Roles of Stress in English Free Variations

7/27/2019 Roles of Stress in English Free Variations

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Roles of Stress in English Free Variations

*

Abstract

British and American English free variants, though phonetically realized identically,

are slightly different in graphemic representation, thus resulting in learning difficulty.

However, little attention has been paid to what causes differences in British and American

English. Pair comparisons made between lexigraphical items in the two Englishes reveal that

word stress is the key factor determining the formation of free variants; graphemic deletion

and metathesis occur in a post-tonic syllable, and that American variants are derived from

their respective British counterparts. The disclosures help formulate four learner-friendly

variable rules with prose statements; they can serve as a general reference in derivation of

American free variants.

Keywords: free variant, word stress, graphology, morphology

*; Tel:03-3412500 ext.6084; E-mail:[email protected]

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I. Introduction

Chinese is a monographic language with monosyllabic logography. lexigraphical

items are written in uniform character scripts, regardless of syntactical categories; whereas

English is a language with alphabetical scripts with varied syllables and graphemic

representations that may rise from derivation or inflection in its lexigraphical items.

English vocabulary is versatile, due to adoption and transliteration of exotic

vocabulary virtually from every European language (McCrum, et al., 1986: 47). Besides,

content words in English vocabulary are varied in syntactical categories, bringing about

challenges to its learners. Among others, free variants, though small in number, are found to

be an obstacle in the enrichment of its vocabulary.

II. Related Literature

Free variants exist in British and American English. Crystal (1989:324) contends that

the choice of variants may be subject to contextual constraints, or there may be no

explainable conditions. However, Adams (1973:1) expresses that it is necessary for learners

of English to be aware of how English words are constructed and emphasizes that the

formation of English words is systematic. Robins (1967:183) also claims that variations in the

forms are incorporated with meanings of words and are regular and traceable, while words

with their variants bear formal and semantic correspondences to each other.

MacWhinney (1997:278) reviews the research results, maintaining that language

learners benefit from explicit instruction in cultivation of vocabulary. Perry (1989:51)

advocates that students should be helped to gain confidence in their ability to correctly use

and spell words, maintaining that the confidence can, among others, be obtained fromenhancing vocabulary by careful application of prefixes and suffixes to root words with exact

meaning intended.

Applicable approaches to enriching English vocabulary are reported to be numerous.

Carroll (1965:280) initiates the intensive reading to build up more vocabulary, asserting that

the more kinds of association are made to a lexigraphical item, the better is learning retention.

Schmitt and Schmitt (1995:140) propose that word pairs be compared so that students can be

helped to visualize the associative network of relationships between new and familiar words.

Cross (1999:3) advocates that students use new words as often as possible so that words will

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become their active vocabulary. Skmen (1997:87) insists that vocabulary is explicitly built,

and suggests that a cognitive approach with emphasis on the recognition of vocabulary can

help understand the formations of English words with alphabetical graphemes.

III. Scope, Hypothesis and Methods

3.1Scope

To be dealt with is the disclosure of implicit factors that lead to graphemic deletion

and metathesis in British and American free variants; therefore, the focus is on an

understanding of spelling patterns of free variants in the two versions of English.

3.2 Hypothesis and MethodsIt is hypothesized that British and American English free variants are systematic and

traceable, and the formation or coinage of agentive nouns is subject to agentive

nominalization.

To support the hypothesis, an exhaustive survey is made to reveal factors that lead to

British and American free variants. With word-pair comparison of graphology and

morphology, analytical observations are made to reveal implicit linguistic features that

govern graphemic deletion and metathesis in the formation of British and American variants. In the final analysis, learners-friendly variable rules are formulated, thus providing

learners of English with the knowledge of the coinage or formation of British and American

free variants.

IV. Formation of American Variants

In comparison of word pairs, words cited as a corpus are those likely to appear as

British and American free variants. For graphological analysis, the words are tabulated in

three to four columns. The first column is for phonetic transcriptions for words cited, which

may be followed by definitions or remarks to indicate the originality or identification of

words that have been compared.

