocese or the Order to which he is assigned; only with a special authorisation he can be accepted in the jurisdiction of another diocese or of another Order.

Current canon law prescribes that to be ordained a priest, an education is required of two years of scholastic philosophy study, and 4 years of theology; dogmatic and moral theology, the Holy Scriptures, and canon law have to be studied inside a seminary. This reflects the scholastic and intellectual traditions of the Latin Church.

Oaths of celibacy and obedience are required as a condition for admittance (and persistence) for Latin Rite Roman Catholic priests; this is a disciplinary and administrative rule rather than a dogmatic and doctrinal one. Celibacy has taken many forms in different times and places. The Council in Trullo (Quinisextum Concilium) in 692 barred bishops from marrying, but did not prevent married men from becoming priests and excommunicated those deacons who would have divorced because ordained. This rule is still followed for ordained deacons in the Latin Rite, as well as for priests in the Eastern Rites. Married men are not ordained priests in the Latin Rite, although some married priests do exist who were ordained in the Anglican church and later received into the Roman Catholic Church. See also Presbyterorum Ordinis for a modern statement of the nature of the Catholic priesthood.

Clergy have four classical rights:

1. Right of Canon: whoever commits real violence on the person of a clergyman, commits a sacrilege. This decree was issued in a Lateran Council of 1097 (requested by Pope Urban II), then renewed in the Lateran Council II (1139).

2. Right of Forum: by this right clergy may be judged by ecclesiastical tribunals only. Emperor Constantine I granted this right for bishops, which was subsequently extended to the rest of the clergy by Imperial Decree.

3. Right of Immunity: clergy cannot be called for military service or for duties or charges not compatible with his role.

4. Right of Competence: a certain part of the income of clergy, necessary for sustenance, cannot be sequestered by any action of creditors.

The extent to which these rights are recognised at law varies dramatically from country to country, with traditionally Catholic countries being more inclined to respect these rights.

Orthodox clergy

The clergy of the Orthodox Church are the bishops, priests, and deacons, the same offices identified in the New Testament and found in the early church. Bishops include

archbishops, metropolitans, and patriarchs. Priests (also called presbyters or elders) include archpriests, protopresbyters, hieromonks (priest-monks) and archimandrites (senior hieromonks). Deacons also include hierodeacons (deacon-monks) archdeacons and protodeacons; subdeacons, however, are not deacons, and comprise a separate office that is not to be major clergy, as do readers, acolytes and others. Bishops are usually drawn from the ranks of the monks, and are required to be celibate; however, a non-monastic priest may be ordained to the episcopate if he no longer lives with his wife (following Canon XII of the Quinisext Council)[2]. In contemporary usage such a non-monastic priest is usually tonsured to the monastic state at some point prior to his consecration to the episcopacy. Priests and deacons may be married, provided that they are married prior to their ordination to the diaconate. If they are later divorced or remarried, they are not permitted to remarry unless they first leave the clergy and return to lay status. All Orthodox clergy must be male. There are records of deaconesses in the New Testament and in the early church; the consensus today is that this office was never equivalent to that of deacon, but had separate responsibilities. The ancient office of deaconess was subsumed by the office of abbess.

The typical progression of ordination is: reader, subdeacon, deacon, priest, bishop. Each ordination must take place in order, although it is possible to ordain a layman to all five offices in the course of three days. The organization of the Orthodox Church is both hierarchical and conciliar (or synodal). It is hierarchical in that priests, deacons, and laymen are expected to follow their bishop and to do nothing without their bishop, and in that Jesus Christ is the head of every bishop. It is conciliar or synodal in that there is no single Pope whom all the bishops follow (the Pope of Alexandria functions as a patriarch), but rather the bishops meet together in synods or councils and reach binding agreements through consensus. A bishop, even the patriarch, is bound to obey the decisions of his synod. A council with representatives from all the churches is an ecumenical council.

