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ROBERT W. BIRKMIRE

Institute of Energy Conversion

University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716-3820 USA Tel: (302) 831-6220 Fax: (302) 831-6226

E-mail: rwb@udel.edu EDUCATION Ph.D. Physics University of Delaware, September 1976 M.S. Physics University of Delaware, August 1970 B.S. Physics Lowell Technological Institute, June 1968 EXPERIENCE University of Delaware, Institute of Energy Conversion Director: 1/96 to present Professor of Materials Science and Engineering: 9/04 to present Adjunct Professor of Materials Science: 11/98 to 9/04 Professor of Physics: 2/95 to present Manager, Electronic Materials Laboratory: 7/83 to 12/95 Acting Director: 1/93 to 12/93 Associate Scientist: 10/80 to 7/83 Research Associate III: 8/78 to 10/80 U.S. Army Ballistic Research Laboratories, Aberdeen, Maryland National Research Council, Postdoctoral Research Associate: 11/76 to 7/78 University of Delaware, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Newark, Delaware Postdoctoral Fellow: 9/76 to 11/76 Research Fellow/Teaching Assistant: 2/73 to 8/76 Research Fellow/Teaching Assistant: 9/68 to 8/70 Board of Education of Harford County, Aberdeen, Maryland High School Teacher: 9/70 to 1/73 Department of the Army, Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland Physicist: Summer, 1968 Lowell Technological Institute, Lowell, Massachusetts Student Laboratory Instructor: 1966 to 1968 Philadelphia Electric Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Technical Assistant: Summer, 1967

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R&D MANAGEMENT/ADMINISTRATIVE EXPERIENCE As director (and previously acting director) of the Institute of Energy Conversion, have responsibility for technical, personnel and fiscal management of the Institute. This requires interacting with university administrators and faculty as well as with external funding organizations. As manager of Electronic Materials, had responsibility for technical and personnel management for a staff of 20 professionals, technicians, and post doctoral fellows who were engaged in thin film photovoltaic research projects on amorphous silicon and related alloys, cadmium telluride, and copper indium diselenide and related alloys. As principal investigator on over $10M in government and industrial contracts, have directed, organized and managed highly successful research programs which in part lead to the designation of the Institute of Energy Conversion as a Center of Excellence for Photovoltaic Research and Education by the United States Department of Energy. RESEARCH ACTIVITIES Current research efforts are growth and characterization of thin film semiconductors and devices for photovoltaic applications. The research emphasizes the inter-relationship between the growth process, film structural and electro-optical properties and device performance. STUDENT SUPERVISIONS Jointly supervise Ph.D. and Master’s students in the Mechanical, Chemical, and Electrical Engineering departments, Physics department and Material Science department. Additionally, supervise undergraduate students in the university’s honor program. TUTORIALS: "Thin Film Solar Cells - Devices, Materials, and Fabrication," Kim W. Mitchell and Robert W. Birkmire, 21st IEEE PVSC, May (1990). “Thin Film Solar Cells: Materials, Fabrication & Characterization,” Robert W. Birkmire and Alan H. Fahrenbruch, 26th IEEE PVSC, September-October (1997). “Polycrystalline Compound Thin Film Solar Cells: Laboratory Cells to Modules,” Robert W. Birkmire and James Sites, 28th IEEE PVSC, September (2000). PATENTS: U. S. Patent no. 4,709,466 dated 12/1/87 "Process for Fabricating Thin Film Photovoltaic Solar Cells" Inventors: Brian E. McCandless and Robert W. Birkmire U. S. Patent no. 4,909,863 dated 3/20/90 "Process for Leveling Film Surfaces and Products Thereof"

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Inventors: Brian E. McCandless and Robert W. Birkmire U. S. Patent no. 5,015,503 dated 5/4/91 "Apparatus for Producing Compound Semiconductor Thin Films" Inventors: Robert D. Varrin and Robert W. Birkmire U. S. Patent no. 5,674,555 dated 10/7/97 "Process for Preparing Group IB-IIIA-VIA Semiconducting Films" Inventors: Robert W. Birkmire, Jerold M. Schultz, Matheswaran Marudachalam and Habib Hichri U. S. Patent no. 6,310,281 dated 10/30/01 “Thin-film, Flexible Photovoltaic Module” Inventors: Robert G. Wendt, Gregory M. Hanket, Robert W. Birkmire, T.W.F. Russell and Scott Weideman U. S. Patent no. 6,372,538 dated 4/16/02 “Fabrication of Thin-Film, Flexible PV Module,” Inventors: R.G. Wendt, Greg M. Hanket, Robert W. Birkmire, TWF Russell and S. Weideman U. S. Patent no. 6,676,994 dated 1/13/04 “Method for Producing Thin Films” Inventors: Robert W. Birkmire, Erten Eser, Greg M. Hanket and Brian McCandless U.S. Patent 2007/0151862 “Post Deposition Treatments of Electrodeposited CuInSe2-based Thin Films,” Kevin D. Dobson, M. Estela Calixto, Brian E. McCandless and Robert W. Birkmire.

PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS Materials Research Society, Member, 6/01-present International Solar Energy Society, Member, 3/01-present American Association for the Advancement of Science, Member, 3/01-present American Solar Energy Society, Member, 8/99-present World Renewable Energy Network, Member, 1994-present American Physical Society, Member 1966-present PROFESSIONAL SERVICE Editorial Board, Future Photovoltaics, www.futurepv.com Associate Editor, Wiley Interdisciplinary Review: Energy and Environment, 2010-present Guest Editor, II-VI Compound Semiconductor Photovoltaic Materials, Vol. 668, MRS Society Symposium H Proceedings, Spring MRS Meeting, April 16-20, 2001, San Francisco, CA (also Co-Chair Symposium H) Guest Editor, Thin Solid Films, Vol. 387, 1 June 2001, Proceedings of E-MRS Meeting, Strasbourg, France, May 30-June 2, 2000 (Co-Chair, Symposium N, Thin Film Chalcogenide Photovoltaic Materials) Guest Editor, Materials Research Society, Vo1. 796, MRS Society Symposium V Proceedings, Fall MRS Meeting, December 1-5, 2003, Boston, MA

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Director, Council for Photovoltaic Research (CPR), 1996-present. The Council provides a voice for the photovoltaic research community in establishing federal energy policy. Editorial Board, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells AWARDS World Renewable Energy Network Pioneer Award, presented at the World Renewable Energy Congress VII, July 2002, Cologne, Germany Department of the Army Special Achievement Commendation: May 1977 STUDENT ADVISEMENT PH.D. DISSERTATIONS R.D. Varrin, Jr., "Selenization: Formation of CuInSe2 Polycrystalline Thin Films of Photovoltaic Devices," May 1991 (Co-advisor: TWF Russell) Sandeep Verma, "A Chemical Reactor and Reaction Engineering Analysis of the Formation of CuInSe2 by Selenization," April 1993 (Co-advisor: TWF Russell) Matheswaran Marudachalam, “Processing, Structure and Diffusion in CuIn X Ga 1-X Se2 Thin Films for Solar Cells,” December 1996 (Co-advisor: Jerold Schultz) Garth Jensen, “Alloys in Cadmium Telluride Solar Cells,” March 1997 (degree from Stanford University; Co-advisor: Richard Bube, Stanford University) Julius Mwabora, "Copper Indium Diselenide (CuInSe2) Based Solar Cells: Effect of CuInSe2 Films Preparation Conditions and Thickness on Performance," February 1999 (degree from University of Dar es Salaam; Co-advisor: R. T. Kivaisi) Michael Engelmann, "Quantitative Determination of the Incorporation of Sulfur in Copper Indium Diselenide Polycrystalline Thin Films" March 1999 Gregory M. Hanket, "Manufacture of Large-Area Copper Indium (Gallium) Diselenide Thin Films for Photovoltaic Applications," July 1999 (Co-advisor: TWF Russell) Atul Pant, “Analysis and Modeling of Hot Wire Chemical Vapor Deposition of Silicon Films,” March 2000 (Co-advisor: M. Huff) Moses W. Haimbodi, "Physical Vapor Deposition and Analysis of Copper Indium Aluminum Diselenide Thin Films for High Band Gap Solar Cells," Winter 2003 S. Tobias Junker, "Modeling and Control of a Continuous Thermo-Evaporation Process for Production of Thin-Film Photovoltaic Modules," Winter 2003

