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Thisebookeditionpublishedin2012by
BirlinnLimitedWestNewingtonHouse
NewingtonRoadEdinburghEH91QS
www.birlinn.co.uk
Firstpublishedin2006byBirlinnLimited
Copyright©ColmMcNamee2006
ThemoralrightofColmMcNameetobeidentifiedastheauthorofthisworkhasbeen
assertedbyhiminaccordancewiththeCopyright,DesignsandPatents
Act1988
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedortransmittedinanyform
withouttheexpresswrittenpermissionofthepublisher.
ebookISBN:978-0-85790-496-6ISBN:978-1-84158-475-1
BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
StoriesareenjoyableEveniftheyareonlyfablesSostoriesthataretrueIftoldentertaininglyGivedoublepleasureinthehearing.JohnBarbour,TheBruce,c.
1375
Contents
ListofPlatesListofMapsPrefacePrefacetothe2011ReprintAcknowledgementsListofAbbreviationsChronology
Introduction:Brushingoffthecobwebs
1Amanofhistime,amanofhisplace2Aninheritance,agrandfather’sambitionanda‘coveytous’king(1286–96)3ResistanceandsurvivalinoccupiedScotland(1296–1306)4‘Playingatkingsandqueens’(1306)
5‘ThroughtheMountainsandfromIsletoIsle’(1306–07)6Recoveringthekingdom(1307–11)7TheroadtoBannockburn(1311–14)8Triumphsanddisasters(1314–18)9Thestruggleforpeacewithhonour(1318–23)10Robert,KingofScots11EndgamewithEngland,
anddeath(1323–29)12Theimage,thelegendandthelongshadowofRobertBruce
Genealogicaltables1.AncestryandchildrenofRobertBruce…2.SiblingsofRobertBruce…3.ThesuccessiontotheScottishthrone4.TheComynsofBadenoch5.TheComynearlsof
Buchan6.PossibleMcDonaldfamilytree7.McDougallfamilytree
NotesonsourcesFurtherreadingBibliographyNotesandreferencesIndex
ListofPlates
1.RobertBruceandElizabethdeBurghfromtheSetonArmorial,15912.ThreearmonialdevicesassociatedwiththeBruces3.TheinterioroftheBannatyneMazer4.LochmabenCastle,
Annandale5.EdwardImakeshissonEdwardthePrinceofWales6.Sixteenth-centuryreconstructionofanEdwardian7.KingJohnofScotlandandhiswifeIsabelladeWarenne8.EdwardI’sarmyslaughterstheinhabitantsofBerwick,12969.StoneofDestiny,Jacob’sPillowortheTanistStone
10.TheCoronationofEdwardII11.DunstaffnageCastle,thechiefstrongholdoftheMacDougalls12.CoinshowingtheheadofRobertI13.EquestrianstatueofRobertBruceatBannockburn14.TheMonymuskReliquary15.TheDeclarationofArbroath,April132016.Brassmarkingthetomb
ofRobertBruce17.TheleadcontainerthatholdsRobertBruce’sheart18.ThecarveddevicedatMelroseAbbeyovertheplacewherehisheartisburied19.StatueofRobertBruceatStirlingCastle20.CastoftheskullofRobertBruce21.ReconstructionofRobertBruce’shead,basedonthecastoftheskull
1.RobertBruceandElisabethdeBurghfromtheSetonArmorial,
1591.InApril2006,apollof1,000
respondentswastakenbyStirlingUniversitytodiscoverwhois
consideredtobethegreatestScotofalltime.WilliamWallacecamefirstwith36%ofthevote,RobertBurnsnextwith16%andRoberttheBrucethirdwith12%.SevenhundredyearsafterhisseizureofthethroneofScotland,Robert
retainsanattractionandrelevanceformostScots.(FromtheSetonArmorial©Trusteesofthe
NationalLibraryofScotland)
2.ThesethreearmorialdeviceswereassociatedwiththeBruces.Thefirst,thebluelion(argentalionrampantazure),werethe
originalarmsoftheBrucesinthetwelfthcentury;thesecondshows
thearmsoftheLordshipofAnnandale(or,asaltireandchiefgules).ThethirdshieldshowsthearmsoftheearldomofCarrick(argentachevrongules).
(CourtesyofJeanMunroandDonPottinger)
3.TheinterioroftheBannatyneMazer.Thiswoodendrinkingbowlwasmeanttobepassedaroundthecompanyatafeast,andmayhavebelongedtoWaltertheSteward.Itillustratesthecloserelationship
betweenthelordandhis‘menie’,hisaffinityorretinue.Thebossinsidethecupshowsacrouchinglionencircledbythesixheraldicshieldsofhisvassals.(©TrusteesoftheNationalMuseumsof
Scotland)
TheBrucesmovedthecaputorheadoftheirlordshipfromAnnantoLochmabensometimearound1200.ThestonecastlewasbuiltbyRobertBruceV,RoberttheNoble.HoweveroncapturingtheBruceCastlein1298EdwardIdecidedtodismantleitand,usingthestonesfromtheoriginalbuilding,builtthe
castleillustratednearby.(©TrusteesoftheNationalLibraryof
Scotland)
5.EdwardImakeshissonEdwardthePrinceofWales.EdwardI’shighexpectationsofhissonweredisappointed.Animportantfactor
inRobert’ssuccesswasthedifference,muchremarkedupon
bycontemporaries,inthepersonalitiesandcapabilitiesof
thesesuccessiveEnglishmonarchs.(BLCottonNeroDII,f.191v,©
BritishLibrary)
6.SixteenthcenturyreconstructionofanEdwardianparliamentbySir
ThomasWriothesley.TheillustrationshowstheEnglishkingflankedbyAlexanderKingof
ScotlandandLlywelynPrinceofWales.Itisfantasy,sincetherewasnosuchmeeting;yetasan
expressionofEdward’sambitions,itmaynotbetoowideofthemark.(WriotheslyMS,quireBTheRoyalCollection©HMQueenElizabeth
II)
wifeIsabelladeWarenne.JohnabdicatedaskingofScotlandbyadeedof10July1296,andwas
ceremoniallyunkingedbyEdwardI.ThearmsofScotlandwererippedfromhissurcoat.
Henceforthheborethenickname‘ToomTabard’,‘theemptysurcoat’.(FromtheSeton
Armorial,1591©TrusteesoftheNationalLibraryofScotland)
8.EdwardI’sarmyslaughterstheinhabitantsofBerwick,1296.TheLanercostChroniclerecordsthe
slaughterofthetownsfolk.Corpseswerethrownintotheseaorburied
inmassgraves.(MSSNo.ADD.47682Folio40©British
Library)
9.StoneofDestiny,Jacob’sPillowortheTanistStone.ThereisnodoubtthatEdwardIremovedthegenuineStoneofDestinyfromSconeAbbey.HepaidWalterofDurham,hispainter,tomakeawoodenthronetocontainit,andthiswascompletedby1300.Robertwasenthronedinthe
absenceoftheStone,butassoonashehadanheirin1324heaskedforitsreturn,andrenewedhis
requestin1328.OnthatoccasionhowevertheAbbotofWestminsterortheLondonmobpreventeditsremoval.In1950itwasremoved
bynationaliststudentstoArbroathAbbey,butreturnedto
Westminsterbytheauthorities.OnStAndrew’sDay30November1996,itwasofficiallyrestoredtoScotland,whereitiskeptwiththe
ScottishcrownjewelsinEdinburghCastle.(©Marianne
Majerus)
10.TheCoronationofEdwardII.EnglishandFrenchkingswere
crowned,anointedandenthroned,withsceptreandorbasthis
manuscriptilluminationshows.Priorto1329,however,ScottishandIrishkingswereenthronedbutlackedtheriteofcoronation.ThewinningofritesofcoronationandunctionforScottishkingswasamajordiplomatictriumphfor
Robert.(©CorpusChristiCollege,Cambridge)
11.DunstaffnageCastle,thechiefstrongholdoftheMacDougalls.
AlexanderMacDougallandhissonJohnofArgyllwereRobert
Bruce’sbitterestopponents.TheirstrongholdwaseventuallyreducedbytheBrucesin1309,buttheMacDougallscontinuedtheir
oppositionfromIrelandandMan.
publicdemonstrationofroyalpower.RoberthoweverwasunabletominthisowncoinsuntilhiscaptureoftheBerwickmintin
1318.Consequentlycoinsbearinghisimagearerare.Pennies,
halfpenniesandfarthingsweremintedinRobert’sname.
(Courtesyofwww.londoncoins.com)
theherokingstandsonthesiteofabattlewhichwasapivotaleventintheWarofIndependence.Atastroke,Robertgainedthree
importantcastlesandavarietyofEnglishprisoners,valuableforransomsandexchangeforfamily
membersheldcaptive.(©MarianneMajerus)
14.TheMonymuskReliquary.EdwardI’slootingofthesacredtalismansofScotlandoverlookedtheBreccbennach,alittlesilverreliquary,whichcontainedabonerelicofStColmcilleandwasbelievedtotransmitpotencyin
battle.Thenametranslatesas‘thespeckledandpeakedone’,anapt
descriptionofthepuncheddecorationinitssilverpanels.ItwaspresentatBannockburn.(©TrusteesoftheNationalMuseums
ofScotland)
15.TheDeclarationofArbroathApril1320.Writteninthepapalcursus(orapprovedmetre)and
employingphrasesborrowedfromclassicalauthorsaswellasmanyquotationsfromtheVulgate,thefamousletteroftheScottishlordstoPopeJohnXXIIwascarefullycraftedtopushalltherightbuttonsatthepapalchancery.(TheNationofScotsandtheDeclarationofArbroath,©NationalArchivesof
Scotland)
16.BrassmarkingthetombofRobertBruce.ThediscoveryandexhumationofRobert’sbodyinDunfermlinein1819mayhavebeensomewhatchallengingtotheauthorities.Afterall,ScotlandwasaprovinceoftheUnitedKingdomthathadbeensubduedonlywithinthepastcentury.Howeverthatmightbe,thediscoveryofthe
tombthrilledcontemporaries,asitappealedtofashionableinterestinromanticaspectsofchivalry.(©UniversityofStAndrews)
17.LeadcontainerthatholdsRobert’sheartandthecarved
deviceatMelroseAbbeyovertheplacewhereRobert’sheartis
buried.
18.TheheartofRobertBruce,famouslyborneintobattlebySir
JamesDouglas,wastwiceexhumedfromitsrestingplaceinMelroseAbbey.In1921itwas
discoveredbyarchaeologists,whofoundanembalmedheartina
leadencone-shapedcasket.Theysealeditinaleadcontainerand
reburiedit.It1996itwasdiscoveredagainandreburiedon
24June1998.(©HistoricScotland)
19.StatueofRobertatStirlingCastle.ThisstatueofRobertBrucestaresacrossthevalleyoftheRiver
ForthattheNationalWallaceMonument.However,atatimeofpeacefulUnionwithEnglandathomeandrapidexpansionoftheBritishEmpireabroad,WilliamWallace’suncomplicatedmartialvirtuefittedthenationalmoodmoreeasilythanRobert’s
achievementofScottishnationalindependence.(©Historic
Scotland)
Bruce.AplasterofpariscastwastakenofRobert’sskullduringtheexhumationof1819,andmany
copiesofthisexist.Thecastistheprincipalevidenceinthedebateoverwhetherthekingdiedof
leprosyorsomeothercondition.(CourtesyoftheScottishNational
PortraitGallery)
21.ReconstructionofRobert’shead,basedonthecastofthe
skull.Thisreconstructionwasmadein1996byBrianHillofNewcastleDentalHospitalapplyingstandardsofttissuedepthmeasurementstothecastoftheskull.AthisdeathhoweverRobertislikelytohavebeenbadlyscarredfromhiswar
wounds,whichincluded:afractureoftheleftcheekbone,asevereinjuryonthetopoftheskullandfractureofzygomaticarch,ontheleftsideofthehead.(CourtesyoftheScottishNationalPortrait
Gallery)
ListofMaps
1.ThekingdomofScotlandin12862.Possessions,claimsandplacesassociatedwithBruceofAnnandale,12863.TheWarofIndependenceto13064.Edwardianinvasionsof
Scotland,1298–13045.RobertBruceseizesthethrone,13066.SurvivalinCarrickandGalloway,13077.TherecoveryofScotland,1307–148.ScottishraidsintoEngland,1307–149.BannockburnI,23Jun131410.BannockburnII,24Jun1314
11.ScottishraidsintoEngland,1314–1612.TheBrucesinIreland,1315–1813.ScottishraidsintoEngland,1318and131914.ScottishraidsintoEngland,132215.Thefinalvoyages,1327and132816.Thelastcampaigns,1327
Preface
Thisbookisintendedasaworkofpopularhistory;adistillationofsecondarysources,providingareliableand–onehopes–entertainingbiographyforgeneralreaders.TheoriginalideaforsuchabookwasJohnTuckwell’s,andIamgrateful
tohimforaskingmetowriteit.Itisimportanttomethatpeoplewhoreadthisbookenjoyit,andIhavetriedtoputintothewritingsomeoftheenthusiasmIfeelforthesubject.Ilovethisstory,ofaherowhosehumanitycomesacrosssostrongly;ofageniuswhomadesometerribleerrors,butwhowasvindicated;ofburningambitionrealised,butataterriblecost.
Inthisseven-hundredthanniversaryyearitisimportanttocommemorateonewhohadaprofoundimpactupondevelopmentsrightacrosstheseislands;onewho,fromwhatevermixtureofmotives,hasinspiredgenerationstostanduptoinsult,tyrannyandaggression.Asthebookisintendedfor
thegeneralreader,ratherthanthescholar,Ihavechosennot
topepperthetextwithreferences.Rather,notesdetailingsourcesandacknowledgingtheinsightsofotherauthorshavebeenprovidedonachapterbychapterbasisintheendmatter.Ihavealsoforsakenstrictlyaccuraterenderingofpropernamesfortheirpopularequivalents.
Belfast,August2006
Prefacetothe2011Edition
Fortechnicalreasons,Iamunabletoalterthemaintextofthebook,butHughAndrewatBirlinnhaskindlyofferedmethechancetoaddaprefacetothisreprintsothatIcanappendsomeof
whatInowknow.Icannotattemptathoroughupdateofthebookinafewpagesfortoomuchsubsequentresearchhadbeenpublished,butImustcorrectwhatInowknowtobeerrors.IwilldealwiththesepointsintheorderinwhichtheyrelatetoRobertBruce’scareer.Ihopetochangethetextitselfatthefirstavailableopportunity.RuthM.Blakely,inher
bookTheBrusFamilyin
EnglandandScotland1100–1295(BoydellPress,2005),p.75pointsoutthatthedeathoftheScottishqueen,Joan,in1238wouldhavethrownintohighreliefRoberttheNoble’spositionastheking’sclosestmalerelativeandmaythereforehavehadabearingontheoriginoftheBruceclaimtotheScottishthrone,describedonpage36ofthisbook.SinceIcompletedthis
book,AlexanderGrantpublishedanarticleentitled‘TheDeathofJohnComyn:WhatWasGoingOn?’intheScottishHistoricalReviewvol.LXXXVI,2:no.222October2007,176–224,whichreconsidersatlengththefatalmeetingbetweenRobertBruceandJohnComyninDumfriesinFebruary1306.Itlooksatthechronicletraditionsrelatingtotheincidentandincludesa
fulldiscussionastowhetherthekillingmighthavebeenpremeditated.Wewillneverknowwhatexactlytookplace;however,ifIwerewritingthebooknow,IwouldpaycloseattentiontoGrant’strainofthought.Onp.129ofthisbook,I
statethatthereisnorecordthatAymerdeValence’sforceof30horseencounteredBruce’sforceatGlenTroolinApril1307.Whenwriting,I
suspectedthattheencounterdescribedbyProfessorDuncaninTheBrucepp.284–88,properlybelongedtoJune1307.However,nowIthinkthatthereweretwoseparateactions.AsDuncanwritesinhisnoteonp.288ofTheBruce,BarbourappearstodescribeapreliminaryprobeintoGlenTroolinApril,duringwhichValencewasambushedbyRobert’smen.Iwouldnowrestorethat
ambushofApril1307toitsproperplaceinthenarrative,andstressthatthatfirstvictoryofRobert’sboostedthemoraleofhisisolatedbandofwarriors.Thesubsequentactionin
thevicinityofGlenTrooltookplaceinthemiddleofJune1307andisdescribedonp.134ofthisbook.Irefertoahorselist,calendaredinCDSVno.490whichshowsthat23warhorseswerekilled
inanactionthattookplacebetweenGlenTroolandaplacerenderedas‘Glenheur’.Thehorselistshowsthat23horseswerekilled,not‘men-at-arms’,asIhavewritten.Atthetime,Iacceptedthat‘Glenheur’referredtothevalleyoftheUrrWater;butProfessorBarrowdisputesthatidentification.HepointsoutthattheUrrWaterdoesnotformaglenandthatitismostunlikelythatRobert
BrucewouldhavefledinthedirectionofCarlisle.HeidentifiestheplaceastheBargalyGlenofthePalnureBurnanddiscussesthisinthefourtheditionofhisRobertBruceatp.467note31.Barrowsuggeststhat,sincesomanyhorsesbelongingtotheEnglishandtheAnglo-Scotswerekilled,RobertBruceismostlikelytohavebeenvictoriousand,therefore,thepursuer.IfindBarrow’s
interpretationconvincing.Icannotleavethesubject
ofGlenTroolwithoutacknowledgingthatIwasmostkindlyentertainedbyRichardandJudyCassandtheirfriendsinApril2007attheirhouseknownasTheBuchan,nearthesiteofthebattleontheweekendofits700thanniversary.ProfessorDuncandrewmy
attentiontoanarticlebyDavidHCaldwell,‘The
MonymuskReliquary:theBreccbennachofStColumba?’inProceedingsoftheSocietyofAntiquariesofScotland,131(2001),267–82,whichdemonstratesthattheMonymuskreliquaryisunlikelytohavebeentheBrecbennachofStColmcille,asIhavewrittenatpp.181–2andplate14ofthisbook.CaldwellconsidersthattheBreccbennachmaywellhavebeenabanner,ratherthana
reliquary,and,thoughhedoesnotdoubtthatitsawserviceonseveraloccasionswiththeScottisharmy,hepointsoutthatitspresenceinbattleisnotdirectlyalludedtoinanycontemporarysource.TheBreccbennachmaywellhavebeenpresentatBannockburnandAbbotBernardofArbroathalmostcertainlywasthere,buttheBreccbennachisprobablynotthereliquaryandmytext
needstobeamendedaccordingly.ThelinkbetweenRobert
BruceandtheBannatyneMazer,referredtoatplate3ofthisbook,isdisputed.ProfessorBarrowdrewtomyattentionhisarticleinMedievalArtandArchitectureintheDioceseofGlasgow,ed.RichardFawcett(BritishArchaeologicalAssociationConferenceTransactionsXXIII,1998),
122–27inwhichhearguesthatitwasmadetocelebratethemarriageofoneofthefitzGilbertfamily,LeoorGilbert,withtheyoungerdaughterandco-heiressofSirReginaldCrawford.ThemazerbecameanheirloominthefamilyofBannatyneofKames.Thetextatplate3shouldthereforebeamended.Robertdidnotdiean
excommunicate:onp.280,Istateerroneouslythathedid.
ThebullremovingthesentencewasissuedbythepopeinOctober1328anditarrivedinScotlandinJuly1329,CalendarofPapalLettersii,289.Robertdiedfullyvindicatedandjustifiedineveryrespect.SinceIcompletedthe
book,anumberofworkshavebeenpublishedthathaveasignificantbearingonthenarrativeofScottishhistoryinthistheheroicperiod.The
mainonesareasfollows:AmandaBeam’sTheBalliolDynasty,1210–1364(Birlinn,2008);SeymourPhillips’sbiographyEdwardII(YaleUniversityPress,2010);andtwostudiesofthebattleofBannockburn,DavidCornell,Bannockburn:TheTriumphofRoberttheBruce(YaleUniversityPress,2009)andMichaelBrown,Bannockburn:TheScottishWarandtheBritishIsles,
1307–1323(EdinburghUniversityPress2008).Alteringthetextofthisbooktotakeaccountoftheseandtheotherworkswillhavetoawaitanewedition.Withthesequalifications,I
amsatisfiedthatthetextstillrepresentsasoundpopularbiographyofagreatfigureinthehistoryofourislands.
ColmMcNameeBelfast,March2011
Acknowledgements
Itisapleasuretoacknowledgemygreatdebttolearnedacademichistorians.Hadthisbookbeen‘properly’referenced,therewouldhavebeenanendlessrepetitivereferencetotheworksofProfessorG.W.S.Barrow,andinparticulartohis
scholarlybiography,RobertBruceandtheCommunityoftheRealmofScotland(3rdedition,EdinburghUniversityPress,1988).ThefourtheditionisbeingpreparedasIwrite.ThisappliesequallytotheworksofProfessorA.A.M.Duncan,andinparticulartohiswonderfuleditionandtranslationofJohnBarbour’sTheBruce(Cannongate,1998).Toputpentopaperonthissubject
withoutconstantreferencetotheseworkswouldbetoproducefiction,nothistory.IammostgratefultoProfessorDuncanforpermissiontousehistranslationofBarbour’sTheBruce,andtoProfessorBarrowforpermissiontousehistranslationofdocumentscitedinRobertBruce,andtotherespectivepublishers.Therearemanyother
eminenthistoriansnowengagedinstudyingaspects
ofRobertI’slife:ProfessorRanaldNicholson,ProfessorSeánDuffyandProfessorMichaelPrestwich.Iwasfortunateenoughto
attendtheseven-hundredthanniversaryconferenceofhistoriansatStirlingUniversityinMarch2006,whereIlistenedtoandlearntfromallofthespeakers.Iwasinspiredandenthused.ImustmentioninparticularProfessorDuncan,Professor
AlexanderGrant,DrDavidCaldwell,DrMichaelPenmanandProfessorMichaelKaufman.Iamgratefultothemallforinspiration,stimulatingdiscussionsandmanyagoodread.MymapsofBannockburn
arebasedonthosedrawnbyJeanMunroandDonPottingerin1974,thoughIhavechangedaspectsoftheminlinewithrecentthinking.
IamverygratefultoHughAndrewatBirlinnforhisguidance,encouragementandunderstanding;toallatBirlinn,especiallyAndrewSimmonsandLauraEsslemont;andtoAlineHillwhomadeanumberofhelpfulcriticismsandsuggestionsandeditedthemanuscript.Iamalsogratefultothefollowingpeoplewhoassistedatvariousstagesinthewritingofthisbook:
ProfessorGrahamWalkermadeimportantbooksavailabletome;ProfessorChristopherWhatelygaveadviceonpost-medievalaspectsofthesubject;PhilipWinterbottom,DeputyGroupArchivistattheRoyalBankofScotlandgaveadviceoncoinage.IamalsoveryindebtedtothestaffatthevariouslibrarieswhichIused:theMainLibraryatQueensUniversity,theUnion
TheologicalCollegeandtheNorthernIrelandAssemblyLibrary.Thankstootomyfriendsandcolleagues:CrawfordMcIlveenandNikiMcKeownwhoproof-readformewhentimebecameshort;CarolynFullertonandJohnFisherwhoassistedinotherways.IamgratefulalsotoGerryMcNameeforhelpwithatranslationofanawkwardpassage.Finally,thanks,asever,to
myeffervescentsonJohnwhoshowedsomepatiencewhileIwrote,tomyfriendRonanforentertainingJohnwhenhispatiencegaveoutandtothewonderfulDorothyandtheremarkableKathleenforlivingwithmeandRobertBruceformostofourlives.IamsorryifIhave
forgottenanyone.
ListofAbbreviations
CCR CalendarofCloseRolls
CDS
CalendarofDocumentsRelatingtoScotlandCalendarofPatent
Chronology
1274 BirthofRobertBruce
1286
DeathofAlexanderIII,KingofScotsTheTurnberryBand,agatheringofthe
Brucefaction
1290
TreatyofBirghamDeathofMargaret,MaidofNorway,andheiresstotheScottishthrone
1291–92
TheGreatCause,atribunalpresidedoverbyEdwardIof
EnglandtodecidewhoshouldsucceedAlexander
1292
GreatCauseconcludes,decidingforBalliolandagainstBruceEnthronementofJohnBalliolasKingofScotsRobertbecomes
EarlofCarrick
1295
DeathofRobertBruceV(Robert’sgrandfather)TreatybetweenFranceandScotland
1296
WarbetweenScotlandandEnglandFirstinvasionofScotlandby
EdwardIScotsdefeatedatDunbar;KingJohndeposedRobertsideswithrebellionofWilliamWallaceRobert,theStewardandBishopWishartofGlasgowsurrenderat
1297 IrvineWallaceandAndrewMoraydefeattheEnglishatBattleofStirlingWallaceinvadesNorthumberlandandCumberlandSecondinvasionofScotlandbyEdwardI
1298
EdwardIdefeatsWallaceatBattleofFalkirkRobertandJohnComynappointedjointguardiansofScotland
1299 ScotstakeStirlingCastleRobertresignsorisexpelledas
1300 guardianThirdinvasionofScotlandbyEdwardI
1301 FourthinvasionofScotlandbyEdwardI
1302
RobertsubmitstoEdwardIEdwardIrewardshimwithhandinmarriageof
ElisabethdeBurgh.
1303
FifthinvasionofScotlandbyEdwardIJohnComyndefeatsEnglishatRoslinDeathofRobertBruceVI(Robert’sfather)Agreement
1304 betweenRobertandBishopLambertonPossiblyanagreementbetweenRobertandJohnComyn
1305 WallacecapturedandexecutedRobertkills,orwitnesses
1306
killingof,JohnComynRobertenthronedatSconeasRobertI,KingofScotsRobertdefeatedatMethven,StrathtayandDalryNigelBrucecapturedandkilledRobertfleesto
Rathlinand/orIslay,andthencetoWesternIslesRobertreturnstomainlandScotlandRobert’sbrothersThomasandAlexanderreturn,andaredefeatedand
1307
executedRobert‘ontherun’inGallowayDeathofEdwardIRobertdefeatsEnglishatGlenTrool,LoudonHillEdwardIIinvadesScotlandRobertand
DouglasbegintomountminorraidsonnorthernEnglandRobertdefeatsJohnComyn,EarlofBuchanandJohnMowbrayatOldMeldrum(traditionally‘theBattleof
1308
Inverurie’)RobertdestroysBuchanandcapturesAberdeenBattleofBenCruachan(traditionally‘theBattleofBranderPass’)Robert’sbrotherEdwarddestroysGalloway
1309
StAndrewsParliamentDeclarationoftheClergy
1310
EdwardIIinvadesScotland.RobertwithdrawstothenorthEdwardIIreturnstoEngland
1311 RobertraidsnorthernEngland,andextractstribute
1312
RobertraidsnorthernEngland,andextractstributeRoberttakesDundee,PerthandDumfriesRobertthreatenstoinvade
1313 northernEnglandandisboughtoffRobertcapturestheIsleofMan;attacksUlsterandextractsfoodstuffsScotstakeRoxburghandEdinburghcastlesBattleof
1314 Bannockburn:RobertdefeatsEdwardIIScotstakeStirling,BothwellandDunbarcastlesJohnofArgyllretakesIsleofManfortheEnglishRobertattacksArgyll;Edward
1315
BruceinvadesIrelandRobertbesiegesCarlisle;EdwardBrucebesiegesCarrickfergusFlandersrevoltsagainstFrance:FlemingsopenlyassistScottishprivateersontheNorthSea
EdwarddefeatsearlofUlsteratBattleofConnorEdwardenthronedasKingofIreland?EdwardBrucecampaignsinIrelandMorayandDouglasinvadeEngland
1316 PeacebetweenFlandersandFrance:openco-operationbetweenFlemingsandScotsontheNorthSeaceasesRobertandEdwardBrucecampaigninIreland
1317 MorayrecapturesIsleofManfortheScotsRobberyoftheCardinalsinNorthumberlandPopetriestoimposeatruce
1318
RoberttakesBerwickEdwardBrucediesatBattleof
FaughartMorayandDouglasinvadeEngland
1319
EdwardIIinvadesScotlandSiegeofBerwickMorayandDouglasinvadeEnglandasadiversion
BattleofMytonDestructionofWesternMarchbyMorayandDouglas
1320
Two-YearTrucewithEnglandDeclarationofArbroathsenttopopeSoulesconspiracy
againstRobertBlackParliament,trialofconspirators
1322
TruceexpiresRobert,MorayandDouglasdestroyDurham,WesternMarchEdwardIIinvadesScotland
RobertinvadesEngland,defeatsearlofRichmondatBattleofBylandsandputsEdwardIItoflight
1323
AgreementbetweenRobertandAndrewHarclayTruceof
Bishopsthorpe:athirteen-yeartrucewithEngland
1324
PapalrecognitionofRobert’skingshipBirthofDavid,heirtothroneofScotland
1326
TreatyofCorbeilbetween
ScotlandandFranceOverthrowofEdwardIIbyIsabellaandMortimer,inthenameofEdwardIIIMorayandDouglasraidDurham;encounteratStanhopePark
1327 RobertinnorthernIreland;makesapproachestogovernmentofIreland?Roberttakenill;returnstoScotlandRobertthreatenstoannexNorthumberlandTreatyof
1328
Edinburgh–Northampton(the‘ShamefulPeace’)betweenScotlandandEnglandMarriageofDavidBruceandJoan,sisterofEdwardIIIRoberttakenillagain?InstallsWilliamdeBurghasearl
ofUlster
1329
Robert’sfinalpilgrimagetoWhithornAbbeyDeath
1330
DouglastakesRobert’sheartoncrusadetoSpainDeathofDouglasinSpainRobert’sheart
buriedatMelrose
1819
DiscoveryoftombExhumationofRobert’sbones
1921 DiscoveryandexhumationofRobert’sheart
1996
RediscoveryandexhumationofRobert’sheart
Introduction
Brushingoffthecobwebs
OnWednesday10February1306agroupofperhapshalfadozenmenstoodaboutinGreyfriarsChurchyardatDumfries,cloakswrappedaboutthem,stampingtheirfeetagainstthebitterwind.
Outofthewintergloomtwohorsemenrodeup.Formalgreetingswereexchangedasthehorsesclatteredacrossthecobblesandtheridersdismounted,theforcedfriendlinessbetrayingahintoftension.Allpresentbore‘casual’weaponry.Tobreaktheicetheleaderofthewaitinggroupstrodetowardsthenewcomers,handoutstretched,andgreetedtheyoungerofthemwith
handshakeandkissonthecheek.Settinganexampleforhismen,RobertBruce,the32-year-oldearlofCarrickandlordofAnnandale,putanarmroundJohnComynandtogethertheyledthewayintothekirk,stoopingtoenterthelowdoorwayandcrossingthemselves.ComynhadriddenthesixmilesfromhiscastleatDalswintonescortedbyhisuncleSirRobertComyn.RobertBrucewas
accompaniedbyhisbrother-in-lawChristopherSetonandothersunnamed.Buttheprincipalsmaintainedtheirdistancefromtheirassociatesbywalkinguptheaisletothealtar.Intheconfidentialdarknessofthechapel,Bruce’schatswitchedtoearnestsolicitation.Theoldkingwasdying…togethertheyhadtheresources…itwasnowornever.Comynhadhearditallbeforeand
waswearyoflisteningtoBruce’sscheme:BruceknewthathecouldneverassenttoenthronementofanyoneelseasKingofScotswhilehisunclebymarriage,KingJohnBalliol,livedinexile.CarelesslyComynletslipsomebanter,somecoarseflippancy–andinstantlyregrettedit.BythecandlelightheregisteredBruce’sface,suddenlyincandescentwithrage.
Comynexcusedhimself,apologisedeven,buttoolate.BrucebeganshoutingthatComynhaddamagedhisstandingatcourt,thathehadbetrayedhimtotheEnglishking.Comyncounteredwithbitteraccusationsofhisown,butBruceroaredthatComynwasaliarandsuddenlylashedoutwithakickthatbroughthimtotheground.SirRobertComynrushedtohisnephew’sassistancebut
foundhiswayblockedbySeton,whounsheathedhisswordandstruckhimonthehead.SucharagehadstokedupinhimthatBruceentirelyforgothimselfanddrewhisownsword,heedlessofthesanctityofhissurroundings.HebroughtaclumsyblowdownontheprostrateComyn.Turninghisbackonthewoundedman,asthoughindisgust,Brucewalkedoutintothefadingdaylight,
leavinghismentofinishofftheComyns.Hismenfollowedhimout,andstoodaboutforseveralminutes,respectingtheirchief’ssilence.Brucestruggledtotakeinthedrasticimplicationsofwhathadjusthappened,andwishedhecouldrelivethoselastfewminutes.But,realisingthattherecouldbenogoingback,noexplanationsforwhathadhappened,noexcuses,he
announcedtohismenhisintentiontoseizethekingshipofScotland.Withthisimpulsiveactof
murder,treacheryandsacrilegeRobertBrucelaunchedhisbidforthethroneofScotland,acoursefraughtwithdanger,thatwouldcosthimdearinthelivesoflovedones,andpersonalinjury,yetwouldsafeguardtheScottishidentity,thenindangerof
extinction,andcarryhimintolegendasRobertIofScotland,ahero-kingunsurpassedinthehistoryoftheseislands.Fewhavelivedasfully,adventurouslyandheroically;indeed,Bruce’srollercoastercareerpromptssearchingquestions.HowtruearethetalestoldofRobertBruce?Howmuchcanonemancramintoalife?Howmanytimes,andinhowmanywayscanamanbea
hero?ForRobertBrucewasatonceavaliantknightandagreatlord,acleverpolitician,amurderer,oratleastanaccomplicetomurder,afugitive,aninspirationalcharismaticguerrillachief,amilitarygenius,awisestatesman,aself-declaredheroandfinally,intheeyesofScotsthroughtheages,thesaviourofanation.Tricks,rusesandhair-raisingescapes;highpolitics,grim
siegesandbloodybattles;assassinationplots;singlecombattothedeath,Bruceliveditall.Hollywoodcouldnotbegintoproducesuchascript!Evendebilitatingillnessattheendofhislife–wasitleprosy?–didnotpreventBrucewagingwarinIrelandandEnglandsimultaneously,whilebeingcarriedaboutonalitter.Hewasacolossusamongmen,andevennowScotlandlives
deepinhisshadow.Sevenhundredyearsago
RobertBruceseizedthekingshipofScotlandashisbirthrightand,defeatedinbattle,fledoverseas,preservinginhisownpersonthekingshipofScotlandfromextirpationbyEdwardIofEngland’sprecociousunitedkingdomoftheMiddleAges.Hemayhavesavedthe‘ideaofScotland’forfuturegenerations.Unusuallyfor
someonewholivedintheMiddleAges,weknowagreatdealaboutthisRobertBruce,andwhateverelsemaybeunclearaboutthisstill-controversialfigure,hewasaremarkableman.Theantithesisofanarmchairgeneralwhosendsothersintodangerswhichhedoesnothimselfshare,Bruceledfromthefront,riskingeverythinginpursuitofhisgoal.Hisskull,exhumedfivehundred
yearsafterhisdeath,stillbearsmarksoftheseriousheadinjurieshesustained.Undoubtedlyhedidterriblethings:hepresidedoverthebutcheringofatleastonegarrison;heinflictedadecadeofcruelwaronavirtuallydefencelesscivilianpopulationinnorthernEngland;andhewaspersonallyinvolvedinthemurderofJohnComyn,aswehaveseen.Heendured
deprivationandlostheavilyalongtheway:hisfourbrotherslosttheirlivesinhiscause;hissisterandhisputativeloverenduredyearsofhumiliationfortheirassociationwithhim.AndattheendofitallRobertdiedinhisbed,confidentthathehadsucceededinhisambitionsforhimself,hisfamilyandScotland,andhepassedintohistoryas‘theultimateheroanddefenderofScottish
nationhoodagainstEnglishimperialismwhileotherScottishpatriotsweremostunfairlyvilifiedbyhistorians’.Robert’slifehasalways
madecompellingreading,anditisentirelyappropriatethatheiscomparedbymedievalwriterstoOdysseusthefabledwanderer,AenaeasthelegendaryfounderofRomeandthebiblicalheroesJoshuatheIsraelitegeneral
andJudasMaccabeus,wholedtheJewishrevoltagainsttheSeleucidEmpire.Hisadventureswereamatchforanyofthem.HerevivedthekingshipofScotland,andliberatedherfromEnglishdomination;forcednorthernEnglandtopaytribute;and,aspiringtopan-Celticleadership,senthisbrothertoconquerIrelandandthreatenWales.InthehistoryoftheBritishIsles,RobertIstands
formorethanjustabriefScottishhegemony:herepresentsoneofhistory’sgreat‘Whatifs?’,analternativepathofdevelopment,analternativetoEnglishdominationnotjustforScotland,butforIrelandandWalesaswell.Evenasthingsturnedout,
historyhasbeenkindtoRobertBruce;tookind,perhaps,sincethemedievalpropagandistsforhisdynasty
havesuccessfullyairbrushedoverhisfaults.Yethehasnotalwaysbeenapopularfigure.Overthecenturieshispopularityhaswaxedand,inrecenttimes,waned.InhislifetimeRobertsparednoeffortstohaveposterityregardhiminthesamewayasheisportrayedbytheimageonhisownroyalseal:theverypersonificationofdivineorderintheworldandtheimpassivesymbolof
divinejustice.InthelaterMiddleAges,theBrucelegendofmiraculoussurvivalfromcatastrophetovindicateajustclaimprovidedforScotlandanecessarymythologyforresistanceandsurvivalduringherlife-or-deathstrugglewithherpowerfulsouthernneighbour.ThenthelegendlostitsimportanceaswarwithEnglandabated;andaftertheunionofEnglishandScottish
crownsin1707itpotentiallyhadthepowertoinspiresecessionandtreachery.InthelateGeorgianeratheBrucelegendwas‘rediscovered’intimetotakeadvantageofthegrowthoftourism,andBrucewaspackaged,alongwithtartan,kiltsandHighlandclans,formassmarketing.TheexhumationofBruce’sbonesin1819andsubsequentlySirWalterScott’srenditionof
hislifeinTalesofaGrandfatherdidmuchtoremindthenationofthedebtitowedtoitshero-king;butthatimagewasnotrefreshed,andinthetwentiethcenturyacquiredastuffyandshop-wornaspect,animagewithoutmysteryorhumanity,thatbelongedtoadistantandirrelevantpast.Morerecently,
understandingofRobertBrucehasbeenundermined
byboththeCelticrevival(whichspurnedBrucequiteunjustlyasforeign,Anglo-NormanandFrench-speaking)andbythereleasein1995oftheHollywoodblockbusterBraveheart.Thefilm’sunfavourablecomparisonofRobertBruce,theuntrustworthynoble,withthenationalistproletarianWilliamWallaceisnotbasedonfact.Bruceisportrayedinthefilmasslyandunreliable,
dishonestanddishonourable,atraitortothenationalcause.AnactionmovieisofcourseinappropriateforseriousexplanationofBruce’sbehaviour.RobertBrucechangedsidesrepeatedlyinthedecade1296to1306foravarietyofreasonstoocomplexforexpressioninfilm:becausehewishedandwasexpectedtodefendthedynasticandlegalinterestsofhisfamily;because,insofaras
therewasa‘nationalcause’,contemporariesperceiveditonlyasequaltoorexceededinimportancebyswornpersonalloyalties;becausehewasfacedwithachoicebetweenaforeignkingforwhomhehadnolove,andaScottishking(Robertsawhimasausurper)whowoulddestroyhim;andfinally,becausehispeersandrivalswereallactingindefenceoftheirownfamilyanddynastic
interests.Thispasthundredyearsorso,ScotlandhasnotembracedthememoryofRobertBrucewiththesamewarmthashitherto.Perhaps,truetoherCelticnature,Scotlandprefersherheroesinthetragicmould,andRoberthasbeentoosuccessfulforsympathy.Despitecenturiesof
popularmythandmisunderstanding,andcenturiesofpropaganda
generatedbothbytheBrucesthemselvesandbytheirenemies,recenthistoricalendeavourhasbrushedawaythesecobwebs.BypatientworkinarchivesandlibrariesProfessorsBarron,BarrowandDuncan(andmanyotherstoonumeroustomentionhere)haverevisedRobert’swholecareerandshednewlightuponthehistoricalfigure.Throughtheirwork,adullandsombreoilpainting
isdaringlyrestoredtorevealhiddencomplexitiesandcharacteristics.Sourcesarecrucialtoaccuratehistory,andithelpsone’sunderstandingtoknowalittleofthenatureofthesourcesthatunderpintheaccuratemodernaccounts.ForScotlandinthisperiodtherearenotthedetailedhouseholdrecordsthatexistforthecontemporaryEnglishkings,EdwardsI,IIandIII.Butwe
dohaveArchdeaconJohnBarbour’ssuperb‘romance’TheBruce.1Completedin1375orthefollowingyear,itisaversechronicleofRobert’slife–somethirteenthousandlinesofrhymingcoupletsinthemedievalScotstongue–startlinglyaccurateinmanydetailswhencheckedagainstadministrativesourcesanddevotedtothechivalrous
exploitsofthehero-king.Barbourisnotinterestedindates,administrativemattersorpolitics:hewritesofwar,concentratingonBruce’svalour,hismartialprowessand,occasionally,onhisotherchivalricvirtues–magnanimity,generosityandwisdom.Prominentinthestory(rathertothedetrimentofBruce’smainlieutenant,ThomasRandolph,EarlofMoray)areBruce’s
companionsSirJamesDouglas(‘GoodSirJames’)andWalter,thehereditaryStewardofScotland,founderoftheStewartdynasty.Barbourconcentratesontheseindividualswithgoodreason:BarbourwaswritingforWalter’sson,RobertIIofScotland,andheseemstohavepossessedaverseaccountofDouglas’schivalricdeeds.TheBruceisauniquerecordofalifeinthe
MiddleAges;nothingquitecomparableexistselsewhere.Othernarrativesources
alsothrowlightonthelifeofRobertBruce:theAnnalsofJohnofFordun,whichexistedindraftin1363,andtheScotichroniconofWalterBower,writteninthemidfifteenthcentury,whichdrewuponmaterialscollectedbyFordun.TheseandotherScottishauthorsofthelaterMiddleAgeswerekeento
presentBruceandhisoffspringasthelegitimateandGod-givenkingsofScotland,andduringtheirlifetimesthedynastywaslockedinintermittentwarwithEngland.Whiletheirworkscontainawealthofhistoricaldetail,theseauthorswerealsoBruce’sapologistsandpropagandists.ForFordun,BrucewasasaviouronaparwithChristhimself:
TheEnglishnationlordeditinallpartsofthekingdomofScotlandruthlesslyharryingtheScotsinsundryandmanifoldways…ButGodinHismercy,asisthewontofhisfatherlygoodness,hadcompassion…;soHeraisedupasaviourandchampionuntothem–oneoftheirownfellowstowit,namedRobertBruce.Theman…puttingforthhishanduntoforce,underwentthecountlessandunbearabletoilsoftheheatoftheday…forthesakeoffreeinghisbrethren.
Theseareheavilypartisanaccounts,writtenbysupportersoftheBrucemonarchy.Hereindeedishistorywrittenbythewinners,notallofitinaccurate,but,asinthisexcerptfromBower,heavilybiasedandeffusiveinpraiseofthehero-king:
whoeverhaslearnttorecount[Bruce’s]individualconflictsandparticulartriumphs–thevictories
andbattlesinwhichwiththehelpoftheLord,byhisownstrengthandhisenergeticvalourasaman,heforcedhiswaythroughtheranksoftheenemywithoutfear,nowpowerfullylayingthemlow,nowpowerfullyturningthemasideasheavoidedthepenaltyofdeath–hewillfind,Ithink,thathewilljudgenoneintheregionsoftheworldtobehisequalsinhisowntimesintheartoffightingandinphysicalstrength.