Although Orthodox clergy are given considerable honor by the Orthodox Church, each ordination is also viewed as a kind of martyrdom. The Orthodox cleric agrees to be a servant of both Jesus Christ and of the people of the church; many of the vestments are intended to remind him of this. Much is expected of the clergy, both practically and spiritually; consequently, they also have a special place in the litanies that are prayed, asking God to have mercy on them.

There is no set universal rule for the training of clergy, and there is some variation among the local churches. Traditionally, candidates for the priesthood either reside with their bishops for a certain period and are given personal instruction by him, or, if they are monks, receive instruction by obedience to their monastic superiors. Modern practice in most places is for them to be trained at a seminary, which may or may not be associated with a monastery. The course of study generally runs for about three years,[3] and an undergraduate degree is often a requirement for admission. Instruction is given in dogmatics, theology, ecclesiastical history, canon law, liturgics, Biblical studies, and other subjects, although emphasis varies from institution to institution. Graduation from a seminary is no guarantee of ordination however, which is solely at the discretion of the

diocesan bishop. Requirements for the training of those who intend to remain in the diaconate are often less rigorous than for priests.

Anglican clergy

In the Anglican churches clergy is comprised of deacons, priests (presbyters) and bishops, in ascending order of seniority. Canon, Archdeacon, Archbishop, and the like are specific titles within these divisions. Bishops are typically overseers, presiding over a diocese composed of many parishes, with Archbishops presiding over an province, which is a group of dioceses. A parish (generally a single church) is looked after by one or more priests, although one priest may be responsible for several small parishes. New clergy are ordained deacons. Those seeking to become priests are usually ordained priest after a year of satisfactory service. During the 1960s, some Anglican churches reinstituted the diaconate as a permanent, rather than transitional, order of ministry focused on ministry that bridges the church and the world, especially ministry to those on the margins of society.

For the forms of address to be used with Anglican clergy, see Forms of Address in the United Kingdom.

During the 1980s, before the acceptance of women as equal members of the clergy, women could be ordained as 'deaconesses', who were technically distinct from deacons but carried approximately the same privileges and responsibilities. This title has now been abolished.

In the Anglican church all clergy are permitted to marry. In most branches women may become deacons or priests, but very few allow women bishops. Celebration of the Eucharist is reserved for priests and bishops.

Each branch of the Anglican church is presided over by one or more archbishops. The senior archbishop of the Anglican Communion is the Archbishop of Canterbury, who acts as leader of the Church of England and 'first among equals' of the archbishops of all Anglican churches.

The status of deacon, priest or bishop is a function of the person and not the job. A priest who retires is still a priest, even if they no longer have any role of religious leadership.

Protestant clergy

Clergy in Protestantism fill a wide variety of roles and functions. In many denominations, such as Methodism, Presbyterianism, and Lutheranism, clergy are very similar to Roman Catholic or Anglican clergy, in that they hold an ordained pastoral or priestly office, administer the sacraments, proclaim the word, lead a local church or parish, and so forth.

Some Protestant denominations reject the idea that church leaders are a separate category of people. Some dislike the word clergy and do not use it of their own leaders. Often they

refer to their leaders as pastors or ministers, titles that, if used, sometimes apply to the person only as long as he or she holds a particular office.

Latter-day Saints clergyIn The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, there is no professional clergy. Most clergy are part-time volunteers. The rest, including missionaries, give full-time service by living off their personal savings. Traditional clergy functions such as leading meetings, giving sermons, teaching classes, and ministering in the home and at hospitals are done by ordinary church members appointed, or called, to those responsibilities. These roles are generally open to all regardless of theological training or sex. Boys and girls usually begin giving short sermons to the entire congregation and may assume certain leadership roles starting at age 12, but in most cases do not start regular teaching assignments or taking primary responsibility for other tasks until age 18.

The Church does not require formal training in theology. In practice, however, most Latter-day Saint men and women have significant theological training. Every member of the church is expected to:

1. Attend Sunday School weekly starting at age three and continuing throughout life 2. Attend four years of Seminary during high school years 3. Study the scriptures and doctrines of the gospel on their own at least 30 minutes

per day throughout their life 4. Study scriptures with family on a daily basis. 5. Serve a two-year full-time mission as a young man (for women, a mission is only

1½ years and is optional).