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Jochen Titus, "Surface Sulfurization of Copper Indium Diselenide for Application in Solar Cells," Spring 2004 Ozgenc Ebil, “Deposition and Characterization of Silicon Thin-Films by Aluminum-Induced Crystallization,” Spring 2005 Kapil Mukati, “An Alternative Structure for Next Generation Regulatory Controllers and Scale-up of Cu(InGa)Se2 Thin Film Co-evaporative Physical Vapor, Spring 2007 Meijun Lu, “Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cell and Crystallization of Amorphous Silicon,” Summer 2008 Michael Z. Burrows, “Role of Hydrive Bonding Environment in a-Si:H Films for c-Si Surface Passivation,” Fall 2008 Daniel Esposito, “Development of tungsten-based catalytic materials for photoelectrochemical applications,” Fall 2011 Zach Mellinger, “Metal modified tungsten carbide (WC) for catalytic and electrocatalytic applications”, Summer 2012 MASTER'S THESES Gregory Norsworthy, "A New Design for Rapid Cooling of Thin Films During Processing," May 1996 (Co-advisor: John Meakin) Rajesh Venugopal, "The Study of Sulfur Diffusion into CdTe Using X-ray Diffraction," Summer 1997 (Co-advisor: Jerold Schultz) Jeffrey Doody, "Thermal Modeling of an Evaporation Source Used for Physical Vapor Deposition of Cu(In-Ga) Se2 Thin Films for Photovoltaic Applications," Fall 2002 Clifford Yapp, “Growth and Characterization of Cu(Inx,Ga1-x) (SY,SE1-Y)2 Films by Elemental Physical Vapor Deposition,” Spring 2005 Scott Stephens, “Modeling Optical Properties of Thin Film Cu(In,Ga)Se2 Solar Cells Using Spectroscopic Ellipsometry,” Winter 2006 Sarah Rickman, “Growth and Characterization of MOS2, MOSE2, and Mo(Sx,Se1-x)2 Formed Between Mo and CuIn(SxSe1-x) During Growth,” Spring 2006 Rui Kamada, “Cu(In,Ga)Se2 Film Formation from Selenization of Mixed Metal-Selenide Precursors,” Summer 2008 Xiawa (Eva) Wu, “Properties of CSD CS Used in CdTe/CdS Solar Cell,” Fall 2008

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Evan Kimberly, “Controlling the Opto-Electric Properties of Cadmium Stannate Thin Films Deposited by RF Sputtering,” Summer 2011 Trang Elizabeth Hunyh, “Cu-In-Ga metal precursors sputter deposited from a single ternary target for Cu(InGa)(SeS)2 film formation,” Summer 2011 GRADUATE STUDENTS UNDER CURRENT SUPERVISION Doug Bishop, Materials Science, Ph.D. Program Jonathan Boyle, Materials Science, Ph.D. Program – Co-advising with Dr. William Shafarman Robert Forest, Chemical Engineering, Ph.D. Program Jianbo He, Materials Science, Ph.D. Program Stella Liu, Materials Science, Ph.D. Program Robert Lovelett, Chemical Engineering, Ph.D. Program – Co-advising with Dr. Babatunde

Ogunnaike Thomas Mangan, Materials Science, Ph.D. Program Zhan (Brent) Shu, Physics, Ph.D. Program Curtis Walkons, Physics, Ph.D. Program Lulu Zhang, Physics, Ph.D. Program Lala Zhu, Physics, Ph.D. Program COLLABORATORS Angus Rockett University of Illinois Rakesh Agrawal Purdue University Tim Anderson University of Florida Rommel Noufi National Renewable Energy Laboratory Jingguang Chen Columbia University PUBLICATIONS

1. "Scintillation Response of Pure NaI to Channeled Ions," R.W. Birkmire and R.B. Murray,

Bulletin Amer. Phys. Soc. 21, 561 (1976).

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2. Triplepeaked Scintillation Pulse-Height Spectra for MeV Axially Channeled Ions in NaI (T1)," H.B. Dietrich, R.W. Birkmire, M. Luntz, and R.B. Murray, Phys. Rev. B 15, 23 (1977).

3. "Scintillation Response of Nonactivated and Activated NaI to Random and Channeled Ions: Influence of the Luminescence Mechanism," R.W. Birkmire, R.B. Murray, and M. Luntz, Phys. Rev. B 15, 31 (1977).

4. "Measurement of Oxygen and Nitrogen Profiles in Steel," A. Niiler and R.W. Birkmire, Nuclear Instruments and Methods 149, 301 (1978).

5. "Applications of Ion Beam Analysis Techniques to Erosion Studies," A. Niiler and R.W. Birkmire, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 26 (1), 1398 (1979).

6. "Use of the Fe-56 (p,n) Co-56 Reaction in Erosive Wear Measurements," R.W. Birkmire and A. Niiler, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 26 (1), 1815 (1979).

7. "Growth and Evaluation of CdS and (CdZn)S Films for the Fabrication of High Performance Photovoltaic Devices," R.B. Hall, R.W. Birkmire, E. Eser, T.L. Hench, and J.D. Meakin, Proc. 14th IEEE PVSC, 706 (1980).

8. "The 14N (d, p5) 15N Cross Section, 0.32-1.45 meV," A. Niiler and R.W. Birkmire, Nuclear Instruments and Methods 168, 105 (1980).

9. "Thin-Film Polycrystalline (CdZn)S/Cu2S Solar Cells of 10% Conversion Efficiency," R.W. Birkmire, R.B. Hall, J.E. Phillips, J.D. Meakin, Proc. 3rd E.C. PVSEC, 1094 (1981).

10. "Thin-film Polycrystalline (CdZn)S/Cu2S Solar Cells of Ten Percent Conversion Efficiency," R.W. Birkmire, R.B. Hall, J.E. Phillips, J.D. Meakin, Proc. 3rd Euro. Communities PV Solar Energy Conf., 1094 (1981).

11. “Thin-film Polycrystalline Cu2S/Cd1-xZnxS Solar Cells of 10% Efficiency,” R.B. Ha.., R.W. Birkmire, J.E. Phillips and J.D. Meakin, Appl. Phys. Lett. 38, 925 (1981).

12. "10% Conversion Efficiency in Thin-Film Polycrystalline (CdZn)S/Cu2S Solar Cells," R.B. Hall, R.W. Birkmire, J.E. Phillips, and J.D. Meakin, Proc. 15th IEEE PVSC, 777 (1981).

13. “Intrinsic Stability of Cu2S Based Solar Cells,” R.W. Birkmire and J.E. Phillips, Proc. SERI-sponsored Workshop on Stability of Thin-Film Solar Cells Based on CdS, 51 (1981).

14. "Stability of Thin-Film Cu2S-Based Solar Cells at V Under Continuous Illumination," J.E. Phillips, R.W. Birkmire and P.G. Lasswell, Proc. 16th IEEE PVSC, 719 (1982).

15. "Material Requirements for High Efficiency CuInSe2/CdS Solar Cells," R.W. Birkmire, R.B. Hall, and J.E. Phillips, Proc. 17th IEEE PVSC, 882 (1984).

16. "Origin of Defects in CdS Films Associated with Degradation of Cu2S/CdS Solar Cells," S.P. Shea, R.W. Birkmire, and J.D. Meakin, Proc. 17th IEEE PVSC, 1270 (1984).

17. "CuInSe2/CdS-CdTe/CdS Polycrystalline Tandem Solar Cells," R.W. Birkmire, L.C. DiNetta, J.D. Meakin, and J.E. Phillips, Proc. 17th IEEE PVSC, 1406 (1984)

18. "The Effects of Air Heat Treatments on Completed CdS/CdTe Solar Cells," B.E. McCandless, R.W. Birkmire, and J.E. Phillips, Proc. 6th E.C. PVSEC, 826 (1985).

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19. "CdTe/CdS Devices for Tandem Solar Cells Based on CuInSe2," R.W. Birkmire, L.C. DiNetta, S.C. Jackson, P.G. Lasswell, B.E. McCandless, J.D. Meakin, J.E. Phillips, Proc. 18th IEEE PVSC, 1413 (1985).