Evidenceofferedbythesepropagandistsinsupportof
BruceisbalancedbythatoftheEnglishnarrativesources,heavilybiasedagainsthim:theScalachronicaor‘LadderChronicle’writteninthemidfourteenthcenturybyaNorthumberlandknight,SirThomasGray;thenear-contemporaryLanercostchronicle,amorebalancedandinformativenarrativeoftheperiod,andtheothernear-contemporarychroniclewrittenbyWalterof
Guisborough,alongwithmanyothermonasticwriterswhocontributefromtheEnglishpointofview.Manx,IrishandFrenchcontemporaryauthorsalsohelpilluminateaspectsofBruce’sremarkablecareer.Alllendtheirparticularslanttothestory,andmosthaveanaxetogrindinthetelling,but,alongwithquantitiesofmisinformation,allbearaspectsofthatelusivequality,
historicaltruth.Administrativesources
carrylesspropaganda.NotmuchsurvivesfromtheScottishgovernment’sbureaucracy,exceptforinvaluableExchequerRollsforthelatterpartofRobert’sreign.TherearenorecordsofroyalorprivateestatesinScotlandfromthisperiod;administrativeevidencefromScotlandmostlytakestheformofchartersortitle-deeds
toland,whichtendtoberetainedinfamilies.Enormousstrideshavebeenmadeinscholarshiplately,andProfessorDuncanhaseditedandassembledtheextantdeedsofKingRobertI.Weareunlikelyevertohavetheking’scompleteacta–allhischarters,deedsandletters–butwedohaveamuchclearerpicturethaneverbefore.Bycontrast,theEnglishgovernmentofthe
periodproducedavastarchive,whichisstilllargelyintact.ResearchinthePublicRecordOfficecontinuestothrowupdocumentsilluminatingeventsinthosepartsofScotlandsubjecttoEnglishruleandtheEnglishking’swareffortagainstthe‘patriot’Scots.Rollsofparchment–theRotuliScotiaeorScotchRolls,thePatentRolls,CloseRolls,PipeRollsandMemoranda
Rollstonamebutafew–containthousandsofcopiesofindividualdocumentswithabearingonthesituationinScotlandandonthemanagementofawarwhichstretchedtheimpressiveEdwardianadministrativemachinetothelimitofitscapacity.ToavoidusingthecumbersomeWestminster-basedexchequer,the‘ThreeEdwards’usedaselecteddepartmentoftheroyal
household,theroyalwardrobe,asamobilewarfinanceoffice,dedicatedtothefundingoftheircampaigns.WardrobeBooks,oftenbeautifulintheircalligraphy,provideannualrecordsofpaymentsfromtheEnglishroyalhouseholdforcampaignsagainsttheScots–expenditureoncastlegarrisons,allmannerofsupply,paymentstoinfantryandcavalry,royalgiftsand
messengers–indetailthatprovidesvaluableinsightintowhatwashappeninginScotlandandothertheatresofwar.Thereareothersourcestoo.SomerecordsoftheIrishcolonialgovernmenthavesurvivedthecatastrophicfireof1922,andthereisawealthofmaterialaccumulatedbymonastichousesandotherreligiousinstitutionsinnorthernEngland:bishops’registers,collectionsof
chartersandoccasionalestaterecords.Aparticularlywell-preservedsourceisthemonasticarchiveatDurham,whichprovidesinsightsintoRobert’sexactionoftributefromthenorthofEnglandandhowthemonastery’sestatesfaredduringhisdestructiveradis.Thesourcesthenarefuller
thanonemightexpect,yettheyonlytakeussofaronourjourneytounderstandthe
characterofRobertBruce.WithhindsightwemayjudgethatBrucemadesomeappallingblunders:hismurderofComynandcertainofhisinterventionsinIrelandmayqualifyinthisrespect.Butweperceivetheenergywithwhich,indefianceofthegreatestmilitarypoweroftheday,Brucepursuedhisburningambition;hisfrustrationashesidesfirstwiththepatriotsagainstthe
mightoftheforeignoccupyingpower,thensubmitstoprotectvitalinterests,andthenalienatesbothsidesinhislungeforthethrone.Wecansensehisdespairatdefeatandhishumiliationatbeinghoundedoutofarealmtowhosekingshipheaspired.Therearealsoindicationsofthepersonalgriefhesufferedatthebrutalexecutionsofhisbrothersandthepublic
humiliationofthosedeartohim.Themosttelling
illustrationofRobert’scharacterhowevermaylienotintruehistory,butinanecdote,misattributedtohimlongafterhisdeath.ThestrengthofcharacterrequiredtoclawbackfromthreecrushingdefeatsisaptlyrepresentedbythetiredimageofRobertBruceandthespider.Destitute,the
would-bekingsitsaloneanddejectedonRathlinIsland(orJura,orArran,oratKirkpatrick,oratUamh-an-Righ,orahostofotherplacesforwhichclaimsarestakedinthetouristbrochures),idlywatchingaspidertryingtospinaweb.Timeandagainthespiderfails,yeteventuallythroughblinddeterminationitsucceeds,inspiringBrucetotryoncemoretoregainthethroneofScotland.Asmost
peopleknow,thespiderstoryisalatefabrication.ItwasrelatedbySirWalterScottintheTalesofaGrandfather,butoriginallyinventedbyDavidHumeofGodscroftinhisHistorieoftheHouseofDouglas(1633),whereitisSirJamesDouglaswhowitnessesthespider’sdoingsandrelatesthemtoBruce.Thetalemaynotbehistory,butthepointiswellmade:thatBruce,thoughlongdead,
compelsouradmirationthroughhisdeterminationandtenacity,throughhisheroicefforttorebuildfromcatastrophehisowndynasticfortunesandthoseofScotlandherself.ThroughtheworkofscholarsthefigureofRobertBrucehasemergedfromthedarkcaveoflegendandmythintothehalf-lightofhistory,anditistimetoreassessthiscruciallyimportantfigureandaccord
century
RobertBrucewasbornon11July1274.Hisaristocraticfamilyhadextensiveholdingsinsouth-westScotland,wheretheyhadbeenlordsofAnnandaleforgenerations.Turnberrycastle,theheadofhismother’searldom,isthemostlikelyplacehisofbirth.Hewasprobablynotbornonthefamily’sestatesinEngland,butwasrather
‘Scottishbybirth’aswewouldunderstandit,sincehesubsequentlyclaimedtheScotsas‘hisownpeople’.TheBruceswereofmorethanjustlordlyrank:theyweregreatmagnates,thesocialequalsofearls.Indeed,bymarryinghismother,hisfatherhadacquiredthetitleofearlofCarrickinrightofhiswife.ThedevelopmentoftheBrucedynastywillbediscussedinthenextchapter;
forthepresentRobert’searlylifewillbediscussed,togetherwiththecontextsintowhichRobertwasborn.LifeintheMiddleAges
wasdominatedbyideasandassumptionsthatnolongerexistinquitethesameway,andcommonmisunderstandingsofRobertBruceareoftenrootedinfailurestounderstandhowamanofBruce’stimeandsocialclasscomprehended
life,relationshipsandtheworld.‘Thepastisanothercountry’andoneshouldnotgotherewithoutaguide,howeverbrief,howeversketchy.Todootherwiseistoriskinfectingthepastwiththeassumptionsofthepresentage,creatinganachronismsandinvestinghistoricalpersonalitieswithattitudesandassumptionsthattheycouldneverhaveembraced.Theperiodweare
dealingwithisthelatethirteenthandearlyfourteenthcentury,andthebackdroptoRobert’searlylifeisknownastheHighMiddleAges.ThiswasbeforegunpowderwascommonlyusedinWesternEurope(thoughgreatlordswerebeginningtoexplorethepotentialofprimitiveexplosives).ItwasbeforetheBlackDeathwipedoutathirdofEurope’spopulation.It
wasatimewheneconomicgrowthandagrarianexpansionwaslevellingoff,orperhapsjustbeginningtorecedeinmanypartsoftheBritishIsles.EconomictrendswerenotofcourseclearlyevidenttoRobertorhiscontemporaries.Perhapsbecausetechnologyhadnotchangedsignificantlyinathousandyears,peopleintheMiddleAgesdidnotusuallyconceiveofsocietyas
dynamicorevolving.Ithasbeensaid,withjustification,thatmedievalpeoplehadnoconceptofevolution.Itwouldbeincorrecthowevertosaythattheydidnotintroducenewideasandinventions;rathertheyshowedatendencytorepresentinnovationasareturntoanearlierstateofaffairs.Medievalpeopleweremuchmorerespectfulofthepastthanweare,andlookedto
tradition,customandlineagetoprovidejustificationfordecisionsoractions.Tothem,societyandeconomywereastheyalwayshadbeen,timeoutofmind.ThemarriageofRobert’s
father,RobertBruce,thesixthlordofAnnandale,around1272,isthesubjectofanengagingvignetteinFordun’schronicle,inwhich,duringachanceencounterwhileshewasouthunting,
thelady,Marjorie,CountessofCarrick,vampsherman:
Whengreetingsandkisseshadbeengivenoneachside,asisthewontofcourtiers,shebesoughthimtostayandhuntandwalkabout;andseeingthathewasratherunwillingtodoso,shebyforce,sotospeak,withherownhand,madehimpullupandbroughttheknight,althoughveryloathe,withhertohercastleofTurnberry.Afterdallyingtherewithhisfollowersforthespaceoffifteendaysormore,hesecretly
tookthecountessashiswife.Friendsandwell-wishersofbothknewnothingaboutit,norhadtheking’sconsentinthematterbeenatallobtained.Whateverthechroniclesays,Robert’sfatherisunlikelytohavebeenbrowbeatenorforcedintomarriagewitharichwidowandacountessinherownright.Rather,FordunisprotectingthefatherofhisherofromaccusationofabductingMarjorie.Enraged,KingAlexanderIII,whoserightitwastoapprovemarriagesbetweenhistenants-in-chief,tookTurnberryandallthe
countess’spossessionsintohisownhand;butagiftofmoneysoonplacatedhim.Themarriagewasaveryfruitfulunionandmayhavebeenalovematch,quiteunusualfortheMiddleAgeswhenmarriagewaspredominantlyviewedasapropertycontract,tobenegotiatedbetweentwofamilies,oftenwhiletheprincipalswerestillveryyoung.
WithrespecttoRobert’searlyfamilylifewehavenofirmevidence,butwecanhazard
somegeneralisations.2RobertBruceVI,hasbeencharacterisedas‘spineless’and‘colourless’byProfessorBarrow,butthisisbycomparisonwithRobert’scolourfulcrusadergrandfather,RobertBruceV,knowntocontemporariesasRoberttheNoble,andtohistoryas‘BrucetheCompetitor’,becausehecompetedwithothersforthe
throneofScotlandatthehearingsknownastheGreatCausein1290–91.ThisgrandfatherseemstohavebeenanimmenseinfluenceonRobert.Thatisevidentnotonlyfromhisconvictionofthejusticeofhisclaimtothethrone,aclaimpioneeredbyRobertBruceV,butalsofromhisdeath-bedcrusadingaspirations,derivedfromtheexampleofhisgrandfather.Marjorie,themotherof
Robert,thefutureking,beingthedaughterofNeil,thelastGaelicearlofCarrick,wasaGaelicnoblewoman.HermarriagetoRobertBruceofAnnandalebroughtthatlordtheearldomofCarrickaswehaveseen,andsoitwasthatRoberttheking-to-beinheritedthetitleearlofCarrick.RecentlySeánDuffyhassuggestedthatRobert’smaternalgrandmother,thewifeofNeil,EarlofCarrick,
mayhavebeenadaughterofanO’NeillkingofTyrone.ItmaythereforebenoaccidentthattheChristiannameNeilrecursintheBrucefamily.TheO’NeillsofTyroneharbouredpretensionstowardsthekingshipofIreland,andifitwerethecasethattheBruceswereconnectedbybloodwiththeO’NeillsitwouldhaveprofoundimplicationsfortheBruceclaimtobeofroyal
blood.ItispossibletoothatfromNeilofCarricktheBrucesinheritedaclaimtolandsinCountyAntriminIreland,grantedinthetwelfthcenturytoNeil’sfather,DuncanofCarrick.Bethatasitmay,tieswiththeGaidhealtachd,theGaelic-speakingcrescentthatextendedalongthewestandnorthoftheBritishIsles,wereclose,andGaelicwasquiteliterallyRobertBruce’s
mothertongue.WemaybecertainthatallthechildrenspokeFrenchandGaelic;possiblysomeLatin,thelanguageofprayer;andScots,theEnglishdialectusedbytheLowlandpeasantry.Thefamilywillhavemovedbetweenthecastlesofthelordship:Lochmaben,themaincastleofthelordshipofAnnandale;TurnberryandLochDoonoftheearldomofCarrick.
Roberthadeightorninesiblings,butsincehisfathermarriedasecondwife(presumablyonthedeathofMarjorie)someoftheyoungerchildrenmayhavebeenhalfbrothersandsisters.Theboys,atleastRobertandEdward,werefosteredaccordingtoGaelictradition,spendingasubstantialpartoftheiryouthatthecourtsofothernoblemen.Thefoster-brotherofRobertisreferred
tobyBarbourassharingRobert’sprecariousexistenceasanoutlawinCarrickduringtheyears1307and1308,whileEdwardwas,accordingtoonesource,invitedtoIrelandby‘acertainIrishmagnatewithwhomhehadbeeneducatedinhisyouth’.ItispossiblethenthattheywerefosteredtoGaelicIrishmagnates.TalesofFinnMacCoolarereferredtoinTheBruceand
perhapsthechildrenabsorbedthetraditionalGaelicstoriesattheirmother’sknee.ElsewhereinthepoemRobertissaidtohaverecitedthetaleof‘Ferambrace’(‘IronArm’),theCharlemagnianhero,toraisethespiritsofhismen;thisillustratesthefamily’sdominantfrancophone,chivalricbackground.Thechildrencouldwellhavebeentaughttoreadinsomeoftheir
languages,thoughthosedestinedforknighthood(Robert,Neil,EdwardandThomas)mayhaveconsideredthatwritingwasbestlefttoclerks.Oneoftheyoungerbrothers,Alexander,wasgroomedforacareerinholyorders.Asheir,Robertwillhavebeenschooledbyspecialisttutorsinalltherefinementsofcourtlyetiquette–manners,elocution,musicperhaps,and
dancing–andhewillhavewaitedasapageathisfather’sandgrandfather’stables.Hewillhavereceivedsomeschoolinginlaw.Specialattentionwillhavebeenpaidtothemartialartsofhorsemanship,swordsmanshipandjousting.Leisureactivitiesincludedaprodigiousamountofhuntingandfalconry.AloveofshipsandseatravelthatemergesinRobert’slaterlifemayhave
beeninstilledinhisyouth.Theimportanceofpiety
willhavereceivedgreatstress.MedievalChristianityissaidtohavebeenakintopolytheisminthateveryday,everylocalityandeverysituationhaditsownparticularsaint.Saintscouldbejealousoftheirduedevotionsandwrathful.StMalachy,asweshallsee,mayhavebeenperceivedbythefamilyasmalevolent.The
childrenwillhavebeentaughttoreverecertainsaintsaboveothers:Columcille,andalsoAndrew,whoseculthadgrownoverthepasthundredyearsattheexpenseoftheCelticsaints.Relicsandpilgrimagesfeaturedprominently.StNinianmayhavebeentheprincipallocalsaint,anditwastoStNinan’scavethatRobertmadehisfinalpilgrimage.HischartersalsosuggestdevotiontoSt
Fillan,whoseshrinewasmaintainedintheAbbeyofInchaffray,andtoStKentigern,thepatronofthebishopricofGlasgow.Also,inlaterlife,RobertshowedsomepartialitytowardsStKessog,whofoundedthecommunityofInchtavannach,ontheIsleoftheMonksinLochLomond.Itiseasiertogeneralise
aboutRobert’searlylifethantodescribetheworldhewas
borninto.InScotlandtherewasaconsciousnessofbeingasmallandrelativelypoorkingdomontheveryedgeofChristendom;theDeclarationofArbroathrefersto‘PoorlittleScotland,beyondwhichthereisnodwellingplaceatall’.Thevastmajorityofherhalfamillioninhabitantswerepeasantfarmerslivingoffcattleandtheland.Outsidethecoreareasofmedievalfarming–suchas
Lothian,theeasterncoastalplainandtheLowlandsgenerally–medievalpopulationwaseitheratitsheightor,perhaps,justbeginningtodecline.Inregionssuchassouth-westScotland,wheretheBrucelordshipwascentred,grainfarmerswerebeginningtoabandonunprofitablesoilsandpasturesasthedemandforfood,andhencethepricethefarmercouldexpect,was
notquiteashighasithadbeen.Farmersinsouth-westScotlandwerefortunateinthattheyhadextensiveareasofhighmoorlandwhichprovidedseasonalpastureonwhichcattlemightgraze.CattleweremoreimportantthantillageinsuchpartsofScotland,andthiswasreflectedinthesocialorganisationofGaelicScotland,wherethepopulationmovedwiththe
cattlebetweenseasonalpastures.OveralargepartoftheBritishIsles,RobertBruce’swarshelpedtoacceleratethedownturningrainfarmingand,viewedinthelongterm,toterminatemanyfeaturesthattypifiedtheHighMiddleAges.Iftillagewasbeginning
perhapstofalter,tradewasflourishing,thoughitwasallonafairlysmallscale.Therewerenotmanytownsor
‘burghs’intheScotlandofRobert’sdayandthosethatexistedweresmallandoftensituatedonthecoast.Butkingsandlordshadrealisedthattownsgeneratedincomethroughconcentratingthepopulationandcreatingmarkets,andsothedevelopmentofburghshadbeenencouragedbythegreatlordsthroughgrantsofprivileges:rightstotaketolls,andholdfairsandmarkets.
Scottishkingshadcreatedthirty-sixroyalburghs,manyofwhichdevelopedurbancharacteristics.ThemaintownswereBerwick,Edinburgh,RoxburghandStirling.Mostofthelargertownswereontheeastcoastwheretherewasagrowingexporttradeinwool,leather,hides,fishandtimber.WoolinparticularwassoldtoFlemishandItalianmerchantswhosuppliedthegreatcloth-
manufacturingcentres.TheothergoodswereexportedtoEnglandandalsofartherafieldtoFlanders,theNetherlandsandtheGerman-speakingtownsoftheBaltic.TherewasconsiderableFlemishinterestandsettlementintheleadingportsofAberdeen,PerthandBerwick–wheretheFlemingshadaheadquarters(probablysomethingofacommunitycentreandplant
forprocessingexports)attheRedHall,whilethemerchantsofColognemaintainedasimilarpresenceattheWhiteHall.Thesortofsocietythat
Robertgrewupincanperhapsbemostbrieflyexplainedbylookingatsomeofthecleavagesthatexisted.SocialdivisionsatthetimeofRobertBrucewerefine,manyandcomplex;butitwillhelpifwelookfirstatthat
betweenthenoblesandthechurlish,andsecondlythatbetweentheGaelicandtheAnglo-Norman.Gentillesseornobilitycouldonlybeconferredbybreeding;onehadtobebornagentleman,nobleoraristocrattopossesstheappropriatemanner,speechandair.Gentillessealsoimpliedlandedwealth,anestatesufficienttomaintainanoblehousehold.Itwasnotenoughjusttohave
money;atthisperiodveryfewrichtownsfolk–ifany–madeitintothecharmedcircleofgentillesse.Itwasneverthelessabroadsocialcategory,andstretchedfromthekingandthehighestaristocratsintheland(suchastheBrucesofAnnandale)topoorknightsandsquireswithonlyamanorortwototheirnames,suchthefamilyofWilliamWallace.
Therelationshipbetweennoblesissometimesdescribedashierarchical,andcertainlythereweredifferentdegreesofrank,theprincipalranksbeingking(attheapexofthesocialpyramid),earls,barons,knightsandgentlemen.Everyonehadtohavealord,apatron,aprotector,ofwhomheheldhisfiefofland,andtowhomheperformedtheactof
homageandfealty.Thiswasasolemnoccasion.Thevassalkneltwithhandsjoinedbeforethelordinthepresenceofwitnesses;thelord,standingup,claspedthevassal’sjoinedhands,andthevassalrecitedaformulaofwordspromisingundyingloyalty.Theactwassealedbythegiftofafiefofland,forwhichthevassalcompletedsomenobleservice:knightservice,shipservice,oreven
anominalservicesuchasgiftingaroseatmidsummerorapairofsparrowhawks.Thebondofhomagewasnotlightlybroken.InTheBruceBarbourwaxeslyricalonthevirtueofloyalty,thebondthattiesamantohislord,andthesocialcementthatkeepssocietytogether:
LoyaltyistolovewholeheartedlyByloyaltymenliverighteously.Withloyaltyandbutoneother
virtueAmancanstillbeadequate,ButwithoutloyaltyheisworthlessEvenifheisvaliantorwise.ForwhereloyaltyislackingNovirtueisofsufficientpriceTomakeamangoodSothathecanbecalledsimplya‘goodman’.
WhenthetimecameforRoberttoassertinarmshisclaimtothekingshipofScotlandhehadofcoursetopersuadeotherstobreak
oathsofhomageandfealtytheyhadtakentothekingsofEngland.Malise,EarlofStrathearn,issaidtohavescornedtocomeovertoBruce’sside,declaringthathisoathofloyaltywasnot‘fragilelikeglass’.Besidestheinterplayoflordsandvassals,therewereotherdimensionstonoblesociety.Themarketinlandallowedanearltoholdlandofaknightwhereitwasdesirable,
knightstorentroyaldemensnefromtheking,andmonasteriestoletouttheirlandstonoblesofallranksforprofit.Noblerelationsthenresembledanetwork,ratherthanthefamiliarfeudalpyramidoftheschoolhistorybooks.Rivalnetworksofmagnateinterestsprangupandviedwithoneanotherforinfluenceinlocalitiesoratcourt:formostofthethirteenthcenturythe
influenceoftheBruceshadbeeneclipsedatcourtbythedominanceoftheirgreatrivalstheComyns,whohadcontrolledmostofthehighofficesinthelandforthebestpartofthethirteenthcentury,andhadbuiltupapowerfulnetworkofcastles,estatesandinterestsacrossthekingdom.Thefrancophone,chivalric
societyofnorthernEuropeprovidedthemaincultural
inputtotheBrucefamily.Asaristocratstheyconsideredthemselvesnaturalleadersanddisplayedthatarrogantdisdainofthelower‘churlish’socialordersandprideintheirownancestrycommontoallaristocracies.Fromtheirpositionnearthetopofthesocialhierarchy,asmagnatesortenants-in-chiefoftheking,theycontrolledlesserbaronialorknightlyfamiliesthroughgrantsof
landandotherbestowalsofpatronage.AsthekingdemandedtaxationandknightservicefromtheBruces,sotheyinturndemandedfoodormoneyrentsand(intimeofwar)knightservice,shipservice,castle-guardandotherassistancefromtheirnobledependents.Ecclesiasticallivingssuchasparishesandvicarages,werealsousedaspatronage,tobedispensedtosocialinferiors
inreturnfortheirloyaltyandtheirservices.Perhapsunusuallyforamagnatefamilyofsuchhighstanding,theBruceshadnotfoundedamonasteryinScotland;rather,theycontinuedtopatronisethemonasteryofGuisboroughinYorkshire,whichheldthetombsoftheirancestors.WhenRobertbecamekinghepatronisedmanyScottishreligioushousesandseveralEnglish
ones,buthewasespeciallygeneroustotheCistercianfoundationatMelrose,wherehisheartnowliesburied.Itwasexpectedofall
magnatefamiliestodisplaytheirwealthandprivilegedstatusinavarietyofways.TheBruceslivedostentatiously;diet,dressandmannersweredistinctfromandsuperiortothoseofsocialinferiors.TheirmainseatwasatLochmaben,buttheywill
havemaintainedseveralgrandhousesandmovedbetweenthemperiodically,accompaniedbyalargegroupofnobleretainers,knownasaretinueormeinie.IncommonwitharistocraciesrightacrossnorthernEuropeatthistime,theydisplayedarmorialdevicesillustratingtheirpedigree.TheBrucesflauntedtheirmartialvalourintournaments,listenedtotroubadourballadsonthe
themesofcourtlylove,andenjoyedArthurianliterature,allofwhichwereinvogueduringthis,thegoldenageofchivalry.Thechurlsontheother
hand,werethevastmajorityofthepeople,excludedfromgentilsocietyandeachboundtoalordbyeconomicandsocialobligationsofabaserkind:chieflythepaymentofrentsanddues,andtheperformanceoflabour
services(includingmilitaryserviceintimeofwar).Thissocialcategoryincludedmenofgreatlyvaryinglegalstatus,fromprosperousfreeholders,throughbondmentonatives,boundtothesoilandburdenedwithallsortsofservices,paymentsandobligations.Thecorollaryofthechurl’ssubmissionwasthatthelordwouldprovideprotectionintimesofdanger,settlementofdisputes,justice
fortheaggrievedandthedistributionoflargesse:rewards,grants,giftsandcharity.Thelord’sofficials,thestewards,bailliesorreeves,dispensedjusticeinthelord’scourt,enforcedsocialbonds,punishedevil-doersandthosewhodefiedsociety’staboos,andprovidedprotection.RobertBruce,WilliamWallaceandtheirpeersinthelordlyclass,tookvirtuallynoaccountof
theopinionsorneedsofthecommonpeople.Thereareexamples,asweshallsee,ofRobertactingcharitablyandhumanelytowardschurls,ashewasobligedtobyChristianity,butbeyondthathewillhavehadlittleinterestinthewelfareoropinionsofcommonpeople.AnumberofhisactsaskingshowRoberttohavebeensociallyconservative,keenthatbondmenshouldremainon
theirlords’estatesandnotdesertthemforthetowns,andkeengenerallythatindividualsshouldknowtheirplaceandnotaspiretoriseabovetheirrank.Thesecondprincipal
divisioninsocietywaslinguisticandcultural.Scotlandattheendofthethirteenthcenturywasfarfromculturallyhomogeneous.Untilabout1200,theprincipalcultureand
languageofScotlandhadbeenGaelic,and,thoughslowlyonretreatbeforeEnglish,Gaelicwasstillspokenwidelyinthewestandnorth,intheHighlandsandIslands.InthenorthandintherecentlyacquiredterritoriesofManandtheWesternIsles,therehadforcenturiesbeenextensiveNorwegianinfluenceandNorselanguageandcustomswillhavepersistedinplaces.
InLothian,onthecoastalplains,andaroundthelargereast-coasttownstheScotsdialectofEnglishpredominated,anditwasslowlygaininggroundattheexpenseofotherlanguages.FlemingsandsomeGermanshadsettledinthelargetownsoftheeast,attractedbytheprosperityofScottishtrade.Finally,everywhere,thelordlyclassspokeAnglo-NormanFrenchandthiswas
thelanguageoftheScottishcourt;itwasalsocommontomostofthecourtsofwesternChristendom.OnlyinthewestdidGaeliclordscontinuetousetheirtraditionaltongue.Gaeliccultureabsorbed
Anglo–Normanelements,suchasknightserviceandhomageandfealty,butitretaineddistinctivefeaturessuchaslivinginkinshipgroupsorclans,fosterage,
andthemaintenanceofstrongsocialtieswiththeGaelickingdomsofnorthernandwesternIreland.TheGaeliclordsoftheWesternIslesandArgyllwereoftenreferredtoas‘kings’intheirownlanguage,butas‘baronsoftheScottishrealm’inFrench.TheMacDougalls,MacDonaldsandMacRuaridhswerethethreemostpowerfulkingroupsofthewestand,thoughall
claimeddescentfromasingleancestor,warfareandrivalrybetweenthemwasconstant.TheirmercenariesfromtheWesternIsles,knownas‘galloglasses’,traversedthenorthernsealanes,seekingseasonalemploymentintheendlesswarsoftheIrishkings.RobertBruce,however,
wasprimarilyanAnglo-Normanmagnate,andhisfamilyhadbeeninstalledin
thetwelfthcenturyonthebordersofthekingdomofScotlandtoprotectitfromraidsbytheGaelicpeopleofGalloway,whowereresistingabsorptionintoScotland.Situatedonaninterfacebetweentwocultures,theBrucesdidnotremainunaffectedbysocialinterchangewiththeirpeersoftheotherculture,andconsequentlyby1274thefamilyhadlongbeenexposed
toGaelicmannersandcustoms.ThroughlivingcheekbyjowlwithGaelicformsandtraditionsforhundredsofyears,withoccasionalinter-marriageanddevelopmentofsocialandeconomicinterchange,acculturationsetin,andtheBrucesofAnnandaleabsorbedaspectsofGaeliclifeandmanners,justascrusaderslivingalongtimeintheHolyLandshoweda
tendencytopickupArabicandevenIslamictraits.SimilaritiesbetweenGaelicandAnglo-Normancultureweremuchmoremarkedthanthedifferences:bothsocietiestoleratedconsiderableviolence,andbothputenormousstockonloyaltytoone’slordasthemostfundamentalofsocialbonds.Withsuchapolyglot,
multiculturalpopulation,onemaybeexcusedforasking
howfarScotlandwasasingleentity.Butthequestionhastobeansweredintheaffirmative:Scotlandwasverydefinitelyasinglekingdomin1274.ThereweremanyScottishculturesandtongues–apointthatmakesnonsenseoftheallegationthatRobertBrucewassomehowlessScottishbecausehespokeFrench–yetScotlandwasapoliticalentity,akingdom.Theimage
ofthenationofScotlandbeingweldedtogetherbywarwithEngland,forgedundertheblowsofEdwardI,theHammeroftheScots,isquitefalse.Rather,bythelatethirteenthcenturyScottishkingshadalreadyforgedfortheirterritoriesanidentitysufficientlystrongforittobeabletoexistwithoutaking,asitdidduringtheinterregnumof1286–92.Thesuccessioncrisesthat
occurredin1286and1292,whenfirstKingAlexanderIIIandthenhisonlyheirbothdiedinquicksuccession,demonstratedthatthecombinedeffortsofpreviousmonarchshadbeensuccessfulinforgingapoliticalidentityornationhood,‘thecommunityoftherealm’,whichwascapableofauthoritativedecision-makingduringinterregnum,andcommandedtheloyaltyofthe
greatmajorityofScots.Constantlyaugmentedbywaranddiplomacy,thekingdomofScotlandbythisperiodhadvirtuallyattaineditsmodernfrontiers;OrkneyandShetlandaloneremainedNorwegianterritoryin1274.Scotlandwasasmucha
unityasanymedievalkingdom,yetallsuchkingdomswereassemblagesofdiverseregionslinkedtoamonarchybypersonalbond
oflordship.TheterritoriesruledoverbytheScottishkingwereinhabitedbypeoplesofEnglish,Gaelic,Norse,Manx,Flemish,andNormandescent.Itwastounitethesedisparatepeoplesthatthemonarchybegancarefullytocultivateideasof‘Scottishness’thatfullyembracedallitsloyaladherents.Duringthecourseofthethirteenthcenturytheroyalgenealogy,solemnly
recitedinGaelicattheenthroningofeachsuccessivemonarch,wasrevisedtoembracePictishaswellasScottishancestors.Thoughregionaldifferencespersisted,itisfairtosaythatbythecloseofthethirteenthcenturythemonarchyhadachieveditsgoalofpoliticalunity.Scottishkingshadpreviouslyaddressedcharterstothedifferentpeoplesbyname,asFrench,Scots,Englishand
(rarely)asGallovidians,butthishadceasedby1190.Nevertheless,themenofGallowayhadtheirownuniquerelationshiptotheScottishthrone,completelydifferenttothatofthemenofLothianorFife.Thiswasboundtobethecase,sincetheformationofthekingdomhadbeenafarfrominexorableorevenprocess.Galloway,forexample,hadneverquitebeenabsorbed
intothekingdomasfullyasotherprovinces.Galloway’ssubjugationbeganaround1164;itwaslong,bloodyandnotentirelycompletedevenbythetimeofRobert’sbirth.Gallowayretainedseparatisttendencies.ScottishclaimstoCumbriaandterritoriesinNorthumbriaprovedunsustainable,andtheseterritorieswerecededtoEngland.TheWesternIslesandManwereobtainedfrom
NorwaybytheTreatyofPerthaslateas1266.Magnus,thelastkingofMan,submittedtoAlexanderIIIonlyin1264.EventhentheislandersrevoltedagainstScottishrulein1275,andScotsandGallovidianstogetherruthlesslysuppressedtherebellion.TheseparatismsofManandGallowayweresubsequentlyencouragedbyEnglandwhenitsuitedhertodoso.ManyScottishnobles
heldlandsinEnglandandinotherkingdoms,illustratingthatthebondsoflordshipcutacrossthefrontiersofkingdoms.Furthermore,whilecustoms,laws,privilegesandtraditionswerejealouslypreserved,suchcustomswereoftenhighlylocalised.Lawwasnotasinglepointofreference;thereexistedawidediversityoflaws,whichincluded:theLawoftheMarchesthat
prevailedontheborders,theLawsofGalloway,peculiartothatregion,theForestLawthatappliedintheextensiveroyalhuntingpreserves;theLawof‘theFourBurghs’ofBerwick,Roxburgh,EdinburghandStirling;andBrehonLawthatprevailedinGaelic-speakingregions.Itwasthemonarchy,then,
andthenetworkofloyaltiesandobligationsthatflowedfrommonarchy,thatdefined
Scotland.Thethronedescendedbymaleprimogeniture,thatis,totheeldestsonofeachsuccessiveking.Solongasthekinghadcapablemalechildrenthearrangementworked;butif,asoccurredin1286,thekingdiedwithoutchildren,thepreciserulesofdescentwereopentosomedispute.ProfessorDuncanhasrecentlyexaminedtheScottishtraditionofking-
making.Theceremonyofking-makingwasverysolemn,andwearefortunatetohaveadepictionofitonthesealofSconeAbbey.Centraltotheinaugurationceremony(aswithallGaelicking-making)wasthesettingoftheking-to-beonaspecialstonethrone,ataspeciallocation.Scottishkingswereneitherceremoniallycrownednoranointedatthisdate,buttheydidaspiretobothand
triedunsuccessfullytoobtainfromthepapacytherighttoincorporatethemintotheceremony.TheabsenceoftheseritualsgavecredencetotheEnglishclaimthattheScottishmonarchywassubordinate.TheceremonybeganwiththecandidatebeingacclaimedaskinginthechurchofSconeAbbey.Hetookoathsonthegospelstodefendthechurch,maintainrightandjusticeand
keepgoodlaws,andhewasgirdedwithasword.Fortheopen-airceremonyofenthronement,thecandidatewasthenledtoacrossinthechurchyard,wherestoodawoodenbench-thronecontainingtheStoneofScone.TheearlofFifeorhisrepresentativeledthecandidatetothethrone.Onceenthroned,thekingwouldreceiveasymbolofauthority,anelaboratesceptre.Hewas
alsoceremoniallycloakedwithamantleandstolebytheabbotofSconeandanothercleric,symbolisingendorsementbythechurch.Hemayhavewornacrownallalong,butitwascertainlynotacentralpartoftheceremony.RobertBrucehadtodowithouttheStoneofDestinywhenhewasenthroned;perhapsforthatreason,whenin1328hewasoffereditback,hedidnot
makestrenuouseffortstorecoverit.Finally,thenewking’sgenealogywasreadoutbyaGaelichistorian,demonstratingthatthenewkingwasdescendedfromthePictishandGaelickingsofold,rightbacktoIberScot,thefirstScotsman.Afeastfollowed,andfealtiesweretaken.Thekingwaslordofthe
royalestates(orroyaldemesne),buthehadto
factorintoallhisdecisionstheopinionsandinterestsofthearistocracy.Thiswasledbygreatlandowners,themagnates.Primogeniturewastheinheritancecustomcommonlyfollowedbyallthenobility:thefirst-bornsonwouldinheritthewholeoftheestate.Iftherewerenoson,thepropertywouldbeequallydividedamonghisdaughters.Chiefamongthemagnateswerethethirteenearldoms:
Fife(whichwasthemostprestigiousoftheearldoms,andwhoseearlassistedattheenthronementofthemonarch),Mar,Angus,Buchan(heldbytheComyns),Strathearn,Atholl,Ross,Sutherland,Caithness(whichwasheldjointlywiththeNorwegianearldomofOrkney),Menteith,Lennox,Carrick(whichBrucehimselfinherited),andMarch.Besidesearldoms,therewere
othergreatlordshipscomparabletoearldoms,includingthelordshipofAnnandale(heldbytheBruces),Garmoran(bytheMacRuaridhs)andthelordshipofGalloway(bytheBalliols).Aswehaveseen,therewere,inaddition,threegreatGaelickingroupswhichexistedinthewest,besidesamyriadoflesserGaelickingroups.Onspecialoccasions,when
akingwantedtofocustheattentionofthewholerealmonbusinessofparticularimportance–aroyalmarriage,ademandforspecialtaxation,oranimportantsetofdecrees–aparliamentwouldbesummoned.Parliamentwasaspeciallyenlargedcouncilwhichalltheleadingnoblesandprelateswereobligedtoattend.Therewasnoquestionatthisdateofmereknights
attending,asalreadyoccurredatsomeEnglishparliaments,butparliamentsdidformallyconcedegrantsoftaxation(intheformofleviesonassessedmoveableproperty)tothemonarch.Thepowersofmedievalmonarchycoulddependverymuchuponthepersonalityandcharacteroftheking.Ingeneralhoweveritwasagreedthat,onthedeathofatenant-in-chief,akingwouldtakecustodyof
theestateuntiltheheirwasofagetoinherit.Usuallyanunder-ageheirwouldbecomearoyalward,andoninheritinghispropertytheheirwouldpayalargesumtotheking,knownasarelief.Shouldatenant-in-chiefbetrayhisoathsofhomageandfealty,heforfeitedhisinheritance.Thekinghadasayinthemarriagesofthechildrenofhistenants-in-chiefandoftheirwidows,as
wehaveseenwithrespecttothemarriageofRobertBruceVIandMarjorie,CountessofCarrick.Customdecreedhoweverthatnokingshoulddisparageawidow,thatis,marryherofftosomeoneoflowerrank.Bythelatethirteenth
centurytheScottishmonarchyhaddevelopedaspecialisedofficialdomtohelpitrunthekingdom.Royaljusticewasdispensed
throughthreejusticiars:ofScotia(inthenorth);Lothian(intheprosperoussouth-east);andGalloway(inthewest).Sheriffsweretheprincipalagentsofroyalauthorityinthelocalities.Twenty-eightsheriffs,someofthemhereditary,manycontrolledbythegreatmagnates,supervisedroyaldemesneandservedaschiefaccountingofficersforroyalincomeandexpenditure.
Theyheldcourtswhereintheyinsistedonroyalrightsandcollectedtheprofitsofjustice:fines,andforfeitures.Sheriffspaidroyalincometotheking’schamberlain,asingleofficerwhocentrallymanagedtheking’sfinances,andwhosefirstdutywastoprovidefortheroyalhousehold,themostlavishofallthelordlyestablishments.Theroyalhouseholdwasorganisedalongtheclassic
Carolingianmodel.Itwasdividedintothreemaindepartments:the‘chapel’orchancery,staffedbyclerks,functionedastheking’sbureaucracy;the‘chamber’functionedasthetreasury;andthe‘hall’lookedafterprovisioninganddailynecessitiesofthelarge,itineranthousehold.Fromthechancerythekingissuedwrits,ordersandgrantsbearinghisgreatseal,the
stampofroyalauthority.Itwaspresidedoverbytheroyalchancellor,chiefoftheking’scouncil.Thechancellorandthechamberlainprobablybothalsosatontheexchequer(anadditiontotheoriginalhousehold),whichwasessentiallyacourtofaudit.Royalofficialswerecalledbeforetheexchequerannuallytoanswerfordebtsowingtotheking,andtherethey
claimedwhatallowancestheycouldtosetagainstthatdebt.Awordaboutthecurrency
andmonetaryvaluesingeneralwillbehelpfulatthispoint.ThemainunitofcurrencyinusethroughouttheBritishIsleswasthesilverpenny,whichwascountedinpounds,shillingsandpence(£sd).Themarkhoweverwasalsousedasaunitofaccount.Thiswastwo-thirdsofapound,or13s4d.There
isnopointinsuggestingafactorormultiplierwhichwouldallowonetoexpressmedievalvaluesintermsoftoday’sprices.Relativevaluesofcommoditieshavechangedbeyondrecognition.IntheMiddleAgesfoodpricesespeciallyfluctuatedgreatlyaccordingtoharvest,andsuchfluctuationsaffectedotherpricestoo.Howeverthefollowingexamplesmightserveasaroughguideto
monetaryvalues:anearl’sincomecouldamountto£5,000perannum;awarhorsewouldcost£30to£40;inwartimeaknightearned2sperdayfromroyalservice;andafootsoldiercollectedadailywageof2d.Nomedievalkingdom
couldconductitsaffairsinisolationfromitsneighbours,and,althoughithaddiplomaticrelationswithallthekingdomstouchingthe
NorthSea,theneighbourwithwhichScotlandsharedalandborderwasofpre-eminentimportance.WhenweaskhowindependentofEnglandScotlandhadbeenuptothispoint,wemustbearinmindthat‘independence’,like‘nationality’,isanothermodernconceptthatsitsuneasilywhenimposeduponthemedievalworld.ThekingdomsofwesternChristendomwerenot
independentofoneanother,butratherinterdependent.Allpaidlipservicetothetheorythatasupra-nationalpapacywassupremeinmattersrelatingtoreligion(alargesliceoflifeintheMiddleAges),andalltheroyalfamiliesofEuropeintermarried,causingkingdomstointerfereofteninoneanother’saffairs.Sincethetwokingdoms
alreadyhadahistoryoffive
hundredyearsofsharing‘onepoorisland’,itisbarelysurprisingthattherelationshipbetweenScotlandandEnglandwascomplex.Therehadbeenpeacebetweenthekingdomsforseventyyears,andmanyScottisharistocrats,includingtheKingofScotshimself,heldestatesinEnglandaswellasScotland.TheBrucesheldsubstantialestatesinEssex,Middlesexandinthe
BishopricofDurham.JohnBalliolheldmanorsinseventeenEnglishshires.BesidesbeingmuchlargerthanScotland,Englandwasmuchmorepopulousandwealthy.Englandmighthavesustainedtwoandahalfmillionpeopleatthisdate;Scotlandwouldscarcelyhavehadapopulationofhalfamillion.Woolexports(theonlyeconomicdataavailableforcomparison)suggeststhe
samesortofproportion:Scotlandexported5,000sacksin1327,andEnglandroughlyfivetimesthat.Giventhisorderofdominance,itisbarelysurprisingthat,assoonasonecouldreasonablyspeakofanEnglishkingdom,thatkingdomclaimeda‘superiorlordship’overthewholeofBritain.InthetwelfthcenturycertainScottishkingshadacceptedthelordshipofHenryIand
laterofHenryII,bothparticularlypowerfulkingsofEngland,butresistedattemptsbylesspowerfulEnglishmonarchstoimposeuponScotland.Bythethirteenthcenturythecustomhaddevelopedwhereby,shortlyafterthecoronationofeachkingofEngland,theKingofScotswouldvisithimtoperformaceremonyofhomageandfealty,wherethevassalkneltbeforethelord
andacknowledgedhislordship.WasthisdoneinreturnforthekingdomofScotlanditself,ormerelyforthelandswhichtheScottishkingheldinEngland:thelordshipsofTynedaleandPenrith?Theinterpretationplaceduponthisceremonybytheparticipantsappearstohavedependedlargelyuponthepersonalitiesinvolvedandupontheebbandflowofthepowerrelationshipsbetween
thekingdomsandbetweenthekingsthemselves.AlexanderIIIissaidtohaveinsistedcategoricallythatheheldhiskingdomfromGodalone;otherScottishmonarchsmightnothavebeeninapositiontobesounequivocal.Thesourcesonthisceremonyareeithervague,orwereintendedaspropagandaforonesideortheother.Thevaguenesssurroundingtheceremony
allowedeachkingtointerprettheactofhomageashepleased,anditfacilitatedthepeacefulco-existenceofthekingdomsformostofthethirteenthcentury.EdwardI’sinsistenceuponclarityanddefinition,whichspoiledthiscomfortablefudge,isoneofthefactorsthatledtowarin1296.Medievalpeopledidnot
conceiveofsocietyasdividedintoreligiousandsecular
realms;rathertheScottishChurchandreligiousbeliefgenerallyinformedeveryaspectoflife.Theclergyrepresentedahighpercentageofthepopulation:perhapsatenthofallthemenandwomeninScotlandwereinclericalordersofsomekind.Therewereregularclergy(ordersofmonksandnunswholivedbytheRuleofStBenedict)andsecular,ordiocesanclergy.Themost
powerfulregularorderwastheCistercians,whoseabbeys(Melrose,Arbroath,Paisley,KelsoandHolyrood)maintainedvastherdsofsheepintheuplandsandsoldthewooltoItalianandFlemishmerchants.Inadditiontherewerefriars,regularclergywholivednotinmonasteriesbutinthecommunity;theDominicanandFranciscanfriarswerewellrepresentedinthelarger
towns.ThekingdomofScotland
hadalsotomaintainrelationswiththepapacy.HowevertheChurchwasfirmlyunderthecontroloftheking,whocouldalmostalwayshavehisservantsappointedtokeybishoprics,abbaciesandotherecclesiasticaloffices,andhecouldcalluponthechurchforsubsidiesandfinancialaids.ThepapacycouldonlytaxtheScottishChurchwiththe
king’sagreement,anditalmostalwayshadtosharetheproceedswiththemonarch.Whereastheco-operationandgoodofficesofthepapacyweremuchtobedesired,thepowerofthepapacywasnotsuchthatapopecouldimposehiswillonanunwillingmonarchoranunco-operativekingdom.RobertBrucehimselfruledformanyyearsaskingwhileignoringsuccessive
excommunications.FortheirloyaltytoBruce,theScotsthemselvescheerfullysufferedthefullforceofpapaldispleasure,includingavarietyofharshecclesiasticalpenalties:excommunication,ageneralinterdictimposeduponallofScotland,prohibitionfromholdingecclesiasticalofficeforthemselvesandtheirrelatives.TheywereallignoredbytheScottish
hierarchy.AsinmostofthekingdomsofChristendom,thepapacyhadinfluencebutnotpower.NeverthelesstheChurchof
Bruce’sdayaspiredtoandusuallyenjoyedanespeciallycloserelationshipwiththepapacy.WiththehelpofthepapacythepretensionsofthearchiepiscopalseeofYorktocontroltheScottishChurchhadbeenresisted.TheprocesshadleftScottish
churchmenwithasenseofgroupsolidarity,andfromtimetotimethenationalChurchassembledinProvincialCounciltoapproveRome’sdemandsforgreatercentralisationandecclesiasticaltaxation.AlthoughScotlandlackedanarchbishop,leadershipwasprovidedbythetwopremierbishopricsofGlasgowandStAndrews.Theabsenceofanarchbishopwasconsideredan
advantage:apapalbullof1192hadestablishedtheScottishChurchasthe‘specialdaughterofRome’,therebeingnointermediarybetweenthepopeandtheScottishbishops.ThisfosteredeffectivechannelsofcommunicationbetweentheChurchandthepapacy,forScottishchurchmenbecameskilledinlobbyingattheRomancuria.Bothitssenseofsolidarityasa‘national’
church,anditsclosetieswiththepapalcuria,madetheScottishChurchaformidableopponentofEdwardI’sattemptstointegrateScotlandintohiskingdomandavaluableexpressionofScottishidentitywhichRobertBruceutilisedtothefull.SuchwastheScotlandof
thelatethirteenthcentury:apolyglotandhighlydiverseterritoryandpeople,yet
consciousofitselfasaunity,evenifonlybegrudginglysointhecasesofManandGalloway.Societywasdeeplyconservative,tradition-boundandresistanttochange.Scarcelypeacefulinanyquarter,sinceviolencewasendemicinasocietydominatedbyquarrelsomelordsandrivals,Scotlandhadneverthelessbeenatpeacewithitsneighbouringkingdomforseventyyears.
SuchwasthecountryandsocietyinwhichRobertBruceVIIreachedadolescence,mercifullyoblivioustothecatastrophethatwaitedaroundthecorner.
RobertBrucefirstsurfacesinthecontemporaryrecordashisfather’sson,awitnesstoanundatedcharterofAlexanderMacDonaldofIslay,along-timeallyoftheBruces.TheMacDonaldwereapowerfulkinshipgroupinsouth-westScotlandwhichlookedtotheBrucesforleadership;otheralliesincludedtheMacRuaridhs,theStewartsandtheearlsofAtholl,MarandMarch.Asa
youngman(andprobablybeforehisinvestitureasearl)Robertwasknighted.Knighthoodcouldbebestowedbykingorearl,butwedonotknowwhoknightedRobertBruce.Theknightingoftheheirinvolvedthefamilyinhugeexpense,withthenewknightkittedoutwitharmour,horses,servantswithspecialisedabilities(fromnoblesquirestogroomsandstableboys)and
moreprosaicequipmentforanindependenthousehold.A‘feudalaid’orseigneurialtaxcouldbeleviedfromthetenantstoassistwiththeexpense.Knighthoodwasanhonourableandexclusivestatustowhichallnoblemen,whetherkingsormeregentry,aspired:onthedeathofRobertBruceasKingRobertIofScotlandin1329oneScottishchroniclercouldthinkofnothingfinertosay
ofthedeadherothanthat‘hewas,beyondalllivingmenofhisday,avaliantknight’.AsayoungknightRobert
wouldbewellawarethathisfamilyhadrivalsandenemiesaswellasallies.ChiefamongtheserivalswerethepowerfulComyns,whohaddominatedlifeattheScottishroyalcourtfortwogenerations.3TherewerethreeprincipallineagesbearingthesurnameComyn,
for,earlyinthethirteenthcentury,WalterComynhadmarriedtwice,producingtwosetsofoffspring.TheoffspringofhisfirstmarriagebecameknownastheComynsofBadenoch(ortheRedComyns),thatofhissecondmarriage,toMarjorie,CountessofBuchan,becametheComynearlsofBuchan(theBlackComyns).ThethirdlineageofComyns,acadetbranchoftheComyns
ofBadenoch,wasknownastheComynsofKilbride.Allthreebranchesoperatedpoliticallyasaunit,andtogethertheyhadbuiltupapowerfulalliancewithextensivelands,widespreadpatronageandaformidablenetworkofcastles.InalliancewiththeComynsweretheBalliollordsofGallowayandtheMacDougalllordsofArgyll,traditionalenemiesoftheMacDonalds.
However,beforeweexamineyoungRobert’sactiveroleintheaffairsofthekingdom,itisnecessarytoconsiderthelegacyofaspirations,property,landsandtraditionsbequeathedtohimbyhisancestors.Hisinheritanceincludednotonlysprawlingestates,considerablemonetarywealth,andlegalprivilegesandrightsbutalso,fromhismotheraninterestinthe
Gaelicworld,andfromhisgrandfather,aburningambitionthatembracedaspirationstokingship.Thescionofaproudaristocraticlineage,‘our’RobertBrucewasonlythelatestinasuccessionofnoblesbearingthatname.4Thefamilyname,renderedinNorman-FrenchasdeBrusordeBruys,derivesfromBrixnearCherbourginNormandy.
RobertBruceIwasaprotégéofHenryIofEngland(1100–35)whohadrewardedhimforhisserviceswiththelordshipofClevelandinnorthYorkshire.TherethefirstRobertBrucefoundedtheAugustinianPrioryofGuisboroughandendoweditwithvastestatessothatthemonkswouldexertspiritualinfluenceonbehalfofhimandhisfamily.FromearlyinhiscareerRobertassociated
withanotherofHenryI’sprotégés,David,thesonofMalcolmIII,KingofScots,whoheldtheEnglishearldomofHuntingdon.OnseveralofDavid’schartersRobert’snameislistedamongthosewitnessingthedeed.ThisisastrongindicationthatRobertservedDavidashisvassal,oratanyratewascloselyassociatedwithhim.In1124DavidbecamekingofScotland,anditwasprobably
ontheoccasionofhisenthronementinthatyearthathegrantedRobertthelordshipofAnnandalewithitscastle.DavidwasactivelypursuingapolicyofbestowingupondependablewarlikeNormanfamiliesestatessituatedonmarcherterritoriesofhiskingdom.SuchgrantsweremadetoNormanfamiliesbecauseNormanscouldprovide‘knightservice’,whichmeant
supplyingmounted,armouredknightsfortheroyalhost.AnnandaleborderedbothEngland,apotentiallyhostilebutusuallyfriendlyneighbour,andGalloway,aCelticregionatthattimeunsubduedbythekingsofScotland.TheBruceswerethenhonour-boundtodefendtheborders(or‘marches’astheyareusuallytermed)oftheScottishkingdomonthemonarch’sbehalf.