Performance of certain ordinances (rituals) and many leadership roles are restricted to the priesthood. Priesthood offices are deacon, teacher, priest, bishop, elder, high priest, seventy, apostle, and patriarch. Admission to the Latter-day Saint priesthood requires no training; to be a member of the Latter-day Saint priesthood, one must be male, be at least 12 years old, and be morally worthy, as determined in a confidential interview with a local ecclesiastical leader. Anyone who meets these requirements is ordained to the priesthood as a matter of course. See Priesthood (Latter-day Saint).

Leadership in the church is organized in several levels:

• Ward (congregation) leadership • Stake (about 10 congregations) leadership • Area leadership, and • General (worldwide) leadership

Some of the key leadership positions at each level are:

W Elders Quorum president Presides over all Elders

W,S,G Primary president‡ Presides over leaders and teachers in the children’s organization

W,S,G Relief Society president‡

Presides over leaders and teachers in the women’s organization

W,S,G Young men president Presides over leaders and teachers in the youth organization

W,S,G Young women president‡

Presides over leaders and teachers in the youth organization

W,S Activities chairperson‡ Chairs activity committee

W,S,G Music chairperson‡ Chairs music committee, runs music program

W Bishop Presides over a congregation, administers in physical and spiritual matters

S Stake president Presides over the entire stake

S Stake high council Twelve men assigned to speak and perform administrative functions within a stake

A,G Seventy Travels around the area/world teaching the Gospel

G Apostle Member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, special witness for Christ

G President of the church Leads the church as directed by revelation from God.

Positions marked with ‡ do not require the priesthood and are traditionally filled by women at all levels. Other leadership positions require priesthood ordination, for example a Stake President must be ordained a High Priest. Most church leaders select two “counselors” who are called to assist them in their duties and to take charge when they are at work or otherwise unable to preside.

Common ordinances (rituals) which require the priesthood are: Passing the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper (Deacon), blessing the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper (Priest), Baptizing (Priest), and giving priesthood blessings (Elder). All are eligible to receive these ordinances on condition of worthiness.

JudaismMain article: Rabbi

In ancient Judaism there was a formal priestly tribe known as the Kohanim; each member of the tribe, a Kohen had priestly duties, many of which centered around the Temple in Jerusalem. Since the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE, their role has been significantly reduced.

Since that time the religious leaders and clergy of Judaism have been the rabbis. Rabbis are not an intermediary between God and man: the word "rabbi" means "teacher". The rabbi is not an occupation found in the Torah (Five books of Moses); the first time this

word is mentioned is in the Mishnah. The modern form of the rabbi developed in the Talmudic era. Rabbis are given authority to make interpretations of Jewish law and custom. Traditionally, a man obtains smicha (rabbinic ordination) after the completion of an arduous learning program in Torah, Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), Mishnah and Talmud, Midrash, Jewish ethics and lore, the codes of Jewish law and responsa, theology and philosophy.

Since the early medieval era an additional form of clergy, the Hazzan (cantor) has existed as well.

Orthodox Judaism maintains all of these traditional requirements. Women are forbidden from becoming rabbis or cantors in Orthodoxy. One does not need a bachelor's degree to enter most Orthodox rabbinical seminaries.

Conservative Judaism maintains all of these traditional requirements. Women are allowed to become rabbis and cantors in the Conservative movement. Conservative Judaism differs with Orthodoxy in that it has somewhat less stringent study requirements for Talmud and responsa as compared to Orthodoxy. However, the academic requirements are just as rigorous, as Conservative Judaism adds the following subjects as requirements for rabbinic ordination: one must first earn a bachelor's degree before entering the rabbinate. In addition studies are mandated in pastoral care and psychology, the historical development of Judaism; and academic biblical criticism.