20. "Thin-Film Tandem Solar Cells," R.W. Birkmire, J.D. Meakin, J.E. Phillips, L.C. DiNetta, Proc. Electrochemical Society Symposium on Material and New Processing Tech. for PV 85 (9), 163 (1985).

21. "Thin Film Tandem Solar Cells Based on CuInSe2," J.D. Meakin, R.W. Birkmire, L. C. DiNetta, P.G. Lasswell, J.E. Phillips, Solar Cells 16, 447 (1986).

22. "High Efficiency CuInSe2 Based Heterojunction Solar Cells: Fabrication and Results," R.W. Birkmire, L.C. DiNetta, P.G. Lasswell, J.D. Meakin, J.E. Phillips, Solar Cells 16, 419 (1986).

23. "Tolerance of CuInSe2 Cell Performance to Variations in Film Composition and the Implications for Large Area Cell Manufacture," R.E. Rocheleau, J.D. Meakin, R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 19th IEEE PVSC, 972 (1987).

24. "Analysis of a Transparent Cu/ITO Contact and Heat Treatments on CdTe/CdS Solar Cells," R.W. Birkmire, S.S. Hegedus, B.E. McCandless, J.E. Phillips, W.N. Shafarman, Proc. 19th IEEE PVSC, 967 (1987).

25. "Fabrication of Monolithic a-Si:H – CuInSe2/CdS Tandem Solar Cells," B.E. McCandless, R.W. Birkmire, W.A. Buchanan, J.E. Phillips and R.E. Rocheleau, Proc. 20th IEEE PVSC, 381 (1988).

26. "Polycrystalline CdTe on CuInSe2 Cascaded Solar Cells," P.V. Meyers, C.H. Liu, L. Russell, V. Ramanathan, R.W. Birkmire, B.E. McCandless and J.E. Phillips, Proc. 20th IEEE PVSC, 1448 (1988).

27. "Control of Deposition and Surface Properties of CuInSe2 Thin Films for Solar Cells," B.E. McCandless and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 20th IEEE PVSC, 1510 (1988).

28. "Characterization of Window Layers in CuInSe2 Thin Film Solar Cells," W.N. Shafarman and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 20th IEEE PVSC, 1515 (1988).

29. "Characterization of CuInSe2 Single Crystals for Solar Cell Modeling Studies," F.A. Abou-Elfotouh, L.L. Kazmerski, T.J. Coutts, D.J. Dunlavy, M. Almassari, S. Chaudhuri, and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 20th IEEE PVSC, 1520 (1988).

30. "Specular CuInSe2 Films for Solar Cells," R.W. Birkmire, B.E. McCandless, Appl. Phys. Lett. 53(2), 140 (1988).

31. "CdTe/CdS Solar Cells with Transparent Contacts," R.W. Birkmire, B.E. McCandless, and W.N. Shafarman, Solar Cells 23, 115 (1988).

32. “High Efficiency CuInSe2/(CdZn)S Solar Cells: Fabrication,” S. Damaskinos, J.E. Phillips, M. Roy and R.W. Birkmire, Canadian Journal of Physics 67(4), 420 (1989).

33. "Approaches for High Efficiency CuInSe2 Solar Cells," R.W. Birkmire, B.E. McCandless, W.N. Shafarman, and R.D. Varrin, Jr., Proc. 9th E.C. PVSEC, 134 (1989).

34. "Post Processing Treatments and Contacts for Thin Film CdS/CdTe Devices," R.W. Birkmire, B.E. McCandless, and J.E. Phillips, Proc. Polycrystalline Thin Film Program Meeting, 77 (1989).

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35. "Reactor Analysis of Copper Indium Selenization," R.D. Varrin, Jr., S. Verma, R.W. Birkmire, B.E. McCandless, and T.W.F. Russell, Proc. 21st IEEE PVSC, 529 (1990).

36. "Options for Fabrication and Design of CuInSe2 Based Solar Cells, R.W. Birkmire, W.N. Shafarman, and R.D. Varrin, Jr., Proc. 21st IEEE PVSC, 550 (1990).

37. "Analysis of Post Deposition Processing for CdTe/CdS Thin Film Solar Cells, R.W. Birkmire and B.E. McCandless, Solar Cells 31, 527 (1991).

38. "CuInSe2 for Photovoltaic Applications," A. Rockett and R.W. Birkmire, J. Appl. Phys. 70(7), 81 (1991).

39. "Advances in CuInSe2 and CdTe Thin Film Solar Cells," W.N. Shafarman, R.W. Birkmire, D.A. Fardig, B.E. McCandless, A. Mondal, J.E. Phillips and R.D. Varrin, Jr., Solar Cells 30, 61 (1991).

40. "Critical Process Issues in Selenization," S. Verma, R.D. Varrin, Jr., R.W. Birkmire, and T.W.F. Russell, Proc. 22nd IEEE PVSC, 914 (1991).

41. "A New Method for Forming ZnTe Contacts for CdTe Cells," A. Mondal, R.W. Birkmire, and B.E. McCandless, Proc. 22nd IEEE PVSC, 1126 (1992).

42. "Electrochemical Deposition of Thin ZnTe Films as a Contact for CdTe Solar Cells," A. Mondal, B.E. McCandless, and R.W. Birkmire, Solar Energy Mat. & Solar Cells 26, 181 (1992).

43. "Fabrication of CuInSe2 Solar Cells in a Superstrate Configuration," T. Yoshida and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 11th E.C. PVSEC, 811 (1992).

44. "Reaction Pathways to CuInSe2 Formation by Selenization," S. Verma, S. Yamanaka, R.W. Birkmire, B.E. McCandless, and T.W.F. Russell, Proc. 11th E.C. PVSEC, 807 (1992).

45. "Study of the Process Treatments Used for High-Efficiency Thin-Film CdTe Solar Cells," H.R. Moutinho, R. Ahmed-Bitar, R.S. Hasoon, R.K. Ahrenkiel, D.J. Dunlavy, B.M. Keyes, A.R. Mason, F.A. Abou-Elfotouh, R.W. Birkmire, and L.L. Kazmerski, Proc. 11th E.C. PVSEC, 991 (1992).

46. "Polycrystalline Heterojunction Solar Cells: Device Perspective," J.E. Phillips, W.N. Shafarman, R.W. Birkmire, S.S. Hegedus, and B.E. McCandless AIP Conf. Proc. 268, 206 (1992).

47. "Polycrystalline Heterojunction Solar Cells: Processing Perspective," R.W. Birkmire, S.S. Hegedus, B.E. McCandless, J.E. Phillips, T.W.F. Russell, W.N. Shafarman, S.Verma, and S. Yamanaka, AIP Conf. Proc. 268, 212 (1992).

48. "Effects of Processing on CdTe/CdS Materials and Devices," R. W. Birkmire, B.E. McCandless, and S.S. Hegedus, Int’l J. Solar Energy 12, 145 (1992).

49. "Reaction Chemistry of CuInSe2 Formation by Selenization Using Elemental Se," S. Yamanaka, B.E. McCandless, and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 23rd IEEE PVSC, 607 (1993).

50. "The Effect of O2 on H2Se Selenization in a Continuous Flow Reactor," S. Verma, TWF Russell, and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 23rd IEEE PVSC, 431 (1993).

51. "Process and Device Analysis of CuInSe2 Solar Cells," R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 7th Sunshine Workshop, Technical Digest 7th Sunshine Workshop, 101 (1993).

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52. "High Efficiency CuInSe2 Solar Cells Using the Selenization Process," R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 7th Int'l PV Solar Energy Conf., Technical Digest PVSEC-7, 527 (1993).

53. "Chemical Process and Device Analysis of CuInSe2 Based Solar Cell Materials," TWF Russell, R.W. Birkmire, J.E. Phillips, S. Verma, and W.N. Shafarman, AIP Conf. Proc. 306, 390 (1993).

54. "Chemical Kinetic Studies of Copper Indium Selenization” T.W.F. Russell, S. Verma, and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 12th E.C. PVSEC 1, 633 (1994).

55. "A Treatment to Allow Contacting CdTe with Different Conductors," B.E. McCandless, Y. Qu, and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. IEEE First WCPEC (24th IEEE PVSC), 107 (1994).

56. "Characterization of Cu-In-Ga Precursors Used to Form Cu(In,Ga)Se2 Films," M. Marudachalam, R.W. Birkmire, J. M. Schultz, and T. Yokimcus Proc. IEEE First WCPEC (24th IEEE PVSC), 234 (1994).