4.1 The Graphemic vs. the Graphemic

To be observed are words ending in and , whichare both phoneticallyrepresented as [g], the voiced velar plosive. The vowel grapheme serves as a formative

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to prevent the grapheme , the voiced velar plosive, from being palatalized as [Q],

the voiced palatal affricate (Pyles: 56 & 69).

(1) Monosyllabic words: Words ending in

Words below are monosyllables that end in the silent graphemes .

(i) The graphemes preceded by a vowel grapheme

Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations

[ Vg] Vgue Vgue[veg] vague vague[fjug] fugue fugue

(ii) The graphemes preceded by a consonant grapheme


[ Cg] Cgue Cgue

[morg] morgue morgue

[tng] tongue tongue

The word pairs in the two tables above show that no free variants occur to

monosyllabic words. The silent word-final graphemes cannot be deleted.

(2) Disyllabic Words: Words Ending in

Below are disyllabic words that end in the graphemes , which can be realized or

silenced.

(i) Disyllabic words with realized

Tabulated below are disyllabic words that take penultimate (initial) stress with a

realized word-final .


[gju] gue gue[egju] ague ague[$rgju] argue argue

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[ -log] -{logue} -{log}[4n-log] ana-logue ana-log

[k4t-log] cata-logue cata-log[d$,-log] dia-logue dia-log[(p,-log] epi-logue epi-log

The corpus above shows that free variants occur to trisyllabic words ending in a

bound root morpheme +{-logue}, whose silent final graphemes , immediately

preceded by (secondary) stress, can be deleted from the root +{-logue}.

(ii) Words with +{-gogue}, the root morpheme

The corpus below contains trisyllabic words with a bound root plus {-gogue}, a

bound root, meaning to lead, or to gather(Merriam Websters: 306 & 770).


[ -gog] -{gogue} -{gog}[d(m-gog] dema-gogue dema-gog[ha,dr-gog] hydra-gogue hydra-gog[p(d-gog] peda-gogue peda-gog

[s,n-gog] syna-gogue syna-gog

The corpus shows that free variants occur to trisyllabic words ending in a root

morpheme +{-gogue}. The silent final graphemes , immediately preceded by

(secondary) stress, can be deleted from the root +{-gogue}.

(4) Overall observations of sec.4.1

Overall observations of sec. 4.1 indicate that free variants are restricted to trisyllabic

words ending in the two specific root morphemes +{-logue} and +{-gogue}, in which the

silent final graphemes can be deleted in American variants, when immediately

preceded by (secondary) stress.

4.2 The Graphemes vs. the Grapheme

Both the graphemes and are invariably phonetically represented as [k],

the voiceless velar plosive.

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(1) Monosyllabic Words with Mono-morphemes

Below is a table, in which words cited as a corpus are those that contain one syllable

with one morpheme.


[k] que que[klik] clique clique[b,sk] bisque bisque[k$sk] mosque mosque

No free variants can be observed in monosyllabic words ending the

graphemes , phonetically realized as [k] with the final silenced.

(2) Di/trisyllabic Words with Mono-morphemes

Below are disyllabic and trisyllabic words ending in the graphemes .

(i) Disyllabic words with silenced

Words cited as a corpus are those that contain one morpheme with two syllables.

Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations[Cik] Cique Cique[pek] opaque opaque[kr,tik] critique critique[brok] baroque baroque

No free variants can be observed in ultimate-stressed disyllabic words with the

word-final . Though silent, the word-final cannot be deleted from the

graphemes , phonetically realized as [k].

(ii) Mono/polysyllabic words ending in

Words cited as a corpus in the table below are those ending in the graphemes.

Phonetic

Transcriptions

British

Representations

American

Representations

Definitions

[()-( ) ke] ()-( )()qu ()-()()qu[p,ke] piqu piqu offense[r,ske] risqu risqu indecent[-4pl,ke] appliqu appliqu a cutout decoration[k-mjn,ke] com-muniqu com-muniqu a public notice

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No free variants can occur to words of Latin origin with stress placed on the

word-final . This graphemic cluster is phonetically realized as [ke], the voiceless

velar plosive plus the stressed non-back, mid tense vowel.

