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What is a Mineral?
• Naturally occurring – not man-made
• Solid - not liquid or gas
• Inorganic- not part of a living thing
• Chemical composition-composed of the same type of atoms
• Crystalline structure-orderly and repeating arrangement of atoms
Minerals
Classified by:
• Chemical composition- what they are made of
• Crystal structure- how atoms are arranged
Mineral Properties
• Physical properties are used to identify minerals—Hardness—Cleavage and fracture—Color—Luster—Density—Crystal form
HardnessResistance of a mineral to scratching • Dependent on the strength of a mineral’s
chemical bonds.• Bond strength is determined by ionic charge,
atom (or ion) size, and packing.• The Mohs Scale compares the hardness of
different minerals.
Cleavage and Fracture
Cleavage - breaks along planes of weakness.– Determined by crystal structure
and bond strength.
Fracture - bond strength is generally the same in all directions. – Minerals that fracture do not
exhibit cleavage.
Color• Most obvious feature- but it is not reliable for
mineral identification..—A mineral may occur in many color variations or
be colorless.—Caused by impurities (trace elements)
Luster-How a mineral reflect light (dull, glassy, metallic, etc)
Density
Ratio of a mineral’s mass to its volume.
In simple terms, it is how heavy a mineral feels for its size (volume).
Mineral Properties: Crystal Form
Crystal form (shape)- outward expression of internal arrangement of atoms.
Also affected by growth conditions:
—Temperature, pressure, space for growth
Well-formed minerals are rare in nature—most minerals grow in cramped confined spaces.
Classification of Rock-Forming Minerals
Two:—Silicate minerals—Nonsilicate minerals
Silicate minerals make up more than 90% of the Earth’s crust.
Nonsilicate Minerals
About 8% of Earth’s crust• Carbonate minerals (contain CO3)
• Calcite, dolomite
• Oxide minerals (metal bonded with 0)• Ore minerals—hematite, magnetite, chromite
• Sulfide minerals (metal bonded with S)• Ore minerals—pyrite, galena
• Sulfate minerals (contain SO4)• Gypsum, anhydrate
• Native elements (only 1 element)• Gold, platinum,
The Formation of Minerals and Rock
• Minerals form by the process of crystallization.
• Minerals crystallize from:—Magma (molten rock)—Water solutions—Heat and pressure (metamorphism)
Mineral Formation from Cooling Magma
Minerals crystallize systematically based on their respective melting points—First minerals - lowest amount of silica and
highest melting point—Last minerals - higher amounts of silica and lower
melting point
Mineral Formation by Water
Hot water solutions from magma account for many important ore deposits
• As water solutions become chemically saturated, minerals form.
• Ore deposits can be deposited into cracks or into the matrix of the rock itself.
• Water solutions can form chemical sediments such as carbonates and evaporites.
• This process is called precipitation (forming a solid within a liquid)
Mineral Formation by Water
Rock TypesThe three categories of rock reflect how they
were formed:• Igneous
• Cooling and crystallization of magma or lava
• Sedimentary• Pieces (clasts) of rocks that have been glued
together
• Metamorphic• Preexisting rock transformed by heat, pressure, or
chemical fluids
Igneous Rocks
• Formed from the cooling and crystallization of magma or lava.—Magma is molten rock that forms inside
Earth.—Lava is molten rock (magma) erupted at
Earth’s surface.
Generation of Magma
• Heat:—Temperature increases within Earth’s
upper crust—the geothermal gradient—at an average rate of 30°C per kilometer.
—Rocks in the lower crust and upper mantle are near their melting points.
—Additional heat (rising up from the mantle) induces melting.
Generation of Magma
• Fluids—Water causes rocks to melt at lower
temperatures.
• Pressure:—Reduced pressure lowers the melting
temperature of rock.
• Example:—The solid inner core
Classification of Igneous Rocks
• Composition– Percentage of mineral grains present– Silica content of mineral grains
• Texture– Size of mineral grains
• Small = fine grained (extrusive)• Large = coarse grained (intrusive)
Composition
• Based on silica content (Silicon and Oxygen)
– 45-52% - basaltic
– 52-63% - andesitic
– >63% - rhyolitic/granitic
Cooling RateDepends on location
– Underground (plutonic) long time to cool; mineral grains grow large
– Above the ground (volcanic) extruded onto the surface, cooling quickly; mineral grains small
If a lava cools immediately it forms volcanic glass obsidian- no bubblespumice or scoria- many bubbles (vesicular)
Volcanoes
There are three types of volcanoes:
• Shield- low, gentle gradient sides
• Cinder cone- small size, steep sides
• Composite/stratacone- large, steep sides
Each erupts differently.
Composition of lava determines how a volcano erupts
– Basaltic (low silica)
flows easily & erupts quietly
– Andesitic/rhyolitic (high silica) is viscous and traps gas so it
erupts explosively
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are products of 4 processes:
• Weathering• Erosion• Deposition• Sedimentation
Weathering—breaking down the rock
• Two types:—Mechanical weathering—breaking and
disintegration of rocks into smaller pieces (clasts).
—Chemical weathering— decomposition, dissolving and transformation of rock into different compounds.
Erosion• Physical removal of material
• Agents-- water, wind, ice, or gravity
• Does not occur in place - involves movement.
Deposition
Deposition — eroded particles come to rest.
Larger particles - first
Smaller particles are able to remain with the flow.
Sediments are sorted according to size as they are deposited.
Sedimentation
• Deposited horizontally layer by layer.
• Changes into sedimentary rock by
lithification
2 steps:
—Compaction
—Cementation
Lithification
• Compaction—Weight of overlying material presses down upon deeper layers.
• Cementation— “pore water” rich in dissolved minerals acts as a glue to cement sediment particles together.
Classifying Sedimentary Rocks
• 2 types:—Clastic rocks—transported sediment
particles—bits and pieces of weathered rock (shale, sandstone, conglomerate)
—Chemical rocks—sediments that were once in dissolved in water. (travertine, halite, limestone)
Clastic Sedimentary Rocksclassified by particle size
Shale• Mud-sized particles, sometimes in thin layers
Sandstone • Composed of sand-sized particles, quartz common
Conglomerates • Composed of pebble sized, rounded gravels
Metamorphic Rocks
• Metamorphic rocks are produced from:—Igneous rocks—Sedimentary rocks—Other metamorphic rocks
• Metamorphism occurs via recrystallization and mechanical deformation.
Metamorphic Rocks
Contact metamorphism:
• Intruded by magma
• high temperatures
• high water content– lots of chemical activity,
little mechanical deformation.
Metamorphic Rocks
Regional metamorphism:
• the alteration of rock by both heat and pressure over an entire region
• Subduction zone- 2 plates coming together.
The Rock Cycle, explained• A cycle of formation, change, and
destruction • Starts with molten rock (magma), which
cools and forms igneous rocks… uplift… weathering… erosion…deposition…burial and lithification into sedimentary rocks
• Then buried … heat, pressure, and fluids, and become metamorphic rocks
• Eventually, these metamorphic rocks may be heated to the point where they again melt into magma
ShortcutsDoesn't have to work this way:
• Igneous rocks metamorphose without ever eroding
• Sedimentary and metamorphic rocks uplift and erode, rather than melting
• Rocks remain un-eroded and unchanged in stable regions for long periods of time