57. "Processing Issues for Thin-Film CdTe Cells and Modules," R.W. Birkmire and P.V. Meyers, Proc. IEEE First WCPEC (24th IEEE PVSC), 76 (1994).

58. "A Chemical Kinetic Analysis of the Formation of CuInSe2 at Different Temperatures," T.W.F. Russell, N. Orbey, and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. IEEE First WCPEC (24th IEEE PVSC), 238 (1994).

59. "Polycrystalline CuIn 1-x GaxSe2 Thin Film PV Solar Cells Prepared by Two-Stage Selenization Process Using Se Vapor," N.G. Dhere, S. Kuttath, K.W. Lynn, R.W. Birkmire, and W.N. Shafarman, Proc. IEEE First WCPEC (24th IEEE PVSC), 190 (1994).

60. "Micro Through Nanostructure Investigations of Polycrystalline CdTe: Correlations with Processing and Electronic Structures," D.H. Levi, H.R. Moutinho, F.A. Hasoon, B.M. Keyes, R.K. Ahrenkiel, M. Al-Jassim, L.L. Kazmerski, and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 1994 IEEE First WCPEC (24th IEEE PVSC), 127 (1994).

61. "Galvanic Deposition of Cadmium Sulfide Thin Films," B.E. McCandless, A. Mondal, and R.W. Birkmire, Solar Energy Mat. & Solar Cells 36, 369 (1995).

62. "The Growth by the Hybrid Sputtering and Evaporation Method and Microstructural Studies of CuInSe2 Films," L. Chung Yang, H.Z. Xiao, A. Rockett, W.N. Shafarman, and R.W. Birkmire, Solar Energy Mat.& Solar Cells 36, 445 (1995).

63. "The Future of CdTe Photovoltaics," P.V. Meyers and R.W. Birkmire, Progress in Photovoltaics 3, 393 (1995).

64. "Preparation of Homogeneous Cu(InGa)Se2 Films by Selenization of Metal Precursors in H2Se Atmosphere," M. Marudachalam, H. Hichri, R. Klenk, R.W. Birkmire, W.N. Shafarman, and J.M. Schultz, Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 3978 (1995).

65. "Micro Through Nanostructure Investigations of Polycrystalline CdTe: Correlations With Processing and Electronic Structures," D.H. Levi, H.R. Moutinho, F.S. Hasoon, B.M. Keyes, R.K. Ahrenkiel, M. Al-Jassim, L.L. Kazmerski, and R.W. Birkmire, First World Conference on PV Energy Conversion, Solar Energy Mat. & Solar Cells 41/42, 381 (1996).

66. "Chemical Reaction Analysis of Copper Indium Selenization," S. Verma, N. Orbey, R.W. Birkmire and T.W.F. Russell, Progress in Photovoltaics 4, 341 (1996).

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67. "Polycrystalline Heterojunction Solar Cells:A Device Perspective,” J.E. Phillips, R.W. Birkmire, B.E. McCandless, P.V. Meyers, and W.N. Shafarman, Phys. Stat. Sol.(b) 194, 31 (1996).

68. "Thin Film Cadmium Sulfide/Cadmium Telluride Alloys," D.G. Jensen, B.E. McCandless, and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. MRS Symp. on Thin Films for PV and Related Device App. 426, 325 (1996).

69. "Thin Film Cadmium Telluride-Cadmium Sulfide Alloys and Devices," D.G. Jensen, B.E. McCandless, and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 25th IEEE PVSC, 773 (1996).

70. "Vapor Phase Treatment of CdTe/CdS Thin Films with CdCl2:O2," B.E. McCandless, H. Hichri, G. Hanket, and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 25th IEEE PVSC, 781 (1996).

71. "Diffusion of In and Ga in Selenized Cu-In and Cu-Ga Precursors," M. Marudachalam, H. Hichri, R.W. Birkmire, J.M. Schultz, A. B. Swartzlander, and M.M. Al-Jassim, Proc. 25th IEEE PVSC, 805 (1996).

72. "Reaction Analysis of the Formation of CIS at Temperatures from 250°C to 400°C," N. Orbey, H. Hichri, R.W. Birkmire, and T.W.F. Russell, Proc. 25th IEEE PVSC, 981 (1996).

73. "Processing and Analysis of Polycrystalline Thin-Film Solar Cells Made from Uniform Single Phase Materials," R.W. Birkmire, H. Hichri, R. Klenk, M. Marudachalam, B.E. McCandless, J.E. Phillips, J.M. Schultz, and W.N. Shafarman, AIP Conf. Proc. 353, 420 (1996).

74. "Processing Issues for Thin Film CdTe/CdS Solar Cells," B.E. McCandless, R.W. Birkmire, D.G. Jensen, J.E. Phillips, and I. Youm, NREL/SNL PV Program Review, Proc. 14th NREL PV Program Review Meeting, 647 (1996).

75. "Fabrication and Characterization of Cu(InGa)Se2 Solar Cells with Absorber Bandgap from 1.0 to 1.5 eV," W.N. Shafarman, R.W. Birkmire, M. Marudachalam, B.E. McCandless, and J.M. Schultz, NREL/SNL PV Program Review, AIP Conf. Proc. 394, 123 (1997).

76. "Recrystallization and Sulfur Diffusion in CdCl2Treated CdTe/CdS Thin Films," B.E. McCandless, L.V. Moulton, and R.W. Birkmire, Progress in Photovoltaics 5, 249 (1997).

77. "Effect of Temperature on Copper Indium Selenization," N. Orbey, H. Hichri, R.W. Birkmire, and T.W.F. Russell, Progress in Photovoltaics 5, 237 (1997).

78. "Effect of Reduced Deposition Temperature, Time and Thickness on Cu(InGa)Se2 Films and Devices", W.N. Shafarman, R.W. Birkmire, S. Marsillac, M. Marudachalam, N. Orbey, and T.W.F. Russell, Proc. 26th IEEE PVSC, 331 (1997).

79. "Recent Progress and Critical Issues in Thin Film Polycrystalline Solar Cells and Modules," R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 26th IEEE PVSC, 295 (1997).

80. "CdTe1-xSx Absorber Layers for Thin-Film CdTe/CdS Solar Cells," B.E. McCandless and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 26th IEEE PVSC, 307 (1997).

81. "Introduction to the Thin Film Photovoltaic Symposium Commemorating 25th Anniversary Institute of Energy Conversion, University of Delaware, USA," R.W. Birkmire and S.S. Hegedus, Progress in Photovoltaics 5, 305 (1997).

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82. "Polycrystalline Thin Film Solar Cells: Present Status and Future Potential," R.W. Birkmire and E. Eser, Annual Review of Materials Science 27, 625 (1997).

83. “Phases, Morphology and Diffusion in CuInxGa1-xSe2 Thin Films,” M. Marudachalam, R. W. Birkmire, H. Hichri, J. M. Schultz, A. Swartzlander, and M. M. Al-Jassim, J. Appl. Phys. 82(6), 2896 (1997).

84. "Next Generation CIGS for Solar Cells," A. Rockett, R.W. Birkmire, D. Morel, S. Fonash, J-Y. Hou, M. Marudachalam, J. D’Amico, P. Panse, S. Zafar, and D.J. Schroeder, presented at NREL Conference, "Future Generation: Photovoltaic Technologies," AIP Conf. Proc. 404, 403 (1997).

85. "Reaction Analysis of the Formation of CuInSe2 Films in a Physical Vapor Deposition Reactor," N. Orbey, G. Norsworthy, R.W. Birkmire, and T.W.F. Russell, Progress in Photovoltaics 6, 79 (1998).

86. "Monolithically Integrated X-ray Detector Arrays for Computed Tomography," R. Sudharsanan, M. Yoganathan, G. Vakerlis, C.S. Ferekides, B. McCandless, R. Birkmire, R. Deych, and R. Luhta, Proc. MRS Symp, 573 (1998).

87. "Influence of Processing Conditions on Performance and Stability in Polycrystalline Thin-Film CdTe-Based Solar Cells," B.E. McCandless and R.W. Birkmire, AIP Conf. Proc. 462, 182 (1999).

88. "Harnessing the Sun with Thin Film Photovoltaics," R.W. Birkmire and L. L. Kazmerski, Photovoltaics for the 21st Century (Proc. 195th Meeting of the Electrochemical Society), 99-11, 24 (1999).