ThefirstRobert’sfriendshipwithKingDaviddidnotsurvivetheScottishinvasionofEnglandin1138,andRobertmadeasolemnrenunciationofhishomagetoDavid,averyrareanddrasticstepinmedievalsociety.HefoughtwithdistinctionagainsttheScotsattheBattleoftheStandard.However,beforethisbreachoccurred,thefirstRobertseemstohavepassedthelordshipof
Annandaleontohissecondson,asupporterofDavid.ThusRobert,a‘cross-borderbaron’withlandsoneachsideoftheAnglo-Scottishborder,skilfullyminimizedtheeffectsofwarbetweenthekingdomsonthefortunesofhisfamily.AnnandalewassavedfromforfeiturebytheKingofScotsonthisoccasion.Robertdiedin1142,andwasburiedatGuisboroughPriory.Hisfirst
son,Adam,inheritedthegreatestatesinYorkshire;hissecond,Robert,retainedthelesserfiefofAnnandale.Fromacharterofthis
periodwelearnthatRobertBruceIIheldAnnandalebyserviceoftenknights;thatis,hehadtocontributetenknightstotheroyalhostintimeofwar.Duringhistimehoweverthereoccurredanincidentthatcastashadowoverthefortunesofthe
Bruces.In1148thegreatIrishsaint,archbishopandecclesiasticalreformerStMalachyO’More,passingthroughScotlandonhiswaytoRome,favouredthesecondlordofAnnandalebystayingathiscastle.DuringthevisitMalachyintercededonbehalfofathiefwhomRoberthadsentencedtohang.Magnanimouslythelordgavewaytothepleadingoftheholymananddeclaredthat
thethief’slifewouldbespared.InreturnMalachyblessedthelordandhisfamily.Butthefollowingmorning,ashesetout,MalachysawthebodyofthethiefswayingonthegallowsandrealisedthatRoberthadhangedthemanregardless.Herevokedhisblessingandlaidinsteadaterriblecurseuponthelordandhisoffspring,andonthetown.ThecurseofaholymanofSt
Malachy’sstaturewasaseriousimpedimenttofortunesofanymedievaldynasty.TheLanercostchroniclerelatesthat‘threeofhisheirsperishedinsuccession’andindeedRobertBruceIIgrantedahouseinLochmabentoStPeter’sHospitalinYorkforthesoulsof(amongothers)‘hisinfants’.Furthermore,amisfortuneappearstohaveoccurredaroundtheyear
1200atAnnanforcingthefamilytomovetoLochmaben.IthasbeensuggestedthattheRiverAnnanwashedawayapartofAnnanCastle,forcingthefamilytomovetheheadofthelordshipfromAnnantoLochmaben.ThatmisfortunemayalsohavebeenattributedtothecurseofStMalachy.Whateverthehistoricaltruthofthesetroubles,theBrucesthemselves,includingKing
Robert,appeartohavebelievedinthecurse.RobertIIfacedmisfortuneofanothersort:warbetweenthekingdomsflaredupagainin1173–74,forcinghimtochoosebetweenallegiances.RoberthadconsiderablepropertyinEngland:HartnessinthebishopricofDurham,andthemanorofEdenhallinCumberland.HechosetosupportHenryIIofEnglandagainstKingWilliamthe
Lion,bringingimmediateconfiscationofAnnandale.TheBrucepatrimonywas,however,restoredaftertheconflict,andrelationswiththeScottishcourtimprovedtotheextentthatWilliamtheLionmarriedhisillegitimatedaughtertoRobertBruceII’ssonandheir,Robert.UnfortunatelythisRobertpredeceasedhisfather,whodiedin1194.Thethirdlordof
Annandalewasthereforeayoungerson,William,butofWilliamthereislittletotell.Hediedin1211or1212.Hissonandheir,RobertBruce,thefourthlord(thoughthethirdofthename),madeaverysuccessfulmatchbymarryingintotheScottishroyalfamily.5HisbridewasIsabel,seconddaughterofDavid,EarlofHuntingdon.Thiswasdefinitelyan
advanceonmarriagetoaking’sillegitimatedaughter,andrepresentedaconsiderableincreaseinthefamily’sfortunes.Imbuedbothwithakeensenseofservicetothemonarchyand,naturally,toitsownlong-terminterest,thefamilycarriedoncollectingestatesthroughthebestowalofroyalpatronageandastutemarriages.WithinScotlandtheyacquiredonethirdofthe
lordshipofGariochandtheburghofDundee;theyalsoenlargedtheirholdingsinEnglandthroughmarriage.BythetimeofourRobert’sbirththeirEnglishestatesincludedthemanorsofWrittleandHatfieldBroadoakinEssex,onethirdofthemanorofTottenhaminMiddlesex,andHartnessinthebishopricofDurham.TheyseemalsotohaveclaimedterritoriesinUlster:
the‘Gallowaylands’inCountyAntrimgrantedtoDuncanofCarrick.Claimstolandandtitleswereguardedjealouslyandpursuedwhereverpossibleinappropriatecourts,foritwasamostlitigiousageandnoclaim,howeverdistantorfar-fetched,couldbeallowedtolapse.Thefamilywasacutely
awareofitspositionvis-à-visthemonarchiesuponwhich
itsfortunesdepended.ItwasRobertBruceV,thegrandfatherofthefutureking,whofirstaspiredtoroyaldignityinScotland.ThisRobert,whomcontemporariescalledRoberttheNoble,wasamostcolourfulandenergeticmagnate.TheLanercostchroniclerecordsinabriefobituarythat‘Hewasofhandsomeappearance,agiftedspeaker,remarkablefor
hisinfluence…asnobleabaroninEnglandasinScotland.’Nodoubthehadcharisma,
buthewasalsoaschemer,achancerandaverydeviouscharacter.Bornaroundtheyear1225,hemarriedintothefamilyoftheEnglishearlsofGloucester;andsouthoftheborderheparticipatedinthebitterstrugglesbetweenHenryIIIofEnglandandhismagnates.Hefoughton
HenryIII’ssideattheBattleofLewesin1264.KingHenrylostthatbattletohisover-mightysubjectSimondeMontfortand,asaconsequence,Robertwascapturedandhadtoappealtohissontoarrangearansomforhisrelease.Captureinbattlewasacatastropheoftengreaterthandeath,forransomscouldeconomicallycrippleevenamagnatedynasty.Robert,however,
waswellresourced:besidesAnnandaleandHartness,hehadinheritedonthedeathofhismotherin1251or1252herestatesinEssexandtheGarioch.WiththisaccessionofwealthhebuiltalargestonecastleatLochmaben,andthedynastysurvivedthepaymentofhisransom.
TheBruces’aspirationtotheScottishthroneoriginatedinanincidentwhich,RoberttheNoblealleged,occurredduringthereignofAlexanderII.Robertclaimedthat,atatimewhenKingAlexanderwasstillchildlessandwaspreparingtoleadanexpeditiontotheWesternIsles,thekinghadrecognisedhimashisheirpresumptive.Theincident,ifitoccurredat
all,appearstobelongtotheyear1238.Robert’scontemporariesmayhaveknownofit,butthereisnohistoricalevidencebeyondRobert’swordthatthisrecognitionwasevermade.ProfessorDuncanisdeeplyscepticalabouttheclaim.Thehistoricityofthese
eventshoweveronlybecameofcriticalimportancewhenthethroneofScotlanddependeduponit.Forthe
presentRoberttheNoblepursuedothermeansofself-promotion.Eveninthesmall,distantandimpoverishedkingdomofScotland,noblefamiliesfeltpartofthefrancophone,chivalricsocietyofEurope;testimonytothisistheparticipationofRoberttheNobleinthatambitiousbutingloriousenterpriseofmedievalEurope,thecrusadetopreservetheHolyLandfromIslamiccontrol.Along
withBretonsandmenoftheLowCountries,hejoinedtheexpeditionledbyEdmund‘Crouchback’ofLancaster,youngersonofHenryIIIofEngland.Robertwasalreadyfiftyyearsold.Theysailedintheautumnof1271,toreinforceapreviousexpeditionledbyEdmund’selderbrother,PrinceEdwardofEngland.ThisEdwardwasto
becomeafigureoftowering
importanceinthelivesoftheBruces.HewastobecomeEdwardI‘theHammeroftheScots’,andheborethenickname‘Longshanks’becausehislankystature(hestoodanimpressivesixfoottwoinchesinheight)enabledhimtostayinthesaddlewhenothermenwouldhavebeentoppled.Thecharacterofthiskinghasbeenvariouslyinterpreted,andScottishhistorianshave,not
surprisingly,tendedtoberatherharsherintheirassessmentofhimthanothers.Butthereisagreementonmanyaspectsoftheman.Edwardwasbrilliantinmanyways:askilledreformeroflaw,acourageousgeneralandaleaderofmen.Hedemandedclarityanddefinitioninlaw;andhestrikesoneashavingbeencrispanddecisiveinmanner.Itwasthisquestfordefinition
thatledhimtodisturbtheconvenientvaguenessoverAnglo–Scottishrelationsthathadpreservedpeacebetweenthekingdomsforseventyyears.Edwardhadashortfuse,anddisplaysofhisviolentilltemperarewelldocumented.Hewouldmercilesslybrowbeatthosewhoopposedhiswill;thecombinationofhisoverbearingrageandhisheightcouldreduceamanto
anervouswreck.MuchofhisgrievanceagainsttheScotswhoopposedhiswillwasfoundedonhisperceptionofthemasdisloyal,orhavingbrokenoathsoffealty.Conventionalinmostrespects,andmuchadmiredasaking,therewasundoubtedlyastreakofcrueltyinEdward’scharacter.Thecrusaderssailedfirstto
Tunis,thenwinteredinSicilybeforesettingoffagain,via
Cyprus,toAcre,thecapitalofthecrusaderstateinPalestine,knownasOutremer.Theyenjoyedlittlemilitarysuccess,butEdwardmanagedtoshoreupthebeleagueredChristianstatebynegotiatingatruceforit.Significantly,onthereturnjourneyRobertvisitedthemonasteryatClairvaux,whereStMalachyisburied,presumablytoseekthesaint’sforgivenessforhisfamily;furthermore,onhis
return,hegrantedlandtotheAbbeyofClairvauxtoprovidethreecandlesatStMalachy’sshrinetoplacatetheangrysaint.EdwardofEngland
returnedtoathrone,sincehisfatherhaddiedinhisabsence,andRobertBrucetheNoblecontinuedtoservehim,holdingofficeinEnglandassheriffofCumberlandfrom1283to1285.Robertmadeasecond
marriage.Hisnewbride,thoughnotashigh-bornashisfirst,wasalreadytwiceawidowandthereforebroughtintothefamilytwodowerportionsfrompreviousalliances,alllandsinCumberland.Thefatefulyear1286
probablymarkedthebirthofseriousBrucepretensionstothethroneofScotland;indeedtheeventsofthatyeargeneratedsimilaraspirations
andambitionsinmanyaristocraticheartsinScotlandandfurtherafield.Foron18March1286KingAlexanderIIIdiedastheresultofafallfromhishorse,leavingashisonlydescendantasicklythree-year-oldgirl,residentinNorway,Margaret‘theMaidofNorway’.6Anymedievalkingdomwouldhavebeenshakenbysuchacalamity,foritthrewintodoubtthe
futureoftheroyalsuccessionandjeopardisedthesecurityandtranquillityoftherealm.Althoughthethronewasnotactuallyvacant,theeventmusthaveinspiredclerksandlawyersalloverScotland,andfurtherafield,toresearcholddeeds,genealogiesandchroniclesonbehalfofnoblefamiliestodiscover,resurrect,orifnecessarymanufactureaclaimtothethroneofScotland.Any
claim,howeverunlikelyorfar-fetched,mighthaveavalue,ifitwereconsideredworthbuyingoffbymoreseriouscontenders.Forthetwoleading
magnatedynastiesinScotlandtheeventopeneduptherealpossibilityofabsolutepower.TheseweretheBrucesthemselves,who,aswehaveseen,ledawideallianceofmagnatefamiliesinthesouth-westofScotland,and
theComyns,whoformostofthethirteenthcenturyhadcontrolledthegovernmentofScotland.JohnBalliol,LordofGallowayandofBarnardCastle,wasthecandidateforkingshipbackedbytheComynsandtheirallies.Attheking’sfuneralon29MarchthemagnatesattendingdecidedtosendanembassytoEdwardIofEngland.ThemagnatesrecognisedinEdward,themonarchofa
friendlyneighbouringkingdom,apotentialallywhoseenormousmilitaryandfinancialresourcesmightbeusefulinpreservingorderinScotlandandwardingoffthedistantbuttroublingprospectofacivilwar.Hewasperhapstheonlypowercapableofcontrollingthesimmeringambitionsoftherivalmagnatealliances.ItisnotknownwhetherthisembassyreachedEdward
(whowasinFrancefrom13May1286)orwhetheritwassubsequentlyrecalled.ThekingdomofScotland
wassufficientlyrobusttofunctionforatimewithoutaking,andtheinstitutionsofstatecontinuedtooperateinthenameof‘thecommunityoftherealm’.Inofficialdocumentsthiskingdom-without-a-kingreferredtoitselfas‘thecommunityoftherealm’,andthephrase
maybevariouslyinterpretedas‘thegoverningelite’,‘thenobles’or‘thosewhohadastakeinthekingdom’.AparliamentwassummonedtoSconefor2April1286,wherethemagnatesoftherealmsworefealtytoMargaretofNorwayandundertooktokeepthepeace.AtthiscouncilRoberttheNobleflungdownthegauntlettohisadversariesandboldlystatedhisclaimto
theScottishthrone,baseduponatheory(orperhapsitwasmerelyanopinion)thatafemalecouldnotsucceedinScotland.Atoncethetensionincreased.Thoughtheclaimwouldnothavebeenunexpected,thecommunityoftherealmmusthaverealisedthatcivilwarhadcomeastepcloser.Theparliamentseemstohaveadjournedtoconsidertheimpactofthisclaim.It
reassembledaround28AprilandatthispointitislikelythatJohnBalliollodgedacounter-claimthat,bytheacceptedrulesofinheritance,heandnotBrucewasthetrueheir.Hewas,afterall,adescendantoftheelderdaughterofDavid,EarlofHuntingdon,andBruceoftheyounger.However,QueenYolandeclaimedtobeexpectingachild,adeclarationwhichtookthe
heatoutofthedebateforthepresent,andnervouslythemagnatessettleddowntoawaittheoutcomeofthepregnancy.Inthemeantimethe
parliamentsetaboutestablishingthenecessarystructuresforthegovernmentofthekingdomduringtheinterregnum.Firstly,tomanageaffairsofstate,itsetupacouncilof‘keepersofthepeace’or‘guardians’.We
mightcallitaregencycouncil.Thiscouncilofguardianswascomposedoftwoearls,twobishopsandtwobarons.Analysisoftheindividualsselectedrevealsthatinitspersonneladelicatebalancewasobservedbetweenthetwomagnatefactionsthatdominatedthekingdom.BishopRobertWishartofGlasgowandJames,thehereditarystewardofScotland,weresupporters
oftheBruces;BishopWilliamFraserofStAndrews,AlexanderComyn,EarlofBuchanandJohnComynofBadenochweresupportersofBalliol.EarlDuncanofFifemayhavehadequalattachmenttobothsides.Secondly,theparliamentdecidedthatallthenoblesshouldswearanoathofloyaltytowhosoevershouldobtainthekingdomofScotlandbyreasonof
nearnessinbloodtoKingAlexanderIII.Thiscommittedthemagnatestoacceptingtherightfulheirwhoeverthatshouldturnouttobe:Alexander’sposthumouschild,or,failingthat,Margaret,theMaidofNorway,or,failingthat,whoeverwasadjudgedtobenearestinbloodtotheking.Itwasaformulaeveryonecouldsignupto.Thusnodecisionwastaken,butthecontending
partieswereboundtoacceptanultimatedecision,andcivilwarwaswardedoff–forthetimebeing.Duringthesummerof
1286however,thegovernmentbegantopanic.On7AugustasecondembassywasdispatchedtoEdwardwithallhastetoseekhiscounselandprotection.Evidentlythequeenhadlostthechild,butunderstandablynewsofthemiscarriagewas
keptsecretasalongaspossibleforfearthattherivalmagnatecampswouldresorttoarms.ItisnotsurprisingthattheBruces,whomusthaveknownthattheirlegalclaimwastheweaker,reactedviolentlyasrumourofthemiscarriagespread.RoberttheNobleandhissonRobertBruceVIassembledtheirprincipalalliesinSeptember1286atTurnberryCastle–Patrick,EarlofMarch,and
hissons;WalterStewart,EarlofMenteith,andhissons;JamestheStewardandhisbrotherJohn;andAngusMórMacDonald,LordofIslay,andhissonAlexander–andboundthem,togetherwithtwoIrishmagnates,RicharddeBurgh,theRedEarlofUlster,andThomasdeClare,inapactofmutualassistance.7Thisarrangement,knownasthe
TurnberryBand,mighthaveinvolvedsomecommitmenttoanexpeditiontothewestofIreland,whereboththeearlofUlsteranddeClarehadinterests.MuchmoresignificanthoweverwastheimplicationthattheseIrishmagnateswerecommittedtohelpingtheBrucefactionintheeventofcivilwarinScotland.TheBrucefactionwaspreparingtobringinIrishalliestosupportRobert
theNobleinhisbidforthethrone.Inthewinterof1286–87
theBrucesseizedcontrolofthreecastlesinthesouth-westofScotland–theroyalcastlesofDumfries,WigtownandtheBalliolcastleofBuittle–securingtheSolwayFirthforthereceptionoftheirIrishallies.ThisviolencewasclearlyintendedtomenaceorintimidateJohnBalliol.Butthecoupfailed.NoIrish
alliesarrived,andJames,thehereditarystewardofScotland,chosenottostandbyhiscommitmentstotheBruces,butinstead,actingasguardian,assistedinregainingthecastlesandputtingdowntheBruces’aggression.ByMay1287itwasallover.Theactionhadamountedtolittlemorethananaggressivegesture.BesidesthoseinvolvedintheTurnberryBandtherewere
othermagnateswhomighthavejoinedtheBrucesbutdidnot:theearlsofFife,March,Atholl,LennoxandMar,BishopWishartofGlasgow,nottomentionlordsofthesecondrank,suchasSoules,LindseyandBiggar.RoberttheNoble,havingresortedtoarmsprematurelyandwithoutthesupportofhiscoalition,seemstohavewithdrawntemporarilyfromScotland.It
wasnowclearthatMargaretofNorwaywouldinheritthekingdom.ItwasdesirablefortheguardiansofthekingdomfirstlytohaveherresideinScotland,andsecondlytoarrangeamarriageforher,inorderthatScotland’sfuturebesettled.EricofNorwaywaskeenthathisdaughterinheritthekingdom,andwasprobablydelightedtolearnthatmarriagetoEdwardofCaernarfon,thesonof
EdwardofEngland,wasalsoapossibility.HesentambassadorstoEnglandtodiscussthepossibilities.SuchamatchalsoseemedanattractiveprospecttotheScottishguardians,whowereanxioustoinvolvethepowerfulEnglishmonarchinScotlandtopreventanyrecurrenceofviolence.Howeverthereweretwodangers:theEnglishkingmightusetheopportunityto
exercisethefeudaloverlordship,whichheclaimedtobehisright;andtherewasalsoadangerthatScotland’sseparatelaws,customsandinstitutionsmightbeswallowedupaltogetherifthekingdomswereunitedbyasuchamarriageofheirs.WedonotknowhowEdwardIhadrespondedtotheguardians’requestforcounselandprotection.Tojudgefromhis
lateractions,heprobablyofferedtodoallhewasaskedonconditionthathisoverlordshipofScotlandwasacknowledged.Ratherthanassenttosuchacondition,theguardiansdecidedtomanagewithouthishelp.TheyinitiateddelicatetripartitenegotiationswiththeNorwegiansandEnglishaboutthemarriageoftheabsentMargaret,theacknowledgedLadyof
Scotlandwhomallpartiesagreedshouldinheritthekingdom.EricwasreluctanttosendhisdaughtertoScotlandwhileitwasunstable.ThebriefrebellionanditssuppressionhadbeenablowtotheBrucesandforaperiodofabouttwoyearstheylostinfluence.Unrestcontinuedhowever.Lateinthesummerof1289Duncan,EarlofFife,wasambushedandslainbyhisown
relatives,theAbernethys,aneventwhichisnotsatisfactorilyexplained.TheearlofBuchanalsodied,but,probablytoavoidexacerbatingthesituation,theseguardianswerenotreplaced.Theremainingguardians
developedaplantohavethesix-year-oldMargaretmarryfive-year-oldEdwardofCaernarfon,EdwardI’sheir,wholaterbecameEdwardII;
bysucharoyalmarriageScotlandmightenterintounionwithEnglandyetsafeguardtheindependenceofhercustomsandinstitutions.RoberttheNoblemayhaveretiredtohisEnglishlandsaroundthistime,buthemanagedtosecureappointmentasoneoffourenvoystotreatwiththeNorwegianambassadors.InNovember1289theambassadorsagreedthat
MargarettheMaidshouldcometoScotlandorEnglandwithinayear,intothecustodyofhergreat-uncle,EdwardI,whowouldsendhertoScotlandassoonasthecountrywassettled.ThisarrangementisknownastheTreatyofSalisbury,and,ashasbeenpointedoutbyProfessorNicholson,itwasthefirstrecognitionbytheScotsthatEdwardIcouldinterveneinScottishaffairs.
TheScotshadtopromisenottoarrangeanymarriagefortheMaidwithouttheadviceandconsentofbothNorwegianandEnglishgovernments;buteventuallytheysucceededinnegotiatingamarriageagreementcalledtheTreatyofBirgham,on18July1290.Thesettlementheraldedaunionofthecrowns,anditwasadiplomaticcouptotheextentthatitavoidedhavingto
acknowledgetheoverlordshipclaimedbyEdwardI.Bythis,theMaidwastomarryyoungEdwardandwouldbegivendowerlandsinEngland,buttheScottishkingdomwastoremain‘separate,apartandfreeinitselfwithoutsubjectiontotheEnglishkingdom’.AlthoughthethronesofScotlandandEnglandwouldbeunitedinthepersonofonemonarch,eachrealmwouldremain
separate,and‘therights,laws,libertiesandcustomsofthesamerealmofScotlandtobepreservedineveryrespectandinalltimecomingthroughoutthesaidrealmanditsborders,completelyandwithoutbeingimpaired’.UndertheunionEdwardIcouldbeinvolvedinmaintainingpeaceinScotlandbutdeniedacontrollinginterest;andwhen,intime,themarriageproducedan
heir,thecrownsofScotlandandEnglandwouldbejoinedinaunioninwhichScotlandwouldbeanequalpartner.AmongthestipulationsofthetreatywereprovisionsguaranteeingthattherewouldbenotaxationoftheScotsexceptforScottishneeds;tenants-in-chiefoftheScottishcrownneeddohomageonlyinScotland;electionsoftheclergyweretobefreefrominterference;and
appointmentstothecustomaryofficesoftheScottishgovernmentwouldcontinue.TheonlyqualificationtotheScottishachievementisthattheseprovisionswereagreedsubjectto‘therightofoursaidlord[EdwardI]’,soallalongEdwardwassafeguardinghisclaimtobeoverlordofScotland.8Againstconsiderableodds,
theguardianshadthensucceededinlandingafutureforScotlandthatinvolvedneithercivilwarnorsubjectiontotheEnglishcrown.WithoutdoubtScotssawEdwardIasabenevolentandpotentiallystabilisinginfluence,whomtheywereanxioustoinvolveinScotlandtostaveoffunrest.ButalreadyEdwardwasbeginningtoencroachuponScottishrightsandcapitalise
upontheweaknessofhisnorthernneighbour.Sometimebetween1286and1290,theearlofUlstertookpossessionoftheIsleofMan,andin1290anassemblyofislandersmadeoverthelandofMantothekingofEngland,takingnoaccountoftheScottishclaim.TheScotsappeartohavelodgednoformalprotest.EdwardalsoappointedthepowerfulbishopofDurham,Antony
Bek,tosupervisethegovernmentofScotlandonbehalfoftheinfantmonarchs-to-be,requiringtheguardianstoobeyBek.InOctober1290the
situationofScotland,andtheattitudeofEdwardIofEngland,weretransformedbyacalamitousevent.Margaret,theMaidofNorwayandLadyofScotland,diedinOrkneyonherwaytoScotland.Therisk
ofcivilwarbetweentheprincipalclaimantstoScotlandnowescalated;patentlytherewasanurgentneedforauthorityofsomekindtopreventthesituationdegenerating.Theobvious,andindeedperhapstheonlysourceofsuchauthority,wasEdwardI,whobegantosethisowntermsforactingasprotectoroftheScottishrealm.NooneinScotlandraisedanyobjectiontohis
involvementasadjudicatorinthequestionofwhowastosucceedtotheScottishthrone.Intriguingly,thereexistedaprecedentforappealtoanoutsidemonarchtojudgeinacaseofdisputedsuccession.FrederickBarbarossa,theGermanEmperor,hadsatinjudgementinthecaseoftheDanishthroneintheeleventhcentury,butitisthoughtthatEdwardwasprobably
unawareofthis.Edwardwasstillbeing
drawnintotheScottisharenaasopposedtoforcingintervention,fortheScottishfactionsweremakingapproachestohim.BishopFraserwroteinOctober,warningEdwardthattheBrucefactionhadalreadytakenuparms,thatRoberttheNoblehadcometoPerth,nearScone,withapowerfulretinue;FraseraskedEdward
tocometothebordertopreventbloodshed,andtoplacetherightfulheironthethrone.HeimpliedstronglythatBalliolwasthatrightfulheir.ThedocumentreceivedfromtheBrucefactionisknownastheAppealoftheSevenEarls.TheAppealisablendofinvention,traditionandantiquarianmyth,anditrepresentsBrucepropagandaofanunsubtlevariety.ItsoughtEdward’shelpagainst
BishopFraserandJohnComyn,anditrevealsthatthecommitteeoftheguardianswasnowdominatedbytheBalliolinterest.Itallegedthattheguardians’officerswereravagingMoray.ThekernelofthedocumenthoweverisahithertounheardofconstitutionaltheorythatthesevenearlsofScotlandhadtherighttochoosetheking.Balliol’ssupportersadvancednosuchtheoriesandputtheir
faithintheacceptedlawsofprimogeniture.Thatsaid,BalliolwasnotaboveslippingatimelybribetoEdwardI’sright-handman:as‘heirtothekingdomofScotland’.HesealedachartergrantingEdwardI’soverseer,AntonyBek,landsheldbytheScottishkinginEngland,or,shouldEdwardIrefusetoallowthat,500marks-worthoflandinScotland.Althoughbothlettersto
EdwardIprobablyexaggeratetheextentofdisorder,thedangerofcivilwarwaslooming.Probablytoeveryone’sreliefEdwarddecidedthatthedisputeoverthethroneofScotlandshouldbedecidedbyhimself,buthewouldactonlyinthecapacityofScotland’soverlord.InMarch1291heorderedEnglishmonasteriestosearchtheirchroniclesforinformationonthehistoric
relationshipbetweenthetwokingdoms.TosomeScotsitmayhaveseemed–asitnowseemstous–thatEdwardwastakingadvantageofthevacancyoftheScottishmonarchytoclarifytohisownadvantagetherelationshipbetweenthekingdoms.EdwardtravelledtoNorham,ontheEnglishbankoftheRiverTweed,arrivinginMay1291,wheremagnates,notariesand
lawyersassembledforthecourtcasetosettlewhoshouldinheritthekingshipofScotland.ItisknowntohistoryastheGreatCause.TheEnglisharmywastomusteratNorhamon2June,andthefleetmadereadytoblockadeScotlandsothatEdward’sjudgementmightbeenforcedshouldthisbecomenecessary.Edwardbeganby
establishingrightsof
jurisdictionoverScotland.HepointedoutthatScottishkingswereneithercrownednoranointedandrepresentedthisasproofthattheyweresubordinate.Heasked‘thehighmenoftheScots’–probablytheguardians–toacknowledgehimasoverlord.TheScotsrefused,onthegroundthattheyhadnoknowledgeofhisclaim,andthatonlyakingofScotlandcouldrespond.Edwardthen
soughtsuchanacknowledgementfromtheclaimants(or‘competitors’)tothethrone.Thiswasforthcoming,andneitherRoberttheNoblenorJohnBalliol,noranyoftheotherclaimants,madedifficultyaboutacknowledgingEdward’ssuzeraintyoverScotland.FurthermoretheyagreedthatEdwardmighttaketherealmintohisownhands,solongashethen
grantedittothesuccessfulcandidate.Edwardaccepted,and,notwithoutsomecaginessonthepartofthecommanders,theroyalcastlesofScotlandwerehandedovertohiskeeping.ItisunlikelythatEdwardtheninstalledEnglishgarrisonsinScottishcastlesgenerally,thoughhemayhavedonesointhecaseofBerwick.Edwardthentookthehomageandfealtyoftheguardians,bishopsandallthe
magnatesoftherealm,andarrangedthatoathsoffealtyfromasmanynoblesaspossiblebecollectedonhisbehalf.InJune1291theguardiansacceptedthattheirprovisionalgovernmentderiveditsauthorityfromEdwardassuperioroverlord,afatefulconcessionthatcarriedtheimplicationsthatScotlandwasasub-kingdomratherthanfullyindependent,andthatthenextkingof
ScotswouldbeavassalofthekingofEngland.Edwardthenmadeashorttourofthemaintownsofhissub-kingdom,takinginEdinburgh,StAndrewsandPerth.HistakingcontrolofcastlesandhistourofinspectioncannothavebeenwellreceivedbyScotsofanyclass.Thisvictory,wonwithoutaswordbeingdrawn,Edwardwouldshortlysquander,transformingitintoarunning
sorethatwouldplaguethelastdecadeofhislife.RobertBruceVII,theking
tobe,wassixteenyearsofagewhenMargaretofNorwaydiedandhesurelyfollowedtheseeventswithbreathlessinterest,perfectlyawarethathisownfatewouldbeprofoundlyaffectedbythesuccessorfailureofhisgrandfather’sclaim.Aswehaveseen,itisaroundthistimethathewasknighted,
andbegantoappearonthepoliticalstageintheBrucedynasticinterest.OnEdward’sreturnto
Berwick,hearingsbeganthereinAugust1291,andacourtof104auditorswassetup,40chosenbyRoberttheNoble,40byBallioland24byEdward.TheGreatCausewastolastayearandahalf,thoughthisincludedanine-monthadjournmenttoallowforresearch.Atotalof14
claimantshadnowsteppedintothering,mostofwhomweredismissedatanearlystage.OneofthesewasJohnComynIIofBadenoch,oneoftheguardiansandleaderofthemightyComynfaction.TherebuttalofComyn’sownfairlyweakclaimcameneitherasasurprisenorasmuchofasetbacksincehewasmarriedtoasisterofJohnBalliol,theodds-onfavourite.
Fourseriouscompetitorsemerged:Bruce,Balliol,FlorentCountofHollandandJohnHastings,anEnglishbaron.FlorentV,CountofHolland,lodgedaverystrongclaim,basedonhisdescentfromadaughterofEarlHenry,thesonofDavidI,buthelackedsufficientdocumentaryevidencetosubstantiateit.InfactFlorenthadbeenencouragedtoenteraclaimbyBruce.Awarethat
hisownclaimwasweakerthanthatofBalliol,butalsothatFlorentdidnothavethenecessarydocumentationtoprovehisstillstrongerclaim,Brucecutadealwiththecount.Wehavethetextoftheagreement,sealedon14June1292.IfeitherBruceorFlorentgainedthethrone,thesuccessfulpartywouldgrantonethirdoftheScottishroyaldemesnetotheother,tobeheldasafiefforserviceofa
merefiveknights;andifBrucewereawardedthethrone,hewouldgranttoFlorentlandsinEnglandequivalenttoonethirdoftheScottishroyaldemesne.Florenthadclearlylittleindependentmotivation.Bruceappearedtobeofferinghimachancetogaingreatwealthatnorisk,andsohehadagreedtoassistBruceinhisscheme.Forhispart,thedeviousRobertwasclearly
anxioustocreateobstaclesinthewayofBalliolsuccess.Anotherofthelessercompetitors,alsoencouragedbyBruce,wasKingEricofNorway.Hisfar-fetchedclaim,madelateintheday,wassoondismissed.However,byencouragingEric’sinvolvementRoberttheNoblemanagedtogainsomethingforhisson,andinNovember1292RobertBruceVIjourneyedtoNorwayto
arrangethemarriageofhisdaughterIsabeltoKingEric.TheguileofRoberttheNobleistobemarvelledat:hehadpreparedtwostalkinghorses,FlorentandEric,andlater,inresponsetoevents,hehaddevelopedafallbackposition–thatthekingdommightbepartitioned.HewasutterlydeterminedtogetsomethingoutoftheGreatCause.ThehearingsoftheGreat
Causegroundon.Thethree
mainclaimantswerealldescendantsofdaughtersofDavid,EarlofHuntingdon(d.1219),thegrandsonofDavidIofScotland.JohnHastingsclaimeddescentfromtheyoungestdaughter,Ada,andarguedthatScotlandwasnotatruekingdom,butsimplyalordshipsubjecttothekingsofEngland,and,assuch,theterritoryshouldbepartitionedamongthedescendantsoffemaleco-heiresses,thethree
daughters,asanylandedestatewouldbedividedwhenmalelinefailed.AtthispointRoberttheNoblearguedvehementlythatthekingdomcouldnotbepartitioned,thoughlaterhewastochangethatposition.ThecourtrejectedtheHastingsargumentonthegroundthattheunityofthekingdomofScotlandshouldbepreserved.OnlyBruceandBalliol
remained.Mostauthorities
concurthatJohnBalliol’scasewasstronger,andthatBalliolenjoyedwidersupportamongthenobilityandtheclergythantheBruce.Balliol’scasewasbasedonthesimplelawofprimogeniture:thekingdomcouldnotbedivided,andthereforehadtobeawardedtothedescendantofDavidofHuntingdon’seldestdaughter,Margaret,namelyhimself,hergrandson.Balliol
thereforehadabettercasetothethronethaneitherRobertBruce,thesonofthesecondofdaughter,Isabel,orJohnHastings,thegrandsonofAda,thethirdandyoungestdaughter.Seniorityofline,notnearnessofdegree,waswhatmattered,intheBalliolview.RoberttheNoblewasnot
dauntedbythesimplicityoftheBalliolclaim.Hislawyerstooaccepted(initially)that
thekingdomcouldnotbedivided.Buttheymaintainedthat,accordingtotheestablishedlawsandcustomsofScotland,alivingyoungersonhadastrongerclaimtosucceedthanthesonofadeceasedelderson,andthatBruce,asthesonoftheseconddaughter,shouldsucceedinsteadofJohnBalliol,thegrandsonoftheeldestdaughter.Onthisbasisheclaimedtobe‘nearerin
blood’.Furthermore,andaswehaveseen,RoberttheNobleclaimedthat,atatimebeforeAlexanderIIhadchildrentosucceedhim,thatkinghadappointedhimashisheir,shouldhecometogriefinwar.Asfarashistoricalprecedentwent,thereislittleevidencetosupportBruce’sassertions.Themostrecentworksuggeststhatitwas‘ahopeentertainedbythefamilywhichmayhavebeen
builtuponhints’madebyKingAlexanderIIaround1238,thatBrucehadapossiblerighttothethrone.ThereisnothingthatsuggeststhatBrucehadanythingbutcompleteconvictioninthejusticeofhisowncase.Itwasuniversallyaccepted
howeverthattheScottishthronedescendedbymaleprimogeniture,andmostrulesandprecedentsfavouredtheBalliolclaim.Astheysawthe
caseslippingawayfromthem,Bruce’slawyersindesperationconcededafterallthatthekingdommightbedividedandthatthedescendantsofeachofthethreedaughtersofEarlDavidshouldobtainhisthirdofthelandandincome.ThislatechangeofpleahascontributedtothechargethattheBruceswereunpatrioticandself-seeking.Notonlyweretheypreparedto
acknowledgetheoverlordshipofEdwardI,theyalsowerepreparedtoacquiesceinpartitionofthekingdom.WemustbearinmindhoweverthateverycompetitorhadacknowledgedEdward’soverlordship,andthatnomedievalmagnatewouldturndownthechanceofonethirdofakingdom.Withdefeatstaringhimin
theface,RoberttheNoblemayhavebegunseeking
assurancesfromhisallies.InOctober1292William,EarlofSutherlandattestedthathehadswornanoathtoSirRobertBruceofAnnandaletoassisthimwithalladviceandpowertoprosecutehisclaimtothethroneofScotland.WheninNovember1292itbecameclearthatthewritingwasonthewallforRoberttheNoble’sclaim,thiswastheoccasionofareshuffleofresponsibilitieswithinthe
Brucedynasty.PossiblytoavoidthepersonalindignityofrebuffbythecourtatNorham,theCompetitorresignedhisclaimtohissonandtohisheirs:‘Weinformallofyouthatwehavegranted,andtotallysurrendered,toourwell-belovedsonRobertBruce,EarlofCarrick,andhisheirs,thewholerightandclaimthatwehad,orcouldhavehad,tosuefortherealmofScotland
…wegiveandgrantofourfreewill,tooursonandhisheirs,fullandfreepowertosuefortherealm…’Dayslaterthatson,Robert
BruceVI,theEarlofCarrickinrightofhiswife,resignedtheearldomtohisson,RobertBruceVII,thefutureking.Infactsuchadeedcouldnotbelegallybinding:anearldomwasnotintheearl’sgiftandwassomethingthatonlyakingcouldbestow.Butit
showsonegenerationoftheBrucedynastypassingonthetorchtothenext.MuchthoughtnowwillhavegoneintofindingasuitablematchfortheyoungearlofBrucedynastyCarrick.Everymarriageamongthenobilityrepresentedanallianceandeverybridebroughtdowerlandintothefamily.Intheyear1296orthereaboutsRobertmarriedIsabel,daughteroftheearlofMar;
shortlyafterwardsadaughterwasborntothem,whomtheynamedMarjorie,probablyinhonourofRobert’smother.EdwardIpronouncedin
favourofJohnBalliolon17November1292,bringingtheGreatCausetoaclose,andbringingbitterdefeattotheBruces.OnStAndrew’sDay1292(30November),JohnBalliolwasenthronedontheStoneofDestinyatSconeinthetime-honouredfashionas
KingofScots,beingsolemnlyledtothethrone,notintraditionalformbytheearlofFife,whowasaninfant,butbySirJohndeStJohnastheearl’srepresentative.KingJohndidhomagetoEdwardashisoverlord.TheComynfamilyresumedthecontrolofgovernmentthatithadenjoyedforhalfacentury,andthespoilsofhighofficeandroyalpatronagewentto
themandtheirallies.AtKingJohn’sfirstparliament,inFebruary1293,AlexanderMacDougallofArgyllbecamesheriffofLorn,theroyalagentcontrollingthesouth-westcoastline,confirmationofadominancethathadexistedinthepreviousreign.Bycontrast,hisrival,AngusMórMacDonald,asupporteroftheBruces,absentedhimselffromthegathering.Atthe
subsequentStirlingparliamentofAugust1293,thenineteen-year-oldRobertBruceVIIwasestablishedinhismother’searldomofCarrick.HewassponsoredbyJamestheStewardandtheearlofMar.HecannothaveavoidedpayingareliefandperforminghomageandfealtytoKingJohnBalliol,buthisgrandfatherandhisfatherwereconspicuousbytheirabsenceontheoccasion
andneithereverdidhomagetoBalliol.Tothedelightofthe
Bruceshowever,relationsbetweenJohnandEdwardsoonbegantodeteriorate.Naturally,theBruceswouldsidewiththeEnglishagainstKingJohnandhisComynallies.ButthegreatpatriarchoftheBrucefamily,RobertBrucetheNoble,diedagedaboutseventy-fiveatLochmabenon31March
1295,justayearbeforewarbetweenEnglandandScotlandbrokeout.HewasburiedwithhisancestorsinGuisboroughPrioryon17April.Thegenesisofthiswar
betweenthekingdomslayinEdwardI’sdeliberateprovocationoftheScots,andalsotoanextentinhisneedformilitaryservice.EdwardhaddefinedtherelationshipbetweenScotlandand
Englandtohisownliking:hehaddefinedthestatusofthekingdomofScotlandandhehadchosenitsking.Thatkingenjoyedwidespreadsupportandtheloyaladherenceofthelong-establisheddominantmagnateinterest,theComyns.YetthoughhehadputBalliolinthesaddle,Edwardnowrefusedtolethimridebyhimself.Insteadheallowed,andevenencouraged,individualScots
toappealovertheheadoftheirnewkingtohimselfasoverlord.Predictably,oneofthosewhoappealedovertheheadofKingJohntothesuperiorlordwasAlexanderMacDonaldoftheIsles,thesonofAngusMórandaninveterateenemyoftheMacDougallswhowerenowintheascendantinthewestofScotland.ThetwofamilieshadrecentlybeenlinkedbythemarriageofAlexander
MacDonaldtoJulianaMacDougall.9KingJohnhadarbitratedbetweenAlexanderandhiswife’sfamilyinabitterdisputeoverJuliana’sdowerlandatLismore,hadgivenjudgementagainsthim,andwasnowenforcingthatjudgementbytakingtemporarypossessionofthatland.Accordingly,Alexanderandhiswife,Juliana,tooktheircomplainttoEdwardI,
allegingthatKingJohnhadoccupiedapartofLismoreandwasrefusingtohanditovertothem.Notsurprisingly,EdwardfoundinfavourofMacDonaldandcalledthenewKingofScotstoaccount.AnothersuchappellantwasMalcolmlefitzEngleys,elsewhereknownasMacCulianorMacQuillan,alordofKintyrewhosimilarlyclaimedthatKingJohnhaddeniedhimjustice.These
weretwoofadozensimilarappealsmadebyScotstoEdwardI,mostofthempoliticallyinspiredtoembarrassthenewKingofScots.TherewasnotraditionofappealsfromScottishcourtstocourtsoutsidethekingdom(except,rarely,tothepapalcourt).Edwardnodoubtconsideredthathewasmerelyexercisinghisrights,butbyentertainingsuchappealsEdwardwasinsulting
thedignityoftheScottishkingandneedlesslyrubbingthenosesofScotsinthediminishedstatusoftheirmonarchy.ScotswerewellawareofEdward’ssubjugationofWalesin1282–84,anddrewtheinevitablecomparisonthattheirhomelandwasalsobeingreducedtoamereappendageofEngland.KingJohn,asmightbe
expected,refusedto
acknowledgethelegitimacyofsuchappealsandignoredboththemandtheinevitablesummonsbeforetheEnglishcourtofKing’sBenchinMay1293.EventuallyhoweverhewaspressurisedintoappearingbeforetheparliamentofEnglandintheautumnofthatyear.FacingthewrathfulEdwardbeforeahostileaudiencemusthavebeenaterrifyingordeal.Johndeclaredthathehadnopower
toanswerthechargesoranythingtouchinghiskingdomwithouttheadviceofhispeople.Thenhebegantovacillate,renewinghishomageandfealtyandpromisingobedience.EdwardmerelyraisedthestakesandincreasedtheprovocationbydemandingthepersonalmilitaryserviceofKingJohninthewarwhichnowloomedbetweenEnglandandFrance,aswellastheserviceoften
earlsandsixteenbarons.KingJohnpreparedtosubmit.NokingofScotlandhadperformedoverseasmilitaryserviceatthebehestoftheEnglishkingforahundredandthirtyyears,andtheScottisharistocracywerescandalised,aswellasoutragedthattheyhadbeensummonsedasvassalstofightEdward’sbattlesforhim.KingJohn’sComyn-
dominatedcouncilhowever,inspiredperhapsbyaWelshrevoltin1295,resolveduponastanceoffirmresistancetoEdward’sdemands.John’sobjectionswereovercomebydrasticactiononthepartofhiscouncillors.AtaparliamentheldinStirlingon5July1295theytookmanagementofrelationswiththeFrenchoutofKingJohn’shands.Inanunprecedentedmove,acounciloftwelve,
bentonresistancetoEdward’sdemands,wasappointedtorulethecountryandtheysentadeputationtoKingPhiliptheFairofFrancewhichnegotiatedanalliancebetweenthegovernmentofKingJohnandKingPhilip.ScotsandFrenchdraftedatreatyinParisinOctober1295,providingforthemarriageofPhilip’sdaughterJeannewithJohn’ssonEdwardBalliol.Thetreaty
thusprovidedfortheFrenchtohaveapermanentinterestinalliancewithScotland,somethingthatnomonarchofEnglandcouldtolerate.EdwardI,wellawarethat
matterswerecomingtoahead,demandedinOctober1295thesurrenderofBerwick,RoxburghandJedburghcastlesuntiltheendofhiswarwithFrance,andheinsistedthatneitherFrenchmennorFlemmings
shouldbepermittedtoenterScotland.HemetwithrobustrefusalandgaveordersinJanuary1296fortroopsfromEnglishcountiestoassembleatNewcastleon1March.ThecouncilactinginthenameofKingJohnmeanwhilesummonedtheScottishhosttomeetatCaddonleeontheTweedon11March.AlongwiththeBruces,twootherScottishearlssupportedEdwardI:Gilbertde
Umfraville,EarlofAngus,anEnglishman,andPatrick,EarlofMarch.TheBrucefamilywithdrewtemporarilyfromScotland.RobertBruceVI,havingsucceededtoAnnandaleonhisfather’sdeath,wasobligedtoabandonhisfamilyestate.TheLanercostchroniclerecordsthattheScottishmagnates‘pronouncedforfeitureofhispaternalheritageuponRobertdeBrus
theyounger,whohadfledtoEngland,becausehewouldnotdohomagetothem.AlsotheyforfeitedhissonintheearldomofCarrick,whereinhehadbeeninfeft,becauseheadheredtohisfather.’JohnComyn,whohad
succeededhisfatherAlexanderin1289,bothasearlofBuchanandasconstableofScotland,tookcontroloftheBrucepatrimony;hehadprobably
beengranteditasaforfeiturebythecouncil.EdwardIhad,however,providedasaferefugefortheBrucesbyappointingRobertBruceVItothecommandofCarlisleCastleinOctober1295.AlmostthefirstblowinthewarbetweenEnglandandScotlandwasadirectattackontheBruces.On26MarchsevenScottishearls–Buchan,Menteith,Strathearn,Lennox,Ross,Atholland
Mar–madeasurpriseattackonthewalledcityofCarlislefromacrossthefordsoftheSolwayFirth.ButforthepresenceoftheearlofMar,itisclearthatthiswasnotsomuchawarbetweenEnglandandScotlandastheComynfactionattackingitstraditionalenemies.10TheScotsburntthesuburbsandtriedtoburndownoneofthegates,andaspywithinthe
citycreatedafirewhichpanickedthecitizensforashortwhile.Thecitizens,however,brokedownthebridgeovertheEden,andfromthecitywallswomendroppedstonesandpouredboilingwaterontheScotsbelow.NextdaytheScotsgaveuptheattackandretiredtoAnnandale.YoungRobertBrucewillhavehelpeddefendCarlisleonthisoccasion,andwillhave
gainedfirst-handknowledgeofthecity’sdefences.ThenexttimeCarlislewasbesiegedhewouldbeleadingtheattack.Ontheeasternrouteinto
England–the‘EastMarch’–theEnglishhostcrossedtheTweedtoconfrontBerwick,thelargesttowninScotland.OneoftheEnglishchronicles,therhymingchronicleofPeterLangtoft,containssnatchesofpopular
songthatcapturethebitterlychauvinistic,rabidlyxenophobicmoodinwhichthiswarwasfought.11HerecordsthetauntsandjeersoftheScotsatBerwick.‘LethimPikeandLethimDyke’,sangtheScotsasEdwardmethodicallybuiltfortifications–aditchandapalisade–priortohisattack.ThenEdwardunleashedadevastatingattackonthe
poorlydefendedtown.Bower’sScotichronicondescribesgreatslaughter:‘theaforesaidKingofEnglandsparednoone,whatevertheageorsex,andfortwodaysstreamsofbloodflowedfromthebodiesoftheslain,forinhistyrannousrageheordered7,500soulsofbothsexestobemassacred.’Chronicles,writtentoentertainandedifyaswellastoinform,arepronetoexaggerationand
statisticscitedinthemarenottobetakenseriously.Nevertheless,wegatherthatthestormingofthetownwasaccompaniedbygreatbloodshed.LangtoftrecordsthesongoftheEnglishfootaboutthemassacre:
ScatteredaretheScots,Huddledintheirhuts,Neverdotheythrive.RightifIread,TheyaretumbledintoTweed,
TheScottishcavalry,ledbyRoss,MenteithandAtholl,meanwhileraidedNorthumberland,butwhenthetwomainhostsengagedatDunbaron2Apriltherecouldbenodoubtastowhichwouldprevail.EdwardI’scavalry,commandedbyJohn,EarlWarenne,andseasonedinrecentWelshandGasconcampaigns,overwhelmedtheflowerofScottishchivalry
andslaughteredtheinfantry.TheEnglishfootsangrowdilyoftheirvictory,andjeeredattheScotsforrobbingthecorpsesofnoblesonthebattlefield:
ThefootfolkPuttheScotsinthepoke,Andbaredtheirbuttocks.BythewayNeverheardIsayOfreadierboysTorobTherobesoftherich
Thatfellinthefield.Theytookofeachman;MaytheroughraggedfiendTeartheminhell!