Reconstructionist Judaism and Reform Judaism do not maintain the traditional requirements for study. Both men and women may be rabbis or cantors. The level of Jewish law, Talmud and responsa studied in five years of these denominations is similar to that learned in the first year of Orthodox Jewish seminaries. The rabbinical seminaries of these movements hold that one must first earn a bachelor's degree before entering the rabbinate. In addition studies are mandated in pastoral care and psychology, the historical development of Judaism; and academic biblical criticism. Emphasis is placed not on Jewish law, but rather on sociology and modern Jewish philosophy.

BuddhismThe original Buddhist clergy were the Sanghas, the order of monks and the order of nuns, which were founded by Gautama Buddha during his lifetime of missionary work in the 5th century BCE. These monks and nuns followed the patimokkha, a strict code of poverty and discipline. In modern times, however, the role of Buddhist clergy can vary greatly across different countries. For instance, in Korea, Japan, and—in some cases—Tibet, Buddhist priests may marry, which is forbidden under the patimokkha. On the other hand, countries practicing Theravada Buddhism, such as Thailand, Burma, and Sri Lanka, tend to take a much more conservative view of monastic life. In the United States, depending on the sect of Buddhism, clergy are ordained through education, training, and experience. Buddhist priests take on the role of "minister" or "pastor" within the temple organization and use the title Reverend. Today, Buddhist clergy function in a similar way as their Christian counterparts. They counsel, lead study classes, write articles for

newsletters, and perform weddings, funerals, and other rites of passage. They also participate in interfaith activities, serving as chaplains in hospitals, police and fire departments, the military, and corrections institutions.

IslamMain article: Imam

Sunni Islam is non-clerical. The term "imam" is generically used to refer to various forms of religious leadership, ranging from the leader of a small group prayer to a scholar of religion, none of which involve any sort of religious ordination. In Shia Islam, the term "imam" has more specific meanings. The word literally means "in front of" in Arabic and harkens to the Imam's role of leading prayer by standing in front of the congregation. The Ulema are the class of Moslem scholars primarily devoted to the study of and, in some governments, the implementation of the Shari'a, or Islamic Law.

See also• Rabbi , Hazzan (Rev. Cantor), Kohen • Bishop , Priest, Deacon, Elder, Minister • Imam , Grand Mufti • Goði

Plato(427-348 BC)

Plato was born in Athens. Coming from a noble family, he aspired to a political career, but soon became upset with the "tyrannic democracy" of Athens, especially when it put his teacher, Socrates (469-399 BC) to death. Plato "turned to philosophy in search of an alternative to the stable and unjust public life of the time. He also sought unity behind the changing impressions of the visible universe."1 In Athens, Plato, eventually set up a school known as the Academy.

Plato believed that there was another world beyond this changeable and destructible one in which we live, one consisting of unchanging eternal Forms. He asserted that what we see and touch are only very distantly related to the ultimate realities that exist. He gives, in his work the Republic2, the famous comparison of the human condition with that of prisoners chained facing the inner wall of a cave, so that all they can see are mere shadows of objects in the cave, knowing nothing of the world outside. An example of one of the ultimate realities is Euclidean geometry with its theorems concerning ideal objects that do not and cannot exist in the three dimensional world in which we live, ideal objects such as straight lines without thickness and perfect circles, and other such timeless objects. And just as there are no perfect circles in this world we can not have morally perfect men, no absolutely perfect examples of courage or justice; we can only imagine perfectly moral standards.

Drawing a distinct line of demarcation between the Ideal and the actual world, defines the "dualist." Such a belief does not define a religionist, but such a philosophy lends itself to a religious interpretation that the soul, or mind, is a non-material entity which can exist apart from the body of man, and that the soul is immaterial and immortal; - divine worship soon ensues. Though Plato does not go into any definitive statements on the subject of religion,3 Plato was clearly a "dualist."

"The Platonic state is ideal, exemplary; it represents man in the abstract ..."4 There was, in this world, to be no perfect state and no perfect men in it, one can only strive for the ideal. The dark side of this Platonic view comes when we consider his view of the role that man must play to one another in society.