(3) Di/Trisyllabic Words with Two-morphemes

Below are disyllabic and trisyllabic words, which contain two or three morphemes

ending in the bound morpheme +{esque}.


[- ()C(sk] ()C+{esque} ()C+{esque}[bl(sk] burlesque burlesque[Nrt(sik] grotesque grotesque

[-Qa,N4nt(sk]-gigantesque -gigantesque[-p,kr(sk] -picturesque -picturesque

No free variants can be observed in disyllabic and trisyllabic words in the table above;

the silent final graphemes cannot be deleted from the adjective suffix +{esque} of

Germanic origin (Merriam Webster: 396).

(4) Words Ending in vs.

Words of foreign origin end in the graphemes and , which are

both phonetically realized as [k], the voiceless velar plosive.

(i) Words ending in vs.

Words below end in the phonetic [sk], the voiceless alveolar fricative plus the

voiceless velar plosive.

Phonetic

Transcriptions

British and American

Representations

British and American

Representations

Remarks

[ sk] sk sque

[k4sk] cask(container) 'casque (helmet) distinct words[m4sk] mask(cover) 'masque (drama) distinct words

The homonymous pairs are equal, rather than free, variants. They are two distinct

words, which bear identical phonetic representations, but different word endings; one endsin , the other in (Mariam Websters: 177 & 714).

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(ii) Words ending in vs.

Below are words ending in different graphemic representations but bearing identical

phonetic representations.

Phonetic

Transcriptions

British Representations American Representations Remarks

[k] que ck

[(k] 'cheque 'check equal variants[s4k] 'sacque 'sack equal variants

The words cited above are equal, rather than free, variants. The monosyllabic words

check and cheque are synonyms, meaning draft. The modern word check is derived

from the Middle English chek. (Merriam Websters:194-196). The words sack and

sacque originate in American Spanish; the former is slightly more common than the latter

(Merriam Websters:91).

(iii) Words with word-medial vs.

Below are words ending in different graphemic representations but bearing identical

phonetic representations.

Phonetic

TranscriptionsBritish Representations American Representations Remarks

[k] cqu ck[r4kt] racquet racket equal variants

The two words, racket and racquet, are equal, rather than free, variants. They are

synonyms; they are derived from Arabic, while the former is slightly more common than the

latter (Merriam Websters:962). Both the intervocalic and are realized as [k], the

voiceless velar plosive.

NB. The graphemes and occur when immediately preceded by a

stressed lax vowel with a single vowel grapheme.

(iv) Words with the word-medial < qu>

Cited below are words as a corpus, which contain two syllables, while word stress can

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fall on the penultimate or ultimate syllable.

Phonetic

Transcriptions

British

Representations

Phonetic

Transcriptions

American

Representations

Remarks

[ k] que [ k] que[frikwnt] frequent

(adj)

[fr,kw(nt]frequent (vv) differentsyntactical

categories

The corpus shows that no free variants occur to disyllabic words with the intervocalic

graphemes . The shift of stress location is based on syntactical categories; ultimate

stress is a verb, while non-ultimate stress is a non-verb.

(v) Words ending in vs.

Cited as a corpus are homonymous words with , and , with both

phonetically realized as [k], the voiceless velar plosive.

Phonetic Transcriptions Words with Words with Remarks

[ k] ()Cic ()ique[kr,t,k] critic (judge of

arts)

critique (review) distinct words

[m,st,k] mystic(spiritualist)

mystique (magic) distinct words

[f,z,k] physic (medicine) physique (figure) distinct words

The corpus shows that stress location can result in distinct words ending in the

grapheme or the graphemes . Those ending in the graphemes are

invariably stressed on the ultimate (final) syllable, while those ending in an take the

penultimate stress except for a very few exceptions stressed on the antepenult as in Arabic,

politic, mathematic.

This indicates that with the identical [k] phone, words taking ultimate stress are those

ending in , whereas those with non-ultimate stress end in .

(vi) Overall Observations of Sec.4.2

Overall observations of sec.4.2 indicate that no free variants occur to words in the

grapheme followed by the graphemes ; the word-medial/final - cannot be

deleted, whether they are realized or silenced.