Afterthisshatteringdefeattherewasverylittleresistanceexceptinthewest.ThereHighlanders,underAlexanderMacDougall,LordofLorn,hadtobequelledbyanexpeditionfromIreland.Otherwise,Scotlandwastooshockedtoresist.That
summerEdwardspentinmakingastatelyprogressthroughthetownsandcastlesoftheeastcoast,takingcontrolofEdinburghafteraweek’ssiege,thenStirling,Perth,Aberdeen,Banff,andevenreachingElginlateinJuly.EdwardinsisteduponanabjectsurrenderfromKingJohn,andobtainedit.CeremoniallyKingJohnwasstrippedofregality,andbecameknownas‘Toom
Tabard’.Thenickname–‘theemptysurcoat’–conveyedthatJohnhadbecomeanullity,orperhapsinmodernEnglisha‘stuffedshirt’.ThekingdomwashandedovertoEdwardIasoverlord,andJohn,theunmadeking,wassentsouthasaprisonertotheTowerofLondon.TheearlsofAtholl,RossandMenteithwerealsosentintocaptivity,alongwithJohnComyntheyoungerofBadenoch.Lesser
prisonersweresenttoothercastlesinEngland.AlmostonehundredScotsofthegentilclassesweremadeprisoner;manytobereleasedonpaymentofaransomorsureties,othersofhigherrankimprisonedpartlytoimpressuponthemtheforceofEdward’slordship,partlytoguaranteegoodbehaviourfromtheirtenantsorkinsmen,andpartlyastrophiestoimpressandgratifythe
English.Thetreasury,jewels,plate
andregaliaofthekingsofScotlandwereloadedontobaggagetrainsforEngland,buttrophiesofanothersortwerealsocaptured.Thesewerethesacredrelicsofthekingdom:theBlackRoodofStMargaret,ajewelledreliccasecontainingapieceofthecrossofChrist;andtheStoneofDestiny,onwhichScottishkingshadbeenenthroned
timeoutofmind.InEnglishtownsandcitiesthemobswerejubilantlyrecitinganti-Scottishlampoonsandscurrilousjeeringsongs,recordedinthechronicleofPeterLangtoft:
ThesorceryOfAlbanyCannotprevail.[St]Andrewisdead,Orhesleepsattheminster.
Theirking’sseatofScone
IsdrivenoverdownsCarriedtoLondon.
Edwardwasinterestedinacquiringthemagicalpropertiesoftheseobjectsforhimselfandhisdynasty.InthepasthehadacquiredthemostsacredofWelshrelics,afragmentofthetruecrosscalledYGroesNaidorthe‘CrossofNeath’andthecrownofArthur,andhadparadedthemthroughthe
streetsbeforeaddingthemtotheshrineofStEdwardtheConfessor,thesaintwhomEdwardregardedashisspiritualmentor.Hehadbroughtthe‘CrossofNeath’withhimonhistriumphaljourneythroughScotlandin1296,andheobligedBishopWisharttoswearfealtytohimonthatveryrelic.ToWishart,Scotland’sleadingchurchmanandpatriot,themessagewasclear:Edward
hadappropriatedtohimselfallthepowerofScotland,temporalandspiritual,ashehadalreadyappropriatedthatofWales.Itwasjustasimportantto
sendoutanunmistakablesignaltotheScotsthattherewouldbenosubsequentScottishkingunlessEdwardconsented.HedecidedtoruleScotlandas‘superiorlord’,withoutintermediary,andthroughmereofficials.With
thewarwonandScotland’shumiliationcomplete,EdwardwasdelightedtopassoverresponsibilityforScotlandtoalieutenant.Warennewasappointed,andashetossedWarennethegreatsealofScotlandEdwardcheerfullyremarked,‘Whenyougetridofaturd,youdoagoodjob.’AttheAugust1296parliamentinBerwickanordinanceforthegovernmentofScotlandwas
drawnup,detailinghowEdwardwouldhenceforthrulethekingdom.WhatthenoftheBruces?
Bowerrecords,andwehavenoreasontodoubtit,thatRobertBruceVIchoseanopportunemoment,approachedEdwardIanddelicatelyremindedhimthat,nowtheBalliolclaimtothethronehadbeenoverthrown,asrunner-upintheGreatCausehewasinlinefor
employmentasvassal-kingofScotland.Thisdemeaningrequestelicitedtherichlydeservedandcrushinglyscornfulresponse,‘DoyouthinkIhavenothingbettertodothanwinkingdomsforyou?’
Edward’sconquestofScotlandin1296hadbeenapushover,and,asScotswerewellaware,hehadjustfinishedprosecutingthelastofthreebitterwarstosubdueWales.ThekingshipofBritainwasbeckoning,asPeterLangtoft,CanonofBridlington,acknowledged:
Nowaretheislandersalljoinedtogether,AndAlbanyreunitedtothe
regalitiesOfwhichKingEdwardisproclaimedlord.CornwallandWalesareinhispowerAndIrelandthegreatathiswill.ThereisneitherkingnorprinceofallthecountriesExceptKingEdward,whohasthusunitedthem.
Amangroundedinhardpoliticalrealities,Edwardhimselfcanhardlyhavebeenundertheillusionthathis
subjectionofScotlandwascomplete,butfornowhehadtoswitchhisattentiontoFrance,afarmorepowerfulenemy.Scotsalsoknewthatthe
humiliationoftheirhomelandwasgoingdownratherwellinEngland.Anintenselyconservativepeople,theyhadjustwitnessedastoundingchangeintheacceptedorderofthings.Mostwillhavebeenprofoundlyshockedat
thedegradationofScottishkingship,thehumiliatingdefeatoftheirlairdsinbattleandthesacrilegiousremovalofthesacredrelicsofthekingdom.TheyregardedthetermsoftheTreatyofBirghamasthestandardforanacceptableunionwithEngland,butEdwardIhadignoredthoseterms,trampledalloverScottishsensibilitiesandmadeeveryefforttodestroyScotland’sseparate
identity.HadtheEnglishpresence
beenlimitedtotheimpositionofafewdisciplinedcastlegarrisons,itispossiblethattheScotsmighthavetolerateditforatime.Hadthechangeofregimehadlittlepracticaleffectonthegreatmassofthepeople,itmighthavelasted.Infacttheneworderpresentedthreeseriousthreatstothewell-beingofthepeople:securityoflanded
propertywasjeopardised;financialexactionsimpoverishedeverysocialclass,andthehorrendousprospectofenforcedmilitaryserviceoverseasloomed.Totheseelements,whicharetheprincipalcausesoftheuprisingof1297,thewidespreadsenseofoutrageatEnglishtriumphalismandlossoffreedommustsurelybeadded.Anythreattosecurityof
landedtenurewassuretoprovokeaviolentreactionfromthepropertiednobleclasses,andanatmosphereofuncertaintyprevailedearlyintheautumnandearlywinter.EdwardhadimprisonedmanyoftheScottishleaders,andtheyremainedinprisonwellinto1297.Itremainedtobeseenwhethertheywouldberestoredtotheirlands.Already,inthesummerof1296,Edward’sofficialshad
traversedthecountry,extractinganoathoffealtytoEdwardfromeverysubstantialfreeholderinthelandandtakingevidenceofit.Thesewrittenandsealedtestimonials,over1,500ofthem,wererecordedonadocumentknownastheRagmanRoll.Theveryapproachtocollectionofthesefealties,methodicalandlegalisticasitwas,willhavegeneratedfearof
dispossession.ForwhyshouldEdwardwanttheseproofsofswornloyaltyifitwerenottoextractmilitaryorotherservices?TheBruces,nowbackinpossessionofAnnandale,acquiredanewneighbour,astheformerBalliollordshipofGallowaywasawardedtotheEnglishmanHenryPercy.RobertBruceVI,LordofAnnandale,andhissonRobertBruceVII,Earlof
Carrickandfutureking,wereswornandappearontherollalongwithalltheothers.ButnoteveryoneofnotewasrepresentedontheRagmanRoll.MalcolmandWilliamWallace,vassalsoftheSteward,arenotrecordedashavingsworn.Lowerdownthesocialscale,theywillhavebeenmoreeasilyomitted,andtheabsenceoftheirnamesisnotproofofprincipledopposition.
Financialexactionscertainlyincreasedasaresultofthechangeofregime.EdwardhadinstalledHughCressinghamastreasurerofScotland,andhistaskwastoraisemoneyforEdward’swarwithKingPhiliptheFairofFrance.Cressingham’sexactionsweresuchthatbyMay1297hewasabletosendthehugesumof£5,188totheEnglishexchequer.Itwascustomaryforakingto
obtainparliamentarysanctionforthecollectionoftaxes,butthissumwasraisedbygatheringintheking’sdebts,andtheprofitsofjustice,fines,wardshipsandmarriages.InEnglandageneral‘prise’orseizureofwoolwasconductedaspartofroyalpolicy.ThisalsoappliedinScotlandandmusthavebeenhugelyunpopularwithgreatreligioushousesthatproducedthewool,and
themerchantsoftheeast-coastportswhoexportedit.ItwasprobablyEdward’slong-termintentiontopayforthiswool,justas,technically,thecasualseizuresofgoodsandtransportbytheking’sministers–alsoknownas‘prises’–wereallsupposedtobepaidforinthelongrun.Butthesefinancialexpedientsthoroughlyalienatedthemerchantsoftheeast-coasttownsandcountrypeople
livinginproximitytocastlegarrisons.Cressingham,afatandunpleasantman,waspersonallyloathedbytheScots.Itwas,however,the
prospectofhavingtoserveoverseasthatappearstohavecausedmostalarm.ThewidespreadbeliefwasthatEdwardintendedto‘seizeallthemiddlepeopleofScotlandtosendthemoverseasinhiswar,totheirgreatdamage
anddestruction’.EarlyinJune1297EdwardbegantoreleasethecapturedScottishnoblesfromprisoninreturnforpromisestoserveinhisplannedcampaignagainstFranceinFlanders.ThosereleasedincludedmanyofthegoverningComyn–Balliolfaction:thetwoJohnComynsofBadenoch–theelderandtheyounger–JohnComyn,EarlofBuchan,AlexanderdeBalliolandAlexander,Earlof
Menteith.Accordingly,themagnateswhogovernedlargeswathesofthecountryreturnedtotheirestates,andleadershipwasrestoredtoadefeatedpeople.Edwardexpectedthemtobeginenlistingtheirtenantryinpreparationforserviceoverseas.Inthewest,Gaelicclans
realignedthemselvesinaccordancewiththeneworder.UndertheComyn-
dominatedgovernmentsofAlexanderIIIandKingJohn,MacDougallhadbeenintheascendantandMacDonaldexcludedfromroyalpatronage.ButonthedefeatoftheScotsthissituationwasreversed:theMacDonaldshadsidedwiththeEnglish–andtheBruces–againsttheirtraditionalenemies,andreapedthebenefitsofhavingbackedthewinner.AlexanderMacDonaldofIslayandhis
youngerbrotherAngusÓgbecameEdward’schiefagentsintheregion,leavingtheMacDougallsexcludedfrompatronage,butfarfrompowerless.12OnreleasefromimprisonmentatBerwickinMay1297,AlexanderofArgyllandhissonJohnwentontherampage,attackingMacDonald,CampbellandMacSweenterritories.Thisson,JohnofArgyll,knownas
JohnBachach(‘theLame’)waslatertoemergeasoneofRobertBruce’smostinveteratefoes.Tocounterthisthreat,Edward’sgovernmentappointedAlexanderMacDonaldofIslayasbaillieofKintyre,formerlyanofficeheldbyJamestheSteward,andbaillieinthesheriffdomsofLorn,RossandtheIsles,privilegedpositionsformerlyheldbyAlexander
MacDougallofArgyll.Thusinthesummerof1297theMacDonaldswerestruggling,onEdwardofEngland’sbehalf,torestrainthiswidespreadMacDougallrebellion.Theviolenceinthewest
hadprobablyneverceasedsince1296andcanlargelybeexplainedbytraditionalanimosities,butclearcentresofrevoltspecificallyagainstEdwardiangovernment
crystallisedinthesouth-west,intheForestofSelkirkandinthenorthofScotland.WhilethelordofAnnandalehimself,RobertBruceVI,remainedaloof,stillclingingperhapstotheremotepossibilitythatEdwardIwouldinstallhimassub-king,therevoltinthesouth-westwasnourishedbythetraditionalalliesoftheBruces,theformercroniesofRoberttheNoble,Jamesthe
StewardandBishopWishartofGlasgow.BothareaccusedbyEnglishchroniclesofstirringupthisrevolt,whichbeganinMay1297inpartsofGalloway.Furthernorth,inLanark,WilliamWallace–whowasoneoftheSteward’stenants–attackedandkilledWilliamHesilrig,theEnglishsheriff,andtherisingbecamewidespread.InthefarnorthmeanwhileAndrewMorayledentirelyseparateattacks
ontheEnglishgarrisonatCastleUrquhartthatsamemonth.Finally,inAberdeenshire,remarkablytheEnglishsheriffdefectedtothesideoftherebels.Theseoriginallyunconnectedrevolts,mobilised,naturally,byaristocraticleaders,enjoyedwidespreadsupportfromallclasses.ThemyththatWallacewas
acommonerwholedapopularuprisinghasscant
foundationinhistory.Wallacehimselfwasthesonofaknight,andhewassoonjoinedbySirWilliamDouglas(knownas‘leHardi’,‘theHardy’),theSteward’sbrother-in-lawandanotherallyoftheBruces.TogethertheymountedadaringraidonthecourtoftheEnglishjusticiarWilliamOrmsbywhileitwasinsessionatScone.ThoughOrmsbyescaped,therebels
capturedvaluablesandhorses.AfterthistheymadeforthecoverofSelkirkForest,‘thecradleofinsurrection’whichprovidedvirtuallyimpenetrableshelterformalcontents.Theseoutlawsattractedalargefollowing,whichtheybegantofashionintoanarmy.JamestheSteward
abandonedhiscovertsupportfortherebelsforopenparticipationandjoined
WallaceandDouglasinJuly,leadingintorebellionafurthergroupofdisaffectedScottishnobles,includingnotonlyRobertWishart,BishopofGlasgowandformerguardian,butalsoMacDuff,thesonoftheninthearlofFife,AlexanderLindsayandtheyoungRobertBruceVII,theEarlofCarrick.Thefuturekingwasnowtwenty-twoandinjoiningtherebelsheseemstohavebeenacting
independentlyorperhapseveninthefaceofhisfather’sdisapproval.ThelordofAnnandalewascarefultohavenothingtodowithrebellion,andseemstohaveabandonedhispatrimonyoncemoreforthesafetyofCarlisle.YoungBruce’sinvolvementinrebellionwasnotinthefamilyinterest.Whatpossessedhimtorisklife,limbandinheritancebyjoiningtherebelsis
unknown;itlooksasthoughhehadfallenundertheinfluenceofhisgrandfather’sfriendsWishartandtheSteward,and,ifwemaytrusthisBruce’sreportedwords,theyhadinspiredhimtopatrioticresistance.Whenfirstsuspectedof
sympathywiththerebellion,theyoungearlwasobligedbythebishopandcitizensofCarlisletoswearanoathofloyaltytothekingonthe
sacredhostandonareliccalledtheswordofStThomasinCarlisleCastle.Havingdoneso,Robertleftthecity,and,toallaysuspicionfurther,hefeignedanattackonthelandsofSirWilliamDouglasandburntapartofthem.HecarriedoffDouglas’swifeandchildren,buttookthem,nottotheking’scustodyinCarlisle,buttosafetyinAnnandale.Itmaybeatthispointthathe
firstmettheyoungJamesDouglas,heirtoSirWilliam,whowastobecomehisfaithfullieutenantandclosefriend.InAnnandale,Robertcalledtogethertheknightsofhisancestralpatrimonyandaddressedthem.ThesewordsareputintohismouthbythehostilechroniclerWalterofGuisborough:
Mydearestfriends,youknowanditistruethatrecentlyatCarlisleI
sworeanoathasyouknowandhaveheard,butitisnullandvoidsinceitwasextortedbyforce.Ididthisthingfromfearforthebody,butnotofmyownfreewill.ForthisIamcontriteanddeeplypenitent.Ihopeneverthelessthatthebenefitofabsolutionwillfollowshortly.NomanholdshisownfleshandbloodinhatredandIamnoexception.ImustjoinmyownpeopleandthenationinwhichIwasborn.Iaskthatyoupleasecomewithmeandyouwillbemycouncillorsandclosecomrades.
YoungBrucewasthenbelievedtohaveactedoutofpatriotism,andhemaywellhavedoneso.ThelordofAnnandale,RobertBruceVI,however,washavingnothingtodowiththerevoltatthistime,andbecauseofthisthemenofAnnandalerefusedtofollowhisheir.TheytoldyoungBrucethattheywouldgivehimaresponseonthemorrow,butmostslippedawayundercoverofnightto
avoidrefusinghim.Thechronicleraddsthenot
improbableobservationthat‘evenatthattimeitwasnoisedabroadthatCarrickaspiredtothekingship’.Howeverthatmightbe,thesourcesshowthatBrucewasintheforefrontoffomentingrebellion.AlettertoKingEdwardfromCressinghamof23Julyreportstheopinionthat‘ifyouhadtheearlofCarrick,theStewardof
Scotlandandhisbrother…youwouldthinkyourbusinessdone’.LittlewasachievedinanycasebytheSteward,WishartandBruce:byJunetheyfoundthemselveshemmedinbysuperiorforcesledbyEnglishmagnatesHenryPercyandRobertClifford,whowerebothtobecomehardenedveteransoftheScottishwars.YettheScotsdidnotsurrenderbutinstead
quibbledoversurrenderterms,andinthiswaytheypinneddownPercyandClifford’sarmyforalmostamonth.Theyboughttime,whileWilliamWallaceintheForestofSelkirkandAndrewMorayinthefarnorthspreadrebellion.By24JulyPercyandCliffordhadcapturedSirAlexanderLindsayandSirWilliamDouglas,whowaskeptinironsinBerwickCastle‘stillverysavageand
abusive’,havingfailedtoproducehostagesforhisrelease.SoonafterwardsSirWilliamwassenttotheTowerofLondon,wherehedied,leavinghissonJamestoavengehim.Wishart,theStewardand
BrucewereexpectedtosurrenderatIrvineon8August,andCressinghamhadhighhopesthattheirexpectedsurrenderinthesouth-westwouldmeantheendofthe
rebellion.On4Augusthewrotetotheking,‘Sire,acrosstheScottishSea[theFirthofForth]yourpeaceisstilldisturbed,soitissaid,asaresultofthedeedsoftheearlswhoarethere.Butatallevents,wehopethatifthebusinesswiththebishopofGlasgowandtheothersonthefeastofStLaurence[8August]goeswell,wewillhavethepeopleonthefarsideoftheScottishSeaatour
mercy,byGod’sgrace.’PercyandCliffordcameawayfromthecapitulationatIrvinewiththeimpressionthattheyhadpacifiedthewholeofsouthernScotland,andthatrebellionsouthoftheForthwasover.TheyevenconvincedCressingham,whohadraisedalargeinfantryforceinNorthumberlandandwaspreparingtoenterScotland,thattherewasnoneedforafurtherexpedition.
BishopWishartwasinprisonbyJuly.13TheStewardwasreleased,doubtlessonsuretiesanddeliveryofhostages.OneofthetermssuggestedforBruce’sreleasehadbeenthehandoverofhisbabydaughterMarjorieasahostage,butitisnotatallcertainthatthiswasagreed.IndeedthereisnorecordofBrucesurrendering;hemayhaveescapedsomehow.Ifhe
didsurrenderatIrvine,itcanonlyhavebeenbrieflyandwithoutcommitmentbecauseitisquiteclearintheaftermathoftheBattleofFalkirkthathisstandingwashighwiththepatriots.Elsewhererebellionscontinuedtospreadandbegantocoalesce.Wallace,operatingoutofthevastForestofSelkirk,wasamassingandtraininglargenumbersoffoot-soldiersand
gatheredsufficientstrengthtobesiegeDundeecastle.Inthenorth-eastAndrewMorayhadtakenthecastlesofInverness,BanffandElgin.ByaremarkablemiscalculationonEdward’spart,theComyns–John,EarlofBuchan,andhisbrotherAlexanderandJohnofBadenochIII–insteadofbeingsenttoFlanders,weredispatchedtokeepincheckthenorthernrevolt.Edwardmusthavebelievedthatby
thetakingofsuretiesandhostagestheyhadbeenreducedtocompletedependenceonhim.AtfirsttheywereineffectualinEdward’sservice;thenBuchanopenlychangedsidesandjoinedtherebels.OnlythefactthathewasservinginFlanderskeptJohnComynofBadenochtheelderloyaltoEdward.ThereturnoftheComynswasespeciallysignificant.Northofthe
Mounththeyhadtremendousprestige,andthroughoutScotlandtheywillhavebeenlookedtoforleadership.IfthispresentedaproblemforthoseelementsoftherevoltassociatedwiththeBrucefaction,thereisnoreflectionofitinthesources.LetterstoEdwardfromHughCressinghamrevealthedisintegrationoftheoccupationadministration:‘[24July1297]Sire,letitnot
displeaseyou,byfarthegreaterpartofyourcountiesoftherealmofScotlandarestillunprovidedforwithkeepers,aswellbydeath,siegesorimprisonment;andsomehavegivenuptheirbailiwicks,andothersneitherwillnordarereturn;andinsomecountiestheScotshaveestablishedandplacedbailiffsandministers,sothatnocountyisinproperorderexceptingBerwickand
Roxburghandthisonlylately.’ThereferencetotheScots
appointingbailiesandofficialsoftheirownrevealsthedegreeoforganisationbehindtherevolt,andsuchorganisationcanonlyhavecomefromthearistocraticgoverningelement.Withmuchofthepre-1296governmentrestoredtothecountry,therebellionacquiredfurtherlegitimacy
andvigour.TheearlsofBuchan,Strathearn,andCarricktoo,if,aswesuspect,Brucewasstillwiththerebels,willhavecontributedleviesofmenfromtheirestates,andtheremayhavebeenotherelementsofcompulsorymilitaryserviceatwork.Withtheauthorityofatleasttwoearlsbehindthem,WallaceandMoraybegantoissuewritsinthenameofKingJohn,andthey
continuedtohaveDundeeundersiege.Edward’slieutenantin
Scotland,John,EarlofWarrene,neveractuallyresidedinScotland:hefoundthattheclimatewasnotconducivetohishealth.But,thoughthekinghimselfwasabsentinGascony,Cressingham’sletterseventuallyhadeffectinWestminster,andinSeptemberWarenneatlast
feltobligedtobestirhimself.HemarchedwithasubstantialforcefromBerwicktoStirling.OntheslopesnorthoftheRiverForthAndrewMorayandWallace’sforceshadcombinedandlayinwaitforWarenne’sarmytocrossStirlingBridge.Twiceonthemorningof11September1297theEnglisharmycrossedthebridge,buteachtimeitwassummonedback
toawaitWarenne’scommand.Hehadsleptin.Onthethirdoccasion,theScotswaiteduntilhalfoftheforcehadcrossedthebridge,thentheychargeddowntheslopesattheEnglish,cuttingtheirarmyintwo.ThehalfoftheEnglisharmywhichwasonthebridgeorwaitingtocrosscouldonlywatchastheotherhalfwasbutchered.Warennewasonthesouthside,withthosewaitingto
cross,butthehatedtreasurerfoundhimselfonthewrongsideofthebridge.
HughdeCressingham,notaccustomedtothesaddle,Fromhissteedinitscoursefellunderfoot.HisbodywascuttopiecesbytheribaldsofScotland,AndhisskintakenoffinsmallthongsAsaninsulttotheking,whoseclerkhewas…
ThebattleofStirlingBridgewasalandmarkvictorythatrestoredScottishconfidenceandpride,erasingthememoryofthedebacleatDunbar.TherewasonlyonesignificantlossontheScottishside:AndrewMorayappearstohavebeenmortallywoundedinthebattle.Thereisareportthathewaskilled,butletterswerewritteninhisnameatsometimeafterthebattle,indicatingthathedid
notdiestraightaway.Helingeredatleastuntil7November,thedateofadocumentinwhichWallaceandMorayaredescribedas‘LeadersoftheArmyofScotland’.AnimmediateconsequenceofthisoutstandingvictorywasthatWallace’sprestigesoared,andonMoray’sdeathhebecamesoleguardian.TheScottishChurchralliedbehindWallace,andinRome
itwasabletoachievetheconsecrationofthepatriotWilliamLambertonasbishopofStAndrews.Thisextra-ordinarilyableecclesiasticthenbroughttheplightoftheScotstothenoticeoftheFrenchandpapalcourts.AfterthebattleWallace
resumedprosecutionofthesiegeofDundee,andhavingcapturedalsothetown(thoughnotthecastle)ofBerwick,heannouncedto
merchantsofLübeckandHamburghthatliberatedScotlandwasopenforbusiness.Hisprincipalachievement,however,washisprotractedinvasionoftheEastandWestMarchesofEngland.Acontemporarychronicler,WalterofGuisborough,describesthepanicinNorthumberlandafterthebattleofStirlingBridge,wheretherewasnodoubtwhatwasinstore:‘The
Northumbrianswerepetrifiedwithfearandtheyevacuatedfromthecountrysidetheirwivesandchildrenandalltheirhouseholdgoods,sendingthemwiththeiranimalstoNewcastleandvariousotherplaces.AtthattimethepraiseofGodceasedinallthemonasteriesandchurchesofthewholeprovincefromNewcastletoCarlisle.Allthemonks,canonsregularandtherestof
thepriestsandministersoftheLord,togetherwithalmostthewholeofthepeoplefledfromthefaceoftheScot.’Anotherchronicle,theChronicleofLanercost,summarisestheWallaceinvasionofnorthernEngland:‘Afterthis…theScotsgatheredtogetherandinvaded,devastatingthewholecountry,causingburnings,depredationsandmurders,andtheycame
almostuptothetownofNewcastle;butturnedawayfromitandinvadedthecountyofCarlisle;theretheydidasinNorthumberland,destroyingeverything;andafterwardstheyreturnedtoNorthumberland,todevastatemorefullyanythingtheyhadoverlookedpreviously;andonthefeastofStCecilia,virginandmartyr[22November1297],theyreturnedtoScotland.’We
knowthatthisisabroadlyaccuratesummaryforitcorrespondswithinformationgleanedfromfinancialaccountsofmanorsdestroyed.Aftersporadicraidsledbyothers,WallaceledanarmyapparentlycomposedofinfantryspearmensouthfromBerwicktowardsNewcastle,butthenshiedawayfromthatformidablylarge–thoughasyetunwalled–townand
movedwestwardsintoTynedale,burningBywellandCorbridge.AtNewminsterandHexhamheextractedaransomforsparingthemonasteries.HexhamwasstillrecoveringfromtheScots’lastvisitationin1296.ThenWallaceadvanceduponCarlisle.Thatcitybegantoprepareforassault,andRobertBruceVIwasreplacedasgarrisoncommanderbyJohnHalton,
BishopofCarlisle,probablybecausehewasaScot;nowhereisitallegedthathewasdisloyal,orthatmembersofhisfamilywerefightingalongsideWallace.ThecitywasalreadymenacedbyGallovidians,andtenGallovidianhostagesweredeliveredtothecityinanefforttogainitfurtherprotection.Wallaceandthe‘ArmyofScotland’arrivedoutsidethecityatMartinmas
(11November),andaclerkwassentintothecitytodemanditssurrenderto‘WilliamtheConqueror’.Wallacewasimpressedbythedefences,however.Thecitizenshadpreparedenginestoresistasiege,whereashehimselfhadnosiegetrain.Hedidnotattack,butleftaforcetokeepthecitygarrisonincheckwhilehedevastatedCumberlandasfarasInglewoodForestand
beyond.Thenaround18NovemberWallaceandtheGallovidiansmarchedeastwards,re-enteringTynedale.AgainhevisitedHexhamPriory.Scottishtroops–Gallovidians,perhaps–stoleeventhesacredvesselsfromthealtar.ThehostilechroniclerWalterofGuisboroughsaysthatWallaceapologisedtothecanonsforthebehaviourofa‘roughanduncivilisedpeople
whohadnoshame’.Heissuedaprotectiontothepriory,nodoubtinreturnforaheftyransom.AftertwodaysWallaceleft
theprioryandmarchedoninthesnowtowardsNewcastle.Thetownhadnotyetbeenfullyencircledbydefencesandthecitizenspreparedfortheworst.Theyorganisedwatches,thecastlewasgarrisonedandthreewar-enginesrehabilitated.Itwas
nowabout23November.Wallace,however,failedtoattack:‘ThecourageousmenwhowereinchargeofNewcastlebracedthemselvesandwentoutofthecityalittleway,despitethefactthattheywereveryfewagainstmany.Seeingthis,theScotsveeredawayfromthecity,dividedamongthemselvesthespoils,andhandingovertotheGallovidianstheirshare,theydepartedtotheir
ownregions.’TheEnglishreportsoftheinvasionrevealthatWallacewasunabletocapitalisefullyonthesignalvictoryofStirling.Heseemstohavepresidedover,ratherthanled,afive-weekrampagethroughnorthernEngland,alargeinfantryforce,boldlychallengingCarlisleandNewcastle,butill-equippedtoassaulteither.WallacewasembarrassedbythebehaviourofhismenatHexham,
suggestingthatdisciplinewaspoorintheArmyofScotland.PerhapsWallacehadintendedanassaultonNewcastle,buthismenwereunwillingtorisklosingtheirspoils.WemayindeedwonderhowfartheraidwasanexpressionofWallace’sstrategicambitionsandhowfaritwasmotivatedbypopularfeelingsofvengeanceandeuphoriainthewakeofthevictoryatStirling.
Wallace’sfascinationwithmajorstrategicpoints–Berwick,NewcastleandCarlisle–isreminiscentofearlierinvasionsofEnglandbyDavidIandWilliamtheLion.YetWallaceappearstohavebeenindecisive,attractedbythegreatstrategicprizesofNewcastleandCarlislebutawarethathisarmywaspoorlyequippedtocaptureeither.Itistruethathecapturedthetownsof
BerwickandDundee,buttheonlycastlehetookwasthecomparativelyunimportantoneofJedburgh.AdecadelaterRobertBrucehadlearnedfromWallace’sexperienceinnorthernEngland:hisfirstraidsonthesameterritoriesthrewallstrategytothewind,makingtheorganisedcollectionofransomsandbootytheirpriority.Hiswerecavalryraids,whichavoidedbattle,
ratherthaninvasionsbymassedbodiesofslow-movinginfantry.MemoriesoftheWallaceinvasionhoweverwillnodoubthavecontributedtothedecisionsbythenorthernEnglishcountiestopaytheextortionateransomsdemandedbyRobertBrucewhenhebecameking,ratherthanriskrepetitionofthehorrorsof1297.Onlywhenhehadreducedthe
surroundingcountrysidetohisobediencedidBruceapplypressureonthestrategictownsofBerwickandCarlisle.Intheabsenceofherking,
Englandwasreelingfromtheshockofdefeatandinvasion.Asaknee-jerkreactiontodefeatatStirlingBridge,writsofarraywereissuedfortheassemblyofanimprobablylarge33,400-stronginfantry,mostlyfrom
theEnglishshiresandtheremainderfromWales.HorrifiedbytheimpudenceoftheWallaceinvasion,alltheresourcesoftheEnglishgovernmentalmachinewerebroughttobearandactuallyproducedaforceof18,500men,anarmyofunmanageableproportions,whichgatheredatBerwickinearly1298.OnitsapproachWallaceevacuatedthetown,awarethathewasunableto
holdit.Thisvastforcewasimpossibletofeed,andtotheenormousreliefofEdward’sScottishadministration,instructionsarrivedfromtheEnglishkinginFebruarythatnothingwastobeattempteduntilhisreturn.Theleviesweredisbanded.AwinterinvasionofScotlandwasimpossibleforanyarmy,andsuchavastarmywouldsimplyhavestarved.Someretaliationhadalreadytaken
place,foraroundChristmasWarenneandRobertCliffordhadraidedAnnandaleanddestroyedtenvillages.TheEnglishstillheldthe
majorcastlesofScotland:Berwick,Edinburgh,RoxburghandStirling,butWallaceincreasedthepressureonthemall,keepingtheirgarrisonsbusy.WallacewaswellawarethathewouldsoonhavetofaceEdwardinbattle,andheprobablyspent
thespringandsummerof1298traininglevies.Hewasknightedbyoneoftheearlswhosupportedhim,tomakeacceptabletothearistocratshiselectionassoleguardianofScotlandandinrecognitionofhisachievementatStirlingBridge.Onhisreturnfrom
FlandersinFebruary,Edwardbegangearingupforadecisivecampaignin
Scotland.Thatsummer,theScotsscoredasignificantdiplomaticvictory.Bishop-electLambertonhadbeenabletoevadetheEnglishblockadeandmakethevoyagetoRomeforconsecrationthereon1June1298.ThenhetravelledtoParis,tojoinasmallgroupofScottishémigrésattheFrenchcourt.TheywereabletopersuadebothKingPhilipandPopeBonifaceVIIIto
writetoEdwarddemandingthereleaseofKingJohnBalliolandacessationofEdward’sattacksontheScots.ItwasasignificantstepintheescalationofdiplomaticpressureagainstEngland,butitwouldbeayearbeforetheEnglishkingwouldbeforcedtomakeanyconcession,andfornownothingwouldstophisinvasionofScotland.WithaunitedEnglisharistocracyat
hisback,Edwardmusteredaforceof25,000foot–11,000ofwhomwereWelsh–and3,000cavalry.Thelogisticalpreparationsforsuchaforcewere,however,inadequate.EdinburghandCarlisleweretheonlylocationstowhichsomegrainwassentinadvance,andshipsintendedtoprovisionthearmyweredelayedbycontrarywinds.TheWelshfoot-soldiersturnedouttobeunreliable,
butEdwardmayhavebeenforcedtousethembecausesomanyoftheEnglishhadalreadyservedtheirfortydaysoutsidethekingdomofEnglandattheirownexpenseinthepreviouswinter.AsthisforceadvancedintoScotlanditbecameclearthatWallacehadverythoroughlyremovedfromtheirpathallpossiblemeansofsustenance,‘ascorchedearth’tacticthatthreatenedtoweakenthe
Englishseverelybeforebattlewasjoined.ThistoowouldbelateremulatedbyBruce.Inanefforttocheeruphisstarvingtroops,Edward’sWelshfoot-soldiersweregivenwine,andviolencebrokeoutbetweentheWelshandtheEnglishknights.TheWelshwithdrewfromthearmy,andthreatenedtotakenofurtherpartinthewar.AstheEnglishpassedthroughthetownofLinlithgowthey
sawthemassedspearsoftheScottisharmyonamountaininthedistance.Wallacehadclearly
realisedthesenseinpostponingbattleaslongaspossible,tomakethemostofdissensionintheenemyranksanddrawthemdeepintohostileterritory.HowevertheearlsuponwhomWallacedependedmaynothavecountenancedanythingbutconventionalwarfare,and
Wallace’sownpositionwouldhavebeenprofoundlyweakenedhadheallowedtheEnglishtoreoccupyScotland.Openbattlewasthereforeinevitable,althoughthefollyoftakingonasuperiorforcehadalreadybeendemonstratedatDunbarin1296.AlittlebeyondthetownofFalkirktheScottishforcepreparedtogivebattle,andonthefeastofStMaryMagdalene,22July,they
UnlikeEdward’sarmy,whichwaslargelypaidandforwhichaccountssurvive,nothingexiststorevealthesizeofWallace’sforce.ThechallengebeforeWallacewastowithstandthemightofEdward’sarmouredcavalrywithanarmysubstantiallycomposedoffoot-soldiers.Hedrewuphisarmyofspearmeninthreedenselypacked‘schiltroms’orblocks
radiatingironspearheads.AsmallmarshandlochbetweenthearmiesprovidedsomenaturalshelterfortheScottishcentrefromthechargeoftheEnglishheavycavalry.Sothattheywouldnotgivewaybeforetheimpactofthecharge,Wallacehadeachschiltrom‘anchored’toitschosenpositionbymeansofropestiedtowoodenstakesdrivenintotheground,which
formedmakeshiftcircularpalisades.Thesethenweretheringshereferredtoinhisfamousremarktothefoot-soldiersbeforethebattle,‘Ihavebroughtyouintothering,nowseeifyoucandance.’Inthegapsbetweentheschiltromsheplacedsucharchersashehad,andintherearhekeptthesmallnumbersofcavalrythatScottishnobles–JamestheSteward,theearlsofBuchan,
Strathearn,Lennox,possiblyCarrick,AthollandMenteithtoo–hadcommitted.Shouldtheworstcometotheworst,CallendarWoodlaytotherearofScots,whichmightprovidecoverforfleeinginfantry.Itwasperhapsthebest
possiblearrangementthatcouldbedevisedforsuchanunequalbattle,butitwasnotgoodenough.ThearistocraticScottishhorsemenfledthe
fieldearlywithoutmakinganycontactwiththeEnglish.Thosewithmosttolose,theyhadweigheduptheoddsandmadetherational,ifignoble,last-minutedecisiontoavoidpersonalcommitment,leavingtheirtenantstofacetheenemy.EnglishcavalryrodedowntheScottisharcherspositionedbetweentheschiltroms,thenturnedtheirattentiontothenowisolatedformationsof
spearmen,whohadtowithstandtheimpactofrepeatedcharges.PeriodicallyeachschiltromwassubjectedtothehailofcrossbowboltsandarrowsfromtheWelshbowmenandeventually–astheyranoutofmanufacturedmissiles–ofstones.Theschiltromswerestationarytargetsformissilesandcavalrycharges,andeventually,despitethepalisadesofropesandstakes,
theycouldnotholdtogether.Battleturnedtoslaughter.Infleeingtothewoodsbehindthem,greatnumbersofScottishspearmenwerekilled;othersdrownedintheloch;stillotherswereriddendownbythepursuingEnglishcavalry.TheEnglishlost110horsesand2,000infantrywerekilled.ThatfiguretakesaccountonlyofthepaidelementoftheEnglishforce.Thereisnoestimating
Scottishlosses,buttheymusthavebeenfarinexcessofthosesustainedbythevictors.Weareunsureofwhether
RobertBruceVII,EarlofCarrick,wasatthebattleofFalkirk.SomechroniclersrecordthataRobertBrucewaspresentatthebattleandactiveonthesideofEdwardI,but,iftrue,thisislikelytohavebeenRobert’sfather,thelordofAnnandale.14Inview
ofyoungRobert’shighstandingwithScotsinthewakeofdefeat–whenhewaselectedjoint-guardian–itseemsmostunlikelythathefoughtwiththeEnglish.Brucemayhavefoughtonthepatriotside,fleeingignominiouslywithmostoftheScottisharistocraticcavalry.IntheaftermathofFalkirk,hislandswerenotseizedasforfeittoEdwardI,buttheregiondominatedby
theBrucefactionbecamethefocusofEdward’sattention.Afterthebattlethe
victoriousEnglishadvancedintoFife.TheyoccupiedStAndrews,butonereportsaysthatEdward,outofrespectforthelocalsaint,orderedthatthetownshouldnotbesacked.Perth,however,wasdestroyed.EdwardthenturnedwestwardsthroughForestofSelkirkandmarchedtowardstheearldom
ofCarrick.OneoftheEnglishchroniclescarriesareportthattheScotswereregroupinginGalloway,anditseemsthatEdwardwasanxioustoconfrontthem.ItisverylikelythattheComynsandtheearlofCarrick–whoemergedastheleadersofresistanceintheaftermathofthebattle–hadretreatedtofamilyestatesinthesouth-west.Bruceindeedmayhavepreviouslyarrangedthatthe
Bruces’IrishalliesshouldcontributeforcestothewestofScotland.ForinwhatmayhavebeenanechooftheTurnberryBand,AntrimmagnateThomasBissetarrivedwithhisfollowersontheislandofArraninorder,accordingtoWalterofGuisborough,‘toassisttheScots,aswascommonlysaid’.Oncehelearnedoftheoutcomeofthebattle,however,Bissetchangedhis
stanceandclaimedthathehadcometohelptheEnglishandactuallyreceivedagrantoftheIsleofArranfromEdward.TheGuisborough’schroniclerecordsthat‘hearingoftheapproachoftheking,RobertBrucethesonfledfromhisfaceandheburntthatcastle[Ayr]whichheheld’.ItisthefirstconcretereportofBruce’sactivitiessincethesurrenderatIrvine.Itisalsosignificant
thattheyoungearlisassociatedwiththeburningofcastlestodenythemtotheenemy.Thistactichesubsequentlydevelopedintoahallmarkofhisstyleofwarfare.AtAyrEdwardwaitedfor
afortnightforshipscarryingprovisionstoappearwhilehisarmystarvedasecondtime,andthenheretreated,firsttoDumfries,thencetoLochmaben.InAnnandale
theBruces’retainersheldtheancestralcastleatLochmaben,but,probablyintheaftermathofStirling,theyhadatlastdeclaredforthepatriots.Now,theyhadnochoicebuttosurrender,andEdwardsparedtheirlives.HedestroyedthestonecastleofRoberttheNobleofLochmaben,andre-usingthestone,builtafreshonasitenearby.Adjacenttothisnewcastle,bebuiltawooden
palisadecoveredinmudtorenderitfireproof.Suchstructureswereknownaspeels,andtheyenlargedtheaccommodationandhencetheprotectivecapacityofcastles.Theycouldbespeedilyerected,andatnogreatexpense;intimepeelswereattachedtomanycastlesinEnglish-heldScotlandincludingDumfries,Linlithgowand–significantly–atSelkirk,
alwaysafocalpointofresistance.EdwardthenmadearrangementsforthegarrisoningandprovisioningofcastlesthroughoutScotland,andreorganisedtheoccupation.GarrisonsatBerwick,Edinburgh,Stirling,RoxburghandJedburghwereallcarefullyprovisioned,andcaptaincieswereestablishedoverwideareas:Eskdale,Edinburgh,Nithsdale,withPatrick,EarlofMarch,
appointedasguardianofScotlandSouthoftheForth.LackofprovisionshowevermeantEdwardcouldnolongerstayinScotland,andheledthebulkofhisarmyacrosstheSolway,reachingCarlisleinSeptember.FortheScots,thesaving
graceoftheyear1298wasthatEdwardwasunableproperlytofollowuphisvictory.TheremainsoftheArmyofScotlandandmany
ofthenobles–BuchanandLambertonthemostprominent–regroupedintheshelterofSelkirkForest.There,intheweeksfollowingtherout,theinternalpoliticsofthepatriotswereplayedouttoaremarkableconclusion.ItwasdecidedthataftersuchadefeatWallacecouldnolongerremainassoleguardian.Wallacemayhavebeenmovingtowardsthe
conclusionthattheScotscouldneverachievevictorybytheirownefforts,forayearlaterheleftforParistolobbytheFrenchkingforsupport.InhissteadRobertBruce,EarlofCarrickandJohnComynofBadenochtheyoungerwereelectedjointguardiansofScotland.Theheirsofbothhostilenoblefactionshadevidentlydecidedtoburydifferencesforthetimebeingandco-
operatetoresisttheoccupation.Howthiswasachievedorwhattheheadsofthetwofamiliesthoughtwedonotknow;Brucemayhaveco-operatedbecausehewasgivenapositionofhonourandinfluenceequaltothatoftheComyns,buthewillnothavecompromisedonhisfamily’sclaimtothethrone.Thepatriotgovernmentof
northernScotlandwasresilientenoughtowithstand
defeatatFalkirk,anditstillfunctionedinthenameofKingJohn.ItwasprobablybasedupontheComynlordshipsofthenorth-east,stilllargelyunscathedbywarfare.InthenorththecourtofthejusticiarofScotia–whichofficewasfilledbyJohnComyn,EarlofBuchan–stillheldpleas,andsheriffsstillcollectedrevenuesforthegovernmentoftheguardians,andnotjustfornorthofthe
Forth,DuringthejointguardianshipofBruceandComyn,theirofficialdocumentscommencedinthefollowingwords:‘RobertBruce,earlofCarrick,andJohnComyntheson,GuardiansofthekingdomofScotlandinthenameofthefamousprincetheillustriousKingJohn,togetherwiththebishops,abbots,priors,earls,baronsandothermagnatesandthewholecommunityof
therealm…’BruceofcoursewouldmuchhavepreferredtheretobenomentionofKingJohn,buthewaspreparedtoacquiesceaslongasJohnremainedatasafedistance.Edwardfullyintendedto
returntoScotlandinthefollowingseason,1299,andbeforethesummerof1298wasouthehadissuedwritsforthenextseason’scampaignandlaidplansfor
thesupplyofhisgarrisons.HishandhadbeenimmeasurablystrengthenedbytheAnglo-Frenchpeaceof1298,negotiatedthroughthearbitrationofBonifaceVIII.15ThiswasacynicalagreementbywhichEnglandandFrancereinedintheirmutualantagonisminorderthateachmightconcentrateonsuppressingitssmallernorthernneighbours.Thusthe
Englishabandonedtheirerstwhileallies,theFlemings,tothetendermerciesofPhilipIV.TheFrenchdidratherbetterbytheirallies,theScots.BeforedistancingthemselvesfromtheScottishalliancetheywrungahighlysignificantconcessionfromtheEnglish,namelythereleaseofKingJohnfromEnglishintopapalcustody.Anumberofpoliticaldifficultieshoweverrendered
itimpossibleforEdwardtocontemplatecampaigninginScotlandinthesummerof1299.OnewashisimpendingmarriagetoMargaret,thesisterofPhiliptheFair,amajorstateoccasionwhich,giventhepoliticalimportanceofthemarriage,calledfortheutmostdelicacyinplanningandprotocol.AnotherwasthetruculentattitudeoftheEnglishbaronage.Edwardseizedasforfeitallthelands
ofmanyScottishnobleswhohadfoughtagainsthim.ThesehegrantedouttoEnglishmagnates,inordertogivethemastakeintheconquestofScotland:theearlofLincoln,forexample,wasawardedtheofficeandlandsofJamestheSteward;RobertCliffordwasgiventheMaxwellcastleofCaerlaverock;and,later,HenryPercywasgrantedthelandsofIngramBalliol.It
wasthefirstmajorredistributionofforfeitedestates.Thegrantees,however,werelefttogainpossessionandextractrevenuefromScottishestates,andtheking’sapparentgenerositycutlittleicewithhismagnates.TheFalkirkcampaignhadbeenpossiblebecausekingandmagnateshadactedfromsharedoutrageattheWallaceinvasion,butthese
circumstanceswerenottoberepeated.AlreadytheearlsofNorfolkandHerefordhadfallenoutwithEdwardoverhisgrantofArrantoBisset–whichhadbeenmadewithouttheiradvice.Theywerenowdemandingthatthekingabidebyconcessionshehadmade,andwhichhewasnowunwillingtostandby.Anexchangeofprisoners
wasachievedinApril1299,anditisinterestingtonote
thattheScotshadcapturedsomemiddle-rankingEnglishlords:WilliamfitzWarren,MarmadukedeThweng16andWilliamdeRos.ResistanceagainsttheoccupationmainlytooktheformofslowexertionofpressureonEnglishgarrisoncastlesbyencirclement,cuttingoffsuppliesandambush.Butitwasalsoawarofmountedraids,knownaschevauchées,
designedtoimpoverishandterrorisepopulationsadheringtotheenemy,anothertacticsubsequentlydevelopedbyRobertBruce.PatriotnoblesmusteredatPeeblesforaraidfromthecoverofSelkirkForest.Acouncilwasheldthereon19August1299.Thereportofaspywhowitnessedthecouncilprovidesaremarkableinsightintothetensionsprevalentwithinthepatriotcamp:
AtthecouncilSirDavidGrahamdemandedthelandsandgoodsofSirWilliamWallacebecausehewasleavingthekingdom[forParis]withouttheleaveortheapprovaloftheGuardians.AndSirMalcolm,SirWilliam’sbrother,answeredthatneitherhislandsnorhisgoodsshouldbegivenaway,fortheywereprotectedbythepeaceinwhichWallacehadleftthekingdom,sincehewasleavingtoworkforthegoodofthekingdom.Atthis,thetwoknightsgavethelietoeachotheranddrewtheirdaggers.