89. "Critical Issues and Research Needs for CdTe-Based Solar Cells," A.D. Compaan, J.R. Sites, R.W. Birkmire, C.S. Ferekides, and A.L. Fahrenbruch, Photovoltaics for the 21st Century (Proc. 195th Meeting Electrochemical Society), 99-11, 241 (1999).

90. "Optimization of Vapor Post-Deposition Processing for Evaporated CdS/CdTe Solar Cells," B.E. McCandless, I. Youm, and R.W. Birkmire, Progress in Photovoltaics 7(1), 21 (1999).

91. "Manufacturable Large Area CdS Thin Films for Solar Cell Applications Monitored with Optical Emission Spectroscopy," L. Wang, I. Eisgruber, R. Hollingsworth, C. DeHart, T. Wangensteen, R.E. Treece, P. Bhat, W.N. Shafarman, R.W. Birkmire, T.J. Gillespie, and R. Wendt, Proc. MRS Symp. 69, 127 (1999).

92. "Physical Vapor Deposition of Cu(InGa)Se2 by Co-Evaporation Modeling for Process Control," S.T. Junker, F.J. Doyle III and R.W. Birkmire, presented at the AIChE Annual Mtg, Paper No. 260c (2000).

93. "Copper Indium Alloy Transformations," N. Orbey, G.A. Jones, R.W. Birkmire, and T.W.F. Russell, Journal of Phase Equilibria 21(6), 509 (2000).

94. "Thin Polycrystalline Silicon Films by HWCVD," R. Aparicio, A. Pant, and R. Birkmire, Proc. 9th Workshop on Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell Materials and Processes, (1999).

95. "Chemical Kinetics and Equilibrium Analysis of I-III-VI Films," R.W. Birkmire and M. Engelmann, AIP Conf. Proc. 462, 23 (1999).

96. "Deposition of Cu(InGa)Se2 by Inline Evaporation," G.M. Hanket, P.D. Paulson, W.N. Shafarman and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. NCPV Prog. Rev, Mtg, 241 (2000).

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97. "Diffusion in CdS/CdTe Thin-Film Couples," B.E. McCandless and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 16th Euro. PVSEC, 351 (2000).

98. "Process Analysis and Modeling of Thin Silicon Film Deposition by Hot-Wire Chemical Vapor Deposition," R. Aparicio, R. Birkmire, A. Pant, M. Huff, T.W.F. Russell and M. Mauk, Proc. 16th Euro. PVSEC 2001-13, 261 (2000).

99. "Cu(InAl)Se2 Thin Films and Devices Deposited by Multisource Evaporation," M.W. Haimbodi, E. Gourmelon, P.D. Paulson, R.W. Birkmire and W.N. Shafarman, Proc. 28th IEEE PVSC, 454 (2000).

100. "Influence of Window and Absorber Layer Processing on Device Operation in Superstrate Thin Film CdTe Solar Cells," B.E. McCandless and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 28th IEEE PVSC, 491 (2000).

101. "Fabrication of Graded Cu(InGa)Se2 Films by Inline Evaporation," G.M. Hanket, P.D. Paulson, U. Singh, S.T. Junker, R.W. Birkmire, F.J. Doyle III, E. Eser and W.N. Shafarman, Proc. 28th IEEE PVSC, 499 (2000).

102. "Analysis of Stress-Induced Degradation in CdS/CdTe Solar Cells," S.S. Hegedus, B.E. McCandless and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 28th IEEE PVSC, 535 (2000) and NCPV Prog. Rev. Mtg. (2000).

103. "Reaction Temperature Dependence of CuInSe2 Based Solar Cells Performance Using CuIn Precursors Selenized Using H2 Se Gas," J.M. Mwabora, W.N. Shafarman and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 5th Kenya Physical Society (KPS) Regional Workshop, 27 (2000).

104. "Absorber Thickness Dependence on CuInSe2 Based Solar Cell Performance Using CuIn Precursors Selenized Using H2Se Gas," J.M. Mwabora, W.N. Shafarman and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. World Renewable Energy Congress-VI (WREC 2000), 2049 (2000).

105. "Thin Polycrystalline Silicon Films by HWCVD," R. Aparicio, R. Birkmire, A. Pant, M. Huff and M. Mauk, presented at NCPV Program Review Meeting, (2000).

106. "Hot-Wire Chemical Vapor Deposition of Silicon from Silane: Effect of Process Conditions," A, Pant, T.W.F. Russell, M.C. Huff, R. Aparicio and R.W. Birkmire, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 40(5), 1377 (2001).

107. "Interdiffusion of CdS/CdTe Thin Films Modeling X-ray Diffraction Line Profiles," B.E. McCandless, M.G. Engelmann and R.W. Birkmire, J. Appl. Phys. 89 (2) 988 (2001).

108. "Initial and Stressed Performance of CdTe Solar Cells Effect of Contact Processing," S.S. Hegedus, B.E. McCandless and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. NCPV Program Review Meeting, 119 (2001).

109. "Post-Deposition Sulfur Incorporation into CuInSe2 Thin Films," J. Titus, H.-W. Schock, R.W. Birkmire, W.N. Shafarman and U.P. Singh, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc., 668, H1.5.1 (2001).

110. "Optically Assisted Metal-Induced Crystallization of Thin Si Films for Low-Cost Solar Cells," W. Chen, B. Sopori, K. Jones, R. Reedy, N.M. Ravindra, R. Aparicio, R.W. Birkmire, S. Morrison, K. Coats and A. Madan, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc., 260 (2001).

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111. "Process Analysis and Modeling of Thin Silicon Film Deposition by Hot-Wire Chemical Vapor Deposition," R. Aparicio, R. Birkmire, A. Pant, M. Huff and T.W.F. Russell, Proc.199th Electrochemical Society Meeting 2001-13, 324 (2001).

112. "Compound Polycrystalline Solar Cells: Recent Progress and Y2K Perspective," R.W. Birkmire, Solar Energy Mat. & Solar Cells 65, 17 (2001).

113. "Formation and Analysis of Graded CuIn(Se1-y Sy)2 Films," M. Engelmann, B.E. McCandless and R.W. Birkmire, Thin Solid Films 387, 14 (2001).

114. "Cu(In 1-x Al x )Se2 Thin Films and Solar Cells,” P.D. Paulson, M.W. Haimbodi, S. Marsillac, R.W. Birkmire and W.N. Shafarman, J. App. Phys. 91, 10153 (2001).

115. "Phase Behavior in the CdTe-CdS Pseudobinary System," B.E. McCandless, G.M. Hanket, D.G. Jensen and R.W. Birkmire, American Vacuum Society 20(4), 1464 (2002).

116. "High Efficiency Solar Cells Based on Cu(InAl)Se2 Thin Films," S. Marsillac, P.D. Paulson, M.W. Haimbodi and R.W. Birkmire, Appl. Phys. Lett. 81(7), 1350 (2002).

117. "Material and Device Characterization of Thin-Film Cu(InAl)Se2 Solar Cells," W.N. Shafarman, S. Marsillac, P.D. Paulson, M. Haimbodi, T. Minemoto, R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 29th IEEE PVSC, 519 (2002).

118. "Vapor Transport Deposition of Cadmium Telluride Films," B.E. McCandless, R.W. Birkmire, W.A. Buchanan, S. Fields and G.M. Hanket, Proc. 29th IEEE PVSC, 547 (2002).

119. "Pilot-Scale Manufacturing of Cu(InGa)Se2 Films on a Flexible Polymer Substrate," G.M. Hanket, U.P. Singh, E. Eser, W.N. Shafarman, and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 29th PVSEC IEEE , 567 (2002).

120. "Investigation of Chemical Bath Deposited ZnS Buffer Layers for Cu(InGa)Se2 Thin Film Solar Cells," B. Sang, W.N. Shafarman and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 29th IEEE PVSC, 632 (2002).

121. "Deposition and Structural Characterization of Poly-Si Thin-Films on Al Coated Glass Substrates," O. Ebil, R. Aparicio, S. Hazra, R.W. Birkmire and E. Sutter, Thin Solid Films 430, 120(2003).