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4.3 The Graphemes vs. the Graphemes

Below are words which end in the graphemes or.

(1) Monosyllabic Words

Monosyllabic words below end in the consonant grapheme preceded by the

graphemes with varied phones.

(i) The word-ending with the high back vowel plus [r]

Listed in the table below are monosyllabic words ending in the graphemes

with the phones [


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(2) Disyllabic Words with Penultimate Stress

The corpus below contains disyllabic words, which can take either the ultimate or the

penultimate stress.

(i) The word-final preceded by a consonant grapheme

Words in the table below are disyllabic words that end in a consonant grapheme plus

the graphemes in an unstressed syllable.

Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations remarks

[C] Cour Cor

[kl] colour color free variants[leb] labour labor free variants

[fev] favour favor free variants

[hjum] humour humor free variants

Free variants can be observed in disyllabic words that take the initial stress or

penultimate stress, while the grapheme can be deleted from the unstressed

graphemes reduced to a schwa [] or a schwar [].

(ii) The word-final preceded by two consonant graphemes

Words in the table below are disyllabic words that end in two consonant graphemes

plus the graphemes in an unstressed syllable.

Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations remarks

[C] Cour Cor[h$rb] harbour harbor free variants[$rd] ardour ardor free variants[p$rl] parlour parlor free variants

[k4nd] candour candor free variants

[spl(nd] splendour splendor free variants

Free variants can be observed in disyllabic words which takes penultimate (initial)

stress, while the grapheme can be deleted from the unstressed graphemes

reduced to a schwa [] or a schwar [].

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(3) Stress on the Root/Word in Trisyllabic Words

Words cited as a corpus are trisyllabic words, which contain a root ending in the

graphemes .

(i) Stress on the penultimate syllable

Words in the table below are trisyllabic words, which end in the graphemes + as

a suffix.

Phonetic Transcriptions British Representations American Representations Remarks

[CV+C] our or[d,min] de+mean+our de+mean+or free variants[,nd(v] en+deav+our en+dea+vor free variants

In the trisyllabic words containing three morphemes, free variants can be formed by

deleting the grapheme from the unstressed word-final immediately preceded

by primary stress.

(ii) Stress on the antepenultimate syllable: trisyllabic words


[CV+C] our +{ } or +{ }[fevr,t] favour+ite favor+ite free variants[b,hev] behav+iour behav+ior free variants

(iii) Stress on the antepenultimate syllable: quadrisyllabic or quinquesyllabic words

Phonetic Transcriptions

British Representations American Representations Remarks[CV+C] our +{ } or +{ }[fevrb] favour+able favor+able free variants[$nrb] honour+able honor+able free variants[b,hevr,s] behav+iour+i+sm behav+ior+i+sm

The corpuses in two tables above indicate that in the quadrisyllabic or quinquesyllabic

words, the grapheme can be deletedfrom the word-final graphemes +, orthe

graphemes+ in primary-stressed words.

(4) Disyllabic Words with Ultimate Stress

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Words cited as a corpus below are disyllabic words, taking ultimate stress, which

contain a root plus the graphemes .

(i) Disyllables with stress on the word-final graphemes

Words in the tables below are disyllabic words that end in the graphemes .

a. Preceded by the consonant grapheme


[va


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(5) Words Ending in Graphemes Other Than

To be observed below are words with two morphemes that end in the

graphemes plus a final grapheme other than .

(i) Disyllabic words: Words ending in the graphemes or

Words below in the table are disyllabic words that end in free morphemes such as

+{noun}, +{group}, or+{coup}.


[-Ca


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[s ] ous ous[fems] famous famous[vens] venous venous

The corpus shows that no free variants occur to disyllabic words ending in the suffix

graphemes +{ous}, rather than +{our}, even though preceded by primary stress: the

penultimate (initial) stress.

(iv) Trisyllabic and quadrisyllabic words

Below are polysyllabic words including tri/quadrisyllabic words ending in the

adjective suffix +{ous}.