ThenextsentencerevealsthatBruceandComynfactionswerequiteliterallyateachothers’throats:
AndsinceSirDavidwasofSirJohnComyn’sfollowingandSirMalcolmWallaceoftheearlofCarrick’sfollowing,itwasreportedtotheearlofBuchanandJohnComynthatafighthadbrokenoutwithouttheirknowingit;andJohnComynleapedattheearlofCarrickandseizedhimbythethroat,andtheearlofBuchan
turnedonthebishopofSt.Andrew’s,declaringthattreasonandlese-majesté[anoffenceagainstthedignityofasovereignpower]werebeingplotted.EventuallytheStewardandotherscamebetweenthemandquietenedthem.
ThemeetingendedwithBishopLambertonbeingadmittedasathirdguardianinanefforttomaintainsomesemblanceofunity.Edward’salliesandgarrisonsin
Scotlandpaidthepriceforhisfailuretocampaignin1299.ThatsummerthepatriotcommanderHerbertMorhamwasabletocutlinesofsupplytotheninety-strongEnglishgarrisonatStirling,andtheybegantostarve.BrucecontinuallytriedthroughtheautumntoforcetheEnglishgarrisonoutofLochmaben.Hehadnosuccess.ButinNovemberthelongsiegeofStirlingendedin
thesurrenderoftheEnglishgarrison.FortheScotsthiswasamajorstrategicprizethatpromisedtoenlargesignificantlytheareaundertheswayofthepatriots.Inthewesttoo,Edward’sagentstheMacDonaldssustainedaseriousdefeatastheMacDougallrevoltcontinuedunabated.TheAnnalsofUlsterrecordthatinthatyear‘AlexanderMacDonald,thepersonwhowasthebestfor
hospitalityandexcellencethatwasinIrelandandinScotland,waskilled,togetherwithacountlessnumberofhisownpeople,whowereslaughteredaroundhim,byAlexanderMacDougall.’OnAlexander’sdeath,
leadershipoftheMacDonaldspassedtoAngusÓg,whothenadoptedthetitle‘LordofIslay’,thestyleusedbytheheadofthekindred,andhelaterbecameastaunchallyof
RobertI.Forthepresent,AngusÓgco-operatedwithHughBisset–whohadbecomeEdward’snavalcommanderinthewest–andJohnMacSweenagainsttheMacDougallsontheseasaroundButeandKintyre.HorrifiedatthecollapseofthekeyfortressofStirlingaboveall,Edwardmadearashattempttomountawintercampaign,summoning16,000mentoappearat
BerwickinthemiddleofDecember,butforthishedidnothavethesupportofhisearls.Only2,500menturnedup,andthesestayedonlyafewdaysbeforedeserting.Despitethis,therewasnodoubtthattheEnglishwouldfieldaformidablearmyinthesummerof1300.ByMay1300,however,
RobertBrucehadceasedanyco-operationwithComyn,andatapatriotparliament
heldatRuthergleninthatmonthhenolongerappearsasaguardian.ClearlygreatpersonalanimosityhaddevelopedbetweenhimselfandJohnComynofBadenochIII.Bruce’sdecisiontoleave–orhisremovalfrom–theguardianshipseemstohavebeenrelatedtoEdwardI’sagreementinJuly1299tosurrenderKingJohnBalliolintopapalcustodyinFrance.
OneofthefactorsthatmadethispossiblewasanoathKingJohnhadtakenon1April1298nevertosetfootinScotlandorhaveanythingtodowithScots.BalliolandComynelementsamongtheScotsweredelightedatthereleaseoftheirkingandatoncebeganworkingtowardsarestorationofKingJohntoScotland.This,Brucecouldnotstomach,andheceasedhisinvolvementinthe
patrioticresistance.HisplaceintheguardiantriumviratewastakenbyIngramdeUmfraville,amagnatefirmlyalignedwiththeComyns.Thepurposeofthe
RutherglenparliamenthadbeentoconcertresistancetotheexpectedEnglishinvasionof1300.EdwardhaddecidedthistimetoenterScotlandbytheWesternMarch,presumablytotrytobreaktheholdofthepatriotsonthe
south-west,wherelaytheBruceterritoriesofAnnandaleandCarrick,theBalliollordshipofGalloway,theSteward’slandsandthebishopricofGlasgow.Tenantsoftheselordshadallbeenstronglysupportiveofthepatriotcause.TheEnglisharmywastoproceedalongtheSolwaycoastaccompaniedbyaprovisioningfleet.Themainactionofthecampaignwas
thesiegeofCaerlaverockCastle,latelyrecapturedbytheScotsandathreattotheEnglishgarrisonsatLochmabenandDumfries,andtothesecurityoftheCumberlandlittoral.Thesiege,whichcommencedinJuly,involvedbatteringramsandtrebuchets,andwasanawe-inspiringdemonstrationofthepowerofEdward’ssiegetrain.Astheyadvancedwestwards,theEnglishmet
withresistanceonthebanksoftheRiverCree,wheretherewasabriefengagementbetweentheEnglishandthemainScottishcavalryforce,ledbytheComyns.TheScottishcavalrysoontookflight,astheyhaddoneatFalkirk,butEdwardwasunabletopursuetheScotsfurther.Hestayedinsouth-westScotland,supervisingthegarrisonsandorganisingtheoccupationuntil,in
October,hecouldstaynolonger.HemetScottishenvoysatDumfries,andinarecordedexchangewiththeirenvoysweseethatwhatrankledwithEdward,whataboveallhecouldnottolerate,wastheScots’perceivedbreachoffaithwithhim:‘EveryoneofyouhasdonehomagetomeaschieflordofScotland.NowyousetasideyourallegianceandmakeafoolofmeasthoughI
wereaweakling!’NeverthelesshegrantedtheScotsatruceuntilthefollowingsummer.OfBrucethereisnomention,anditseemshetooknopartinthe1300campaign.InProfessorDuncan’sopinionhewassulking.Excludedfromtheguardianship,hetooknothingtodowiththepatrioticresistance,andtheprospectoffightingforKingJohnwasanathematotheBruces.
TheScottishdiplomaticeffortatthepapalandFrenchcourts,headedbyBishopLamberton,hadbornefurthersuccessinJune1299whenBonifaceVIIIsealedthepapallettertoEdwardIknownas‘ScimusFili’,atextclearlyinspiredbythestrongScottishlobbyatthecuria.Howeveritarrivedonlyintheautumnof1300.Thispapalbroadsidewasanoutrightdenunciationofthe
Edwardianoccupation.Itclaimedthat‘fromancienttimestherealmofScotlandbelongedrightfully,andisknownstilltobelong,totheRomanchurch’.ItremindedEdwardofhisundertakingintheTreatyofBirghamthat‘therealmshouldremainforeverentirelyfreeandsubjectorsubmittedtonobody’.ItaccusedEdwardoftakingadvantage‘atatimewhentherealmofScotlandlackedthe
protectionofaruler’,andconcludesthat‘no-onewhoconsiders[thesethings]candoubtthattherealmofScotlandbelongstotheRomanchurch,andthatitwasnot,andisnotlawfulforyoutodominateitbyforceandtosubjugateittoyourrule.’NowonderthatEdwardcouldnotbeartolistentothisasitwasreadtohimbyanarchbishop,butexplodedwithwrath.‘ByGod’sblood!
ForZion’ssakeIwillnotbesilentandforJerusalem’ssakeIwillnotbeatrest,butwithallmystrengthIwilldefendmyrightthatisknowntoalltheworld!’BonifaceurgedEdwardtopresenthiscasetoruleScotlandbeforethepapalcourt.TheScotshadeffectivelycapturedtheweaponofpapalfavour.SincethepapalletteradvancednoargumentsspecificallyinfavourofKing
John’srights,theBrucefactionmayhavehadtheupperhandinlobbyingatthepapalcourt.Tworesponseswere
preparedbytheEnglish.OnewasaletterfromEdwardI,dispatchedinMay1301,rehearsingthehistoricalevidencessupportingtheEnglishclaim,accusingtheScotsofterribleatrocitiesandexplainingthatEdwardcouldnotacceptpapalmediationin
thismatter.Anotherwasaletter,ostensiblyfromthebaronsofEngland–thoughnodoubtwrittenbyroyalclerks–protestingtheirking’sclaimsinequallystrongterms.InRomemeanwhiletheScottishdelegation,ablyledbyMasterBaldredBisset,arguedpowerfullythattheAnglo-Scottishdisputeshouldbesubmittedtothepapalcourt.Anyhomage
donebyScottishkingswasonlyforlandstheyheldinEngland.Inamuch-admiredprocessus,carefullydesignedtoappealtopapalinterests,Bissetadvancedfiveproofs–frompapalprivilege,commonlaw,prescription,pasthistoryanddocumentaryevidence–todemonstratethatScotlandowedEdwardInoallegiance.However,thefocusofthe
Scottishdiplomaticeffortwas
switchingtoFrance,whitherKingJohnhadnowbeentransferred,outofpapalcustodyandintothatoftheFrenchking.PhiliptheFairsawinBalliolaveryusefulpawninhisattemptstoundermineEdwardI.TheprospectofaBalliolrestorationwasgrowing,andfromexileKingJohnwasnowfreetoinfluenceeventsinScotland.Bythecampaigningseasonof1301
therehadbeenfurtherchangesintheguardianship.BishopLambertonandhiscolleaguesComynandUmfravilleresignedandwerereplacedbySirJohnSoulesactingassoleguardian;onechroniclerreportsthatSouleshadbeenelevatedtotheguardianshiponthepromptingofKingJohn.Changesinthewordingandsealsofdocumentsemanatingfromthepatriotgovernment
alsosuggestamoreprominentrolefortheexiledking:wherepreviouslythenamesoftheguardianshadappearedattheheadofsuchdeeds,theywerenowreplacedbythenameofKingJohn,withSoules,theguardian,appearingonlyasawitness.TheEnglishinvasionof
1301materialisedasatwo-prongedattack,muchmorecomplexandformidablethan
thatofthepreviousyear.EdwardhimselfledanarmyfromBerwickuptheRiverTweedtoSelkirkandPeebles,andthenintothevalleyoftheClydetobesiegeBothwellCastleinAugust;hissonEdwardofCaernarvon,PrinceofWales,ledaforcealongtheSolwaycoastallthewaytoLochRyan.WiththehelpofaforcefromIreland,theprince’svanguardwasableto
captureTurnberryinSeptember.AsearlofCarrick,RobertBruceVIIcouldnotaffordtostandalooffromresistancetothisinvasion,forTurnberrywastheprincipalcastleofhisearldom.PresumablyitwasBruce’sgarrisonthatheldoutagainsttheprinceofWalesuntilSeptember1301,anditwasthemilitiaofhisearldomthatmenacedtheEnglishgarrisonthereafter.YetBruce
wasinvolvedinresistanceonlyinsofarasinvasionthreatenedhisownlands,andheleftittotheComynearlofBuchantoleadthepatrioteffortsagainstkingandprince,andtoSoulesandUmfravilletoattacktheEnglishoccupyingLochmabenon7and8September.Increasinglydistancing
himselffromthepatriots,Brucedecidedearlyin1302
toreturntoallegiancetoEdwardI.TheprospectofaBalliolrestorationpresidedoverbytheComynswassomethinghecouldnottoleratesinceitwouldremovecompletelyallpossibilitythathewouldsucceedtothethrone.Moreover,inthepeaceconcludedbetweentheEnglishandFrenchatAsnièresinJanuary,provisionwasmadeforlands
ofScotswhohadnotsubmittedtobehandedovertoFrenchadministrators.SuchanarrangementwoulddepriveRobertoftherevenuesofhisearldomforanindefiniteperiod,andquitepossiblyplacehimatthemercyoftheComynswhocouldexpecttoreceivefavourabletreatmentfromtheFrench.However,probablythe
mainreasonwhyRobert
changedsidesatthispointwasthathehadmanagedtonegotiategeneroustermsfromEdward.Thetextoftheagreementhassurvived.Robertandhismenwereguaranteedlifeandlimb,landsandtenementsandfreedomfromimprisonment.EdwardwouldcompensatehimshouldthetermsofatreatyorapapalordinanceaffectthetenureoftheBruceestates,sothatRobertwould
notsufferfromFrenchadministrationofhisestates.RobertwasgrantedthewardshipandmarriageofasonoftheearlofMar.Thechild,DonaldofMar,wasRobert’snephew.MentionismadeofRobert’s‘claim’inafurtherclause.Thismightjustrefertohisclaimtolandsortitles,butitseemstohaveawidermeaning,anditcouldencompasshisclaimtothethroneofScotland.Therewas
ofcoursenoquestionofEdwardpermittinganindependentmonarchyofScotland;thekingshipofScotlandenvisagedatthistimecanonlyhavebeenasavassalorsub-kingtoEdwardI.Ifweinterpretthisdocumentcorrectly,itseemsthatEdwardnotonlyallowedRoberttopersistinhisclaimtothethrone,butintimatedthatundercertainconditionshemightevenfacilitateit:
Because[either‘theking’or‘Robert’]fearsthatthekingdomofScotlandmayberemovedfromoutoftheking’shands(whichGodforbid),andhandedovertoSirJohnBalliolortohisson,orthatclaimmaybebroughtintodisrepute,orreversedandcontradictedinafreshjudgement,thekinggrantstoRobertthathemaypursuehisclaimandthatthekingwillhearhimfairlyandholdhimtojusticeintheking’scourt.Ifbyanychanceitshouldhappenthattheclaimmustbeadjudicatedelsewherethanintheking’scourt
[forexample,inthepapalcourt],theninthiscasethekingpromisesRobertassistanceandcounselasbefore,aswellasheisabletogiveit.
WhyshouldEdwardhavegivenRobertBruceachancetoairhisclaimtotheScottishthrone?ItseemsthatevenEdwardI,whosearmiesweremarchingintoScotlandvirtuallyonanannualbasis,wasnowpreparedtoconcede
thepossibilityofaBalliolrestoration.ItmightsuithisdiplomacytowardsFranceandthepapacytotolerateit.Theabovepassageseemsalsotoadmitofthepossibilityofare-runoftheGreatCauseinthepapalcourt.EdwardmayhavepermittedRoberttopersistinhisclaimtotheScottishthronesince,intheeventofaBalliolrestoration,hecoulduseRoberttodestabilisethe
Scottishmonarchy.17EdwardwouldworkhardtoensurethattherewouldbenoBalliolrestorationinScotland,but,ifitcametoit,hehadinRobertBruceawillingandpliantrivalforthesub-kingship.Roberthadgainedsecurity
forhislandsandtitles,without,apparently,compromisinghisclaimtothethrone.Hisfatherwasprobablydelightedathis
changeofsides.Itbroughtadditionalbenefitstothefamily:EdwardBruceappearsintheserviceofthePrinceofWalesinApril1304,andAlexanderBruce,theclergyman,receivedthelivingofKirkinnernearWigtownforhismaintenance.RobertwasabletotravelintoEnglandtoattendparliament,ashedidinOctober1302,probablyfollowinganinstructionto
makeapublicgestureofobedienceandloyalty.OnthisjourneyhemaywellhavevisitedhisfatherorfamilypropertiesinEngland.WeknowhestayedinEnglandoverthewinterandvisitedCambridgeinthespringof1303togiveafeastthere,aswastraditional,ontheoccasionofAlexanderBruce’sbecomingMasterofArts.AnotherbenefitthatcameRobert’swayasaresult
ofhisreturntoEdward’sallegiancewasasecondmarriage.ThefateofRobert’sfirstwife,IsabelofMar,isuncertain;mostprobablyshehaddied.ThissecondmarriagewastoElisabethdeBurgh,daughterofRicharddeBurgh,EarlofUlster.Itwasamostdesirablematch,andEdwardmighthavedangledthepossibilityofitbeforeRoberttopersuadehimtodefect.
The‘RedEarl’wasthemostpowerfulmagnateinIreland,andatraditionalallyoftheBruces,astheTurnberryBandof1286testifies.TheRedEarl’ssisterEgidia–alsoknownasGelis–hadmarriedJamestheSteward,soBruce’smarriagestrengthenedthelong-standingallianceofthesethreefamilies.AltogetherwehavenoreasontobelievethatRobert’schangeofsideswas
ananguisheddecision,orthatdefectioncosthimanythingintermsofesteemamonghispeersinScotland.Nooneatthetimelevelledthechargeoftreacheryathimsofarasweknow.ContemporariesprobablyacknowledgedthatRobertwasmerelypursuingfamilyinterestandhisclaimtothethroneofScotlandbyothermeans,andactinginapredictableandunderstandableway.
ProfessorBarrowdrawsattentiontoaninterestingletterwrittenbyBruceinMarch1302,justafterhehadchangedsides.ItisapromisetotheAbbeyofMelrosethat,thoughinthepasthehadoftendraftedtheabbey’stenantsofMayboleintothearmyoftheearldomofCarrick,consciencenowtroubledhimandhenceforthhewouldnevercompelthetenantstomilitaryservice
unlesstherewasasummonsofthecommonarmyoftherealm.WhileBruce’spietyandhisparticulardevotiontoMelroseAbbeyisunquestioned,thetimingofthepromisesuggeststhattheearlofCarrickwasnotoverlyconcernedtoprovidetroopsforhisnewmaster.ThetrucebetweenEdward
Iandthepatriotsensuredthattherewasnocampaignin1302,yetadramaticturnof
eventsinScotlandwaseffectedbyabattleinfarawayFlanders.AtCourtraion11JulythehaughtyaristocratsoftheFrenchheavycavalrysufferedacomprehensivehumiliationatthehandsoftheFlemishfoot-soldiers,weaversandtownsfolkwhoopposedPhiliptheFair’seffortstocontrolthem.Itwasalandmarkbattle:thefirstsignificantoccasioninthe
MiddleAgeswheninfantrydefeatedcavalry.InthelongtermofcoursethisdevelopmentbodedwellfortheScots,andinthatsenseCourtraiprefiguredthevictoryoftheScottishfootatBannockburn.Butin1302itspeltdisasterfortheScottishcause.InthewordsofBarrow,it‘didmoretomakeScotlandanEnglishprovincethananyothersingleeventoftheseyears’.Fortheresultof
theFrenchking’sdefeatwasthathewasforcedtoabandonallsupportfortheScottishpatriotsandforrestorationoftheBalliolmonarchy.Intheautumnof1302theguardian,JohndeSoules,ledadelegationofScottisharistocratstoParistotrytopersuadetheFrenchkingtocontinuehissupport,butitwastonoavail.WhileSoulesinFrance
struggledtowardoffdisaster,
JohnComynofBadenochtookovertheroleofactingguardianathomeandenjoyedconsiderablesuccess.TogetherwithSimonFraser,Comynscoredaremarkablevictoryon24February1303,sallyingoutfromtheshelterofSelkirkForesttoambushEdward’slieutenantinScotland,SirJohnSegrave,andtheclerkoftheroyalwardrobe,RalphManton,atRoslinnearEdinburgh.
Manton,acentralfigureinthebureaucracyofoccupiedScotland,waskilled,andmanyknights,includingSegrave,weretakenprisoner.ThePeelofSelkirk,designedtoprojecttheEnglishoccupationintotheverydepthsoftheforest,wascapturedbytheScots.Thoughitrepresenteda
considerableachievement,thisvictorywassetincontextbytheinevitablesummer
invasion.TheEdwardianinvasionof1303waslarger,morepenetratingand,consequentlyfortheScots,moredemoralisingthananythathadgonebefore,andtherewasnomistakingtheEnglishking’ssenseofpurpose.On20May1303EdwardconcludedafurtherpeacewithPhilipofFrance,and,thussecuredonhissouthernflank,heconcentratedhisundivided
ferocityupontheScots.AlltheresourcesofEnglandandhersatelliteterritoriesweremarshalledasneverbeforeanddevotedtocrushingScottishresistance.InJulyalargeIrishcontingentledbytheearlofUlsterlandedinthewesttoreducethecastlesofButeandInverkip.RobertBruce,EarlofCarrick,wasalsoactiveinEdward’sservice.Hewasorderedtocallup1,000footfromhis
sheriffdomofAyr,and,inco-operationwithtwoGallowaychiefs,GibbonMacCannandDungalMacDowall,afurther1,000fromCarrickandGalloway.BrucehimselfseemstohaveremainedontheWesternMarchwithJohnBotetourtduringthecampaign.Threeprefabricatedpontoonbridges,designedtoprojecttheEnglisharmyacrosstheFirthofForth,werefloated
uptheNorthSeacoast.SirWilliamOliphant,commandingtheScottishgarrisonatStirling,heldgrimlyonwhilethegreathostpassedby,butinAugusttheEnglishattackedandovercametheScottishgarrisonatBrechin.Edwardcontinuedhismarchalongtheeastcoast,throughAberdeen,toBanffandasfarasKinlossAbbey.TherehehaltedinmidSeptember,andduring
Octoberhereturnedbyamoreinlandroute,bywayofKildrummy,BrechinandScone.EarlyinNovemberEdwardsettledintowinterquartersinDunfermlineAbbey,wherehewasjoinedbyhisqueen.DuringFebruary1304
EdwarddispatchedanexpeditiondeepintoSelkirkForesttolocateFraserandWallace.InthisBrucewasorderedtoparticipate,andhe
joinedJohnSegrave,RobertCliffordandWilliamLatimer.Theyroutedthepatriots,butbothFraserandWallaceescaped.NocluesurvivesastohowBrucemighthavefeltatparticipatinginthisaction.TopursuetheformerleaderofScottishresistance,hiscomrade-in-arms,perhapshisformercommander,musthavebeendeeplyuncomfortableforhim–tosaytheleast.Storiesthat
BrucecapturedWallacebutreleasedhimunbeknowntoCliffordmustbedismissedasalaterfabricationbyRobert’shagiographers.Ithadbeenfouryearssince,duringtherowinthepatriotcampinPeebles,theWallaceshadlastshownthemselvessupportersoftheBrucefaction,andthisepisodeillustrateshowtheEdwardianconquestofScotlandhadchangedthefaceofpoliticsbeyondall
recognition.Wallacewasnowan
isolatedfigure.MostotherScottishcommanders,includingtheguardian,JohnComyn,decidedthatresistancecouldnolongerbemaintained.ThatsameFebruarythegreatmajorityofScottishpatriotssuedforpeace.ThiswaspartlyanacknowledgementthattheyhadbeenoverwhelmedbythemilitarymightofEngland,
partlyexasperationatthefailureofKingJohntothrowinhislotwithhisbeleaguredsubjects.ThepatriotsnolongerenjoyedthesupportoftheKingofFranceorofthepope,andnowtheyresignedthemselvestoageneralsurrenderwhiletherewasstillalittleroomfornegotiationwithEdwardI.ComynsoughtthatEdwardwouldruleScotlandaccordingtothelawsandcustomsinthetime
ofAlexanderIII;thatanydeparturefromthemshouldbesanctionedbytheassentofthegoodpeopleofScotland;thatnothingshouldbeenactedtotheprejudiceoftheScots;andthatnohostagesbetaken.Edward,ontheotherhand,wasunwillingtoacceptalltheScottishleadersintohispeaceuntilWallacehadbeencaptured.Aseriesofcompromiseagreementswerereached,wherebycertainof
thepatriotleadersweretobeexiledforvaryingperiodsoftime,dependingupontheextentoftheirinvolvementwiththeresistance.ScottishnobleswhoseestateshadbeengrantedtoEnglishmenweretobegiventheopportunitytobuythemback.Edwardcouldhaveinsisteduponmuchtougherterms.SimonFraseralsosurrendered,thoughitisclearthatEdwarddetestedhim.As
itwas,hewassavingthefullnessofhisvengeancefortheScottishgarrisonofStirling,andforWilliamWallace.Inthespringof1304,
Edwardbesiegedor‘invested’StirlingCastleandunleasheduponitalltherefinementsofmedievalsiegetechnology,includingprimitiveexplosives.Enginesofwar–batteringramsandcatapuls–werecollected
fromBrechin,AberdeenandBerwick.RobertBrucecontributedsiegemachinesofhisown.Leadwasstrippedfromtheroofsofnearbychurchestoprovidecounterweighsforcatapults,andcottonthread,sulphurandsaltpetre–theingredientsofGreekfire–wereassembled,presumablytomakebombs.ThesiegeofStirlingwasashowcaseforcontemporarywarfare;infact
Edwardensuredthatthewholeprospect–ingeniouscontraptionsatwork,fires,explosions,heraldicbannersandshields,featsofarms–couldbeviewedatasafedistancebytheladiesoftheEnglishcourtfromaspeciallyconstructedorielwindow.Withinthecastle,theheroicgarrison,ledbySirWilliamOliphant,shelteredfromtheexplosionsincavesdeepwithinthebedrock,but
emergedtoraincrossbowboltsandstonesontheattackers.Oliphantmayhavefeltdesertedbyhisking,whohadnotarrivedtoleadtheresistance;heclaimedtoholdthecastle,notoftheguardian,SirJohnSoules,noryetofKingJohn,but,inreferencetotheScottishroyalstandard,‘oftheLion’.ThusOliphantconsideredthatheheldthecastleintrustforthemonarchyorkingdomof
Scotland.Gazingacrossattheenemyranks,however,thedefendersdiscernedtheheraldicdevicesoftheirerstwhilecomradesJohnComyn,AlexanderLindsay,DavidGrahamandSimonFraserandbecameawarethatthesehithertostaunchpatriotshadalreadymadetermswithEdward.On20JulyOliphantdecidedhecouldholdoutnolongerandofferedsurrender.Edwardshowedno
magnanimitywhatsoeverandrefusedtogivethedefenderspeaceuntilhehadtriedouthisnewandterriblesiegeengine,theWarwolf.Atlast,on24July,heallowedthemtosurrender,andOliphant’sbravemenemerged,barefootandfacesbesmirchedwithashes,symbolisingabjectcontrition,tothrowthemselvesonhismercy.Thekingmadeitplainthattheywereluckytobegrantedlife
andlimb,andhehangedthemanresponsibleforbetrayingthecastletotheScotsfouryearsearlier.Victorious,Edward
returnedtoEnglandthatsummerwithScotlandallbutsubdued.OnlyWilliamWallaceremainedatlarge.OnthedayafterthesiegeofStirlinghadended,EdwardhaddispatchedComyn,Lindsay,GrahamandFrasertocaptureWallaceby13
January1305,iftheywantedeasiersurrenderterms.InAugust1305thegreatestpatriotoftheagewascapturedashelaywithhismistress–accordingtoPeterLangtoft’schronicle–byJohnofMenteith’smen.WallacewastakentoLondonwhereashowtrialrehearsedtheaccusationsagainsthim:hehadsparednonewhousedtheEnglishtongue,hehadslaughteredchildren,widows
andnuns,andhehadrebelledagainsthisfeudallord.NoaccountwastakenofthefactsthatWallacehadneverswornfealtytoEdward,anddidnotacknowledgeEdwardashislord.Noopportunitywasgivenforhimtoanswerthecharges.Bythestandardsoftheagethiswasalltobeexpected:Wallacewasnotofhighbirthandhehadwagedwarwithoutparticularregardtochivalry.AsEdward’s
biographerpointsout,‘therewasnoreasonwhyEdwardshouldhavetreatedhimwithcompassionorrespect’.Butthebarbarismoftheexecutionisinexcusablebyanystandards.WallacewasdraggedbyhorsesforfourmilesfromWestminstertoSmithfield,hanged,cutdownwhilestillalive,disembowelledandbeheaded.HisheadwasplacedonLondonBridge,andthebody
quartered,withpartsdispatchedtoNewcastle,Berwick,StirlingandPerth.WallacehadbeenunlovedbytheComynfaction,andthoughhailingfromwithintheBrucecampwemustassumethatRobertBrucehadmadeeveryefforttohunthimdownin1304.Evenso,Edward’streatmentofaformerguardianmayhavegeneratedconsiderableoutrage.Itislikelythatthe
Brucecoupof1306owessomethingofitspopularsupporttoWallace’sbrutalexecution.InSeptember1305Edward
addressedtheproblemofthefuturegovernmentofEngland’slatestsatelliteterritory.TenScotsmetwithtwentyoftheking’scounsellorstodrafttheOrdinancefortheGovernmentofScotland.Inthetext,Scotlandisreferred
tonotasarealmorkingdom,butmerelyasa‘land’;itsstatusisthusrelegatedtothatofIreland.Aroyallieutenant–JohnofBrittany–wasappointedtoserveasguardian,withacounciloftwenty-twoScottisharistocrats.Otherofficesincludedachancellor,achamberlain,andfourpairsofjustices,eachpairconsistingofanEnglishmanandaScotsman.Thesheriffsand
castellansappointedweremostlyScots,butthemoreimportantcastlesandthesheriffdomsofthesouth-eastweregiventoEnglishmen.Thecounciloftwenty-twowastoembarkuponacomprehensivereviewofScottishlaw.Inthisdocumentnoneoftheattentiontodetailmanifestinhissettlementsofotherlandsisshown,andonegainstheimpressionthat,attheageof
sixty-four,EdwardIwasenormouslyrelievedtohavefinallysettledtheScottishquestion.Bruce,whohadrecentlyentertainedhopesofbeingvassalking,wastohavebutaminorroleinthesettlement.Hewasamongthosenominatedtositontheguardian’scouncil,and,asheheldtheyoungheirtotheearldomofMarinwardship,hewastoinstallaconstableinKildrummyCastle,the
principalseatofthatearldom.In1305EdwardIappeared
tohavecompletedhisexhaustingundertakingofreducingScotlandtoobedience.IndeedhehadhammeredtheScotsintosubmission,butitisalsotruethathehadbeenobligedtoreachaccommodationwiththepowerfularistocraticComynfaction,and,havingfinallysecuredtheirco-operation,hecouldnow
governthroughtheirresourcesoflordship,patronageandcastles.Edwardcouldhavedonesomuchearlier,hadhebeeninapositiontodevotetoScotlandhisundividedattention.Thecosts,evenintermsofhardcash,werestaggering.Hisbiographerestimatesthatthecampaignof1300cost£40,000–50,000,andthatof1303–04mayhavecost£80,000.ForEdward’searlier
conquestofWalestherehadbeenahigherproportionofhisincomeavailable;hehadconqueredScotlandatatimewhenthereweremanyothercallsonhisresources.True,thereweredistanthighlandsandislandswhereEdward’swritdidnotyetrun,but,ashehadcontrolofallthecentresofauthorityhecouldbeconfidentthathispeacehadbeenwidelyimposed.Trueagain,hewasunloved,hadno
purchaseontheheartsandmindsoftheScotsandmusthavebeenresentedbyvirtuallyall,yethewasnowinapositiontodivideandrule,toadministervastresourcesofpatronageandcoercion.Aswasthecaseforanymedievalmonarch,hehadlittleneedofconsentfromthepopulationatlargesolongasmagnatescouldbereliedupontoco-operate,howeverbegrudgingly.Given
acompetentheirtocementhisachievements,continuedco-operationfromScottishmagnatesandtheabsenceofanyalternativetohisrule,Edward’sconquestmighthavelastedindefinitely.In1305Scotland’sfatehadbeensealed;theEdwardiansuper-kingdomhadarrived.
enthronement
Thereconstructionoftheeventsof10February1306withwhichthisbookopensisbaseduponthenarrativeofthechroniclerWalterofGuisboroughwho,thoughhostiletoBruce,isthebestnear-contemporarysourcefortheseevents.JohnComynhadriddenfromDalswinton,accompaniedbyhisuncleSirRobertComyn.Brucewas
accompaniedbyChristopherSeton;theotherswithhimwerepossiblySeton’stwobrothers.Theprincipalsgreetedoneanotherwithakiss–though,theGuisboroughchroniclepointsout,itwasnotthe‘kissofpeace’.Betweenthetwomenadealoragreementformutualassistancemayalreadyhaveexisted,andinalllikelihoodBrucewillhavecanvassedComyn’ssupport
foranattemptonthethrone.TothisComynwouldnotconsent.WalterofGuisboroughdescribeswhathappened:
Theywerespeakingtogetherwithwordswhichseemedpeaceful;suddenly,inareversal,andwithdifferentwords,[Bruce]begantoaccusehimofbetrayal,inthathehadaccusedhimtothekingofEngland,andhadworsenedhispositiontohisharm.When[Comyn]spokepeaceablyand
excusedhimself,[Bruce]didnotwishtohearhisspeech,butashehadconspired,hestruckhimwithfootandswordandwentawayout.But[Bruce’s]menfollowed[Comyn]andcasthimdownonthepavingbeforethealtar,leavinghimfordead…RobertComynhisunclerantobringhimhelp,butChristopherSeton,whohadmarriedRobert’ssistermethim,struckhisheadwithaswordandhedied…Comynstilllived,forthefriarshadcarriedhimdowntothealtarvestrytotreathimandforhimtoconfesshissins.Whenhe
confessedandwasrepentant,bythetyrant’s[thatis,Bruce’s]orderhewasdraggedoutofthevestryandkilledonthestepsofthehighaltar.
Discussionhadturnedtoargumentandargumenttoaccusation,insultandjealousrage.Itisimpossibletobelievethatmurderwasintendedinasacrosanctchurchofallplaces;Brucewouldnothavehandedsucha
weapontohisenemies.ButJohnComynhadnotdiedoutrightbeforeBruceleftthechurch.Brucesubsequentlyorderedhimtobedraggedoutofthevestryandfinishedoffbythealtar.LaterwritersrelatethatRogerKirkpatrickofCloseburnandJamesLindsayfinishedoffthedyingComynonBruce’sbehalf,butitisunlikelythathehadanyevidenceforthis.Brucehadsurelyintendedto
assumeleadershipofaunitedScotland,nottoplungethecountryintoyearsofbittercivilwar.HehadblunderedacrosshisRubicon,andhewillhaverealisedimmediatelythatthediewascast.Perhapsheproclaimedhisintentiontoseizethethronethereandthen;atanyratehismenhurriedofftoseizeDumfriesCastle.Robert’scoupd’étathadnotgotofftothesmoothestof
starts.RobertBruce’sactions
ensuredthatEdwardIdiedangry,bitterlydisappointedthatacovetedprize,theconquestofScotland,hadslippedexasperatinglyfromhisgrasp.ByanystandardsthedarkdeedofthatFebruaryeveningwasadefiningepisodeinScottishhistory,andinthehistoryoftheseislands.RobertBruceVIhadtakennoactionthatweknow
ofsince1296topromotethefamily’sclaimtothethrone,and,ifhetookanyinterestinScottishaffairs,itwasonlytoappearonthefieldatFalkirktoassistinthedefeatofthepatriotcause.Hadhisson,RobertBruceVII,livedatrouble-freelifeintheserviceofEdwardI,ScottishidentityandtheveryconceptofScotlandmighttodayhavebeentotallydifferent:aquaintmedievalsurvival,a
distanthalf-forgottenmemory,orpossiblylostaltogether.Therehasbeenendless
speculationastowhatdroveRobertBruceVIItotakesuchdrasticaction.Firstly,wemightsay,threepreconditionshadbeenmet:threefactorsthatmadeitpossibleforhimtoattemptarealisationofhisfamily’sclaimtothethrone.Thefirstofthesewasthesudden
impossibilityofaBalliolrestoration,causedbydefeatonthefieldofCourtraiofPhiliptheFair’spower,uponwhichthewholeideahaddepended.ThislefttheBruceclaimtotheScottishthronethesoleremainingplausibleoptionforarevivalofthemonarchy.ThesecondwasthedeathofRobertBruceVIon21April1304.OnthecollapseofScottishresistancetoEdwardIearlyin1304,
RobertBruceVIhaddiedwhilereturningtoAnnandale,andhewasburiedatHolmCultramAbbeyinCumberland.ThismeantthatRobertBruceVIIacquiredaconsiderableincreaseinprestigeandresourcesashebecamelordofAnnandale,headofthefamilyandclaimanttothethroneofScotland.AccordinglyhedidhomagetoEdwardIandcameintohisinheritanceon
14June.ThethirdfactorpermittingofaBrucebidforthethronewastheloomingprospectofEdwardI’sdeath.Atsixty-fiveEdwardwasveryoldbymedievalstandards,andeverycourtierfawninguponthedomineeringoldmananticipatedthataPandora’sBoxofpossibilitieswouldspringopenonhisdemise.Cultivatingtheheirtothethrone,covertalliancesand
plottingaretheorderofthedaywhenaking’sdeathisnotfaroff.In1305,onhiscapture,thepatriotleaderWallacewasfoundtobecarryingdocumentsimplicatingcertainoftheScottishmagnatesinaconspiracy;tantalisingly,weknownothingoftheircontents.WemaybecertainhoweverthatRobertBrucehadneverabandonedhisdesignsonthethrone,and
waspreparingforEdward’sdeathasthemomentwhenhewouldact.SuchwerethepreconditionsforanyattempttorealisetheBruceclaim,butonefurtheroccurrencealsofacilitatedorevenencouragedit.Thiswastheappointmenton26October1305ofBishopWilliamLambertonasoneoffourguardianstoholdofficeuntilJohnofBrittany,nominatedaslordlieutenantintheordinanceof1305,
couldtakeuphisduties.Thebishophadalonghistoryofsupportingthepatriotcausewhenpoliticalcircumstanceshadallowed,andtheappointmentratesasasignificantmiscalculationonthepartofEdward.Indeed,itwasalmostashugeanerrorasEdward’sunderestimationofRobertBrucehimself.Thequestionhowever
remainsofwhatimpelledRoberttoriskeverything–
estates,familyhonour,lifeandlimb–byleavingEdwardI’sfealty.Washepulledbypatriotismtoactagainsthisowninterests,orpushedbydecliningfortunes?ThereareconflictingassessmentsofBruce’spositionatthisjuncture.ProfessorBarrow,theleadingauthority,takestheviewthatRobert,asearlofCarrickandlordofAnnandale,marriedtoadaughterofthemost
powerfulmagnateinIreland,holdingAyrandKildrummycastles,andwiththreeroyalforestsinhiskeeping,hadeverythingtolose.‘Potentially,hehadneverbeenricherormorefavoured.’Heimpliesthenthatpatriotismmotivatedhimtoactcontrarytohisownimmediateinterests.ProfessorPrestwichhoweverstressesthatRoberthadgroundsfordiscontentwithroyalservice
whichdrovehimtoactashedid.LikeallEdwardI’smagnates,Brucefacedgreatdifficultyinrecoveringexpenses.HewasowedmoneyonaccountofexpenditureincurredassheriffofAyrshireandLanarkshire,andtherewastroubleovercertainrightsheclaimedinAnnandale.Prestwich’sjudgementisthatBruce’sexpectationsofroyalservicehadnotbeenrealised,
andthat‘withmorecarefulhandlingbyEdward,itisverylikelythatBrucewouldhaveremainedavaluableallyoftheEnglish’.Probably,likehisfather,Brucestillharbouredfondexpectationofeventuallybeingaskedtotakeontheroleofvassal-kingofScotland,andwasdisappointedatEdward’scontinuedrefusaltoemployhiminthiscapacity.Otherfactorsless
quantifiableandmoredifficulttoassess,werealsomakingforaviolentreactionagainstthesullenPaxEdwardiana.SurelyoutrageseethedamongtheScottishnobilityatEdward’stramplingoneveryScottishsensibility,attheforeignoccupation,disinheritances,thelootingofpreciousrelics,arbitraryseizuresandexactionsofoathsandhostages.Thisoutragefed
upontheprovocativeexecutionofWilliamWallace,whomEdwardIhadhumiliated,torturedandkilled.WallacewasaformerguardianoftherealmandamilitaryleaderwhohadprobablycommandedconsiderablepopularrespectinScotland.ThisoutrageBrucemusthavesharedandprobablyhopedtoharnesstohisownends.Furthermore,astheoldkingnearedhisend
theclimateofexpectationmusthavebeenbrewing,asenseofimminentcatastrophedimlyreflectedintherumoursandforebodingsinspiredbythepropheciesofMerlinandThomasofErceldouneobscurelyreferredtoinBarbour’sTheBruceandinaletterof15May1307discussedinthefollowingchapter.Disappointed–perhaps
bitterlyso–withtherewards
ofroyalservice,Brucealsosufferedaperceptibledownturninfortunesandfavouratcourt.InMarch1305hewasprominentattheWestminsterparliament.HesoughtandreceivedthelandsofSirIngramdeUmfravilleinCarrick;hewasconsultedastohowScotlandshouldberepresentedatthesubsequentparliament;andthefollowingAprilhewasamongthosechargedwithsupervising
electionofthoserepresentatives,andwiththedefenceofScotland.YetwhenthatsubsequentparliamentmetinSeptember1305Brucewasnotpresent;18hewasrelegatedbytheordinancetoaminorroleinthegovernmentofScotland;andthelandsinCarrickwererestoredtoUmfraville.FurthermoreEdwardattemptedtocollect
fromBrucedebtsallegedlyowedbyhisfather.ItmaybethatbyFebruary
1306Brucefearedasuddenandcatastrophicfallfromgrace,andwasdriventodesperatemeasurestoescapeawfulconsequences.Hadhebeenplanningarevoltaswesuspect,hemayhavedreadedrevelationofhispreparations.Pactswithothermagnatesmayhavebeenpreparationsforrevolt,orcapableof
interpretationassuch.Onesuchpacthemadeon11June1304withWilliamLamberton,BishopofStAndrews,whilewatchingtheshowpiecereductionofStirlingCastle,thelastpatrioticstrongholdinScotland.Eachpromisedtoaidtheotherintheeventoffutureperils,‘tobeofoneanother’scounselinalltheirbusinessandaffairsatalltimesandagainstwhichever
individuals’.Itisaninnocentenoughagreementandnotremarkableofitself,exceptthatitlacksthenormalclause‘exemptingfealtytoourlordtheking’.ThisleavesopenthepossibilitythattheseconfederatesmayhavebeenpreparedtoassistoneanotherinactivitieswhichEdwardwouldconsidertreasonable.LambertonmaynothavebeentheonlymagnatewithwhomBruceallied.Itseems
likelythatsomesimilararrangementhadbeenenteredintowithJohnComynofBadenochIII,headoftheseniorlineofthefamily,thevictorofRoslinandthemanBrucewastokillatDumfries.ComynwasalsoatthesiegeofStirling.Versionsofsuchadealbetweenthetwomenarerecordedinbothpro-andanti-Brucechronicletraditions,relatingeitherthatComynrevealedRobert’s
intentionstoEdward,orthatBrucewasincensedbyareportthatComynhaddoneso.TheBarbournarrativepoemTheBruce,whichcommenceswiththisepisode,includesthelatterversion.Eitherway,almosteveryearlysourceallegesthatBrucewasplottingacoupd’étattowhichComynwouldnotassent.Finally,judgingbyhisswiftandenthusiasticreactiontothedramatic
eventsofspring1306,itismostlikelythatBishopWishartofGlasgowwasalsopartytowhateverplotBrucemayhavebeenhatching.Itisworthwhilepausingto
considerthefigureofJohnComynIIIofBadenoch,knowntohistoryas‘theRedComyn’,thoughthatnameproperlypertainstoeachsuccessiveheadofthatbranchoftheComynfamily.Hebelongedtothe
aristocraticfactionthathadbeenintheascendantinScotlandforthethirtyyearspriorto1296.DuringthattimetheComynshadusedroyalpowerandofficetoextendandestablishtheirinfluence,developextensivelandedinterestsandanunrivallednetworkofpatronage,especiallyinthenorthofScotland.Comynhadbeensoleguardianfromtheautumnof1302tothe
‘generalsubmission’ofFebruary1304.HiswifewasJoandeValence,sisterofAymerdeValence,arisingstaratthecourtofEdwardIandamagnatealready,withconsiderablemilitaryexperienceinScotland,soontobecomeearlofPembroke.Asalreadymentioned,ComynwasalsothevictorofRoslin,apatrioticvictoryofsuchmomentthattheScottishambassadorsinPariswroteto
him,‘ItwouldgladdenyourheartsifyouknewhowmuchyourhonourhasincreasedineverypartoftheworldasaresultofyourrecentbattlewiththeEnglish.’Comynthushadconsiderablemilitaryprestigeaswellasallthekudosthatlineage,extensivelandsandpatronagecouldbestow.EquallywithRobertBruce,JohnComynwasleadershipmaterial;hisonlydisadvantageinthatrespect
wasthathehadnoclaimonthethrone.AnymovementComynledwouldhavehadtobeinthenameofKingJohn.Whentheheadsofboth
familiesmetintheGreyfriarsChurchatDumfrieson10February1306therewillhavebeenconsiderabletension.BrucemaywellhaveseenComynasarivalforpower,thoughunlikehimselfComynhadnopretensionstothethroneofScotland.Aswe
haveseentherehadalwaysbeendeepsuspicionandanimositybetweentheBruceandComynfactions,andthesesamemenhadactuallycometoblowsatthecouncilmeetinginPeeblesin1299.But,besidestension,therewillalsohavebeenfeelingscommontoboththat,onewayoranother,thingswerecomingtoahead.InProfessorBarrow’sphrase,‘itwasthemomentforaction’.