To Plato, there was no natural sense on how men ought to live, education was to be the key to the construction of a better society; from the "educated" would arise the elite to rule society. Plato thought it essential that a strict threefold class division be maintained. In addition to the rulers, the Philosopher-kings, there were to be "Auxiliaries" (soldiers, police and civil servants) and the "Workers" (the rest of us).

Plato's view of society was pinned by the belief that philosophers are capable of knowing the absolute truth about how to rule society and thus are justified in wielding absolute power. Such a view is in striking contrast to that of his principal teacher, Socrates (469-399 BC), who was always conscious of how much he did not know, and claimed superiority to unthinking men only in that he was aware of his own ignorance where they were not.

Slave State:Putting it mildly, Plato's view was that we are ineradicably social, and that the individual person was not, and could not, be self-sufficient. In fact, Plato parcelled up humans like so many animals that could do nothing for themselves unless they had constant and detailed direction from those who were to be their leaders:

"... And even in the smallest manner ... [one] should stand under leadership. For example, he should get up, or move, or wash, or take his meals ... only if he has been told to do so. In a word, he should teach his soul, by long habit, never to dream of acting independently ... There will be no end to the troubles of states, or of humanity itself, till philosophers become kings in this world, or till those we now call kings and rulers really and truly become philosophers, and political power and philosophy thus come into the same hands." (The Republic.) Incidentally, Plato took a dim view of democracy. To Plato, it made no sense that we should proceed to put people in charge who have shaky, or, worse yet, no philosophical positions. A "democratic" system turns up people to govern on the basis of what the majority of the voters say, a majority which when compared to the number of citizens (non-voting included) is likely in fact to be a minority of people who have no plans, no answers other than that necessary to get themselves elected. Plato may have been right in his views on democracy; the difficulty is Plato's avowed and stated belief that men were unequal to one another. I say unequal, but that is putting it on a too charitable basis. To Plato society was to break down to those few who were to be the philosopher kings, and the rest of us, who were to be treated like labouring beasts of the field. The Platonic view of man is one that is in complete accord with the view of the socialist.

Now, I think most would agree, a stable and efficient society is important; but one should wonder about a society that will use force (legislation) to make the individual give in to the desires of those who have set themselves as knowing what is best for everyone. Those who subscribe to the theory that we should be ruled by those who really know best, subscribe, whether they know it or not, to Plato's theory of man. It is this theory upon which, in these times, our society rests. The theory, - so attractive in its statement - is that the community is to permit government to use persuasion and force with a view to unite all citizens and make them share together the benefits which each individually can confer on the community for the benefit of the community;

it is a false theory (see Popper). When, in its legislation, in its use of force, government suppresses the welfare of the individual; when its efforts are aimed to foster the attitude that one should not proceed to please oneself, government commits a fatal error in the achievement of its laudable object, the betterment of the whole. The essential problem in proceeding in this manner is that individuals cannot contribute to the whole, indeed will be a drain on the whole, unless they are allowed to be free and productive, that is to say allowed to suit themselves.

Men did not evolve into robots; they did not come to possess the independent spirit, so characteristic of man, by serving others; man came to be the superior being, that he clearly is, because of the exercise of free choice, one of the essential ingredients in the evolutionary process.5

_______________________________

Socrates(BC, 469-399)

Of Athens, Socrates left no books; what we know of him comes to us through the writings of Plato. Personally, the mentioning of Socrates brings to mind the "Socratic method"; a method employed, to my great frustration, I recall, by a number of my law school professors; a method which hardly brought about many answers, just more and more questions. "Feigning total ignorance before the opinionated, he would with celebrated Socratic irony pose a simple question such as 'What is courage?' From the replies given he would construct contradictory consequences and so start again. His aim was to act as a midwife to those in labour for knowledge." Socrates, unlike Plato, was always conscious of how much he did not know, and claimed superiority to unthinking people only in that he was aware of his own ignorance where they were not.

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