122. "Correlation of Surface Phases with Electrical Behavior in Thin-Film CdTe Devices," B.E. McCandless, S.S. Hegedus, R.W. Birkmire, D. Cunningham, Thin Solid Films 431-432, 249 (2003).

123. “Optical Characterization of CuIn1-xGaxSe2 Alloy Thin Films by Spectroscopic Ellipsometry,” P.D. Paulson, R.W. Birkmire, W.N. Shafarman, J. Appl. Phys. 94(2), 879 (2003).

124. "Critical Issues for Cu(InAl)Se2, Thin Film Solar Cells" W.N. Shafarman, S. Marsillac, T. Minemoto, P.D. Paulson, R.W. Birkmire, WCPEC-3, 2869 (2003).

125. “CuxS Back Contact for CdTe Solar Cells,” Donghwan Kim, Brian E. McCandless, Steven S. Hegedus, and Robert W. Birkmire, Proc. WCPEC-3, (2003).

126. "Advances in CuInSe2-Based Solar Cells: From Fundamentals to Processing," W.N. Shafarman, J. Titus, M.W. Haimbodi, M. Gossla, G.M. Hanket, S. Marsillac, T.

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Minemoto, P.D. Paulson, B. Sang, U. Singh, E. Eser and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. NCPV Rev. Mtg, 525 (2003).

127. “Growth Mechanisms of Electrodeposited CuInSe2 and Cu(In,Ga)Se2 Determined by Cyclic Voltammetry,” M.E. Calixto, K.D. Dobson, B.E. McCandless, R.W. Birkmire, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. 865, 431 (2005).

128. "The Dynamics of Cadmium Telluride Etching," K.D. Dobson, P.D. Paulson, B.E. McCandless and R.W. Birkmire, MRS Symp Proc. 763, 107 (2003).

129. “Deposition and Characterization of Cu(InAl)Se2 Thin Films and Solar Cells,,” W.N. Shafarman, S. Marsillac, T. Minemoto, P.D. Paulson, R.W. Birkmire, Proc. PVSEC-3, (2003).

130. "Determination of Activation Barriers for the Diffusion of Sodium through CIGS Thin Film Solar Cells," M.B. Zellner, R.W. Birkmire, E. Eser, W.N. Shafarman and J.G. Chen, Prog. Photovolt:Res. Appl. 11, 543(2003).

131. “Correlation of Surface Phases with Electrical Behavior in Thin-Film CdTe Devices,” B.E. McCandless, S.S. Hegedus, R.W. Birkmire and D. Cunningham, Thin Solid Films 431-432, 249 (2003).

132. "Growth and Characterization of HWCVD Si Films on Al Coated Glass," O. Ebil, R. Aparicio, S.S. Hegedus and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. NCPV Rev. Mtg., 813 (2003).

133. "The Solar Electric Future: Linking Science, Engineering, Invention and Manufacturing," R.W. Birkmire, NCPV Review Meeting, (2003).

134. "Optical Properties of Cd 1-x Zn x Te Films in a Device Structure Using Variable Angle Spectroscopic Ellipsometry," P.D. Paulson, B.E. McCandless and R.W. Birkmire, J. Appl. Phys. 95(6), 3010 (2004).

135. "Manufacture of Thin-Film Solar Cells: Modeling and Control of Cu(GaIn)Se2 Physical Vapor," S.T. Junker, R.W. Birkmire and F. Doyle III, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 43, 566 (2004).

136. "Surface Sulfurization of Thin Film Cu(InGa)Se2," U.P. Singh, W.N. Shafarman and R.W. Birkmire, Tech. Digest of International PVSEC-14, Bangkok, Thailand (2004).

137. "Materials and Device Properties of Single-Phase CuInGa SeS2 Alloys Prepared by Selenization/Sulfurization of Metallic Alloys," V. Alberts, J. Titus and R.W. Birkmire, Thin Solid Films 451-451, 207 (2004).

138. “Evolution and Future Prospects of Inorganic Photovoltaics,” Robert W. Birkmire, Proc. SPIE 5520, 9 (2004).

139. “Processing Improvements for Roll-to-Roll Deposition of Cu(InGa)Se2,” E. Eser, S. Fields, G. Hanket, R.W. Birkmire, W. Shafarman, Prog. Rev 32, (2004).

140. “In-Situ Aluminum-Induced Crystallization of Si Thin-Films on Glass Substrates above the Eutectic Temperature using HW-CVD,” Ozgenc Ebil, Roger Aparicio and Robert Birkmire, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. 808, A4.24 (2004).

141. “Thin-Film Solar Cells on Polymer Substrates for Space Power,” A.F. Hepp, J.S. McNatt, J.E. Dickman, D.L. Morel, C.S. Ferekides, M.H.C. Jin, K.K. Banger, N. Orbey,

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M. Cushman, R.W. Birkmire, W.N. Shafarman and R. Newton, 2nd Int’l Energy Conv. Eng. Conf., 5737 (2004).

142. “Progress in Thin Film Si Bottom Cells for High Performance Thin Film Tandem Solar Cells," Roger Aparicio, Vijay Yelundur, Steven Hegedus, Brian Rounsaville, Ajeet Rohatgi, Robert Birkmire, presented at the Solar Program Review Meeting, (2004).

143. “Evolution of Thin Film Photovoltaics,” Robert W. Birkmire, Steven S. Hegedus and Brian E. McCandless, paper submitted to World Renewable Energy Congress VIII and printed in Book of Abstracts, 324 (2004).

144. "Novel Electroactive Polymers and Ogligomers for Flexible Photovoltaic Cells," M. Galvin and R.W. Birkmire, University Research and Development for Future Generation Solar Electricity Technology. (2004).

145. “Cu(InGa)Se2 Solar Cells on a Flexible Polymer Web,” Robert Birkmire, Erten Eser, Shannon Fields, William Shafarman, Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 13(2), 141 (2005).

146. “Mass and Heat Transfer Modeling of a Physical Vapor Deposition Effusion Source,” S. Tobias Junker, Robert W. Birkmire, and Francis J. Doyle III, AIChE Journal 51(3), 878 (2005).

147. ”Chalcogen Incorporation in Cu(InGa)SeS)2 Coevaporation Thin Films,” A. Stavrides, C. Yapp, W.N.Shafarman, R. Aparicio, R. Opila, R.W. Birkmire, 31st IEEE PVSC, 247 (2005).

148. “High Throughput Processing of CdTe/CdS Solar Cells,” Brian E. McCandless, Wayne A. Buchanan and Robert W. Birkmire, Proc. 31st IEEE PVSC, 295 (2005).

149. “ Single Bath Electrodeposition of CuInSe2 and Cu(In,Ga)Se2 for Thin Film Photovoltaic Cells,” M.E. Calixto, K.D. Dobson, B.E. McCandless, R.W. Birkmire, 31st IEEE PVSC, 378 (2005)

150. ”Cd 1-x Zn x Te Solar Cells with 1.6 eV Band Gap,” B.E. McCandless, R.W. Birkmire, 31st IEEE PVSC, 398 (2005).

151. ”Critical Issues in Vapor Deposition of Cu(InGa)Se2 on Polymer Web: Source Spitting and Back Contact Cracking,” E. Eser, S. Fields, G. Hanket, R.W. Birkmire, J. Doody, 31st IEEE PVSC, 515 (2005).

152. “Critical Issues for Cu(InGa)Se2 Solar Cells on Flexible Polymer Web,” Erten Eser, Shannon Fields, William Shafarman, Robert Birkmire, submitted to the 19th Space Photovoltaic Research and Technology Conference (SPRAT XIX), (2005).

153. “Understanding Aniline Surface Treatment of CdTe,” Kevin D. Dobson, Stephanie A. Einstein, Daniel D. Sadowsky, Brian E. McCandless and Robert W. Birkmire, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. 865, 293 (2005).

154. “Thin Film Si Bottom Cells for High-Efficiency Polycrystalline Tandem Cells,” Vijay Yelundur, Steven Hegedus, Ujjwal Das, Michael Burrows, Ajeet Rohatgi, and Robert Birkmire, presented at the Solar Program Review Meeting, (2005).

155. “Pathways to Thin Film Polycrystalline Silicon Using Amorphous Silicon Precursors,” O. Ebil, S. Hegedus, M. Lu and R. Birkmire, presented at the Solar Program Review Meeting, (2005).