WeknowthatBrucehadbeencarefullyprovisioninghiscastles,andwasthereforepreparediftheneedarosetotakedrasticsteps.Afterthemurder,Robert
BrucerodebacktoLochmabentoraisethetenantryofAnnandale,thistimewithmuchgreaterauthoritythanhehaddonein1297.Alettersurvives,writtenbyanunknownauthorintheEnglishgarrisonat
BerwickinMarch1306,whichgivesdetailedinformationonBruce’smovementsintheweeksafterthedeathofJohnComyn.TheauthorexplainsthathehimselfisengagedinreinforcingthepeelatBerwick,andthatheisnonetoosureofthesupportoflocalpeopleandsoldiers.HethenliststhefortificationsheldbyRobert,andtheprovisionsavailabletothem:
Sir,thenewsinthesepartsisthattheearlofCarrickholdstheking’scastlesofDumfriesandAyr,andthecastleofDalswintonwhichbelongedtoJohnComyn,andthecastleofTibberswhichbelongstoRichardSiward,andheholdsthisRichard,andWilliamBalliol,inprisonashedidbefore;andofthestoreswhichwereinthecastleofAyr,thereareinthetowninthehandsofmerchants,agoodhundredcasksofwineandotherstoresingreatplenty.HehashadhiscastleofDunavertyinKintyre
RobertBoyd,aprominentmemberofBruce’sretinue,hadtakenRothesaybytrickery,andwasbesiegingInverkip.ThewriterdescribesRobert’seffortstoraiseanarmy:
TheearlofCarrickhasmadewarinGallowaytocausethepeopletorebelwithhim,buttheyhaveansweredinaccordthattheywillneverrebelagainstthekingforanymanliving…Sir,theearlof
CarrickhasbeenatGlasgowandRutherglenandinthosedistricts,andhasreceivedthefealtyofthepeoplewherehehascome,andhaschargedthemtobereadytogowithhimwithrationsforninedayswhentheyreceiveadayandnight’snotice…TheevilbishopremainsatGlasgowashischiefadvisor,andtheearlcomesoften,andtheytake…theircounseltogether,andtheyaremusteringallthesupportthattheycanfindfromeveryquarter…
Brucethenwasinopen
rebellion.Itisnowonderthatthepeopleofthe‘otherwise-minded’provinceofGalloway,everhopefuloffurtherautonomyfromScotland,refusedBrucetheirsupport.Neverthelesshehadtakencaretoensurethathiscastleswerewellprovisioned.Thedistributionofthecastlesseized(alongtheSolwayandCarrickshoreline)suggestsanexpectationofhelpfromtheWesternIslesorIreland;
BrucewasfallingbackonthesameplanthathisgrandfatherhadentertainedbothattheTurnberryBandandinhisrebellionof1286–87.WhileEdwardandNeilBrucestayedwithRobertin1306,thereisnomentioninnarrativesoftheotherbrothers,ThomasandAlexanderBruce,whomayalreadyhavebeendispatchedtotheWesternIslestomustergalloglasses.TheBerwick
correspondentalsoreportsthatBruceintendedtogarrisonandholdhisowncastlesagainsttheking’sforces,butthathewoulddestroyothercastles.FromothersourceswelearnthattherebellionwasspreadingintheBruceheartlandofthesouth-west.ChristopherSetonandhisbrothersheldforhimTibbersandLochDooncastles.TheyoungThomasRandolph–latertobecome
Robert’smosttrustedlieutenantandearlofMoray–adheredtoBruce,inspiteofhisfather’sloyaltytotheBalliols.BrucethenleftLochmaben
toconsultwith‘theevilbishop’,RobertWishart,atGlasgow.Onthewaythere,atArickstone,BarboursaysthathemetforthefirsttimetheyoungJamesDouglas,sonandheirofSirWilliamDouglasleHardiwhohad
diedintheTowerofLondonin1298.DouglasthrewinhislotwithBruceinthehopeofrecoveringhispatrimony,whichEdwardIhadgrantedtoRobertClifford.AccordingtoBarbourtheybecamefirmfriendsinstantly:
That’showtheymadeeachother’sacquaintanceMenwhoneverafterwardsdisagreedforanyreasonAslongastheylivedTheirfriendshipincreasedmore
andmoreallthetimeBecauseDouglasalwaysservedloyallyAndBrucewhowasworthybraveandwiseWithagoodwillrewardedhimwellforhisservice.19
BrucespentsometimeinconferencewithBishopWishartwhoabsolvedhimofthesinofkillingofComynandadministeredanoaththat,asking,Brucewouldabidebythedirectionoftheclergy
ofScotland.Theoathwasprobablyatraditionalone,expectedofanycandidateforkingship,buttheScottishclergywasfromthistimeonwardssupportiveoftheBrucemonarchy.AccordingtotheScalachronicaofThomasGray,thebishopgavehim‘robesandtheattirewithwhichBrucehadhimselfvestedandattiredontheday’and‘abanneroftheroyalarmswhichhehadlong
hiddeninhistreasury’.ThisisallborneoutbysubsequentchargesagainstthebishopsentbyEdwardItothepope.Thebishopwillalsohaveadvisedonasuitabledateforenthronement.Iftherevivalofthekingshipweretobecredible,alltraditionalformswouldhavetobeobservedasfaraspossible.EnthronementinthepenitentialseasonofLentwouldnotdo.Easter,withitsconnotationsof
resurrectionandrebirth,wouldhavebeenideal,butninedaysbeforeEaster,on25March,camethefeastoftheAnnunciation,whichwasnotreckonedasLent.Sincetimewasoftheessence,theysettledfortheearlierdate.Theydined,andthenthebishopbadehim‘gotosecurehisheritagebyallthemeansthathecould’.LeavingGlasgow,BruceadvancedagainstJohnofMenteith,the
sheriffandconstableofDumbarton.JohnrefusedtosurrenderthecastleofDumbartontoBruce’ssupporters,AlexanderLindsayandWalterLogan.Brucedidnotassault
Dumbarton,buttookhisgrowingentourageacrosstheRiverForth,astheBerwickcorrespondentexplained:‘OnthedaythatthisletterwaswrittenJohnofMenteithinformedmethattheearlof
Carrickhadcrossedtheseawith60men-at-arms.Andsir,ifthepeopleontheothersidearetrustworthy,whichIdonotmisdoubt,hewillhavebutashortstaywiththem.’AlthoughWalterLoganofHartsidehadextensiveIrishconnections,thecontextofthelettershowsthatthecrossingwasoftheRiverForth,commonlyreferredtoas‘theScottishSea’,nottheNorthChannelbetween
ScotlandandUlster,yetitislikelythatBrucehadsentotherstotheWesternIslesorIrelandtoraisesupport.Thelettercontinues:
Sir,howeveryouaregiventounderstandoftheearlofCarrick,heisneverthelessattemptingtoseizetherealmofScotlandandtobeking…Theking’scouncilorderedhim
todeliveruptheking’sofficers,andtheking’scastlesinhishands,andthetownswhichbelongedto
JohnComyn,andshouldbelongtothekingonthedeathofJohn(onwhomGodhavemercy),buttothis,Sir,hehasmadenoanswer.Sir,thechamberlaincommanded
himtodothesamething…andherepliedthathewouldtakecastles,townsandpeopleasfastashecould,untilthekinghadnotifiedhiswillconcerninghisdemand,and,ifhewouldnotgrantittohim,hewoulddefendhimselfwiththelongeststickthathehad.
Edward’scouncilofScotlandandchamberlainhad
thereforecalledonBrucetodesistandsurrender,butBrucehadaggressivelydemandedsomethingofthekingandexpectedaresponse.HisdemandmighthavebeenforacomprehensiveroyalpardonorforEdwardtobestowuponhimthevassalkingship,butsinceneitherwaslikelytobeforthcoming,hewasproceedingregardlesswithhisseizureofthekingship.Apartfrom
anythingelse,itwasonlyasking,withaking’spowertoraisearmies,thatBrucecouldwithstandthevengeanceoftheComyns.TheoutragedComynsandtheirallies–SirJohnMowbray,IngramdeUmfraville,theearlsofBuchanandAtholl,AlexanderAbernethyandothers–weremusteringtheirforcesatLiddesdaleandpreparingtotakevengeanceonBruce.Athollwas
feigning,however,andsubsequentlyjoinedBruce.Revivalofthekingship
wasnotproceedingquiteasBrucehadplanned,andhewasimprovisingfrantically.NodoubthehadenvisagedleadingaunitedScottishreactiontoEnglishoccupation,butthereisnodisguisingthatthe‘communityoftherealm’wasdivided,andthatthegreaterpartsupportedthe
morelegitimateBalliolclaimandpreferredtheEdwardiansettlementtotheusurpationofamurderer.However,Bruce’ssupportamongthehigherclergyprobablyreflectstheScottishChurch’shistoricinsistenceuponindependencefromthearchiepiscopalauthorityofYork.BishopWishart,whohadrecentlybeengrantedtimberforthesteepleofGlasgowCathedral,usedit
insteadtomakesiegeenginestoattackKirkintillochCastle.Brucealsoenjoyeddisproportionatesupportamongthehighernobility,manyofwhomwerealreadycloselylinkedtotheBrucearistocraticfaction.EverywherebutinGallowayEdward’sintrusionupontherightsandlibertiesofthekingdom,thehumiliationoftheScottishkingandtheexecutionofWilliamWallace
hadbeendeeplyresented.Brucewasbornetothethroneuponthatgroundswellofemotion.AsheadvancedfromDumbartononSconehisretinuewillhavebeendailyincreasedbyfreshadherentsofeveryclass,delightedattherevivalofthekingship,butwhosecommitmentremainedtobetested.InthoseheadyspringdaysasLentneareditsend,itmayhaveseemedthat,along
withmonarchy,theverynationwasbeingreborn.Newsspread,andexpectantcrowdsgatheredforacherishedspectacletheyhaddespairedofeveragainwitnessing.Allwasnotoptimism,ofcourse.InApril,MayandJunelandsandtitlesofthechiefrebelsweredeclaredforfeitandparcelledouttofollowersofEdward.AnnandalewasgrantedtoHumpherydeBohun,theEarl
ofHereford;Robert’searldomofCarricktoHenryPercy;theearldomofLennoxtoJohnMenteithandthatofMenteithtoJohnHastings.Thefeastofthe
AnnunciationfelluponaFriday.WalterofGuisborough,themostreliableofthechroniclers,recordsthatfourbishopsandfiveearlswerepresentattheceremony.Weknowofthreebishopsatmost.Robert
WishartandDavidMurray,BishopofMoray,werethereontheFriday,and,whenhehadheardthenewsofComyn’smurder,BishopWilliamLamberton,aschiefofEdward’scouncilofScotland,delayedandobfuscatedthecouncil’sreactiontotheBrucecoup,thenfledfromBerwickacrosstheFirthofForth,arrivingatSconetocelebratemassforthenewkingonthe
Sundayfollowing,PalmSunday.Hemayevenhavebeenpresentearlier,attheenthronement,sincehewaslateraccusedofshowingBruce‘honouronthedayofcoronation’.Theidentityofthefourthbishopwedonotknow,buttheabbotsofbothSconeandInchaffraywerebothinattendance.Weknowoffourearlspresent,besidesBrucehimself:theyoungDonald,heirofMar,whowas
Robert’sward,MalcolmofLennox,AlanofMenteithandJohn,EarlofAtholl,arecentadherent.Itwasacreditableturnoutofthegreatandgood,sufficienttobeconvincing.Crucially,however,theearlofFifewasabsent,theheirbeingsixteen-year-oldDuncan,soontobecomethefourthearl,whowascurrentlyinthewardshipofEdwardIandthereforeunavailable.TheearlofFife’s
traditionalroleofleadingtheking-electtothethronewascentraltoproceedings.ButfortheenthronementofJohnBalliolin1292,whentheearlwasachild,asubstitutehadhadtobefound,andonthisoccasiontooasubstitutebecameavailable.ThiswasIsabellaofFife,theyoungheir’saunt,whowasalsocountessofBuchan,beingmarriedtoJohnComyn,EarlofBuchan.Athollhad
escortedhertoSconefromherhouse,emptyingthestablesofBuchan’shorsesashedidso,tothwartpursuit.IsabellaisreportedinEnglishchroniclesasRobert’smistress.Howeverthismaybe,shemusthavehadstrongmotivationforsuchflagrantdefianceofherhusband.Ontheappointedday,
LadyDay,alltheessentialceremonieswereobserved.Thenewkingwasacclaimed
byclergy,noblesandpeopleintheabbeychurch,andthenledouttothechurchyardwherethetime-honouredceremonytookplaceunderthegazeofacrowdofonlookers.TheclergygirdedRobertwithasword,administeredtheoathandplacedarobeonhisshoulders.Muchoftheregaliaweremissing,havingbeenlootedbyEdwardI.Therose-sceptreandtheStoneof
DestinynowlayatStEdward’sshrineinWestminsterAbbey;ProfessorDuncanobservesofthisceremony,‘Theplace,Scone,andtheinaugurator,arepresentativeoftheearlofFife,wereimportant,buttheStonewasquietlyforgotten.’ThehighpointofproceedingswaswhenIsabellaofFifeledRobertBrucetowhateverthroneorornamentalchairwasprovided.Tounderline
thesignificanceofthemoment,shethenplacedacoronetonhishead,thoughthiswasnotrecognisedaspartoftheancientrite.20AHighlandpoetorseanachaidhreadaloudthenewking’sgenealogyreachingbacktoKennethMacAlpin,andbeyondtoFergussonofErc,themythicalancestralrulerofDalRiata,theancientIrishkingdomandhomelandofthe
Scots.Thedayendedwithafeast.OntheSundayfollowing,
highmasswassaidbyBishopLamberton,andthiswasfollowedbythetakingofhomagesandfealties.Amongthosewhoadheredtothenewking,addingsignificantlytohislegitimacy,wasAlexanderScrymgeour,theKingofScots’hereditaryroyalstandard-bearer,whohadservedalltheguardians
inturn.Furthermore,ScrymgeourboretheverybannerofAlexanderIII.ThesignificanceofregaliaandceremonywasallegedlywasteduponRobert’swife,ElisabethdeBurgh,whoreportedlyberatedherhusbandfor‘playingatkingsandqueens’.Whateverherviewswere,fromthispointinthenarrativeonwardsitbehovesustorefertoRobertBruceasRobertIof
Scotland.Enthronementwas
necessarypageantry.ItwasvitalthatRobertBruceshouldundergothesacramentalchangefrommeremortaltoRobertI,KingofScotsandrepresentativeofdivineorderintheworld.ButitdidnotaltertheharshfactsthatthenewkinghadperhapsonlyaquarterofScotlandunderhissway,andthatpowerfulenemieswerebearingdown
onhim.PreparationsforacampaignhadbeensetintrainbytheEnglishgovernmenton1March.InEnglandtooapageantwasheld,inMay1306.FollowingtheknightingofEdwardofCaernarfon,theprinceofWales,allthenewlymadeknightswereinvitedtoa‘feastoftheSwans’,wheretheyeachpledgedanoathofchivalricsymbolism,‘totheSwan’,toavengethedeathof
JohnComyn;thentheysetofftojointhecampaign.Inthestreets,meanwhile,popularsatiristsjeeredatBruce’smakeshiftceremony.Theyscoffedat‘KingHobbe’or‘MadKingRobin’andtheygleefullypredictedthatthenewking’sreignwouldnotlastforlong:‘IthinkyoumaybeKingofSummer,/KingofWinteryouwillnotbe.’ForthenewKingofScots
theperiodafterthe
enthronementwasoneoffranticactivitytostrengthenhispower-basebycapturingcastles,makingfriendsandpromises–‘friendsandfriendshippurchasing’asBarbourputsit–andtwistingarms.Hetravellednorth,whereDavidMurray,BishopofMoray,wasrousingthepeopletoapatrioticcrusade.EdwardIsubsequentlycomplainedtothepopethat‘TheflockoftheBishopof
Moray,whoassembledtothehelpofthesaidRobert,andstillholdthemselveswithhim,havedonethisowingtotheincitement,preachingandexhortingofthesaidbishop,becausehetoldthemthattheywhorebelledwithSirRoberttohelphimagainstthekingofEnglandandtookthepartofthesaidSirRobert,werenotlessdeservingofmeritthaniftheyshouldfightintheHolyLandagainst
pagansandSaracens.’RobertcapturedanddestroyedForfarCastleonhiswaynorth.HevisitedBanff,andextortedcashfromthemerchantcommunitiesofAberdeen,DundeeandPerthbytakinghostages.AtAberdeen,Brucespentaweekorso,establishinghisqueenandhisdaughterMarjorieinthecareofabandoffaithfulknights:hisbrotherNeil,AlexanderLindsayandRobertBoyd.At
Perth,thebailiffswerethrowninprisonandthreatenedwithdeathuntiltheypaid£54,whichRobertthentookasrentsthatwereduetohimasking.Hemayhaveattackedanddamagedthefortificationsofallthreetowns,forEdwardIhadthemallrepairedthefollowingyear.WhenMalise,EarlofStrathearn,refusedtoprovidemilitarysupportforthenewking,Robert,accompaniedby
Atholl,advancedagainsthim.HemarchedtoFowlis,oneofStrathearn’scastles,andheldtwomeetingswithStrathearntodemandhissupport;gavehimafewdaystothinkitover;theninexasperationhadhimseizedandheldontheIsleofInchmahome,whereatlasttheearlsubmitted.Strathearnhadgoodreasontobecagey:notonlywashenotanaturalally,beingmarriedtoaComyn,butEdwardI
heldhostagehisonlyremainingson.The‘Anglo-Scots’‘21
reactiontotheBrucecoupwasinitiallyswift,butthenmonthswerewastedwaitingfortheEnglishtoarriveinstrength.TheletterfromtheBerwickcorrespondentshowsthat,thoughtakenutterlybysurprise,theAnglo-Scotswereneverthelessinastrongposition.Allthemaincastles
ofLothianandtheeastwereprovisioned,thePeelofSelkirkwasinsafehands,andalreadyahundredNorthumberlandfootwereontheirwaytoBerwick.Asearlyas22February–ameretwelvedaysafterthemurderofJohnComyn–Tibberscastlehadbeenrecaptured;on3MarchDumfriesfelltoforceshostiletoBruce.Theseactionswereprobablytakenbygarrisonsalreadyin
Scotland;itwassummerbeforetheEnglishenteredScotlandinstrength.On5AprilEdwardappointedAymerdeValence,thebrother-in-lawofthemurderedComyn,ashislieutenantinScotland.HenryPercyandRobertClifford,leadingaforceof100cavalry,closedinontheBruceheartlandofsouth-westScotland.Robert,havingtakenmorecastlesthanhe
couldgarrison,leftthecastleatAyrslightedandabandoned.Atlast,inJune,AymerdeValenceadvancedfromBerwicktowardsPerthandDundeewith300cavalryandalargeforceofinfantry;BarbourtellsushewasaccompaniedbytheScottishmagnatesPhilipMowbrayandIngramdeUmfraville.AtCuparinFife,ValencearrestedtheelderlyanddefiantBishopWishart;at
ScotlandwellnearKinross,Lambertonalsosurrendered,thoughhefirstdispatchedhiswardAndrew,sonandheirofJamestheSteward,intoRobert’scare.ValencethenoccupiedPerth.Buoyedupbythe
widespreadsupportathisenthronement,RobertknewthatifhecouldconfrontanddefeatValencetherewaseverychancethatvindicationofhisrightonthebattlefield
wouldcausesupportforhiskingshiptosnowballfurther.Strathearnhadprovenunreliableinprovidinglevies,butRoberthadneverthelessmanagedtogatheraconsiderablearmyandbesiegedStrathearninhismanorhouseatKenmoreinPerthshire.Robertlaidwastehisestatesandhadhimarrestedforatime.Strathearn–whosesonswerehostageswiththeEnglishking–
playedfortimeandonlyjustmanagedtoavoidcommitinghimselfuntilRobertwasatlastdistractedbytheadvanceofAymerdeValenceonPerth.22WithRobertweretheearlsofLennoxandAtholl,hisbrotherEdwardBruce,ThomasRandolph,HughHay,SirDavidBarclayandSirSimonFraser,onceagaininrevolt.Itwasscarcelyasignofconfidence,however,
thatmanyofRobert’sknightsworewhiteshirtsovertheirsurcoats,maskingtheirheraldicdevicessothat,intheeventofdefeat,theywouldnotbeidentifiedandsufferlossoflandsoratraitor’sdeath.On26JuneRobert
challengedValencetocomeoutofthetownandfightintheopen,butValencedeclined,respondingthathepreferredtowaituntilthe
morrow.Robert’smenbrokeuptomakecampatMethvenandforageforfirewood,but,justthen,inthetwilight,Valenceattackedwithdevastatingeffect.AcavalrychargeputtoflighttheinfantryandsurprisedRobert’sknights.ThechroniclesreportthatRobertwasalmostcaptured.BarbourdescribeshowPhilipMowbrayseizedthereinsofRobert’shorseandcried,
‘Help!Help!Ihavethenew-madeking!’ChristopherSeton,however,attackedMowbray,causingthebridletoslipfromhishand.23Barbourputsasbraveafaceashecanonthedefeat,butRobert’sforceswereclearlyrouted,andtheywerepursuedfromthefieldbyknightsofValence’scompany.Malcolm,EarlofLennox,slippedawayquietlytohis
estates.ThomasRandolphwasoneofthosecaptured,andhewasfortunatetohavehislifespared.ButsixteenprisonersweretriedandexecutedatNewcastleinAugust,andafurtherelevenweretakentoYork.SimonFraser,whomEdwardIhateddeeply,wasalsocapturedand,likeWallace,takentoLondonwherehesufferedagruesomeexecutionforthegratificationofthemob.
Pursuitwashot,forthereweregreatrewardsinransomsandroyalfavourtobehadforthosewhocapturedsignificantpersonages.Robertandtheremnantsofhiscavalryfledwest-wardsalongStrathearn,intotheterritoryofStFillan,whoserelicswerereverentlymaintainedbytheAbbeyofInchaffray,arecipientoftheking’sgenerosityinlateryears.Duringhisflight
Robertperhapsconsideredhimselfprotectedbythesaintormayhavebeenshelteredbytheabbot.HewasstillaccompaniedbyEdwardBruce,theNorthumberlandknightWalterBurradon,GilbertHay,NeilCampbellandafewothers,andwiththemhecrossedoverthemountainsintoStrathtay.There,however,thepursuers,ledbytheGasconknightGilesd’Argentan,caughtup
withthem.TheBrucepartysufferedafurtherdefeat,buttheymusthaveacquittedthemselveswell,sincetheycausedhorsestobelostbythepursuers.GreatwasthedelightofEnglishsongstersatRobert’sdiscomforture:‘NowKingHobbetothemoorshasgone/Tocometotownhehasnodesire.’Certainlytherewasnothing
lefttoRobertnowbutfurtherflightintothewilderness.Itis
impossibletoimaginethathecouldavoiddespairontakingtotheheatherafterMethvenandStrathtay.Hehadgambled,andlostheavily.Whetherhecursedhisambitionforbringingruinonhisfamilyandfriends,hesurelyregretteddeeplywhateverhadtranspiredinthechurchatDumfries,forithadsetinmotionachainofeventsthatcouldnow–itseemed–onlyendindeath
anddisgrace.Workingfromthebenefitofhindsight,commentatorshavetendedtoexaggeratesuchfaintglimmersofhopeasremainedtohim.Recoveryfromthisdesperatepositionwasbynomeansinevitable,however;itwas,rather,miraculous.
Defeatandexile
InthedarkmomentthatfollowedhisdefeatsatMethvenandStrathtay,RobertBrucemusthavedrawnuponwellsofself-belief,fortitudeandconfidencethatfewpossess.Foraboutafortnightheandhismenkepttothehighglensandhillsides.Fortunatelyitwassummer,andonepicturestheerstwhilegrandees
shelteringinthe‘sheilings’,ortemporarydwellingsofherdsmeninthehighpastures,bindingwoundsandstrugglingtofindgrazingsufficientforthehorses.TheScottishchroniclesdescribetheoutlawlifeofRobert’sbandofloyalfollowersintheMounth.Forthisepisode,thenadirofthehero-king’scareer,Fordunsetsthedesolationofhishopesandtheruinofhisfortunes
againsttheindifferentseaandsky:
theaforesaidkingwascutofffromhismenandunderwentendlesswoes,andwastossedindangersuntold,beingattendedattimesbythreefollowers,attimesbytwo;andmoreoftenhewasleftutterlyalonewithouthelp.Nowpassingawholefortnightwithoutfoodofanykindtoliveuponbutrawherbsandwater;nowwalkingbarefoot,whenhisshoesbecameoldandwornout;nowleftaloneintheislands;nowalonefleeingbefore
hisenemies;nowslightedbyhisservants,heabodeinutterloneliness.
Thesolitudedescribedhereis,however,aliterarydevicedemonstratingdespair.InBarbour’sTheBrucethekingdoesnotwantforcompany,butlivesnonethelessamiserableexistence:
TheyspentmanydaysasoutlawsSufferinghardshipintheMounthEatingfleshanddrinkingwater…
ThusinthehillslivedheTillthemostpartofhismenie[retinue]Wastatteredandtorn.TheyhadnoshoesSavethosetheycouldmakeofhide.
Thenewking’stribulationswereonlyjustbeginning.TheMacDougallswereadvancingonhimfromthewest.IntheGaidhealtachd,newsofthemurderofJohnComynandtheinaugurationofaBruce
kinghadhadprofoundrepercussions.UntilthistimeAlexanderMacDougallhadbeenincontinualrevoltagainsttheauthorityofEdwardI’schieflieutenantinthearea,AngusÓgMacDonald.Inaccordancewiththegeneralsurrenderof1304,theMacDougallshadenteredthepeaceofEdwardI.ButsuchwasthestrengthofthebondbetweentheComyns,Balliolsand
MacDougalls,andsuchthefearofaBrucekingship,thatthenewsofComyn’sdeathandBruce’senthronementswepttheMacDougallsintothecampofEdwardItoavengethemurderandterminatetheBrucecoup.TheMacDonalds,bythesametoken,suddenlyfoundtheirfirmallies,theBruces,tobeanathematoEdward’sgovernment,andtheirinveteratefoes,the
MacDougalls,onEdward’sside.Thusacompleteabout-turninthepoliticsoftheregionhadoccurred:theformerrebelMacDougallsnowsidingwithEdwardI,andEdward’serstwhileagentsintheregion,theMacDonalds,sidingwiththeBrucesagainsthim.Atthisjuncturethere
comestoprominenceJohnofArgyll,orJohnBachach–‘theLame’–MacDougall,
whowastoremainathorninRobert’ssideformanyyears.KnowntoBarbouras‘JohnofLorn’,thiswasthesonofAlexanderMacDougallofArgyllandadaughterofJohnComynofBadenochI24andthereforehewasafullcousinofthatJohnComynwhomBrucehadmurdered.Thoughhisfatherwasstillactive,JohntookovertheleadershipofthepowerfulMacDougall
affinity.SuchwasthebitternesswhichJohnharbouredagainsttheBrucesthatBarbourwasmovedtowrite:
ThisJohnofLornhatedthekingForthesakeofhisuncleSirJohnComyn.Wereheabletoslayorcapturehim,Hewouldnotvaluehislifeatastraw,Providedthathecouldtakevengeanceonhim.
AccordinglyJohnsoughtouttheremnantsofRobert’sforceswheretheyskulkedinthemountainsfollowingtheirdefeat.InJuly,neartheheadofStrathtayatDalry,hefoundthem.InBarbour’saccountRobert’spartywasattackedbutsawoffathousandaxe-wieldingArgyllsmen,whoneverthelessslewandinjuredmanyofhishorses.Barbourmakesarareadmissionthat
Robertwithdrewfromthebattlefield,andhealsodisclosesthatJamesDouglasandGilbertHaywerewounded.ProbablyBarbourhasturneddefeatintovictory;JohnofArgyllseemstohavebeenvictoriousyetunabletodestroytheBruceforceentirely.Here,inlaterlife,RobertIestablishedaprioryofStrathfillan,atGlendochart,asthoughingratitudeforagreatmercyat
thisplace.Nowthricedefeated,
RobertdispatchedJohn,EarlofAtholl,withalltheparty’shorses,tojointhequeenatKildrummyCastle.Thisrelievedhimofthedifficultyoffindinggrazingforthewarhorses.AthollhadinstructionstotaketheladiesoftheBrucepartyfromKildrummytoaseaportinorderthattheymightescapetoNorwegianterritoryinthe
OrkneyIslands,ortoNorwayitself.InNorway,Isabel,Robert’ssister,livedaswidowedqueen,andtherehisdependantswouldfindasylum.However,NeilBruceremainedatKildrummyaftertheladieshaddeparted,andtherehepreparedtoresistasiege,adecisionthatsuggeststremendousbutmisplacedfaithinhiseldestbrother.AccordingtotheBarbournarrativetheroyalladieswere
accompaniedbytheyoungJamesDouglas.TheBruceincludesvignettesofDouglasfindingfoodfortheladies,bringingthemnowvenison,noweels,nowsalmonandtroutcaughtbyhand.ButAymerdeValence,enormouslystrengthenedbythearrivalinScotlandofalargeexpeditionunderEdwardofCaernarfon,wasclosinginontheBruces.By3AugusthewasatAberdeen.
SoonafterwardstheEnglishbesiegedKildrummy.ThecastlefelltotheminSeptember,betrayedbyoneofthegarrison,whosetfiretothestocksofgrain.NeilBrucewasdeliveredintothehandsoftheprinceofWalesasaprisoner.Atholl,QueenElisabethandRobert’sdaughterMarjoriewerecapturedatStDuthusorDuthac’ssanctuarynearTainbyWilliam,EarlofRoss.In
earlySeptemberDuncan,theboyearlofMar,wastakeneitheratKildrummyoratTain.Violationofsanctuarywasaserioustaboo,and,althoughRosslaterdefectedtotheBruces,KingRobertsubsequentlyboundtheearlsofRosstopay£20annuallyforsixchaplainsatStDuthaus’ssanctuaryatTaintosaymassesforthesoulsofearlierkingsandforthatofJohn,EarlofAtholl.
Aged,andembitteredatthesuddenrenewalofresistanceinScotland,EdwardIexactedaterriblevengeanceonRobert’sadherents.OnaccountofhisrankAthollwastakentoLondonforashowtrial,andthen,forthatsamereason,hangedfromagallowsthirtyfeethigherthananyoneelse,cutdown,beheadedandburned.TheEnglishknightChristopherSeton,Robert’sbrother-in-
lawandhiscastellanatLochDoon,sufferedhanginginDumfries.Seton’swife,ChristinaBruce,laterfoundedachapelforhimatDumfries,andRobertprovidedanincometopayformassesforhissoul.Christopher’stwobrotherswerealsoexecuted.MentionhasalreadybeenmadeofthesixteenprominentsupportersofBrucehangedatNewcastleinAugust.Whenthey
surrenderedonoraround10SeptemberthegarrisonofKildrummyCastlewasalsohanged;andinOctoberNeilBrucewastriedbeforeEdwardofCaernarfon,drawnbyhorsesthroughthestreetsofBerwick,thenhangedandbeheaded,alongwithSirAlanDurwardandseveralothers.EdwardI’streatmentofthefemaleprisonerswasmorediscriminating,whichmaysuggestthatsomeofthe
ScottishladiesshowedaspiriteddefianceoftheEnglishking,whileothersdidnot.ThepunishmentmetedouttoMaryBruceandIsabelofFife,thecountessofBuchan,wasmostinhumane,evenbytheharshstandardsofthetime.Tomakeanexampleofthemtheywereconfined,eachinaseparatecageopentopublicgaze,oneatRoxburgh,theotheratBerwick.Thecageofthe
countesswasconstructedintheshapeofacrown,recallingherroleinRobert’senthronement,andisdescribedas‘alittlewoodenchamberinatowerofthecastleofBerwickwithlatticedsides,sothatallmightlookinfromcuriosity’.Eachcagewastobeequippedwithaprivy,andtheladiesweretobeattendedbyEnglishwomen.Atfirstthetwelve-year-oldMarjorie,
Robert’sdaughter,wassentencedtobesimilarlyimprisoned,butEdwardrelentedandsheandChristinawereentrustedtothecustodyofHenryPercy.ThecountesswasnotreleasedfromhercageuntilJune1310,whenshewassenttoaconventinBerwick;wedonotknowhowlongMaryBrucehadtoendurethisdegradingpunishment.Thisspitefultreatmentofthe
ladiesoftheBrucecourtisindicativeofthedepthofEdward’srageatthosewhoruinedhissettlementofScotland.Robert’sdeBurghqueen,whomayperhapshavedisapprovedofhiscoupandthensoughtleniencyfromEdwardonthisaccount,receivedthelightestpunishment.ShewasdetainedattheroyalmanorofBurstwickinLincolnshire,andgiventwoelderly
companionswhosedemeanourwastobe‘notatallgay’–sometimestakentomeanthattheywerenotallowedtosmile.YetEdwardIwasa
complexcharacter,andeveninthemidstofallthiscrueltyandbloodlettinghefoundreasonsforclemencytowardssome.Threeknights,AlexanderSeton,RobertBoydandAlexanderLindsay,wereapparentlyreleased.
YoungThomasRandolph,whohadalsobeencaptured,wasreleasedandherevertedtothepeaceoftheEnglishking.TheboyDonald,heirofMar,wasretainedandbroughtupatthecourtofEdwardofCaernarfon,towhomhebecamesoattachedthatherefusedtoleavein1315whenprisonerswereexchanged.Mercifullyignorantofthe
bloodlettingthatwastobefall
hisfollowers,Robertandhisraggedcompany,whichBarbourputsrealisticallyat200,proceededonfootacrosstheMounthlatethatAugust.Optionswereclosingallaroundhim.TheenmityoftheMacDougallsseemstohavedeterredhimfromapproachingthewesterncoast.OvereightymilesofhostileterritorylaybetweenthefugitivesandtheForestofSelkirk,theestablishedlocale
foroutlawsanddissidents.Brucefamilyterritoriesofthesouth-westwerenowsubduedandenemygarrisonswereinstalledinthem.Remainingoptionscannothaveseemedattractive.Someofhissupporters,suchasDavid,BishopofMoray,hadmadeittosafetyinOrkney.TherewasalwaysIreland,wherelocalkingscoulddefythewilloftheEnglishkingwithimpunity,thoughRoberthad
perhapsalreadyappealedtohisfather-in-law,theRedEarlofUlster,andbeenspurned.OnlyinthehighlandsandislandsofwesternScotlandcouldheexpectshelter,buthehadtokeeponthemove.BarboursuggestsplausiblythatRobert’simmediategoalwasKintyre;fromtherehewouldbeabletofleetoanyofthesefurtherdestinations.TheBarbournarrativeis
vagueatthispoint.HedescribeshowNeilCampbelldepartedtocollectships,whilethekingsetoffforLochLomond,reacheditonthethirdday,spentadayandanightgettinghismenacrossthelochintheonlyboatavailable,andthenceintoLennox.Duncan,however,hasreconstructedamoreprobableitinerary.RobertmusthaveledhismenbyfootthroughBreadalbaneandthen
southtothecoastatLochFyne–atwhichpointNeilCampbellleftthemainbandtogatherboats–andthencetoGlenkinglass,ArrocharandTarbet,whereLochLomondwascrossedinaneasterlydirection,andsoontoLennox.25Barbour’saccountofthedayandnightspentcrossingLochLomond,andhuntingvenisonintheearlofLennox’sforestsinthe
vicinityofGartmorefitsmoreeasilyintothissequence.Hearingtheking’shuntinghorn,Malcolm,EarlofLennoxrodetomeetRobertandgreetedhimjoyfully,forhehadbelievedthatRoberthaddiedonthefieldatMethven.Lennoxprovidedafeastforthehungryfugitives.AfterthisNeilCampbellrejoinedthemainparty,Duncansuggests,inthevicinityofKilcregganon
LochLong.CampbellhadprovidedshipswithsailsandoarsandtheyallsetoffdowntheClydeEstuaryforButeenroutetotheopensea.Malcolm,however,delayedandwaslasttosetout.Hisshipwashotlypursuedbyenemyvessels,perhapsfromDumbarton,whereJohnofMenteith,towhomEdwardIhadrecentlyawardedMalcolm’stitleandearldom,wasincommand.Barbour
relateshow,toslowdowntheenemy,Malcolmcastoverboardvariouspiecesofharnessandgear,whichtheenemytooktimetotakeonboard,andinthiswaytheearlescapedtorejointhefugitiveking.FromBute,Robertandhis
mensailedtoKintyre,wheretheywerewarmlyreceived,probablynotbyAngusÓgMacDonaldofIslayasBarbourhasit,butby
MalcolmMacQuillan,thelordofKintyreandownerofDunaverty.26ItisevidentfromtheBerwickcorrespondentthatinFebruaryMacQuillanhadplacedDunavertyatRobert’sdisposalforthecoup.PerchedonarockyheadlandatthetipoftheKintyrepeninsula,DunavertymusthaveideallysuitedRobert’sneeds.Barbourclaimsthatitwas
Robert’sintentiontowinterinDunaverty,yetatthispointinthenarrativeRobertfearedtreachery:
NonethelessinmanywaysHedreadedtreasonAndtherefore,asIheardmensayHetrustedcompletelyinno-oneUntilheknewhimtruly.
Thisishardlysurprising,sinceRoberthadpotentiallysuchapriceonhishead.BarbourstatesthatRobert
stayedinDunavertyonlythreedaysonaccountofhisfear,buttherealcauseofhisabruptdepartureappearstohavebeenthearrivalinKintyreofasubstantialforcetoattackthefugitivekinginhislair.EarlyinSeptembertheEnglishlordJohnBotetourt,accompaniedbyJohnofMenteith,arrivedtobesiegeDunaverty.ClearlytheyunderstoodthatRobertwaswithinthewalls,and
theytransportedtwosiegeenginesfromCarlisletosmashtheirwayin.AttheendofSeptemberthecastlefell,buttotheirdismaythebesiegers’quarryhadalreadyfled.Around20Septemberthe
Brucepartyembarked.BarbourdescribesanunhurrieddeparturefromDunavertyinseveralshipsbornebyastrongbutfavourablewind,bearing
RobertandhisfollowerstoRathlinIslandoffthecoastofAntrim.HewasaccompaniedbyhisbrotherEdward,MalcolmofLennoxandNeilCampbell,whowerewithhiminKintyre;MalcolmMacQuillan,LordofDunaverty,wasprobablyalsooftheparty.Barbour’sdescriptionofthecrossing,whichowesmuchtoVirgil,ismemorable:
Theyraisedsailandsetforth,SoonpassingbytheMullAndenteredsoonintotheraceWherethecurrentwassostrongThatstrongwaves,whichwerebreakers,Roselikehillshereandthere.Theshipsglidedoverthewaves,Fortheyhadawindblowingfair.Nonetheless,anyonewhohadbeenthereWouldhaveseenagreatshiftingOfships.ForsometimessomewouldbeAtopthewaves,asifonahill-top
Andsomewouldslidefromtoptobottom,Asifboundforhell,Thenriseupsuddenlyonthewave,Andothershipsnearbysankintothetrough.
ThisvoyageofRobertBrucetoRathlin,likethatofBonniePrinceCharlie‘overtheseatoSkye’,isofteninvestedwithaspecial,almostmystic,significance.InbothinstancesthefateoftheScottishnationpersonifiedin
royaltyisentrustedtothewaves:natureinterveningtosavetheembodimentofScotlandfromtheclutchesoftheenemy.However,Roberthimselfwouldhaveseenthevoyageasnosignificantdeparture.ThewholewesterncoastfromtheHebridestoUlsterandfurtherwestwasaculturalunity,linkedbyseasonaltravelalongshippinglanesandeasilytraversed.Rathlinhemayhave
consideredaScottishisland,ratherthanpartofIreland.Farfromfleeinghis
homeland,RobertwastakingtoahighwaythatforgenerationshadborneMacDonald,MacDougall,MacRuaridhandMacSweengalloglasses,notjustbetweenErinandAlba,buttoallthefar-flungislandsoftheGaidhealtachd.UndoubtedlyRobertwasnowintentuponrecruitingsuchmercenaries
fromtwoprincipalsources.ThefirstsourcewasAngusÓgMacDonald,basedatDunyvaigonIslay;thesecondthe‘LadyofGarmoran’,ChristinaMacRuaridh,orassheisknown‘ChristinaoftheIsles’,doublyrelatedtotheBrucesthroughthefamilyofMar.Herlatehusband,DuncanofMar,hadbeenbothRobert’sbrother-in-lawbyreasonofhisfirstmarriage
toIsabelofMar,andalsohisbrother-in-lawbyreasonofhissister’smarriagetoGarnait,EarlofMar.TopersuadetheseGaelicmagnatesthatitwasintheirinteresttosupporthim,toweldtogethertheirscantresourcesbyskilfuldiplomacyandconjurearmieswillhavetakenasupremeeffort.Unfortunatelyweknowverylittleabouthowthisremarkableachievement
wasaccomplished,andtheseautumnandwintermonthsof1306–07arecrucialmissingpiecesfromthejigsawofRobert’slife.Itishardtobelievethat
RathlinwasRobert’sintendeddestination;eithertheIrishmainlandorIslaywouldhavebeenmoreattractive.Barbour,whospecifiesRathlin,recordsthatthepeopleoftheislandfledwiththeircattletoa‘right
stalwartcastle’andthatRobertnegotiatedwiththem.NosuchcastleexistedonRathlin,andBarbourmightbedescribingactiononanyoflargerWesternIsles.Themenoftheislanddidhomageandfealty,andwhileRobertstayedtheyundertooktosendhimeverydayprovisionsfor300men.ThesizeofRobert’srequirementincreasestheprobabilitythatthe‘Rathlin’scenebelongsto
anarrivalonamuchlargerisland,moreabletosustaintheBrucecourt,orthatitmayhavebeenrepeatedonvariouslandingsonothersoftheWesternIsles.Duringtheautumnand
winter,RobertandhisenvoysjourneyedtoandfroamongtheWesternIsles,callingindebts,twistingarmsandpromisingtheworldinreturnformilitaryserviceandshipservice.Againstalltheodds,
aletterofKingRobertwhichseemstobelongtothisperiodhassurvived.Itisaddressed‘toallthekingsofIreland,totheprelatesandclergyandtheinhabitantsofIreland’,andisaletterofcredence,bornebyRobert’senvoystoIrishGaelickings.ItappealstothesupposedcommonracialoriginoftheIrishandScots:
Whereasweandyou,andour
peopleandyourpeople,freesinceancienttimes,sharethesamenationalancestryandareurgedtocometogethermoreeagerlyandjoyfullyinfriendshipbyacommonlanguageandbycommoncustom,wehavesentovertoyouourbelovedkinsmen,thebearersofthislettertonegotiatewithyouinournameaboutpermanentlystrengtheningandmaintaininginviolatethespecialfriendshipbetweenusandyou,sothatwithGod’swillournationmayrecoverherancientliberty.Whateverourenvoysoroneofthemmayonour
behalfconcludewithyouinthismatter,weshallratifyandupholdinthefuture.
Ournationmayrecoveritsancientliberty?TomodernearsitsoundsasthoughRobertconceivedofasingleGaelicnation,andthatheofferedanallianceofGaelicpeoplesagainstthedominanceofEngland.SuchsentimentsarenotuncommoninGaelicpoetryoftheperiod,
butonlyrarelyweretheyexpressedpolitically.Itisbestnottotakethissortoflanguageatfacevalue.TheletterdemonstratesonlythattheBrucesknewhowtointroducethemselvestoaGaelicaudience;itdoesnotmeanthattheywerepreparedtoleadtheGaelicworldintoconflictwiththeAnglo–Norman.Thefloweryappealtocommonlanguageandcustomwouldcuticeonlyif
accompaniedbythethreatofforce,orbysilver,andlotsofit.TheBrucesconsistentlypedalledthis‘pan-Celtic’verbiageintheirdealingswithIreland–andWales–whenitsuitedthem,andtheIrishandWelshunderstooditfortheposturingitwas.Probablytheking’sbrothersThomasandAlexanderweretheplenipotentiaryenvoysempoweredbythis
document.27Indeed,conspicuouslyabsentfromeventsinScotland,theymayhavebeenwhippingupsupportintheGaidhealtachdsinceFebruary1306.Laterin1306theyaredescribedas‘leadingapiraticalexistence’,whichmaysuggestthattheymovedamongtheWesternIslesgatheringaforceofships.Duringthewinterof1306–
07Robertpiecedtogetherhiscoalition.TraditionalloyaltiestotheBruceswerenodoubtcitedandplayedupontomaximumeffect.ChristinaMacRuaridhdulyacknowledgedRobertasking,andplacedathisdisposalthelordshipofGarmoran,asprawlingcollectionoflandsandislandsthatstretchedfromtheOuterHebridestotheshoresofLochLinnhe.Shewasalso
rumouredtobeRobert’sloverduringthesemonths.Then,atMartinmas,Robertsent‘manyIrishmenandScots’acrosstohisearldomofCarricktocollecttherentsthendue,andthiswouldhavegivenhimcashwithwhichtobribethoseWestHighlandchiefsandIrishkingswhocouldnotbeotherwisebepersuadedtosupporthim.AsRobertandhisbrothers
labouredtoraiseanarmyof
galloglasses,thekingofEnglandwasnotunawareoftheiractivities.HughBisset,thelordofRathlinandavassaloftheRedEarl,commandedasquadronintheNorthChannel.InJanuaryhewasorderedtoequiphisshipsandjoinJohnofMenteithamongtheislesoffthecoastofScotland,cuttingoffRobertBruce’sretreat.EdwardIaddedthathe‘heldthisbusinessgreatlyatheart’.
Fourlordswerepaidforexpensesininquiringastothewhereaboutsof‘enemies,rebelsandfelonsofScotland,whohadcometoIrelandandbeenreceived,withreligiouspersonsandothers,withinthelibertyofUlster,andinseizingthoseenemiesandtheirharbourersandconveyingthemtothecastleofDublin.’Thisreferenceto‘religiouspersons’couldincludeAlexanderBruce.
SimonMontacute,aSomersetbaronwhohaddesignsontheIsleofMan,wasputincommandagainstrebels‘lurkinginScotlandandtheislesbetweenScotlandandIreland’.TheRedEarlofUlster,likehisdaughter,Robert’squeen,clearlywantednothingtodowithRobert’sambitionsandmadenodifficultiesforroyalagentsinvolvedinthepursuit.ThesheriffofCumberland
wasorderedtocommandeervesselsandsentthemtoAyr,whichbecameanavalbaseforMontacute,Bissetandanothercommander,WilliamleJettour,allofwhomwereengagedinthehuntforBruce.ByFebruarytheyhadattheirdisposal15vesselsand200sailors,andtheypatrolledthewatersaroundArranandBute.AlsoatAyrwasthevictorofMethven,AymerdeValence,with
significantlandforces.EvidentlytheBruceswereexpectedtoattemptalandingontheScottishmainland.Edward’scorrespondencebetraysdeepanxietyfornewsaboutthewhereaboutsoftheBrucesandtheprogressofthehunt.Occasionallyhereceivedreportsfromspies.MontacutewasoneofthosepaidforinformationaboutScotsreceivedinUlster.Robert’sagentshadbeen
busyseekingmilitarysupportfromtheRedEarl’srestlessGaelicvassals,andthatEdward’sspiesweremonitoringtheiractivities.On6February1307EdwardconsideredthatAymerdeValencehadbeentoocautious,andheinstructedhistreasurer,WalterLangton,towritetoValenceandtheothersatAyr,tellingthemthatthekingunderstoodfromelsewherethattheyhadmade
suchahashofthepursuitthattheydarednottellhim.FivedayslaterhewrotedirectlytoValenceinthesameterms.Edwardhadheardnothingofthesort,but,lyinginhissickbedinLanercostPriory,hewasconsumedbyanxietyfornews,anxietywhichprobablyhastenedhisdemise.TheBrucescouldnotwait
forEdward’sdeath,however,forthegoodweatherwouldallowMontacute’ssquadrons
topenetrateeventotheouterisles.TheypreparedtolandontheScottishmainlandintwostages.TowardstheendofJanuary1307,RobertarrivedinKintyre,andremainedthereaboutsforamonthorso,evadingMontacute’spatrols.AtaroundthesametimeJamesDouglasandRobertBoyd–neitherofwhomhadaccompaniedthekingonhisvoyages–mountedanattack
onBrodickcastleontheIsleofArranfromthemainland.Theyfailedtocaptureit,butmanagedtolinkupwithRobertnevertheless.Thenon9February1307asecondforce,ofeighteengalleys,ledbyThomasandAlexanderBruce,madealandinginGalloway.ThisforceincludedSirReginaldCrawford,aformersheriffofAyr;MalcolmMacQuillan;and‘acertainIrishkinglet’,
andthelandingwasinterpretedasarevengeattackonthepeopleofGallowayfortheirfailuretosupportRobert’skingship.DungalMacDowallattackedituponlanding,andonlytwogalleysescaped.Thefollowingpayment,madeinthewardrobeoftheprinceofWaleson19February,explainsthefateoftheleaders:‘ToDungalMacDowall,captainofthe
armyofGalloway,comingtothecourtofthePrinceatWetheralandleadinginhiscompanySirThomasBruceandAlexanderhisbrotherandSirReginaldCrawford,traitorsoftheking,havingcapturedtheminbattle,togetherwiththeheadsofcertainothertraitorsofIrelandandKintyre,cutoffbythesaidDungalandhisarmy…1mark.’FromthisitappearsthatMalcolm
MacQuillanandtheIrishchieftainhadbeenkilledinbattlebytheGallovidians.AlexanderoughttohavebeensparedonaccountofhisstatusasdeanofGlasgow;neverthelessallthreeprisonersweretakentoCarlisleforexecution.Thomaswasdrawnatthetailsofhorsesthroughthestreets,hangedandbeheadedon17February;theothertwowerehangedandbeheaded.
ForhisgoodserviceMacDowallreceivedafurther£40andwasknightedatEaster,butheearnedthelastingenmityoftheremainingBrucebrothers.Robert,lurkingonArranor
elsewhereintheClydeEstuary,sentaspybythenameofCuthberttoCarrick,whofoundthat,throughfearoftheEnglish,themenoftheearldomcouldnolongerbereliedupon.Cuthbertdecided
thereforeagainstsettingalightabeacon,thesignalforRoberttocross;neverthelessafirewaslitwhichRobertandhismenmistookforthesignal,andtheycrossedintoCarrickaround10February.Theearldomhadbeensubduedtheprevioussummer,anditwasoccupiedbyenemytroops,bothincastlegarrisonsandbilletedinvillages.ItcomesacrossquitestronglyfromBarbour
that,farfromwelcominghometheirexiledearl,thepeopleofCarrickdisplayedlittleresidualloyaltytotheBrucesandanabidingfearoftheEnglish:
BothhighandlowthelandwasthenOccupiedbyEnglishmenWhoscornedaboveallelseRobertBrucethedoughtyking.CarrickwasthengivenentirelyToSirHenrythelordPercyWhoinTurnberrycastlethen
WaswithalmostthreehundredmenAndhesodominatedallthelandSothateveryonewasobedienttohim.ThisCuthbertsawtheirwickednessAndsawthefolkwholeheartedlyBecomesowhollyEnglish,bothrichandpoorThattononedaredhedisclosehimself.