[s ] ous ous[m


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[+{ }] ll+{ } l+{ }[Qul] jeweller jeweler free variants

[trv,1] travelling traveling free variants[wr,p] worshipper worshiper free variants[wr,p,1] worshipping worshiping free variants

The corpus shows that free variants can be formed by deleting one of the double

graphemic clusters, + and , from a disyllabic stem which is suffixed with a

vowel-initial bound morpheme, and primarily stressed on the initial syllable. That is, the

grapheme or

in the double graphemes can be deleted in a post-tonic syllable (after a

stressed vowel).

4.6 Graphemic Metathesis: vs.

Word pairs cited below deal with graphemic metathesis in which the word-final

graphemes can be transposed into the graphemes.

(1) Disyllabic words with word-final: vs.

In the table below are mono-morphemic words ending in the graphemes and

the graphemes .

(i) Preceded by a vowel grapheme

Words cited in the table as a corpus are disyllabic words ending in the graphemes

and .

Phonetic TranscriptionsBritish Representations American Representations Remarks

[] re er[fa,b] fibre fiber free variants[seb] sabre saber free variants

The corpus shows that free variants can be formed in disyllabic words ending in a

vowel grapheme plus the graphemes . The word-final can be transposed

into , when immediately preceded by (primary) stress.

(ii) Preceded by a consonant grapheme

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Words cited in the table as a corpus are disyllabic words ending in the graphemes

and .


British RepresentationsAmerican Representations

Remarks[] re er[s$mb] sombre somber free variants[t,mb] timbre timber free variants

The corpus shows that free variants can be formed in disyllabic words ending in the

grapheme plus the graphemes . The word-final can be transposed

into , when immediately preceded by (primary) stress.

(iii) Trisyllabic words with word-final: vs.

Below are mono-morphemic words with three syllables that end in the

graphemes and .


[] re er[k4lib] calibre caliber free variants[mk$b] macabre macaber free variants

The corpus shows that free variants can be observed in trisyllabic words ending in the

word-final graphemes . The word-final can be transposed into , when

immediately preceded by (primary) stress.

(2) Disyllabic words with word-final: vs.

Below are disyllabic words that end in the graphemes and , and whose

primary stress falls on the penultimate (initial) syllable.

(i) Preceded by a vowel grapheme

Below are mono-morphemic words with two syllables that end in the

graphemes and .


British RepresentationsAmerican Representations

Remarks[] er er

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[mit] metre meter free variants

[,t] theatre theater free variants

[ma,t] mitre miter free variants[l,t] litre liter free variants

The corpus shows that free variants can be formed in disyllabic words ending in the

graphemes preceded by a vowel grapheme. The word-final graphemes can be

transposed into the graphemes .

(ii) Preceded by a consonant grapheme

Below are mono-morphemic words with two syllables that end in the

graphemes and .


[] re er[s(nt] centre center free variants[s(pt] sceptre scepter free variants[lst] lustre luster free variants

The corpus shows that free variants can be formed in disyllabic words ending in a

consonant grapheme plus the graphemes . The word-final can be transposedinto , when immediately preceded by (primary) stress.

(3) Disyllabic words with the final other than , and

(i) Disyllabic words with the final

Words cited below are monosyllabic words that end in the graphemes .


[k] re re [ek] acre acre[nek] nacre nacre

The corpus shows that no graphemic metathesis occurs to word endings with the

graphemes preceded by stressand the grapheme .

NB. The graphemic cluster is kept intact to prevent the grapheme from being

phonetically realized as [s], the alveolar fricative.

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(ii) Disyllabic words with the final , and

Words below are mono-morphemic, disyllabic words that end in graphemes

preceded by consonant graphemes other than the three graphemes , , and .


[] re re[kedr,] cadre cadre[A$nr(] genre genre[pedr(] padre padre

The corpus shows that no free variants occur to mono-morphemic words of Latin

origin, which contain two syllables ending in preceded by a consonant other

than , , and , though the words are stressed on a penultimate (initial)

syllable.

(v) Overall Observations of Sec. 4.5

Graphemic metathesis is restricted to word endings in mono-morphemic,

dis/trisyllabic words ending. The word-final and in British English are

transposed into and in American free variant in a post-tonic syllable (which isimmediately preceded by primary stress).