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156. “Sulfur Incorporation into Copper Indium Diselenide Single Crystals Through Annealing in Hydrogen Sulfide,” Jochen Titus, Robert W. Birkmire, Christina Hack, Georg Muller, and Patrick McKeown, J. Appl. Phys. 99, 043502 (2006).

157. “Controlling Growth Chemistry and Morphology of Single-Bath Electrodeposited Cu(In,Ga)Se2 Thin Films for Photovoltaic Application,” M. Estela Calixto, Kevin D. Dobson, Brian E. McCandless and Robert W. Birkmire, J. Electrochem. Soc. 153(6), G521 (2006).

158. “How CdTe Solar Cells Operate: Determining Collection Using Bifacial Device Characterization,” D. Desai, S. Hegedus, B. McCandless, R. Birkmire, K. Dobson, D. Ryan, Proc. 32nd IEEE PVSC and WCPEC-4, 368 (2006).

159. “Composition Control in the Growth of Cu(InGa)(SeS)2 by the Reaction of Cu-In-Ga Precursors in H2Se and H2S,” Gregory M. Hanket, William N. Shafarman, Robert W. Birkmire, Proc. 32nd IEEE PVSC and WCPEC-4, 560 (2006).

160. “Effect of Process Paramater Variation in Deposited Emitter and Buffer Layers on the Performance of Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cells,” Ujjwal Das, Stuart Bowden, Michael Burrows, Steven Hegedus and Robert Birkmire, Proc. 32nd IEEE PVSC and WCPEC-4, 1283 (2006).

161. “Carrier Lifetime as a Developmental and Diagnostic Tool in Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cells,” S. Bowden, U.K. Das, S.S. Hegedus, R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 32nd IEEE PVSC and WCPEC-4, 1295 (2006).

162. “Design Strategy for Scale-Up of Physical Vapor Deposition of Cu(InGa)Se2 on Flexible Substrates,” Kapil Mukati, Babatunde A. Ogunnaike, Erten Eser, Shannon Fields, Robert W. Birkmire, Proc. 32nd IEEE PVSC and WCPEC-4, 1842 (2006).

163. “Surface Sulfurization Studies of Cu(InGa)Se2 Thin Film,” Udai P. Singh, William N. Shafarman, Robert W. Birkmire, Solar Energy Mat. & Solar Cells 90, 623 (2006).

164. “Design of a Vapor Transport Deposition Process for Thin Film Materials,” G.M. Hanket, B.E. McCandless, W.A. Buchanan, S. Fields, R.W. Birkmire, J. Vac. Sci. and Technol. A, 24(5), 1695 (2006).

165. “Contact Wetting Angle as a Characterization Technique for Processing CdS/CdTe Solar Cells,” M.S. Angelo, B.E. McCandless, R.W. Birkmire, S.A. Rykov and J.G. Chen, Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 15, 93 (2007).

166. “Interdigitated back contact silicon heterojunction solar cell and the effect of front surface passivation,” Meijun Lu, Stuart Bowden, Ujjwal Das, Robert Birkmire, Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 063407 (2007). URL: http://link.aip.org/link/?APL/91/063507

167. “Incongruent Reaction of Cu-(InGa) Intermetallic Precursors in H2Se and H2S,” G.M. Hanket, W.N. Shafarman, B.E. McCandless and R.W. Birkmire, J. Appl. Phys. 102, 074823 (2007). URL: http://link.aip.org/link/?JAP/102/074922

168. “Hydrofluoric Acid Treatment of Amorphous Silicon Films for Photovoltaic Processing,” M. Burrows, U. Das, M. Lu, S. Bowden, R. Opila, and R. Birkmire, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. 989, 0989-A18-06 (2007).

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169. “Interdigitated Back Contact Silicon Heterojunction (IBC-SHJ) Solar Cell,” Meijun Lu, Stuart Bowden, Ujjwal Das, Michael Burrows, and Robert Birkmire, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. 989, 0989-A24-05 (2007).

170. “Evaluation of HF Treated Amorphous Silicon for Photoemission Determined Electronic Levels,” M. Burrows, R. Opila, K. Kemirkan, M. Lu, U. Das, S. Bowden and R. Birkmire, Proc. 22nd Euro. PV Solar Energy Conf., 1290 (2007).

171. “a-Si/c-Si Heterojunction for Interdigitated Back Contact Solar Cell,” M. Lu, U. Das, S. Bowden, R. Birkmire, Proc. 22nd Euro PVSEC, 914 (2007).

172. “Effect of Surface Passivation on Si Heterojunction and Interdigitated Back Contact Solar Cells,” U.K. Das, S. Bowden, M. Burrows, M. Lu and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 17th Workshop on Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells & Modules, (2007).

173. “Two Dimensional Modeling of Interdigitated Back Contact Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cells,”Meijun Lu, Stuart Bowden, Robert Birkmire, Proc. IEEE NUSOD Int’l Conf. 10.1109/NUSOD.2007.4349021, 55-56 (2007).

174. “Surface Passivation Quality and Structure of Thin Si:H Layers on N-Type Crystalline Si (100) and (111) Wafers, U.K. Das, M. Burrows, M. Lu, S. Bowden and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 22nd Euro. PV Solar Energy Conf., 1290 (2007).

175. “Electrodeposition of CuInSe2 Absorber Layers from pH Buffered and Non-buffered Sulfate-based Solutions,” C. Sene, M. Estela Calixto, Kevin D. Dobson, Robert W. Birkmire, Thin Solid Films 516, 2188 (2008). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2007.07.142

176. “Surface Passivation and Heterojunction Cells on Si (100) and (111) Wafers Using dc and rf Plasma Deposited Si:H Thin Films,” U.K. Das, M.Z. Burrows, M. Lu, S. Bowden and R.W. Birkmire, Appl. Phys. Lett. 92, 063504 (2008). http://link.aip.org/link/?APL/92/063504

177. “Pathways to Improved Performance and Processing of CdTe and CuInSe2 Based Modules,” Robert Birkmire, Proc. 33rd IEEE PVSC, (2008).

178. “Stability of Amorphous-Crystalline Silicon Heterojunctions,” Stuart Bowden, Ujjwal Das, Robert Birkmire, Proc. 33rd IEEE PVSC, (2008).

179. “Rear Surface Passivation of Interdigitated Back Contact Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cell and 2D Simulation Study,” Meijun Lu, Ujjwal Das, Stuart Bowden, Robert Birkmire, Proc. 33rd IEEE PVSC, (2008).

180. “Cu(InGa)Se2 Film Formation from Selenization of Mixed Metal./Metal-selenide Precursors,” Rui Kamada, William Shafarman, Robert Birkmire, Proc. 33rd IEEE PVSC, (2008).

181. “Control of Composition in Co-evaporated Cu(InGa)(SeS)2 Thin Films,” Shiro Nishiwaki, Greg Hanket, Robert Birkmire and William Shafarman, Proc. 33rd IEEE PVSC, (2008).

182. “In-situ Annealing of Cu(InGa)Se2 Films Grown by Elemental Co-evaporation,” James Wilson, Robert Birkmire and William Shafarman, Proc. 33rd IEEE PVSC, (2008).

183. “Improved Passivation of a-Si:H/c-Si Interfaces Through Film Restructuring,” M.Z. Burrows, U.K. Das, S. Bowden, SS. Hegedus, R.L. Opila, and R.W. Birkmire, Mater. Res. Symp. Proc. 1066, 1066-A02-05 (2008).

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184. “Role of Hydrogen Bonding Environment in a-Si:H Films for c-Si Surface Passivation,” M.Z. Burrows, U.K. Das, R.L. Opila, S. DeWolf, R.W. Birkmire, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A26(4), 683 (2008).

185. “Development of CuInSe2 Nanocrystal and Nanoring Inks for Low-Cost Solar Cells,” Qiije Guo, Suk Jun Kim, Mahaprasad Kar, William N. Shafarman, Robert W. Birkmire, Eric A. Stach, Rakesh Agrawal and Hugh W. Hillhouse, Nano Letters 8 (9), 2982-2987 (2008).

186. “Progress Towards High Efficiency All Back Contact c-Si Heterojunction Solar Cells,” U. Das, S. Bowden, M. Lu, M. Burrows, D. Xu, O. Jani, S. Hegedus, R.Birkmire, Proc. 18th Workshop on Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells, 70 (2008).