AlittlefurtheroninthenarrativeBarbourreturnstothistheme:
WhenthekingandhisfolkwereArrived,asItoldyouearlierHestayedawhileinCarrickToseewhowouldbefriendandwhofoe.ButhefoundlittlesupportAnd,althoughthepeoplesidedwithhiminpart,EnglishmensoharshlyGovernedthemwiththreatsand
powerThattheydidnotdareshowhimanyfriendship.
Robert’sownearldomwasutterlyhostiletohim.Thecommonpeople,whatevertheirtruesympathies,hadnoconfidencethathewouldtriumphinthelongrun,andthereforenoguaranteeofprotectionfromthevengeanceoftheEnglish.EdwardI,atCarlisle,was
aswellinformedaboutRobert’slandingashehadbeenaboutthatofThomasandAlexander.FifteenknightsandsomefortyothercavalrywereimmediatelydispatchedagainstRobert,ledbyJohnBotetourt,andfourhundredandsixtyfoot-soldiersweresenttoreinforceAymerdeValence.HenryPercy,towhomRobert’searldomofCarrickhadbeengranted,alsomobilisedto
capturehim.Robertseemstohavenotonlysuccessfullyevadedtheseforces,butafteratimetohaveinflictedhumiliationonPercy.HisbandsurprisedPercy’sbaggagetrain,andcapturedhorsesandsilverplate.PercyscuttledintothesafetyofTurnberryCastle,anddidnotstiruntilaforceofNorthumberlandinfantryarrivedtoenablehisevacuation.TheEnglishand
theiralliessearchedforRobertfortheremainderofthespring.Unabletorelyonhis
formertenantsandconfrontedwithanenemysuperiornumericallyandwitheveryotherconceivableadvantage,Robertremainedinthehillsandmoors.Moorland,marshlandandhillcountry,impenetrabletoheavycavalry,becamehis‘favourableterritory’,where
hewassafe,andtheenemyillatease.Hereliedonambushandsurprisetomakethebestuseofhissmallforce.Choosinghisgroundcarefully,hewouldsuddenlyemergetowinaminorskirmishandthenretreatoncemoreintothewilderness.Hepreferredsmallengagements,thusminimisinghislossesandcapitalisinguponthesnowballeffectofaseriesofsmallvictories.Henever
engagedtheenemyunlesssureofvictory.Heterrorisedunsympatheticvillagesandlocalcommunities,forcingthemtopaylargefines,toprovidesuppliesormilitaryservice.Thushecreatedalocal‘climateofinsecurity’,wherelordscouldnotguaranteeprotectiontotheirvassals,andwherethewritofthekingoftheEnglandcouldnotrun.Immenselynegativeanddestructiveintheshort
term,thesetacticseventuallypermittedRoberttobroadenthebasisofhisownlordship,tocreate,ineffect,‘liberatedareas’.Thisisallinstantly
recognisabletothemodernmindasguerrillawarfare,‘thewaroftheflea’,whereallstrategyistossedtothewindinfavouroftacticaladvantage.Facedwithastarkchoicebetweenignominioussurvivalandatraitor’sdeath
andtheendofhisdynasty,Robertstoopedtomodesofcombatthatwereplainlybeneathhisroyalandlordlydignity.Havinglostthreebrothers,awifeandchildandmanyloyalfriendstothisbrutalisingwarwithEdwardI,hewasperhapsdriventotheconclusionthatvictorycouldnotbewonthroughchivalricfeatsofarms;butthatvictory,howeversqualid,mustbewonatallcosts.
Guerrillawarfaredidnotcomeeasilytohaughtyfeudallordstowhomhonourandchivalrywereeverything,whoconsideredthemselvesborntoleadthecavalrychargewithheraldicbannersflyingproudly,andwhoseverybreedingrevoltedat‘churlish’modesofcombat.InmedievalChristendomtheconductofknightswasoftenbarbaric–especiallywhenfightingnon-Christiansor
socialinferiors–yetitwasuncommonforknightsfightingtheirpeerstoadoptsystematicallytacticsofambush,surpriseandterrorismtooffsetnumericaldisadvantage.LaterRobertreceivedadressingdownforhis‘unchivalrous’methodsfromhisnephew,ThomasRandolph,who,afterhehadrejoinedtheking,criticisedhimthus:
Yourebukeme,Butratheryoushouldberebuked.ForsinceyoumadewaronthekingofEngland,Youshouldstrivetoproveyourrightbyopenfighting,Andnotbycowardiceorcunning.
ForthatinsolenceRandophwasheldinconfinement,butthecriticismshereportedlyvoicedmayhavebeenwidelyshared.Followinghisraidon
Percy’sbaggagetrain,
Robert’snextsuccessfulactionwasindeedthestuffofguerrillawarfare:aruthlessmassacre.Barbourdescribeshow,inavillagenearTurnberry,BruceandhismendescendeduponEnglishtroopsbilletedtherein,anddispatchedmanyofthemintheirsleep.28EvenBarbourseemsalittleshame-facedabouttheepisode,andheputstheseunconvincingwordsof
justificationintoRobert’smouth:
Andevenifwekilledthemallwhensleeping,NomancouldreproachusforitForawarriorshouldnotbotherWhetherhecanovercomehisenemybymightorguile,Solongasgoodfaithisalwaysmaintained.
AtnightthescreamsofthesurprisedtrooperswereheardbyPercy’sgarrisoninside
TurnberryCastle,butnonedaredventureout.OnlywhenaforceofNorthumberlandinfantryarriveddidPercyleavethesafetyofthecastle.Robertdidnothowevertakepossessionofit,whichwouldhaveofferedtheenemyatarget,butslightedthecastletoensurethatitcouldaffordtheenemynofurtherprotection.Forthepresenthepreferredtoremainontherun.Destructionofcastles
becameanothercentralplankinRobert’sstrategy.Hesystematicallydestroyedfortificationstoroblordsofthesecuritythattheseafforded.Indoingso,heforcedthemtocommittohiscause.AfterthisRobert’s
guerrillabandreceivedsomeadherencefromthelocalgentry.Barbourdescribeshowaladyofthatcountry,‘whowascloselyrelatedto
him’–thoughnamelessinthepoem–was‘greatlycheeredathisarrival’.Shecontributedfortymentohisforce,andgaveRobertthegrimnewsofthefatesthathadbefallentheladiesofhishousehold,hisbrotherNeil,theearlofAthollandChristopherSeton.ItisspeculatedthatthisladytoowasRobert’smistress.SheisoftenidentifiedasChristinaofCarrick,whomRobert
decreedmanyyearslatershouldbepaidanannualallowanceoffortyshillings.
Manytimesshecomfortedtheking,BothwithsilverandwithfoodSuchasshecouldgetintheland.
InthemiddleofMarch,JohnBotetourtwassearchingforRobertinNithsdale,withalargeforceofcavalry.Evidentlyhefoundhim,forcompensationwaspaidto
Botetourtforhorsesloston12March.PerhapsasaresultofBotetourt’slossestheEnglishgovernmentorderedleviesofnorthernEnglishfoot-soldierstoassembleatCarlisleon15April‘topursueRobertBruceandhisaccompliceswhoarelurkinginthemoorsandmarshesofScotland’.InApriltheymusthavehadnewsthathewasinGlenTrool,foron17Aprilaforceofthirtyhorserodeout
fromCarlisletoseekoutRobertinthatvicinity.ThereisnorecordthattheyencounteredRobert’sband.Barbourstressesthat
Robertatthistimewasvulnerabletobetrayal.HerecountsthatSirIngramUmfravillehadoffered£40-worthoflandinreturnforRobert’smurder,andincludestwoversionsofanepisodewherethreemensetouttokillhim.Aone-eyed
Carrickman,ofsturdybuild,andhistwosonslayinwaitforRobertonemorningasherosetoansweracallofnature.Robertwasaccompaniedonlybyapagecarryingacrossbow,buthewasaccustomedtowearhisswordatalltimes.WiththeseweaponsRobertdispatchedallthreewould-beassassins.Inasimilarepisode,thekingandhisfoster-brotherspentthenightinanabandoned
farmsteadinthecompanyofthreetraitors.Althoughthekingtriumphed–asalways–hisfoster-brotherwaskilled,and‘thekingwentforth,sadandangry,grievingtenderlyoverhisman’.Inoneofthemostfamous
oftheseepisodesfromBarbour,menfromGallowayattackedRobert’scamponeevening,andusedabloodhoundtofollowtheking’strail.Robert’s
entouragewaspursuedintoruggedterrain,wherethekingbecameseparatedfromhisfollowersand,atanarrowford,single-handedlyheldoffthe200-strongenemy.Laterinthetext,itisJohnofArgyllwhohuntsthekingwithhoundandhorn,‘asifhewereawolf,athief,orathief’saccomplice’.Theseepisodes,somerepresentingdifferentversionsofthesametale,othersseveralepisodes
rolledtogether,andothersnodoubtborrowingsfromclassicalorCelticmyth,allrepresentfacetsofanimportantdevelopment:thatmythsofRobert’sstrength,courageandworthinessgrewaseventsunfolded.ItcanalsobeinferredfromtheBarbourtextthatchangesweregraduallyoccurring.ThesizeofBruce’sforcewasincreasing.Thereismentionofaroyalbannerwhich
signifiedRobert’spresenceandkingship:itisperhapsthebannerofAlexanderIII.WholedistrictsbegantodeclareforRobert:‘hemadethelandofKyleobedienttohimself’,and‘thegreaterpartofCunninghamheldtohislordship’.Barbourdoesnotneglect
theactivitiesofhisotherhero,JamesDouglas.Allthereturnedexileswereanxioustorecoverpossessionoftheir
ownlandsandrents,andDouglasandhismensetouttorecoverhispatrimony.InthefirstofmanytalesofingenioustricksplayedbytheScotstodupecastlegarrisons,BarbourdescribeshowDouglasdisguisedhismenasaconvoyofpeasantsleadingpackanimalsladenwithgraintotheWhitsunfairatLanark.ThisepisodemaythenbedatedtoMay1307.Theconvoywounditswayclose
bythecastleatDouglasinLanarkshire,temptingthegarrisontosallyoutandcapturethegrain.Asthegarrisonapproached,Douglas’smenthrewthesacks,filledonlywithgrass,offthesaddlesand,mountingthehorses,attackedthesortieandracedtowardstheundefendedcastle.Douglasgainedaccessandpaidtheremainingsoldierstoclearoff;thenheknockeddown
thewallofthecastleanddestroyeditshousessothatitwasuselesstotheenemy.Thatwasonlyatemporarysuccesshowever.RobertClifford,towhomthecastlehadbeengranted,wassubsequentlygiven£100andtwenty-onemasonstomakegoodthedamage,andthecastlewasrepairedandgarrisonedthatsummer.Around10Maytheretook
placetheencounterbetween
theBrucebandandAymerdeValenceatLoudonHill.WalterLangton,BishopofLichfield,theroyaltreasurer,wastouringthegarrisonsofthesouth-west,makingpaymentstoensuretheirloyalty.Forsecurity,hewasaccompaniedbyValence.Robertwasclearlyinterestedincapturingthechestsofsilvercointhattravelledwiththetreasurer,andhepreparedtoambushhimfirstat
Galston,thenatLoudon,whereagoodfirmroadranthroughmarshonbothsides.Robertpreparedthegroundbydiggingthreeditchestofortifyhispositionontheroad,andhismen,usedtorunning,hidingandguerrillafightingforayearnow,preparedwithapprehensiontofacetheapproachingcavalry:
Theirbascinettswereallburnished
brightGleaminginthesun’slight;Theirspears,theirpennonsandtheirshieldsLitupallthefieldswithlightTheirbestbright-embroideredbanners,HorseofmanyhuesCoatsofarmourofdiversecoloursAndhauberkswhichwereaswhiteasflourMadethemglitter,asthoughtheywereliketoAngelsfromthekingdomofheaven.
Valence’simpressivelyarmouredcavalrywasroutedbyRobert’sforceofentrenchedspearmen,who,Barboursuggests,numberedaboutsixhundred,andValencewasforcedtofleetoBothwell.Robertdidnotgethishandsonthetreasure,however,nordidhismengetthechancetoplundertheenemy,asValence’sforceseemstohaveretiredlargelyintact.Butaletterfromthe
EnglishcourtshowsthatthedefeatputValenceoncemoreinbadodouratcourt:‘ThekinghadbeenmuchenragedbecausetheGuardianofScotland[Valence]andtheotherfolkhadretreatedbeforeKingHobbewithoutdoinganyexploit.’Thisletteralsorevealsthatpriortothebattle,Douglas–whomweareusedtoconsideringasRobert’sfaithfulfriend–hadbeenthinkingaboutdefecting
totheEnglish.Thatrevelation,morethananyother,demonstratesjusthowprecariousRobert’spositionwasinthespringof1307.Evenso,whileRobert
himselfwascontainedinthesouth-westofScotland,thereisevidencethatindistantpartstheBruces’franticdiplomacyintheGaidhealtachdoverthepreviouswinterwasbeginningtotakeeffect.In
Forfar,ahundredmilesfromGlenTroolandacrosstheScottishSea,aletterof15Maysuggeststhateventsinthesouth-westwerebeingcloselywatchedandexaggeratedtosuggesttheimminenceofBruce’sultimatetriumph:‘IhearthatBruceneverhadthegoodwillofhisownfollowersorofthepeoplegenerallysomuchwithhimasnow.ItappearsthatGodiswithhim,forhe
hasdestroyedKingEdward’spowerbothamongEnglishandScots.’Robertofcoursehaddonenothingofthesortasyet.ButtheForfarcorrespondentidentifiesthepropagandistswhohadsodemolishedthemoraleoftheAnglo-Scots:
ThepeoplebelievethatBrucewillcarryallbeforehim,exhortedbyfalsepreachersfromBruce’sarmymenwhohavepreviouslybeen
chargedbeforethejusticesforadvocatingwarandhavebeenreleasedonbail,butnowarebehavingworsethanever.Ifullybelieve,asIhaveheardfromReginaldCheyne,DuncanofFrendraughtandGilbertofGlencarniewhokeepthepeacebeyondtheMounthandonthisside,thatifBrucecangetawayinthisdirectionortowardsthepartsofRosshewillfindthepeopleallreadyathiswillmoreentirelythanever,unlessKingEdwardcansendmoretroops,fortherearemanypeoplelivingloyallyinhispeace
solongastheEnglishareinpower.MayitpleaseGodtoprolong
KingEdward’slife,formensayopenlythatwhenheisgonethevictorywillgotoBruce.ForthesepreachershavetoldthepeoplethattheyhavefoundaprophecyofMerlin,thatafterthedeathof‘leRoyCoveytous’thepeopleofScotlandandtheWelshshallbandtogetherandhavefulllordshipandliveinpeacetogethertotheendoftheworld.
Thishugelysignificantletter
raisesanumberofpoints.Firstly,itillustratesthepowerofmillenarianpreachinginthemedievalworld,anduseofprophecytomagnifyrumourandcreaterealopportunityfromremotepossibility.ThisisnotthefirsttimeinthelifeofBrucethatwehaveencounteredpoliticalprophecy,the‘mediaspin’ofitsday.Robert,orhisalliesamongtheclergy,haddispatchedsuchpreachersfar
andnear,formentingasenseofforebodingandimminentchange.Secondly,theletterservestoremindusthattheScottishclergy–notjustitslowerorders,butatleastfourbishops–werelargelysupportiveoftheBruceclaimtothethrone;wehavealreadyencounteredBishopDavidMurraypreachingholywaronRobert’sbehalf.Thirdly,itpointsuptheseriousgapinourknowledge:theunknown
agreementsforgedduringBruce’ssojournintheWesternIsles.ThatnortherndistrictsshouldbeinsuchexpectationofRobert’sultimatevictory,whilehehimselfwasmerelylivingthelifeofasuccessfulbanditinthesouth-west,takessomeaccountingfor.SupportfortheBrucecauseinRosscanonlyhavebeentheresultofMacRuaridhinfluence,coupledwiththedistanceand
terrainthatpreservedthenorth-westfromEnglishreprisal.Oneistemptedtosuggestexplanationsforwhichthereisnoevidence:wasthereperhapsagrowthinthepopulation,andhenceinthemilitarysignificance,ofthenorth-west?ProfessorBarrowfoundthatBruceconsistentlyrecruitedhisarmiesfromnorthoftheForth,andthereisevidencethatnorthernScots
accompaniedRobertonhislaterraidsintoEngland.Thecontrastbetweenthe
expectationsexpressedintheForfarletterandBruce’sprecariousthoughimprovingpositioninthesouth-westisremarkable.FollowinghiscreditabledisplayintheopenfieldatLoudonHill,Robertconsidereditprudenttoretreattothemountainsoncemore.Barbourportrayshimhuntingandrelaxinginthe
safetyofadeepglen,behavingwithrathermorenonchalancethanhispositionwouldwarrant.HerelatesthattheEnglish,‘ridingbynight,keepingtocoverbyday’arrivedsecretlywithinamileofRobert’slocation,andthattheysentabeggar-womantospyonhim.Thebeggar,however,arousedRobert’ssuspicions;hehadherseized,andsheconfessedthatValenceandhismenwere
alreadyclosinginonhimthroughthewoods.QuicklyRobertdonnedarmourandpreparedtofendofftheattack,andtheEnglishfledinsuchdisarray,Barbourrecounts,thattheirleadersfelloutwithoneanother.TherecordsofpaymentbytheEnglishwardrobehowever,testifytoadifferentsortofaction,butonenolesssuccessfulfortheBruces.Ahorse-listrevealsthat,around
themiddleofJune,twenty-threemen-at-armswerekilledwhilechasingRobertBrucebetweenGlenTrooland‘Glenheur’.IfProfessorDuncaniscorrectininterpreting‘Glenheur’asthevalleyoftheUrrWater,thenValencepursuedRobertfortwenty-fivemiles,throughtheruggedgrandeurofwhatistodayGallowayForestPark.Afortnightlaterthere
camethenewsthattheForfarcorrespondenthaddreaded.On3JulyEdwardofEnglandhadriddenoutofCarlisle,awarethatonlyhispresencewouldrestorethesituationinsouth-westScotland.HeadingforDumfries,hespentthenightof6JulyatBurghbySands,buthewasfounddeadbyhisservantsthefollowingmorning.Hisofficials,wellawareoftheeffectthatnewsofhisdeathwouldhavein
Scotland,atfirstattemptedtosuppressit.TherewasnoletupinthesearchforRobertBruce.ThatmonthJohnofArgyllwasatAyrwithaforceof800men–afigurewhichwecantellfromadministrativesourcesthatBarbourgivescorrectly–andhewasaccompaniedbyRobert’snephew,ThomasRandolph,stillloyaltoEdwardI.IntheBarbournarrativeJohnsetoutwitha
trackerdogtofindRobert,theninthevicinityofCumnock.AlthoughRobert’sbandsplitup,thetrackerdogalwaysstayedinhotpursuitoftheking’sgroup.Johnsentanadvancepartyoffivemen,fleetoffoot,toheadoffRobert.Thehero-kingdispatchedfouroftheseenemies,andhisfoster-brotherthefifth.Onthenewsofhisfather’s
death,EdwardofCaernarfon
travelledfromLondontotakechargeofthecampaign,andhewasinScotlandon31July.HeadvancedtoDumfries,wherehedividedhisarmyintothreecolumnsandsetoutinpursuitoftherebelearlofCarrick.HemovedthroughTibbersandSanquharbeforereachingCumnock,wherehestayedtendays.DuringthistimeRobertdidnotdaretoputhisheadabovetheparapetand
avoidedaction.ButEdwardretiredtoCarlisleon1September.Hiscampaignwasperfunctory,forhewasrequiredtoreturntoEnglandfortheobsequiesofhisgreatfather,toholdaparliamentandtoattendtoarrangementsforhisownmarriageandcoronation.RequiringAymerdeValenceforotherservices,herelievedhimoftheScottishcommandandappointedinsteadtheless
ableJohnofBrittany.WhenEdwarddeparted,RobertcelebratedwithavengefulattackonthehatedGallovidians–thefirstofmany.InthiswaytheremainingBrucebrothers,RobertandEdward,exactedrevengefromthosewhosixmonthspreviouslyhadcapturedThomasandAlexanderandhandedthemoverforexecution.By25SeptemberGallovidian
refugeeswerepouringacrosstheborder,seekingsafetyandgrazingfortheirherdsofcattleinInglewoodForest.DungalMacDowallandDungalMacCannwrotetothekingofEnglandappealingforhelp,complainingthattheBruceswereforcingthemenofthosepartstoperformmilitaryservice.TheBrucespursuedtherefugeesmercilessly,carryingwarintoEnglandforthefirsttime.On
theEnglishWestMarchkeepersofthepeacehadtobeappointed‘forthepreservationofthosepartsfromincursionsoftheking’senemiesandtopunishrebels’,andtheCumberlandknightThomasdeMultonwasorderedtoassistthekeepers‘owingtothethievingincursionsofRobertBruce’.Towardstheendof
SeptemberRobertsteeled
himselfforatremendousgambleandmoveddecisivelynorthwards.Itwasaboldstep,butnecessary,forhispositionwasstillfarfromsecureinthesouth-west,theareawhereBrucedynasticinfluencemighthavebeenexpectedtopredominate.Clearly,RoberttoohadheardthoserumoursofgrowingsupportforhiscauseinthenorthwhichtheForfarcorrespondenthadreported.
Toseekalliesandtobroadenthebasisofhiskingshiphehadtomovenorthwards.HisgreatadversaryEdwardIhavinggonetohisreward,RobertwasanxioustocapitaliseuponanyfalteringintheEnglishwareffort.HismostdangerousfoeshoweverwereScottish,andRobertnowturnednorthwardstofacehisbitterestenemies:themagnatefactionthathadgovernedScotlandforfifty
coveytous’inJuly1307,andwithRobert’sdecisionthefollowingSeptembertomovebeyondtheheartlandofBrucedynasticinfluence,thewarandRobert’slifeenteredanewphase.GonewerethedaysofstrugglingfranticallyforsurvivalinthewakeofthecatastrophiesofMethvenandtheGallowaylanding.Robertandhisallieswereseizingtheinitiativeandcarryingwartotheenemy.Theperiod
witnessedthedevastationofthreecentresofresistancetohispower:Buchan,GallowayandArgyll;afourthcentre,Lothian,Robertwasnotyetstrongenoughtoreduce.IntheBarbourtexttwoprincipalthemesemerge.ThefirstishowtheBrucefactionmanagedtoovercometheoverwhelmingmaterialadvantagesoftheirenemiesbycunningandguile.Thisisillustratedbythecaptureand
destructionofmanycastlesgarrisonedbytheirenemies.ThesecondthemeistheincreasingrecognitioninScotlandofRobertasking.BarbourportraystheperiodintermsofaninexorableRisorgimento,astheScottishpeoplecometotheirsensesandrecognisethehero-king,butweknowdifferent.Civilwarsarealwaysmoresavageandbitterthanforeignwars,andevenintheBarbour
narrativethescaleofbloodlettingisapparentasRobertBrucerecovershiskingdomwithruthlessperseverance.Thisescalationofthe
strugglewasmadepossiblebythelong-anticipateddemiseofEdwardIandtheaccessiontotheEnglishthroneofhisson.EdwardofCaernarfon,EdwardIIashenowwas,wasneitherthecolossusofstatesmanshipnor
thegeniusofimperialexpansionismthathisfatherhadbeen.Acontemporarydescribedhischaracterintheseterms:
ThisEdwardwasfairofbodyandgreatofstrength,andunsteadfastinmanners,ifmenshallbelievewhatiscommonlytold.Forheforsookthecompanyoflordsandsoughtoutthecompanyofharlots,singers,jesters,carters,delvers,ditchers,rowers,shipmenandbootmen,andothercraftsmen;he
alsogavehimselfuptomuchdrinking.Hewouldlightlyshareconfidencesandhitmenwhowereabouthimforthemerestoffence,andhedidmorebytheadviceofothermenthanbyhisown.Hewasgenerousandsolemninfeastmaking,loquaciousandinconstant,irritatedbyhisenemiesandcrueltohisown.Helovedstronglyoneofhisfavouritesanddidhimgreatreverence,worshippedhimandmadehimextremelyrich.Fromthiscamehatredtothelover,evilspeechandbackbitingtotheloved,slandertothepeopleandharmand
damagetotherealm.
ThomasofCastlefordismorepithy:‘thisEdwardwaswiseinword,andfoolindeed.’EdwardIIwasconsideredbytheEnglishnobilityofthedaytobeanundignifiedcharacter.Hewashomosexual,andthefavouritereferredtoabovewasaGasconknightcalledPiersGaveston,whom,tothedisgustofthemagnates,
EdwardelevatedtotheearldomofCornwall.Likehisfather,EdwardIIwasanxioustomaintainandincreasethepoweroftheEnglishmonarchy,andthatincludedholdingontoScotlandbyeveryconceivablemeans,buthelackedhisfather’ssingle-mindedness,hispowerfulinfluenceovertheEnglishfeudalnobilityandhisoverbearingpersonality.SoonEdwardIIdevelopedadeep-
seatedhatredofthemostpowerfulofalltheEnglishnobles,ThomasofLancaster.Altogether,thesecondEdwardwasanopponentoflesserstaturethanEdwardIhadbeen,andRobertwasfortunatethatEdwardI’ssuccessorwasincompetentandunder-mighty.OneEnglishannalistrecordsapossiblesayingofRobert:that‘hefearedthebonesofthedeadkingmorethanhe
didtheliveone,andthatitwasagreaterfeatofwartowrestsixinchesofterritoryfromEdwardIthantogainawholekingdomfromhisson’.Thecharacterofthe
EnglishkingdirectlyaffectedthenatureofthewarRobertwasengagedin.EdwardIIhadleftScotlandon1September1307withoutconfrontingRobertandhisguerrillaband,andhedidnotreturnuntil1310,allowing
Robertthreeyearsinwhichtoestablishasecurepowerbase.Inretrospectwecanseethemagnitudeofthiserror;1307–10werethe‘locustyears’ofEnglishoccupation,whenwhatwasdearlywonbythestrenuouseffortsofthepreviousreignwasrecklesslyfritteredaway.MilitaryandfinancialsupportforgarrisonsandScottishcommunitiesthatacceptedEdwardII’skingshipweresorely
neglected;anothercatastrophicerrorwhichRobertdidnotfailtopunish.ToEdward’ssupportersinScotland,dependentuponadistantanddistractedgovernment,theofferofsuffrauncedeguerreorpurchasedtrucealwaysseemedattractive.Naïvelytheytrustedthattimewasontheirside,thattheEnglishkingwouldsoonerorlatercometohelpthem;whereas
Robertofferedtrucesonlytoneutralisethestrongwhilepickingoffthefrightenedandvulnerable.IntimeitbecameclearthatthefarawayEnglishkingpromisedmuchanddeliveredlittle,whileRobertpresentedanimmediateandpressingthreattoincreasinglyisolatedlordsandcommunities.BarbourtellsusthatRobert
setoutnorthwardsinSeptember1307withhis
brotherEdward,GilbertHay,SirRobertBoydandothers.Hissmallarmymarchedswiftly,butgrewsignificantlyalongtheway.Therearenodetailsoftheninety-milejourneytothenorth-west;hisforcemarcheddowntheClyde,northalongLochLomondandoverthemountainstotheheadofLochLinnhe.Movingwithgreatspeed,hewillhavebeenverycarefultoavoidany
encounterwithJohnofArgyll.Malcolm,EarlofLennox,appearstohaverejoinedtheking,andRobertreceivednavalsupportonthewesternflankfromMacRuaridhandMacDonaldgalleys.Intherear,JamesDouglasremainedinSelkirkForest,thehaventhathadshelteredWallaceandSimonFraserbeforehim,andDouglas’sfollowingbecamesufficientlythreateningto
necessitatethegarrisoningofCarlisleCastlefrom16April1308toMichaelmasfollowing(29September).Robertmovedquicklyto
besiegetheComynstrongholdofInverlochyCastle,arrivingon25November1307.InverlochywasthekeytotheGreatGlen,theobviouscorridortothenorth.TheComynsweresurprised;evidentlytheyhadnotprovisionedthecastle
adequatelyanditwashandedovertoRobert‘bythedeceitandtreasonofthemenofthecastle’.RobertprobablyslightedInverlochy,ashedestroyedallthecastlesthatfellintohishandsatthisstage.Hethenmovedrapidlynorth-eastalongtheglen,destroyingCastleUrquhartonLochNessalongtheway,andatthefarendhecapturedanddestroyedInverness.Probablythegalleyswerehauledor
carriedoverlandbetweenthelochsoftheGreatGlen,allowingRoberttomoverapidlyandamphibiously.TothenorthandwestlaythehostileterritoriesofCaithness,SutherlandandRoss.InalettertoEdwardIIWilliam,EarlofRoss,offeredexplanationsastowhyhewasforcedtocometotermswithBruce:
weheardofthecomingofSirRobertBrucetowardsthepartsofRosswithagreatpower,sothatwehadnopoweragainsthim,butneverthelesswecausedourmentobecalledoutandwewerestationedforafortnightwiththreethousandmenatourownexpense,onthebordersofourearldomandintwootherearldoms,SutherlandandCaithnessand[Bruce]wouldhavedestroyedthemutterlyifwehadnotmadeatrucewithhim,attheentreatyofgoodmen,bothclergyandothers,untilWhitsun
next[2June1308].Mayhelpcomefromyou,ourlord,ifitpleaseyou,forinyouSirisallourhopeandtrust.Andknow,dearlord,thatwewouldonnoaccounthavemadeatrucewithhimifthewardenofMoray[ReginalddeCheyne]hadnotbeenabsentfromthecountry…
Ross’sblamingofhisneighbourforfailingtosupporthimistypicalofthereactionoftheAnglo–Scottishlords,wholacked
leadershipaboveall.Robertestablishedapattern:byforcedmarchesandsurpriseattacksheoutmanoeuvredandcaughthisenemiesunawares,dividingthemandforcingthemsinglyintotemporarysubjection.Robertismostunlikelytohavefaceddownanarmyof3,000men.TheearlhasgreatlyexaggeratedthesizeofRobert’sarmytojustifyhisfailuretoresist.Infact,atthis
pointinthenarrativeBarbourestimatesRobert’sstrengthatarealistic700men.Rossprobablypaidheavilyintributeinordertosecurethistruce.ItwasnowlateNovember,
andRobertwithconfidenceturnedhisbackonRoss.HemarchedeastwardstodestroyInvernessandNairncastles.Atthispointhowever,hisattacklostmomentum.HewasunabletoreduceElgin
butmadeatrucewiththedefenders.Hewasnowindeeplyhostileterritory,heldbytheComynsforgenerations,and,winterthoughitwas,theComynsorganisedtheAnglo–Scottishlordsofthenorthforacounter-attack.ThecombinedstrengthsofJohnComyn,EarlofBuchan;DavidofStrathbogie,EarlofAtholl,thesonandheirofEarlJohn;DuncanofFrendraught;and
JohnMowbrayclosedin.Onecanscarcelyimaginea
worsetimeforRoberttofallill,whichoccurredashewasadvancingonBanffCastle.Ofthenatureoftheillnessweknownothing;hewasunabletoridehishorseandhadtobecarriedinalitter.Hismencouldfindnoeffectivemedicine.Thesicknesswasprobablytheresultofcampaigningintothewinter,andifso,manyofhismen
willhavebeenaffected.BarbourhasagoodwordforEdwardBruce’sattemptstorallythetroops,butEdwardmadenoattempttotakehisbrother’splacebyleadingthemenintobattle.TheystayedatDuncanofFrendraught’smanorofConcarnfortwonights;then,burningthemanorandallthecorn,theymovedontowardsSlioch,nearHuntly.ThegalleyfleetsoftheGaeliclordsdidnot
operateontheeasternseaboard.Desertionwasendemicinmedievalarmies,andmanyfollowingRobertwouldhaveseenthisasagoodtimetorunaway.OnChristmasDaytheenemysightedBruce’sforce,safefromcavalryattackin‘acertainwoodedmarsh’nearSlioch.Buchan’sarmyretiredtocollectasufficientinfantryforcetoflushouttheBruces,andhavingdonesothey
returnedtothespoton31December1307.Buttherewasnoengagementthatday,andduringthenighttheBruceswithdrewtowardsthesouth.Insteadofclosinginforthekill,theAnglo–Scottishleadersthenfelloutwithoneanother.Somelossofnerveorlackofleadershipseemstohaveovercomethematthiscrucialtime;Buchanwastodiein1308,andhemayhavebeenillalready.
TheyapproachedtheearlofRossandtriedtopersuadehimtojoinwiththemintheattack,butRosswastooterrifiedofreprisalstoabandonhistruce.AsaresultofpressurefromRoberttothesouthandeast,andfromtheMacRuaridhstothewest,hispowerhadcollapsed.TheMacRuaridhsnowrefusedtopaytheearlrevenuesfromSkyeandotherHebrideanislandshithertosubjecttothe
earldom.Robert’spolicyofdividingtheoppositionappearstohavetidedhimoverthedireemergencyofChristmas1307.Thefollowingspring
EdwardII’sfaithfulliegemeninnorthernScotlandwrotetohim,appealingforhelp.Edwardrespondedon20Mayintypicalfashion,thankingthemfortheirgoodserviceandorderingthemtostayintheircommands.Inearly
March1308JohnMowbraywasnexttobeforcedtoacceptatrucefromtheBruces;theywerethenfreetowastethecastleandlandsofSirReginaldCheyneatBalvenie–knownthenasMortlach–andofSirAlexanderComynatTarradale.RobertdispatchedWilliamWisemantothereartocapturethecastleofSkelboonPalmSunday,7April,andtorenewhissiegeofElgin
Castle,heldbyDuncanofFrendraught.WisemanwasnotabletocaptureElgin,however,forJohnMowbrayarrivedtorelieveitinapparentviolationofhisrecentagreementwiththeBruces.InMayof1308Robert,not
yetfullyrecoveredfromhisillness,decidedtoconfrontJohnComyn,EarlofBuchan,andJohnMowbray.Hemusthavereceivedanaccessionof
strengthduringthespring,butfromwhere?Itseemsthat,despitethepoweroftheComyns,notallnortherngentryandfreeholdersopposedRobert.EarlierintheyearJohnMowbrayhadhadtopunish‘freeholdersandotherswhomheknewtobeofill-repute’,apparentlyfortheirsupportoftheBruces.ThegrowthofRobert’sforceinthisunfavourableterritorylendssupporttoDuncan’s
assertionthatRobertpossessed‘thecapacitytoby-passthereluctanttraditionalleadersofthecommunityandtoappealtoandcommandothersocialranks’.Robertadvancedfrom
InverurietowardsOldMeldrum.There,inanactionknownastheBattleofInverurie,hisvanguardwasattackedandworstedbytheenemy.Whenthemainenemyforcecameinsight
Fordunreportsthat‘heorderedhismentoarmhimandsethimonhorseback.Whenthiswasdone,hetoo,withcheerfulcountenance,hastenedwithhishostagainsttheenemytothebattle-ground,althoughbyreasonofhisgreatweaknesshecouldnotgoupright,exceptwiththehelpoftwomentoprophimup.’ComynandMowbraywereputtoflightandtheirarmyscatteredand
‘pursuedasfarasFyvietwelveleaguesaway’.InthewakeofthisvictoryRobertsetaboutasystematicdestructionoftheearldomofBuchan,knowntohistoryinBarbour’sphraseas‘theherschipofBuchan’anddesignedtoweakenpermanentlytheComynpowerbase:
NowletusgotothekingagainWhowaswellpleasedwithhis
victoryAndhadhismenburnallBuchanFromendtoendandsparingnone.HeharriedtheminsuchawayThatagoodfiftyyearsafterwardsPeoplebemoaned‘theherschipofBuchan.’
Fromdetailedaccountsofthedestructionthat4befellthenorthofEnglandinthefollowingdecade,wecanpicturethedestructionofBuchan:theburningofbarnsandmills,theburningand
tramplingofstandingcrops,thekillinganddrivingoffofthetenantryandtheburningoftheirvillages.TheprominentsymbolsofComynlordshipintheareawouldallhavebeentargetedanddestroyed:DundargandSlainscastles,aswellasDeerAbbeywouldallhavebeenseverelydamaged.AfterthisRobertissaidtohave‘takenintohispeace’thepeoplenorthoftheMounth:thatisto
say,heacceptedasumofmoneytosparethemfromfurtherdestructionandtakethemunderhisprotection.Thecampaigningseason
properbegan,andforthefirsttimeRobertsethissightsonAberdeen,thenorthernmostsignificantport.Thiswouldbringhimtheadditionalrevenuesoftollsoncommerceandlucrativecustomsonwoolandhides.Itwouldalsoenablehimto
opencommunicationswithotherNorthSeatownsandkingdoms.AccordinglyRobertbesiegedAberdeenlateinJuneandaround1Augustitfelltohim.CommercialrelationswithtownsandcitiesacrosstheNorthSeawerenowpossible;itwillberememberedthatonthetakingofBerwick,WallacehadwastednotimeininvitingtraderstovisitliberatedScotland.Markets
hadtobefoundfortheproduceofRobert’sterritories–wool,hidesandtimber–andRobert’sforceswereinsoreneedofweaponryandarmour.Hisnoblestoowouldhavebeenclamouringforthoseluxurygoodsthatdifferentiatedthemfromtheirfollowers:high-qualityclothing,fursandwine.Moreimportantinthelong-termwasthediplomaticwindowonthewiderworld
thatAberdeenprovided.RobertwastednotimeinopeningdiplomaticrelationswithKingPhiliptheFairofFrance.WithinayearofthecaptureofAberdeenPhiliphadabandonedrecognitionofJohnBalliolandhadwrittentoEdwardIIdescribingRobertasKingofScots.Possessionofthisfirstport
enabledtheScotstoforgecrucialallianceswithseagoingpeoples.Robert
receivedonlydiplomaticsupportfromFrance,butthetownsoftheNorthSeacouldsupplyhimwithwarmaterialsinreturnforScottishwool.GermanmerchantsfromtheHanseaticcitiesofeasternGermany,knownasEastlanders,andFlemishtradershadresentedtheinterruptionswarhadbroughttotheScottishtrade,andtheywerekeenforittoresume.Since1303France
andEnglandhadbeenatpeace,whichhadlefteachoftheselargekingdomsfreetoattackitssmallerneighbours.WhileEnglandattackedScotland,FrancewasfreetopressurisetheFlemishtowns,particularlyGhentandBruges,whichwerecentresoftheEuropeancloth-makingindustry.Ontheseas,theScotsandFlemingsmadecommoncause,co-operatinginattacksonEnglishvessels,
andrunningtheblockadeofScottishports.ThroughAberdeen,theterritoriesunderRobert’sswaytradedwoolforarmsandfoodstuffssuppliedbytheFlemingsandGermans.TheNorthSeatradebetweenindependentScotlandandthecontinenthadalreadybeenanirritanttoEdwardI;toEdwardII,itwastobecomeaconstantirritation.AsearlyasApril1305
EdwardIhadsuspectedtheFlemingsofsustainingScottishrevolt.However,privateeringontheNorthSeabytheScots,FlemingsandEastlandersbeganinearnestfromabout1308,justbeforethecaptureofAberdeen.InthatyeartheEnglishtriedtoimposeablockadeonindependentScotland,butgiventhedistancesinvolvedthiswasalmostimpossibleforthemtoenforce.In
October1309EdwardIIcomplainedtothecountofFlandersandthecityofBrugesthatFlemishmerchantshadbeentradingwiththeScotsandtheirpartners,theEastlanders.Robertissuedformal‘lettersofmarque’,authorisingScottishcrewstoattackEnglishvessels.TypicallytheprivateerswouldcommandeerorrobanEnglishshipofitscargoof
wool,andtakethewooltoAberdeen.TheretheywouldremovethesealoftheEnglishcustomsknownasthecocket,theproofthatdutyhadbeenpaid,andreplaceitwitheithertheScottishcocketorwiththesealofaFlemishtraderoperatinginEngland.ThisthenenabledtheprivateerstosellthestolenEnglishwoollegitimatelyonthecontinent.Earlyin1311thenotorious
FlemishprivateerJohnCrabberobbedtwoshipsleavingNewcastlewitheighty-ninesacksofwool,anddisposedoftheminexactlythisfashion.Afterthecaptureof
Aberdeen,Robertturnedsouth-westtoconfrontArgyllinAugust1308.WithBuchandead,JohnofArgyllwascertainlythemostvirulentinresistancetotheBruces,buthehadbeenconfinedtobed
withillnessformonths.HewillhavestriventobuildacoalitionagainstBruce,butmostlords,himselfincluded,wereparochialinoutlookandsoughtfirstandforemostthesecurityoftheirownlandsandincomes.OntheapproachofBruce,JohnassembledasignificantforceofmenandgalleysandpreparedanambushontheslopesofBenCruachan.Theexactsiteofthebattleisin
dispute,29butJohn’sforcewaitedhighontheslopesofthemountaintoattackRobert’sarmyasitpassedbetweenthemountainandeitherLochAweortheseaatLochEtive.Roberthowever,hadanticipatedtheambushandsecretlysentDouglashigheruptheslopesstillwithaforceofarchers.30JohndirectedtheArgyllmenfromagalleyonthesealoch,but
whenhismenattackedbyrollingbouldersdownthehillasRobert’smainforcepassedbelow,theyfoundthemselvescaughtbetweenRobert’sandDouglas’sforces.TheywereforcedtotakeflightandtheyscrambleddownhillforthebridgeovertheRiverAwe,intendingtobreakitdownonceacross.ButRobert’smenwerehotontheirheelsandcaughtupwithandslaughteredtheenemyand
droveofftheircattle.Barbour,FordunandotherchroniclersstatethatDunstaffnageCastlewasthencaptured,butitisnowconsideredthatthisoccurredthefollowingyear;insteadRobertextractedtributefromArgyllinreturnforatruce,tolastuntiltheEnglishkingcametotheiraid.AfraidthathisacceptanceofRobert’stermswouldbeinterpretedasdesertion,Johnwrote
afterwardstoEdwardIIexplainingtheimpossibilityofhispositioninfaceofRobert’sstrength,assuringhimofhisloyaltyandurginghimtoleadanarmyintoScotland.UnsurprisinglyJohnmakesnomentionofhisdefeat,andhewildlyexaggeratesRobert’sstrength,thebettertoexplainhisactions:
RobertBruceapproachedthese
partsbylandandseawith10,000mentheysay,or15,000.Ihavenomorethan800men,500inmyownpaywhomIkeepcontinuallywithmetoguardthebordersofmyterritory.ThebaronsofArgyllgivemenoaid.YetBruceaskedforatruce,whichIgrantedhimforashortspace,andIhavegotasimilartruceuntilyousendmehelp.Ihaveheard,mylord,thatwhen
BrucecamehewasboastingandclaimingthatIhadcometohispeace,inordertoinflatehisownreputationsothatotherswouldrise
morereadilyinsupportofhim.Godforbidit.Icertainlydonotwishit,andifyouhearthisfromothersyouarenottobelieveit;forIshallalwaysbereadytocarryoutyourorderswithallmypower,whereverandwheneveryouwish.Ihavethreecastlestokeepaswellasalochtwenty-fourmileslong,onwhichIkeepandbuildgalleyswithtrustymentoeachgalley.Iamnotsureofmyneighboursinanydirection.Assoonasyouoryourarmy
come,then,ifmyhealthpermitsIshallnotbefoundwantingwhere
lands,shipsoranythingelseisconcerned,butwillcometoyourservice.
InfarawayWestminster,preoccupiedandinfatuated,EdwardIIfailedtotakethehint,andthatChristmas,Edwardlostyetanotherstronghold,Forfar,toRobert.Inothertheatresofcombat
Robert’slieutenantshadbeenactive,bothonhisbehalfandintheirowninterests.When
RoberthadmarchednorthwardsinSeptember1307JamesDouglashadbeguntoestablishhimselfdeepintheForestofSelkirk.Fromtherehemadefurthereffortstoregainhispatrimony.WithrelishBarbourdescribeshowthewilyDouglasplannedanotherassaultonDouglasCastle.Disguisedasathresher,secretlyarmedandaccompaniedbyonlyafew
men,heattendedthePalmSundayserviceatStBride’sKirk,thechancelofwhichstillstands;thementionofPalmSundaydatestheepisodeto7April1308.Thewholeofthegarrisonexceptacookandaporterwerepresentinchurch‘tocarrytheirpalms’.Prematurelyoneofhismengaveoutthetraditionalbattlecry‘Douglas!’,butDouglasdrewhisswordandlaidintothe
menofthegarrison.Inashorttimetwo-thirdsofthegarrisonlaydeadordying.Thirtyprisonerssurrendered,andDouglastookthecastleeasily.Heenteredtofindthetablelaidforthefeast.Hismenatetheirfillandthenransackedthebuildingforweapons,armour,treasureandclothing.Beforeleaving,hebeheadedhisprisonersandthrewtheirbodiesintothecellar.Intothecellartoohe
emptiedallthefoodhecouldnotcarryoff:
Hemadeafoulconcoctionthere,FormealandmaltandbloodandwineAllrantogetherintoamushThatwasdisgustingtosee.
Afterwardshepollutedthewellwithsaltandthebodiesofdeadhorses.Finally,hesetfiretoeverythingthatwouldburn,abidingbyBruce’spolicyofdenyingshelterto
theenemy.Hesplithismenintoseveralgroups,andtheydisappearedintotheforestbydiverseroutes.Toourmindsanappallingatrocity,the‘DouglasLarder’asitbecameknownservedthepurposeofwarningthelocalpopulationagainstservingwiththeenemy.Douglaswasamongthose
whojoinedEdwardBruceforanequallysavageattackonGallowayinthesummerof
1308:‘Meanwhile,takingadvantageofthequarrelsbetweenthekingofEnglandandthebarons,EdwardBruce,brotheroftheoft-mentionedRobertandAlexanderLindsay,RobertBoydandJamesDouglasknights,withtheirfollowingwhichtheyhadfromtheouterislesofScotland,attackedthepeopleofGalloway,disregardingthetributewhichtheytookfromthem,andin
onedayslewmanyofthegentryofGallowayandmadenearlyallthatregionsubjecttothem.ThoseGallovidianswhocouldescapecametoEnglandtofindrefuge.’HebrideantroopswereusedforthisharryingofGalloway,saidtobeledby‘DonaldofIslay’.31Itseemsthatone,orpossiblytwo,bitterbattleswerefought.Thefirsttookplaceonthebanksofthe
RiverDee,atwhichtheGallovidiansputupstoutresistance.TheywereledbytheGallovidianchiefDungalMacCann.MacCannwasforcedtofleetohisfortressofThreave,anislandintheRiverDee.TherehewascapturedandhandedovertoEdwardBruce,presumablyforexecution.ThesecondbattleseemstohavebeenfoughtfartothewestontheRiverCree,whenEnglish
reinforcementsledbyIngramdeUmfravilleandAymerdeStJohnsetouttocounter-attack.EdwardBrucedefeatedthemtoo,andtheyfledtoBuittleCastleontheUrrWater.EdwardthenbesiegedBuittlebutfailedtotakeit.Infact,successfulasthecampaignwasintermsofdevastatingthecountrysideandexactingvengeanceforthedeathsofThomasandAlexanderBruce,Edward
failedtocaptureanymajorcastleinthesouth-west.Lochmaben,Tibbers,LochDoon,DumfriesandmanymoreEnglishgarrisonsstillsurvivedforanotherthreetofiveyears.NodoubtEdward,whoborethetitlesLordofGallowayfrom1309andEarlofCarrickfrom1313,tookallthesecastles,butBarbour’sstatementthathewonthirteencastlesbyforcemustrefertothewholeperiod1308–13.