4.6 Formulaic Rules with Prose Statement

The rules formulated from observations can be collapsed into four variable rules with

prose statements to indicate how American free variants are derived from their respective

British English cognates.

(1) Graphemic Deletion

The graphemic deletion occurs in a post-tonic syllable in disyllabic and trisyllabic

words.

i. Stress plus - vs. -

l ana-logue ana-logue 2 / C0V1C1V1 { o + g ___}#

- g [+mute] syna-gogue

syna-gog

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The silent graphemes preceded by primary stress can be deleted from the

word-final , restricted to the morphemes +{-logue} and +{-gogue}.

ii. Stress plus vs.

labour laboru 2 / C1V1C1(i)o___ r {+,#} favourite favorite

demeanour demeanor

behaviourismbehaviorism

The grapheme is deleted or abstracted from graphemes restricted to the

stem/word final preceded by primary stress.

iii. Stress plus +, or+l 1 jeweller jeweler 2 /C1V1C1V1 ___+ {V}#

p p worshipped worshiped

One of the double graphemes + or+ preceded by primary stresscan be

deleted from stems which are suffixed with a vowel-initial bound morpheme.

(2) Graphemic metathesis: vs.

The graphemic metathesis occurs in a post-tonic syllable in disyllabic and trisyllabic

words.

b fibre fiber / C1V1C0 < > ___ #

t calibre caliber

The word-final graphemes and preceded by primary stress can be

transposed into the graphemes and the graphemes .

V. Summary and Discussion

Free variants, at the first glance, appear anomalous. As conciseness in graphemic

representation, American free variants are derived from British counterparts in disyllabic or

trisyllabic words.

Variations of British and American free variants are subject to stress location,

supplemented with word-final post-tonic graphemes, such as , +{-logue},

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+{-gogue}., , +, and +.

1. The grapheme can be deleted from a graphemic cluster restricted to the

word-final in dis/trisyllabic words;

2. The silent word-final graphemes can be deleted from trisyllabic words ending

in in the bound root morphemes +{-logue} and +{-gogue};

3. The final grapheme + or+ can be deleted from their respective double graphemes,

when suffixed with a vowel-initial bound morpheme; and

4. Word-finals restricted to or can be transposed into the graphemes

or in mono-morphemic words with two syllables.

The word-final remain intact; the silent graphemes cannot be deleted.

The feasible explanation is that the grapheme is constantly followed by the

grapheme , regardless of word position.

Transliteration leads to a few equal variants from loan words, as in racquet

alternating with racket. However, those words including are slightly more common

than those containing , in terms of variants.

The graphemic deletion and metathesis occur only immediately after a stressed

syllable. As illustrated, armour [$rm] can alternate with armor [$rm] with

the grapheme deleted, whereas amour [m


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Table 2

Lexical Gaps: added to

phonetic transcriptionwords ending in lexical gap: added[egog] a-gog *a-gogue

[kr4-nog] cran-nog *cran-nogue[s(krt-gog] secreta-gog *secreta-gogue

Table 3

Lexical Gaps: added to

phonetic transcription stems ending in lexical lap: added

[sa,kl,1] cycling *cyclling[,sl] whistler *whistller[ka


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environments including particular bound root morphemes. On top of these, the graphemic

changes occur in a post-tonic syllable in non-monosyllables: disyllables and trisyllables.

1. Graphemic metathesis:

Graphemic metathesis occurs only to the non-monosyllabic word-final and

can be transposed into and, and

2. Graphemic deletion:

Graphemic deletion occurs to

(1) The grapheme in the stem/word-final or.

(2)The stem-final + or + in the double + or +, which takes a

vowel-initial suffix.

(3) The silentfinal in the bound morphemes +{-logue} and +{-gogue}.

All in all, the importance of word stress could not be overemphasized in the

derivation of American English free variants from British English counterparts. The two

major graphemic changes with learner-friendly variable rules can serve as a useful reference

to familiarity with the coinage or formation of English free variants.

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Documents

Roles of Stress in English Free Variations