187. “Optimization of Interdigitation Parameters for Back Contact Si Heterojunction Solar Cells,” O. Jani, U. Das, S. Herasimenka, M. Lu, D. Xu, S. Bowden, S. Hegedus, R. Birkmire, PVSEC18 (2009).

188. “Designing Rear Surface for Carrier Transport in Back Contact Si Heterojunction Solar Cells,” U. Das, M. Lu, D. Xu, O. Jani, S. Bowden, S. Hegedus, R. Birkmire, PVSEC18 (2009).

189. “In-situ Post-deposition Thermal Annealing of Co-evaporated Cu(InGa)Se2 Thin Films Deposited at Low Temperatures,” James D. Wilson, Brian E. McCandless, Robert W. Birkmire, William N. Shafarman, Proc. 34th IEEE PVSC, Philadelphia, PA, June 8-12, 2009.

190. “Processing of Cu(In,Ga)Se2 Solar Cells from Electrodeposited Precursors,” Kevin D. Dobson and Robert W. Birkmire, Proc. 34th IEEE PVSC, Philadelphia, PA, June 8-12, 2009.

191. “Optimization of Interdigitated Back Contact Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cells by Two-dimensional Numerical Simulation,” Meijun Lu, Ujjwal Das, Stuart Bowden, Steven Hegedus and Robert Birkmire, Proc. 34th IEEE PVSC, Philadelphia, PA, June 8-12, 2009.

192. “Low Temperature Front Surface Passivation of Interdigitated Back Contact Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cell,” Brent Shu, Ujjwal Das, Omkar Jani, Steven Hegedus, and Robert Birkmire, Proc. 34th IEEE PVSC, Philadelphia, PA, June 8-12, 2009.

193. “Roll-to-Roll Deposition of a Semiconductor Film on a Flexible Substrate for Photovoltaics: Conception to Reality,” Gregory M. Hanket, Robert W. Birkmire, Scott C. Jackson and Richard E. Rocheleau, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 48, 5923-5933 (2009).

194. “Scaleup of Cu(InGa)Se2 Thin Film Coevaporative Physical Vapor Deposition Process, 1. Evaporation Source Model Development,” Kapil Mukati, Babatunde A. Ogunnaike, Erten Eser, Shannon Fields, and Robert W. Birkmire, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 48, 5975-5991 (2009).

195. “A New Photoelectrochemical Test Cell and Its Use for a Combined Two-electrode and Three-electrode Approach to Cell Testing,” Daniel V. Esposito, Ouloide Y. Goue, Kevin D. Dobson, Brian E. McCandless, Jingguang G. Chen, and Robert W. Birkmire, Review of Scientific Instruments 80, 125107 (2009).

196. “A Comparative Study of Tungsten Monocarbide and Platinum as Counterelectrodes in Polysulfide-Based Photoelectrochemical Solar Cells,” D.V. Esposito, K.D. Dobson, B.E.

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McCandless, R.W. Birkmire and J.G. Chen, J. Electrochem. Soc. 156, B962-B969 (2009).

197. “Cu(In,Ga)Se2 Film Formation From Selenization of Mixed Metal/Metal-selenide Precursors,” Rui Kamada, William N. Shafarman and Robert W. Birkmire, Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 94, 451 (2010).

198. “Commercial-Scale Sources for the Evaporation of Elemental Cu, Ga, and In: Modeling, Design and Validation,” Gregory M. Hanket, Robert W. Birkmire, Shannon Fields, and Erten Eser, Proc. 35th IEEE PVSC, Waikiki, Hawaii, June 21-25, 2010.

199. “Investigation of Hetero-interface and Junction Properties in Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cells,” Ujjwal Das Steven Hegedus, Lulu Zhang, Jesse Appel, Jim Rand, and Robert Birkmire, Proc. 35th IEEE PVSC, Waikiki, Hawaii, June 21-25, 2010.

200. “Effect of Junction Interface Modification of Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cells,” Jesse Appel, Lulu Zhang, Ujjwal Das, Steven Hegedus, Swapna Mudigonda, Robert Birkmire, Jim Rand, Proc. 35th IEEE PVSC, Waikiki, Hawaii, June 21-25, 2010.

201. “Optimization of Interdigitated Back Contact Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cells: Tailoring Hetero-interface band Structures While Maintaining Surface Passivation,” Meijun Lu, Ujjwal Das, Stuart Bowden, Steven Hegedus and Robert Birkmire, Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. DOI: 10.1002/pip. 1032 (2010).

202. “Aluminum-induced crystallization of amorphous silicon films deposited by hot wire chemical vapor deposition on glass substrates,” Ozgenc Ebil, Roger Aparicio, Robert Birkmire, Thin Solid Films 510, 178 (2010).

203. “Thin-Film Solar Cells and Modules,” Robert W. Birkmire, Solar Cells and Their Applications, Second Edition book (Wiley Series in Microwave and Optical Engineering), Chapter 6, 137-157 (2010).

204. “Low-Cost Hydrogen-Evolution Catalysts Based on Monolayer Platinum on Tungsten Monocarbide Substrates,” Daniel Esposito, Sean T. Hunt, Alan L. Stottlemyer, Kevin Dobson, Brian McCandless, Robert Birkmire, Jingguang Chen, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 49, 9859-9862 (2010).

205. “CdTe thin film technology: Leading thin film PV into the future,” Robert Birkmire, Brian McCandless, Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science 14, 139-142 (2010).

206. “Hydrogen production from photo-driven electrolysis of biomass-derived oxygenates: A case study on methanol using Pt-modified WO3 thin film electrodes,” Daniel V. Esposito, Jingguang G. Chen, Robert W. Birkmire, Yuancheng Chang, Nicolas Gaillard, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 36, 9632-9644 (2011).

207. “Improved FF in p-Si heterojunction solar cells due to optimized ITO/emitter contact,” Zeynep Eygi, Ujjwal Das, Steven Hegedus, Robert Birkmire, Proc. 37th IEEE PVSC, Seattle WA, June 2011.

208. “Surface characterization of (AgCu)(InGa)Se2 thin films for solar cells,” Hamed Simchi, Brian McCandless, William Shafarman, Kihwan Kim, Jonathan Boyle and Robert Birkmire, Proc. 37th IEEE PVSC, Seattle WA, June 2011.

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209. “Cu-In-Ga metal precursors sputter deposited from a single ternary target for Cu(InGa)(SeS)2 film formation,” Trang Huynh, Wayne Buchanan, Kihwan Kim, Brian McCandless, William Shafarman and Robert Birkmire, Proc. 37th IEEE PVSC, Seattle WA, June 2011.

210. “Impact of back surface patterning process on FF in IBC-SHJ solar cell,” Lulu Zhang, Brent Shu, Robert Birkmire, Steven Hegedus and Ujjwal Das, Proc. 38th IEEE PVSC, Austin TX, June 2012.

211. “Design of anti-reflection coating for surface textured interdigitated back contact silicon hetero-junction solar cell,” Brent Shu, Ujjwal Dad, Lei Chen, Lulu Zhang, Steven Hegedus and Robert Birkmire, Proc. 38th IEEE PVSC, Austin TX, June 2012.

212. “Characterization and modeling of low temperature surface passivation for interdigitated back contact silicon hetero-junction solar cell,” Brent Shu, Ujjwal Das, Steven Hegedus and Robert Birkmire, Proc. 38th IEEE PVSC, Austin TX, June 2012.

213. “Effect of annealing atmosphere and temperature on the properties of Cd2SnO4 thin films,” T.J. Meng, B.E. McCandless, W.A. Buchanan and R.W. Birkmire, Proc. 38th IEEE PVSC, Austin TX, June 2012.

214. “Photoelectrochemical reforming of glucose for hydrogen production using a WO3-based tandem cell device,” Daniel V. Esposito, Robert V. Forest, Yuancheng Chang, Nicolas Gaillard, Brian E. McCandless, Shuyu Hou, Kelvin H. Lee, Robert W. Birkmire, Jingguang G. Chen, Energy Environ. Sci., 5, 9091-9099 (2012).

215. “Effect of surface carbon on the hydrogen evolution reactivity of tungsten carbide (WC) and Pt-modified WC electrocatalysts,” Yannick C. Kimmel, Daniel V. Esposito, Robert W. Birkmire, Jingguang G. Chen, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, in-press (2012).