StrangelythereisnomentionofDungalMacDowallinresistingthisattack;wemightexpecthimtohavetakenaleadingroleindefendingGalloway,andhemaywellhavedonedespitethechronicles’silence,forinApril1309hereceivedagrantofaCumberlandmanorforhisgoodservice,‘wherebyhehasbecomehatedbytheenemy’.Thesubjugationof
northernScotlandwasassuredwhenon31October1308RosssurrenderedutterlytoRobert,andinreturnwaspermittedtoretainhislandsandtitles.Obviouslythissortofarrangementnecessitatedamechanismforkeepingtrackoftheking’sgrantsandcommitments,anditisaroundthistimethatevidenceemergesthatRobert’sentourageincludedaroyalbureaucracy.Amandate
dated14October1308iswitnessedby‘SirBernardtheking’schancellor’.Thisclericwastheheadoftheking’swritingofficeandpartofhisjobwastokeeparecordofroyalordersandgrantsoflandissued.BernardtheChancellorprobablyhadlongexperienceofroyaldiplomaticform,correctformsofprotocolsandaddress,methodsofsealingandsoon.Hewouldcertainly
havebeenfamiliarwiththetextsandargumentsputintothemouthofBonifaceVIIIbyScottishdiplomatsinthepast,andhemaypreviouslyhaveservedinthechanceriesofKingJohnBalliolandtheguardians.RobertsubsequentlyendowedBernardwiththeabbacyofArbroathin1311.Bernard’sassistancewas
thereforeinvaluablewheninJanuary1309therearrived
fromthekingofEnglandtheearlofGloucester‘andtwootherearls’tonegotiateatruce.Itwasahigh-powereddelegation,andwellchosen.ThehouseofGloucesterhadbeentheEnglishfamilymostcloselyassociatedwiththeBruceaffinityandGloucesterandhiscompanionswereaccompaniedbypapalandFrenchenvoys.Suchadelegationmayevenhavebeenintendedtonegotiatea
lastingpeace.Thishowevereludedthem,probablybecauseRobertwasnotpreparedtoconcedesovereigntyofScotland.Termsforatruce,however,werebrokeredbytheemissariesofKingPhilipofFrance–whohadrecentlybecomeEdwardII’sfather-in-law.Thesewereasfollows:bothsidesweretoreturntothepositionstheyoccupiedatthefeastofSt
JamestheApostle–25July1308–andtherewouldbeacessationofhostilitiesuntilAllSaints’Day–1November1309.ItwasjustthesortofarrangementthatplayedrightintoRobert’shand.TheEnglishmightaswellhaveconcededtrucetoMidsummer1310,fortheycoulddonothinguntiltheweatherandfoodsuppliespermittedcampaigning.Roberthowevercoulddo
plenty.Thereisnoevidencethatheblatantlyviolatedtheagreement,butthetrucedidnothaveaneutraleffect.Inthelocalities,perceptions,understandingsandloyaltieswereshiftinginRobert’sfavour.EdwardII’ssupporterswereleaderless,bickering,increasinglydemoralisedandisolated.Robertrestorednothingtotheenemy,andcontinuedtointimidateandbully
vulnerablegarrisonsandcommunitiesloyaltoEdward.Timeanddistanceensuredthathewasnotbroughttoaccount.IncreasinglytheEnglishadministrationwasparalysedbymagnaterivalryandtheking’spreoccupationwithkeepinghisfavourite,PiersGaveston,safefromthehandsofthemagnates.On16and17March1309
RobertheldaparliamentatStAndrews.Suchagatheringof
thehighernobility–commonpeoplewouldnothavebeenrepresented–wasapowerfulclaimtosovereignty,andaclearstatementthatanalternativegovernmenthadbeenestablishedanddemandedobedience.ThepretextforsummoningsuchanassemblywastoconsiderareplytoaletterfromPhilip,requestingthatRobertcontributeforcestothecrusadehewasplanning;
RobertwasthusadvertisingthathehadreceivedaletterfromthekingofFrance,whohadpreviouslysponsoredtheBalliolcause.Thecarefulcraftingofsuchareplywas,ofcourse,fartooimportanttobelefttoalargeassembly.BernardtheChancellorwouldtakecareofthedrafting,butthepretextkeptupthefictionthatthenoblesparticipatedinmattersofstate.Therealpurposeofparliamentsatthat
timewastoprojectthemajestyofmonarchyandthusenhanceitslegitimacy.Parliamentwasthefullestexpressionofkingship,solemnanddignified,theoccasionofmanygrantsandmandates.Robertcouldonlyhaveheldthisassemblyintimeoftruce,for,asamarkoftheirloyalty,lordswereexpectedtoleavetheirestatesandattend.Headingthelistofthoseinattendancewerethe
greatmagnates,theearlsofRoss,LennoxandalsoSutherland.James,theStewardofScotland,wasthere,andRoberthadappointedothergreatofficersofstatefortheoccasion:GilbertHay,ConstableofScotland,andRobertKeith,Marischal.Robert’schieflieutenantswerethere:EdwardBruce,nowbearingthetitle‘LordofGalloway’;JamesDouglas;and‘Donald
ofIslay’,probablyAngusÓg.Lesserstalwartsweretheretoo:Lindsay,Boyd,GillespieMacLachlanoftheMacRuaridhsandthreerepresentativesoftheCampbells.Sullenanddisaffected,oldAlexanderMacDougalltoohadbeencompelledtoattend,butbeforetheyearwasouthewouldrejoinhissonintheserviceofEdwardII.Presenttoowereanumberof
prominent‘newcomers’toRobert’scamp:JamestheStewardwithsonandnephew,traditionaladherentsoftheBruceaffinitywhohadlosttheirlandstwiceinthepastforresistancetotheEnglishking,andwhohaddecidedoncemoretoriskeverythingbythrowingintheirlotwiththeBruces.Robert’snephew,theyoungThomasRandolph,Lordof
Nithsdale,wasalsopresent.32Earlierhehadsoundedofftothekingaboutunchivalrousmethodsofwarfare;evidentlyhehadatonedforhiscontempt.AnothernoteworthyrecentadditionwasJohnStewartofMenteith,towhomEdwardIhadgrantedtheearldomofLennox;thistitlehehadsurrenderedtoRobertinreturnforlandsinKnapdale–
awardedattheexpenseoftheMacSweens–andArran.Manyofthehierarchywouldhaveattendedtheparliament,includingbishopsofDunblaneandDunkeld,andpossiblythoseofRoss,MorayandBrechin.AseniorbishopoftheScottishkirk,RobertWishartofGlasgow,wasthenaprisoner,yethissealwasappendedtothedocumentasthougharepresentativeofhiswere
present;WilliamLambertonofStAndrewsmayhaveattendedinperson,eventhoughEdwardIIstillconsideredhimloyal.Robertmighthaveusedthe
occasionoftheparliamenttodemandagrantoftaxationoftheseworthies,butitisunlikelythathewouldhavetriedtoimposesuchaburdenwhileacutelydependentupontheirsupport.Moneymighthavebeenforthcomingfrom
theScottishChurch,however.Some£7,000ofclericalsubsidieswasoutstandingfromScotlandandhadneverbeenpaidtocollectors,andRobertmayhavebeenformallygrantedthisbyacounciloftheclergythatmetatthesametimeastheparliament.33Opportunitywastakenatthisassemblytopublishaproclamationbyageneralcouncilofthe
ScottishclergyinfulsomesupportofRobert’skingship.Thisdocumentmayhavebeenintendedforaninternationalaudience,atthegeneralcounciloftheChurchwhichhadbeensummonedforViennein1311.ItcontainedargumentsfortheindependenceofScotland,producedin1299and1301,andauthorsoftheseearlierstatementsofScottishindependencemaywellhave
beenpresentatthecouncil.Rehearsingtheeventsof
theGreatCause,theDeclarationoftheClergystatesamythwhichRobertwasdesperatetofosterandperpetuate,that‘WhentherearoseasubjectofdisputebetweenJohnBalliol,latelyinstalledaskingofScotland…bythekingofEngland,andthelateRobertBruceofhonourablememory,thegrandfatherofRobertwhois
nowtheking,concerningwhichofthemhadthebettertitlebyrightofbirth,toinheritruleoverthepeopleofScotland,thefaithfulpeoplehavealwaysbelievedwithouthesitation,astheyhadunderstoodfromtheirancestorsandelders,andheldtobethetruth,thatRobertthegrandfatherwasthetrueheir,andwastobepreferredtoallothers.’Ofcourse‘thefaithfulpeople’representedat
theparliamentandchurchcouncilhadnosuchmemory;neverthelesstheyhadfoundaleaderwho,theybelieved,mightdeliverthemfromforeignoccupationandsafeguardtheirChurchfromsubjectiontotheArchbishopofYork,andsotheywerewillingtoacceptthisrewritingofhistory.Thewholepointofthedeclaration,andofthe1309parliament,wasthatRobert
soughtacknowledgementasthe‘natural’,ordivinelyappointed,ruler.Asecondembassymay
havebeenreceivedduringthistruce.InAugust1309,RicharddeBurgh,theRedEarlofUlster,wassenttowesternScotlandtoreasonwithhisson-in-law.HewaspaidtosetoutontheinstructionsofPiersGaveston,whowasthenlordlieutenantofIreland,andwith
animpressivefollowingofIrishmagnates,men-at-arms,hobelars(troopersmountedona‘hobin’:aponyorhackney)andfoot.Hismissionwasperhapstointimidateasmuchastopersuade.PresumablyRobertreceivedtheearl,butthereisnorecordofsuchameeting.ItispossiblehoweverthatashowofforcebyanAnglo-IrishmagnateinthewestofScotlandmovedAlexander
MacDougalltoalastactofdefiance.ThatsamemonthBrucewasinthefarnorthatLochBroom,wherehecanonlyhavebeencollectingmenandshipsfromhisMacRuaridhalliesforanotherassaultonArgyll.Acharterdated20OctobershowsthathewasagainatDunstaffnage.Onthisoccasionhehadindeedcapturedthecastle.AlexanderMacDougall,nowevictedfromhisancestral
pile,fledtoEnglandandeventuallyjoinedhissonJohnofArgyllinIreland.ThetrucewithEdwardII
wasnowdrawingtoaclose.Cumberlandgentrywereorderedtogototheirborderdemesnes,eitherinpreparationfortheresumptionofhostilities,ortoprotectthemagainstraidingthatwasalreadytakingplace.OnexpiryofthetruceinNovember1309,Robert
increasedthepressureongarrisonsandcommunitiesloyaltoEdwardII,but,aswashiswont,hewaspreparedtobeboughtoff.InDecember1309EdwardadvisedhiscommandersatAyr,Perth,DundeeandBanff,probablyinresponsetoincreasinglydesperatepleasforassistance,todolikewisebytakingwhattrucetheycoulduntilWhitsun,7June1310.Thatwasthe
earliestconceivabledatebywhichanEnglisharmywouldappearinScotland.Thesecastlescouldatleastbeprovisionedbysea,butothersinlandweremorevulnerabletosiege,andtothepleasoftheirgarrisonsEdward’sgovernmentturnedadeafear.EvencommandersatBerwickandCarlisleagreedatruceuntil14January1310,andmoneywaspaidtoRobertaspartofthesedeals.Edward’s
commanderssucceededingettingageneraltruce,intendedtotidethemtothecampaigningseason,butitwaspracticallyworthless.EarlythatsummeradelegationofloyalScottishmagnateswrotetoEdwardIIandadvisedhimthatunlesshesetoutforthenorthinpersonallwouldbelostinScotland.InJulyorderswereatlastissuedforageneralmusteroftheEnglishhost:
‘Sincetheking’senemiestheScots,towhomhehadgrantedatruce,contrarytotheformofthattruce,dailytakefromhimcastles,townsandlands,asheunderstandsfrommeninhisserviceintheseparts,hehasresolvedtobeatBerwickinpersonattheNativityofOurLadynext[8September]withhorsesandarmsaspowerfullyashecan.’ButitwasnotthepleasoftheloyalScotsthathad
forcedEdwardtoattendtohisduty,ratheritwasoutrageatroyalmisruleinEngland.Edwardhadmadelavish
grantstohishatedfavourites.Hehadover-exploitedtheroyalprerogativeof‘prise’,whichallowedthekingarbitrarilytoseizegoodsastheitinerantcourtneededthemandtodeferpaymentforthem.HeavytaxationhadbeenleviedonthepretextofScottishwar,withnothingyet
achieved.Itwasscarcelysurprisingthatacommitteeofthebaronage,knownastheLordsOrdainer,hadbeenappointedtotakegovernmentoutoftheking’shandforthetimebeingandtoregulatehishousehold.Edwarddeeplyresentedwhathesawasusurpationofhisrights.HeintendedhisScottishcampaignof1310–11totakethewindoutofoppositionsails,andtoundermine
reformathome.ThecampaignalsohadthevirtuethathecouldkeephisbelovedPiersGavestonbyhissideandsafefromthehandsofmagnates.Sincethecampaignsuited
allthesedomesticpurposes,EdwardatlastshowedaresolvetoconfrontRobert.Alldidnotgowell,however,andelaborateplansforalandinginArgyllhadtobecalledoffonaccountof
unseasonalweather.AsaresultofGaveston’spresence,manyoftheEnglishmagnatesboycottedthecampaign,andEdwardrodenorthwithonlythreeearlsathisside:Gloucester,WarreneandGavestonhimselfasearlofCornwall.AttheendofSeptember3,000infantrymusteredatBerwick,mostofwhomwereWelsh.Thecavalrycomprisedtheroyalhouseholdof50knightsand
200squiresormen-at-arms,plusthecontingentsoftheearls–whotraditionallydidnotacceptroyalwagesandthereforedonotfigureintheaccounts.Inthefaceofsuchodds
Robertkeptwelltothenorth.On4SeptemberhewasrumouredtobeatPerth,wherehehadmadeatruceuntilMichaelmaswiththebeleaguredgarrison.DouglasremainedintheForestof
Selkirk,probablyseekingaconfrontation.On1SeptemberEdwardadvancedfromWarkintothevalleyoftheTweed,inbusinesslikefashion.Itbeinglateintheyear,hewasableonlytoconsolidatehisgriponaccessiblepartsofsouthernScotland,replenishingandreorganisingthegarrisonsofsouthernScotland.HevisitedRoxburghandthePeelofSelkirk,vitalforchecking
Scottishactivityintheforest.Fromthemainarmy,raidingpartiessallieditsthickcover.TheauthoroftheVitaEdwardiSecundirecountswhathappenedtoonesuchparty:
Oneday,whensomeEnglishandWelsh,alwaysreadyforplunder,hadgoneoutonaraid,accompaniedforprotectionbymanyhorsemenfromthearmy,RobertBruce’smen,whohadbeenconcealedincavesandinthe
woodlands,madeaseriousattackonourmen.Ourhorsemen,seeingthattheycouldnothelptheinfantry,returnedtothemainforcewithafrightfuluproar;allimmediatelyleapttoarmsandhastenedwithoneaccordtohelpthosewhohadbeenleftamongsttheenemy;butassistancecametoolatetopreventtheslaughterofourmen…BeforeourknightsarriveduptothreehundredWelshandEnglishhadbeenslaughtered,andtheenemyreturnedtotheircaves.Fromsuchambushesourmenoftensufferedheavylosses.
Edward’sarmythenproceededbywayofBiggartoLinlithgow–thevitalstaging-postbetweenEdinburghandStirling–andacrossLothiantoRenfrew.ThenEdwardretiredtoLinlithgowandEdinburgh,andthencebyseatoBerwickbythebeginningofNovember.Suchwerethedifficultiesoffindingforageforanimalsinthewinterthatfurthercampaigningwasnot
possible.Theinfantryreturnedhome,theirfortydays’servicecompleted,andtheroyalcourtsettleddownintowinterquartersatBerwick.AtthispointRobert’sforcesreturnedtoharassthegarrisons.Remainingoverthewinter
onScottishsoilwasnotsomuchastatementofEdward’sdeterminationtoreduceScotlandtohisobedience,asanadmissionof
hisfearsassociatedwithreturningtoEngland:fearsoffacingfurthersanctionsimposedbythemagnatesorparliament,orofbanishmentofhisfavourite,Gaveston.TheEnglishexpeditionhadbeenhamstrungbytherefusaloftheEnglishearlstoparticipatefullyinthewar.EvenGloucesterandWarrenemadethepoliticalpointofwinteringjustacrosstheborder,onEnglishsoilandso
nottechnicallyontheking’sservice.Edward’snewandvociferousopponent,ThomasofLancaster,arrivedtodohomagefortwoofthefiveearldomswhichhehadinherited,butrefusedtocrosstheTweed–thatis,toleavethekingdom–toperformtheservice.ThekingofEnglandwashumiliatedintomakingthecrossinghimself.Againstthisbackground,
theEnglishchroniclesare
surelycorrecttotaketheviewthatEdwardwasconsideringmakingadealwithRobertwhichwouldallowhimtofacedownthisdomesticopposition.HedidinitiatecontactwithRobertatthistime;fromaletterwrittenthefollowingFebruaryitseemsthattworoyalistnobles,RobertCliffordandRobertfitzPaynehadtheirking’spermissiontomeetwithRobertatSelkirkon17
December1310.Wedonotknowwhetherthemeetingtookplace.Subsequently,GloucesterandGavestonweretohavemetRobertnearMelroseAbbey,butRobertwaswarnedoftreacheryanddidnotshowup.Eitherofthosearrangementsmighthavebeenforstraightforwardparleywiththeenemy.ButathirdsuggeststhatEdwardIIwastryingtoreachaprivatearrangementwithRobert
behindthebacksofhisbaronage.InFebruaryahigh-rankingclerkoftheEnglishchancery,JohnWalwayn,wasarrestedandthrowninprison‘becausehesuddenlywenttowardsthosepartstospeakwithRobertBruce’.ThatsamemonthEdwardsentGavestonwith200mentostrengthenthePerthgarrison,which,togetherwithDundee,nowmarkedthefarthestlimitoftheEnglish
occupation.GloucesterandWarennemeanwhilepenetratedtheForestofSelkirk,whereDouglasfounditeasytoavoidconfrontation.Robertdidnotconfrontthe
powerfulEnglishearls,butinsteadpunishedtheweakerandmorevulnerableofhisadversariesinthewest.ThatDecember,rumourattheEnglishcourthaditthathehadassembledagalleyfleetintheWesternIslesand
intendedtoattackMan.InFebruaryhewassaidtobemarchingtowardsGalloway.AswinterturnedtospringEdwardbecamedesperatetoraiseanarmy,butintheteethofstoutoppositionfromtheEnglishmagnatesthiswasvirtuallyimpossible.JohnofArgyllhadvisitedthecourtoverthewinter,andappearstohavepersuadedEdward,nowclingingtoanystrawtoavoidahumiliatingreturnto
England,thathecouldraisealargearmyinIreland.AccordinglyordersfortheraisingofimprobablylargeforcesinIrelandwereissued,withJohnattheirhead,andafleetofsixty-twoEnglishandIrishshipsweretoferrythisarmytoAyr.Edwardputgreatstorebythisplan,callingit‘oneofthegreatestmovementsoftheScottishwar’.Theports,however,refusedtosupplytheships,
andtheplanwaslargelyabandoned.JohnofArgylldidsucceed
inmusteringsomesortofforcehowever.AGaelicpraise-poem,araresurvivor,affordsaglimpseofpartofthisattackonScotland’swesternapproaches.ThepoemcelebratestheexpeditionofJohnMacSweenfromthenorth-westofIrelandtoreclaimCastleSween,inKnapdale.
TheMacSweenshadexpandedwestwardsfromScotlandandsettledintheFanadPeninsulainDonegalinthe1260s,andthenhadbeengraduallyoustedfromKnapdalebytheStewartsofMentiethintheearlyfourteenthcentury.By1310theMacSweensundoubtedlyformedapartoftheMacDougallcoalition.InthatyearEdwardIIgrantedKnapdaletoJohnMacSween,
onconditionthatherecaptureitfromRobert’sally,JohnofMenteith,andthepoemdescribesthevoyageofMacSween’smailedgalloglasses.Hereisatasteofit:
WhoisthisbywhomthefleetissailedagainsttheCastleofSweenyofSlieveTruim?Asinewymanwhocouldnot
avoidarrows,oneofthetwopiercinglancesoftheregionofConn.
ItisJohnMacSweenwhoisthecommanderoftheirfleetonthesurfaceofthesea,ahardyleader;Themastsofhisshipsare
exceedinglyprecipitousinheight,thewavewilltesttheminanoceanofsummits.
JohnhasmadeahappylandfallinthebosomofKnapdale,attheendofanoceanvoyage;Thethick-cropped,fortress-
possessing,handsomeeyebrow,withmanymastsandheroes,avigorousmanwithawarrior’smoon.
ThepoemrevealsthatMacSweenwaswelcomedbytheinhabitantsofKnapdale,andthatthecastlewastakenwithoutviolence.ThisillustrateshowenormouslydifficultwasRobert’staskofdislodgingtheMacDougallsandtheiralliesfromtheirancestrallands.ItishardtobelievethatMacDougallinfluencewasfullyextirpatedfromArgyllduringRobert’sreign,eventhoughby1318
thekingofArgyllisreportedtobeaMacDonald.Thepoem,anarrowwindowontheGaelicwest,isalsoinstructiveinthatitremindsusthatthiswholewesterndimensionofRobert’slongwargoesvirtuallyunrecordedintheEnglishroyalrecordsuponwhichwearesoheavilydependent.EdwardII,then,obtained
someserviceinthewestin1311;fromEngland,
however,heobtainedvirtuallynone.Hetriedtoraisetroopsthroughatotallynovelandunparliamentarylevyofonefoot-soldierfromeveryvillageinEngland,buttolittleeffect.WithnotroopsandnomoneytherewasnothinghecoulddoattheendofJuly1311butsummontheEnglishparliamentandleaveBerwickwithabadgrace.InAugust1311Edwardwasforcedtoaccept
thediktatoftheLordsOrdainer,knownas‘theOrdinances’,whichimposeduponhishouseholdaseriesofunpalatablereformsandrestrictions.EdwardII’sworstfearswererealisedasGavestonwasseizedandexecutedbytheEnglishmagnateson19June1312.ThustheEnglishbaronialoppositionhadplayedintoRobert’shands.Itwouldbeinterestingtoknowwhether
Roberthadanycontactwiththem,butatthisdatethatseemsunlikely.Hehad,rather,judgedwiselyandallowedeventstotaketheircourse.InseeingoffEdward,RoberthadnotmerelysurvivedthegreattestofEnglishinvasion,hehadtriumphedinallbutname.TheAnglo-ScottishlordshadlongedforEdwardtoleadanarmyintoScotland;whenthatarmyhadcomeandgone,
II’swithdrawalfromBerwick,twopowerfulthemesbegintodominatethenarrative:theraidingofEngland,andthecaptureofScottishtownsandcastles.Thetwoaremorecloselyconnectedthantheymightfirstappear.TheraidingofEnglandandtheextractionoftributefromherterrifiedanddefencelessnortherncommunitiesprovidedRobertwiththefundstopayhis
soldierytoundertakeprolongedsiegesofcastlesandwalledtowns.Scottishsubjectswerecustom-boundtoservetheirkingunpaidforonlyfortydays;foranythingbeyondthatthekinghadtopay.Lucrativeraidingopportunitiesmustalsohaveprovidedacarrot,enticingScottisharistocratstoadheretotheBrucecause;thestickkeepingtheminlinewasthedestructionofnotjustenemy-
heldcastlesbutvirtuallyallcastles,privatelyheldorroyal.Aswehaveseen,itwasamatterofpolicyforRoberttodepriveScottishnoblesoftheluxuryofindependenceandchoicebetweenmasterswhichprivatecastlewallsprovided.ThusRobert’scivilwaragainstthe‘Anglo-Scottish’nobleswasintimatelyconnectedwithhispatrioticwaragainsttheEnglish.
OnthedepartureoftheEnglishcourtfromBerwick,RobertseizedtheinitiativeandmountedtwodevastatingraidsonthenorthofEngland.Thefirst,whichlastedfrom12to20August1311isnarratedbytheEnglishLanercostchronicler:‘havingcollectedagreatarmy,he[Robert]enteredEnglandatSolwayontheThursdaybeforethefeastoftheAssumption;andheburned
allthelandofGilslandandthevillofHaltwhistleandagreatpartofTynedale,andaftereightdayshereturnedtoScotland,takingwithhimagreatbootyofanimals;neverthelesshehadkilledfewmenapartfromthosewhowishedtodefendthemselvesbyresistance.’Thefollowingmonth,RobertagaininvadedEngland:
AboutthefeastoftheNativityof
theBlessedVirgin[8September],RobertreturnedwithanarmyintoEngland,directinghismarchtowardsNorthumberland,andpassingbyHarbottleandHolystoneandRedesdale,heburntthedistrictaroundCorbridge,destroyingeverything;alsohecausedmorementobekilledthanontheformeroccasion.AndsoheturnedintothevalleysoftheNorthandSouthTyne,layingwastethosepartswhichhehadpreviouslyspared,andreturnedintoScotlandafterfifteendays;norcouldthewardenswhomthekingof
EnglandhadstationedonthemarchesopposesogreataforceofScotsashebroughtwithhim.
Theseexpeditionswereofadifferentordertothecross-bordercattleraidsthatDouglasandothershadinflictedonthewesternmarchsince1307.Robertwasapparentlyleadinglargeinfantryforcesandsystematicallylayingwasteenemyterritory,ashehad
doneattheherschipofBuchan.Forhisfollowerstheplunderingwasausefulrewardthatincreasedloyalty,butthetroopscouldnotkeepeverythingtheycaptured.Traditionallyonethirdoftheplunderandanyprisonerstakenhadtobehandedovertothelord.ExtractionofmoneyseemstohavebeenRobert’smainobjectiveatthisstage,forheshowedhimselfquitewillingtobe
boughtoff.FollowingtheseraidstheNorthumbrianssentenvoystonegotiateatruce,andtheyagreedtopay£2,000until2February1312.ThemenoftheearldomofDunbar,stillofthekingofEngland’speace,alsopaidaheavyfineforatrucetothatsamedate.Themoneywasneededto
prosecutesiegesoftheeast-coasttownsofPerthandDundee,andforincreasing
militarypressureonBerwick.Barbourtreatstherecoveryofcastlesandwalledtownsinaspecialway.Ashasbeenpointedout,chronicleswerewrittenforentertainment,andsomeofthemostentertainingpassagesinBarbourarethoserelatingtothecaptureofthecastlesofScotlandfrom‘English’garrisons.MorethananyotheraspectofthenarrativetheydemonstratehowtheScotsovercamethe
vastmaterialwealthandsuperiorityinnumbersoftheiradversariesbydeployingslight,thatis,nativewitandcunning.Robertcouldrarelyresorttolongsieges,whichwereexpensiveandwouldleavehisforcesstationaryandvulnerabletoattack;nordidhehaveinsufficientnumberthecatapults,batteringramsorothermachinerythatwouldfacilitatetakingbystorm.
TrickerywastheScots’onlyresource.Thepatternwasalreadywellestablished:asearlyasChristmasNight1308thecastleofForfarwascapturedbystealth.‘PhiliptheForester’andsomeothersusedladderstoscalethewallwhiletheguardsslept,andtheykilledeveryonewithinandhandedoverthecastletoRobert.Hethendemolishedthecastlewallandpoisonedthewell.AtDouglasCastlein
April1308,aswehaveseen,theytemptedthegarrisonoutwiththeprospectofrobbingalineofpackhorses;atLinlithgowinAugust1313theyhidinahaywainwhichtheylodgedinthegatesofthepeeltopreventtheirclosing,springingouttosurprisetheguardsandcapturethecastle.Frequentlytheepisodeissetonafeastday–ChristmasNight,PalmSundayandShroveTuesdayareall
mentioned–whenthesentrieswerelaxordistractedordrunk.UsuallyBarbourgivesakeyroletoanamedfolkhero:TomDicksonplannedtheambushoftheDouglasgarrisoninStBride’sKirk,WilliamBunnockdrovethehaywaininthecaptureofthePeelofLinlithgow,andSymeofLedhousemadetheingeniousropeladdersforscalingthewallsofRoxburghin
February1314.ArivalryemergesbetweenRobert’slieutenantsDouglasandThomasRandolph–whowascreatedearlofMorayin1312–astowhocouldgainmostgloryinthetakingofcastles.
InDecember1312RobertmadehisfirstattempttocaptureBerwick:thefirstofmany.BerwickwasatoncethelargestandrichesttowninScotland;theadministrativeandmilitarycentreoftheEnglishoccupation;thelocaleoftheEnglishsupplyoperation;andthekeystrategicpositionthatcontrolledaccesstotherichNorthumberlandcoastal
plain.Bruce’snight-timeattempttoscalethewallsbywayofropeladderswas,however,foiledbyabarkingdog‘justasoldgeesesavedRomebytheirgaggle’.Robertwasforcedtoturntolessertargets,butinthemeantimethedepredationsoftheenemygarrisonsofLothianweredoinghisworkforhim.NeglectedbyEdwardII,lowonmoraleanddesperateforprovisions,they
raidedthesurroundingcountrysidemercilessly,causingAnglo-ScottishlordssuchasAdamGordontoprotesttoEdwardIIthatthesympathiesofcountrypeoplewerebeingalienatedbyrampaginggarrisons.RoberthadDundeeunder
siegefromFebruary1312.EdwardIIwasanxioustokeepthetownatallcosts,andheforbadeanagreementwhichthecommander,
WilliamdeMontefichet,hadreachedwithRobert,thatDundeeshouldbesurrenderedinexchangeforreturnofEnglishprisoners.Instead,shipsandbargesalongtheeastcoastwerecollectedtoferryheavilyarmouredinfantrytoDundee,butatlast,inApril,Montefichetwasforcedtosurrender,andhisgarrisonwaspermittedtoleaveforPerth.Robert’spossessionof
Dundee,however,madethesupplyofPerthbyseaallthemoredifficultfortheAnglo-ScotsandEnglish.Thechroniclesagreethat
RobertinvadedEnglandnextinmidAugust:
Havingassembledagreatarmy,heinvadedEnglandaboutthefeastoftheAssumptionoftheBlessedVirgin[15August1312]andburnedthetownsofHexhamandCorbridgeandthewesternparts,andtookbootyandmuchspoiland
prisoners,norwasthereanyonewhodaredtoresist.WhilehehaltedinpeaceandsafetynearCorbridge,hesentapartofhisarmyasfarasDurham,which,arrivingtheresuddenlyonmarketday,carriedoffallthatwasfoundinthetown,andgaveagreatpartofittotheflames,cruellykillingallwhoopposedthem.
Thenextday‘despairingofhelpfromthekingofEngland’,themenofthebishopricofDurhamand
thoseofNorthumberlandeachagreedtopaytheScots£2,000forpeaceuntilMidsummer1313.ThedealwiththemenofDurhamwasstruckatHexhamon16August.ThecommunitiesofWestmorland,CopelandandCumberland‘redeemedthemselvesinasimilarway’and,thoughtheydidnothavethecashtogivestraightaway,theysurrenderedthesonsofthechieflordsashostages.In
theEnglishcountiesthenormalmachineryofregulartaxationseemstohavebeenemployedtocollecttheseblackmailpayments,buttherateatwhichRobertexactedthistributefromEnglandwasruinous.The£2,000whichNorthumberlandpaidtoRobertin1311wasdoubletheamountithadyieldedtothekingofEnglandin1296,andNorthumberlandwasmadetopaythesameamount
theverynextyear.Coffersreplenished,Robert
redoubledhiseffortstocapturePerth.Thiswasadifficulttask,forPerthwasprotectedonthelandwardsidebytheRiverTayandbyaditch.ThedefenderswereledbySirWilliamOliphant,Montefichet,andtheearlofStrathearn.OliphantwasthesamemanwhohadvaliantlydefendedStirlingCastletothelastin1304;thisisat
onceanindicationthatRobertwasupagainstexperiencedveteransofsiegewarfare,andasalutaryreminderthatmanypatrioticScotsdidnotapproveoftheBruceregime.Thesiegealsoillustratesthataristocraticfamilieswereoftendividedintheirallegiances:whileStrathearnwasdefendingthetown,hissonandheirwasatRobert’ssideattackingit.BarbourdescribeshowRoberttested
thebedoftheditchwithalongpoletofindoutwhereitwasshallowest,andatlastfoundaplacewheremencouldwadeacross,thoughthewaterwasshoulderhigh.AttheendofDecemberhehadhismenpackuptheirequipmentandfeignretirementfromthesiege,buteightdayslatertheycreptbackindeadofnightwithasmallforcecarryingladders.Itwasthenightof7/8
January.Theylistenedcarefully,butheardnonoisefromsentries.Then‘toshowanexampletohismen’,thekingshoulderedhisladderandslippedintotheicywater,and,usinghisspeartoprodthebedofthemoat,wadedacrosstheditch.Inadmiration,BarbourputsthefollowingwordsintothemouthofaFrenchknightwitnessingRobert’sactions:
Ah,Lord,whatshallwesayOfourFrenchlords,Alwaysstuffingtheirbellieswithgoodfood,Willingonlytoeatanddrinkanddance,Whensuchaknight,sonobleAsthisone,byhischivalryHasputhimselfinsuchdangerTowinawretchedhamlet.
Theking,Barboursays,wasthesecondmantoscalethetownwall.TheFrenchknightmaybeadevice,employed
byBarbourtoreflectupontheking’sbravery,butRobert’senergeticparticipationintheattackonPerthisborneoutbyothersources.Takenentirelybysurprise,thetownsfolkputupnofight,and,thoughtherewaswidespreadspoliation,fewwereslainasaresult.Thewallsandtowersofthetown’sdefenceswerethendestroyed.Strathearn,arrestedbyhisownsonand
heir,wastakenintothepeaceofKingRobert,anotherearldombroughtonside.Inthesummerof1313
RoberthadonlytomakethreateningnoisesfornorthernEnglandtopayup.Intherun-uptomidsummer,whenthetrucewouldlapse,theNorthumbrianswrotetoEdwardIIpleadingforaid.TheirkingrepliedcharacteristicallybyorderingthemenofNorthumberland
todotheirbesttodefendthecountyagainsttheScots.InJuneitwasreportedthattheScotswerereadytoattackinthreeplacesontheMarch,andon5AugustthebishopofDurhamexcusedhimselffromparliamentsayingthatRobertBruce‘hasoflatecausedagreathosttobeassembled’.Tostaveoffdisaster,thenorthernEnglishcountiesnegotiatedforathirdyear,andNorthumberland,
Westmorland,Cumberland‘andotherborderers’offeredlargesumsforatruce,tolastuntil29September1314.WeknowthatonthisoccasionCumberlandwasforcedtopay2,000marks(£1,466),becauseEdwardIIsubsequentlyorderedthatcollectionofthemoneyshouldbeaudited.Fromthisauditweseehowtheburdenwasallocatedtothedifferentwardsandlordshipsofthat
county;thegeneroussumsallowedformaintenanceofthehostages–sonsoflocalknights;theheftyexpensesclaimedbythecollectors,whowerelocalgentry;andthesweetenerspaid.TheselastincludedtwentymeasuresofoatenflourtoKingRobertand£12incash,asalmonandtwomeasuresofwinetoBrotherRobertdeMorton,KingRobert’sattorney.Tousitisremarkablethat,
asanalternativetoprovidingprotection,EdwardIIwaspreparedtocountenancethebuyingofprivateorlocalagreementswithhisenemy.‘Nodealswithterrorists’isadictumtowhichallmodernstatessubscribe.EdwardIImaysimilarlyhaveconsideredthathisroyaldignitywasbeingcompromisedbyagreementsbetweenlocalcommunitiesloyaltohimandhostile
Scots.Yethetoleratedandevenencouragedthemfortworeasons.Firstly,sincethelocalcommandersorlocalcommunitiespaidforthem,theywerecheaperthancampaigning,andsecondly,theysavedhimfromhavingtocompromiseondomesticissuesinreturnforparliamentarytaxationwhichheneededtomountacampaign.But,asEdwarddiscovered,thismethodof
stavingoffenemyattackunderminedperceptionofhimasking:itsappedfaithandconfidenceinhislordship,andultimatelyencouragedlocalcommunitiestoacceptthealternativeofRobert’slordship.In1315thepeopleofNorthTynedale‘gavethemselvesupcompletelytotheKingofScotland’.Asonehistorianhasremarked,bythelate1310safifthofEdward’s
kingdomwaspayingtributetoRobert.Short-sightedandtemporisingEdwardII’spolicymayhavebeen,buthemighthaverecoveredallhiscompromisedlordshipwithasinglevictoryonthebattlefield.Robertdidnotconfinehis
raidstoEngland.InFebruary1313,Robertassistedhisbrother,thenewLordofGalloway,ininflictingfurtherpunishmentuponthe
Gallovidians.ThecastlesofBuittle,DalswintonandDumfrieswerealltakenanddestroyed.On17May1313RobertlandedatRamseyontheIsleofMan‘withamultitudeofships’andbesiegedthecastleofRushenforfiveweeks.TheenemycommanderatRushenwastheGallovidianDungalMacDowall.Inunleashingthisattack,Robertseemstobepursuingabloodfeud,
typicalofaGaelicwarlord.Aswehaveseen,DungalhadcapturedandhandedoverforexecutionRobert’sbrothersThomasandAlexanderin1307;hehadsurvivedEdwardBruce’sassaultonGallowayin1308;inFebruary1313hehadbeendrivenoutofDumfriesCastleandfledtoMan;andnow,ascastellanatRushen,heseemstohaveattractedtheenmityofBrucesonceagain.The
five-weeksiegerequiredawidespreadsearchforfoodstuffs,andRobertsentgalleystoUlsteronthelastdayofMay.‘TheUlstermenresistedthemandmanfullydrovethemoff.Itwassaid,nevertheless,thatRobertlandedbylicenceoftheearl[ofUlster]whohadtakenatruce.’Whiletheearl’spositionasfather-in-lawtoRobertseemsoftentohavegivenrisetosuchsuspicions,
itislikelythatnolovewaslostbetweenthetwomen.Robertmayhavewishedtousetheopportunitytorepayhisfather-in-lawforhistroublemakingvisittoArgyllin1309.RushenfelltotheScotson12June,andRoberthaditdemolished.DungalseemstohavefledtojoinotherScottishémigrésinIreland,towhichplacethevengeanceoftheBruceswouldpursuehimyet.
IntheNorthSeatheatreofwar,theScottishprivateerscontinuedtheirco-operationwithFlemishandEastlandermerchantsagainstEnglishvessels.AsRobertcapturedfurthereast-coastports–Dundeein1312,Perthin1313andEdinburghin1314–theEnglishblockadebecameprogressivelyunenforceable.Englishshipsbegantosailinconvoysforsafety.Tensionbetweenthe
EnglishgovernmentandRobert,CountofFlanders,mountedastheEnglishdemandedsternermeasuresagainsttheprivateers,andthecountprotestedhisinabilitytohinderlegitimatetrade.In1311theEnglishseizedthreeFlemish-ownedvesselsnearAberdeeninScotlandforsupplyingtheScots.Inreprisal,EnglishmerchantsinFlanderswerearrested.Englishvesselssupplying
Scottishcastlesalsofellpreytotheprivateers.From1311protractedtalksbetweenthetwogovernmentstriedtorepairrelations,butthesewereabandonedin1313.Incidentscontinuedtooccur:intheestuaryoftheScheldethreeFlemish-ownedshipssailingfromHulltoFlanderswereattacked,withEnglishmerchantsclaimingtohavelost£4,000inwool,cash,andothercommoditiesinthe
shipment.FiveEnglishmerchantstravellingwiththeconvoyweretakenascaptivestoAberdeenandsoldtotheScots.Inreturnforstolenwool,theScotsacquiredarmsandfoodstuffs.On1May1313EdwardIIwrotetoCountRobertcomplainingoftheactivitiesofthenownotoriousJohnCrabbe,andallegingthataconvoyofthirteenFlemishshipsladenwitharmsand
foodstuffshadlatelydepartedforScotlandfromtheportofZwyn.EdwardIIthenplayedatrumpcard:hedeniedtheFlemishtownsdirectaccesstoEnglishwool,byestablishingastaple,orexclusivetradingpost,atStOmerinArtois,outsideFlandersandintheFrenchsphereofinfluence.Englishwoolwouldhenceforthbetakenheavilyguardedandinconvoytothisstapleport,and
Flemishmerchantswouldhavetopayahigherpricefortheirrawmaterial.Evenso,privateeringontheNorthSeacontinued:atMichaelmas1314anotherEnglishshipwascaptured,andawoolmerchantofBeverleyandhissonwereabducted.In1312Robertrepaired
diplomaticrelationsbetweenScotlandandNorway.InfluentialintheNorthSeaandmoreespeciallyinthe
WesternIsles,NorwayremainedimportanttoScotland’swiderinterests.Robert’ssisterIsabelhadmarriedKingEricII.Erichaddiedin1299,butIsabelcontinuedtolivethereasdowagerqueenuntil1358.ByanagreementsealedatInvernessinOctober1312Robertundertookresponsibilityforpaymentoftheannual100-marktributeduetoNorway.In1266
AlexanderIIIhadpromisedtopaythissumannuallyinreturnforNorway’scedingoftheWesternIslestothekingdomofScotland.WithmoneyextractedfromnorthernEngland,Robertcouldaffordtosquareuptothisforeigncommitment,provingtoNorthSeatradersthatScotlandwasasafeandreliablecountrywithwhichtodobusiness.Commercialand
diplomaticrelationswereonlyoneofanumberofproblemsdistractingEdwardIIfromthetaskofshoringuphisdeterioratingmilitarypositioninScotland.AnewdevelopmenthoweversentScotlandtothetopofhispriorities.AtanassemblyatDundeeon21–24October1313RobertissuedanultimatumtothoseScotswhostillrefusedtoacknowledgehiskingship.Although
hostilitieswouldcontinue,thosewhosubmittedtohimwithinoneyearmightbeallowedtoretaintheirlandsandtitles.HavingtakenLinlithgow,andseveredcommunicationsbetweenStirlingandEdinburgh,hewasnowinapowerfulpositiontothreatenLothian,andconsideredthatbythiswell-advertisedultimatumhemightteartheheartoutoftheScottishresistance.This
decree–sotemptingtotheremainingAnglo-Scottishlords–ensuredthatthekingofEnglandwouldatlastbestirhimselfandleadanarmyintoScotland,andinNovembertheEnglishadministrationsetthewheelsinmotionforafull-scaleinvasionofScotlandthefollowingsummer.As1314opened,the
enemyremainedincontroloftheirfourmaingarrisons–
Edinburgh,Roxburgh,StirlingandBerwick–andstillhadpossessionofseverallesserstrengths.Earlyin1314theearlofMoraysetaboutbesiegingEdinburghCastle.Barbourrelatesthatthecastlewaswellprovisioned,butthatthegarrisoncommander,SirPiersLubaud,cameundersuspicionofwantingtobetraythecastle.Hismenclappedhiminironsandimprisonedhim,and
appointedanEnglishconstabletotakecharge.ThesiegeworeonuntilMarchandstillMorayhadmadenoprogress,asthegarrisondidnotwantforfood.HearingofDouglas’ssuccessatRoxburghhowever,heofferedarewardtoanyofhismenwhomightbeabletoscalethecliffandthecastlewall,andonemancameforward.ThisfolkherowasWilliamFrancis,whoinhis
youthhadbeeninthecastleandhadlearnedtoclimbdowntherockatnighttovisitagirlfriendinthetown.Accordingly,onthenightof14March,MorayandthirtyofhismensetofftofollowWilliamFrancis’ascentoftherock:
Thenightwasdark,asIheardtell,AndsoontheycametothefootoftherockWhichwashighandsheer.
ThenbeforethemWilliamFrancisClimbedinthecleftsAlwaysthefirstamongthemAndtheyfollowedhimattheback;Withgreatdifficulty,sometimesto,sometimesfroTheyclimbedinthecleftsThusuntiltheyhadclimbedhalfthecrag.
Atthefootofthewalltheyusedaladder,andgainedtheparapet.Afterabloodybattletheassailantstookpossessionofthecastle.Theydiscovered
PiersLubaudinthedungeon.PiersdidhomagetoRobertandbecamehisliegeman.Truetoform,EdinburghCastletoowasdemolishedtodenyittotheEnglishoccupation,‘lesttheEnglisheverafterwardsmightlorditoverthelandbyholdingcastles’.Moray’scaptureof
EdinburghhadbeeninspiredbyDouglas’ssuccessintakingRoxburgh.Barbour
statesthatDouglashadropeladders,similartothoseusedatBerwicktwoyearspreviously,madespeciallyforthetask.Theseladderswere‘ofwonderfulconstruction’,andmuchadmiredbytheEnglishchroniclerwhoinspectedtheminpersonandatclosequartersatBerwick.OnShroveTuesday–19February1314–Douglasandhiscompanycrawledupto
thewallandusedalancetoplaceagrapplingcrookintheembrasure.Theclatterwasheardbythesentry,buttoolate,fortheScotshadmountedthewall.Theysurprisedthelargegarrison,whoweremakingmerryinthehall,andkilleduntilitwasclearthattheyhadtheupperhand.Asmallpartyledbythewarden,GuillemindeFiennes,retreatedtoatowerwheretheycontinued
resistance.ButthenextdayFienneswaswoundedfendingoffanassault,and,inreturnforlifeandlimbforthedefenders,hesurrenderedthetower.EdwardBrucewassentespeciallytodestroythecastle;heandhismen‘knockedtothegroundthewholeofthatbeautifulcastle,justastheydidothercastles’.InMarchRobertbegan
puttingpressureonStirlingtosurrender,andinmidMay
EdwardBrucemadeanarrangementwiththecommanderofStirling:unlesstheEnglisharmycamewithinthreeleaguesthecastle,withineightdaysof24June,SirPhilipMowbraywouldsurrenderit.34EdwardBruce’sprominenceatthistime,indeedtheprominenceofallthreeofRobert’slieutenants–Edward,DouglasandMoray–might
suggestthatRobertwasoncemoretemporarilyill.Onlythethreatofa
completecollapseoftheEnglishpositioninScotlandhadstirredtheEnglishkingintoaction,andsomeofhisnoblesintogrudgingco-operation.TwoofthefourkeyScottishcastleshadalreadyfallenthatspring:RoxburghinFebruary1314,EdinburghinMarch.ForthecomingcampaignEdwardII
calledup10,000infantry–including3,000Welsh–withadditionalwritsofarraydemandingmasons,carpentersandsmiths.ClearlyhewasexpectingtobesiegeandretakecastlesthathadfallentoRobert.Afurther10,000troopswereorderedup,chieflyfromnorthernEngland,whichhadbeenlaidwasteandtaxedtoruinbytheScots.ThoughEdwardknewwellthat
20,000menwouldnotturnout,thisdoublingofthecall-outisindicativeofhisdeterminationtooverwhelmtheScots.FullwardrobebookssurviveformanyofEdwardI’sScottishcampaigns,butonecouldnotbecompiledfortheBannockburncampaignsincetherecordswerelostintherout.Wearethereforeforcedtoestimate.Forthemainthrustofattackalongthe
EasternMarchperhaps10,000infantrymusteredforbattle.ThearmylackedthefullquotaofcavalryastheearlsofLancasterandWarwickandtheiralliesagainrefusedtoserveinpersonandsentonlyknightstoperformthestricttermsoftheirservice.Buttheroyalhouseholdprovidedthekerneloftheheavycavalryforce,and,inaddition,the‘royalist’earlsofGloucester,
HerefordandPembrokebroughttheircontingentsofknightsandmen-at-arms.OtherpowerfulmagnatespresentincludedRobertClifford,HenryBeaumont,PainTyptoftandJohnSegrave.ScotswhorodewithEdwardincludedRobertUmfraville,EarlofAngus;JohnComyn,sonandheirofthemurderedJohnComyn;SirEdmundComynofKilbride;andSirIngramde
Umfraville.AnEnglishchroniclerstatesthatEdwardhad2,000horse;allowingforthechronicler’sexaggeration1,000seemsreasonable.SensibleprovisionwasmadeforthepresenceofalargeEnglisharmy.AGenoesemerchantbankerwasemployedtoensurethatenoughgrainwasstoredatthetwinprovisiondepotsofBerwickandCarlisle.Asin1311therewastobea
simultaneouscampaignonthewesternapproachestoScotland:theearlofUlsterwastolead27Anglo-Irishlords,25GaelicIrishchiefsand4,000foot.JohnofArgyll–whomusthavesavouredtheprospect–wastoleadthefleet.Whileitisnotatallclearhowthisarmofthecampaignproceeded,theearlofUlsteratleastlinkedupwiththeroyalarmy.
WhatcouldRobertpitagainstthisformidablearray?TheScottishcavalrywereledbythehereditarymarischal,SirRobertKeith.Theywerevastlyinferiorinnumbersandquality.Atastretchtheremighthavebeen500Scottishhorse,but,whiletheEnglishknightsrodelargespeciallybredchargerscalleddestriers,manyoftheScotswereprobablymountedonlight‘hackneys’or‘hobbies’.Itis
estimatedthatRobertmustered5,000–6,000infantry.Hewasatleastcontemplatingthepossibilityofapitchedbattle.ThereliefofStirling
becameurgentastheEnglishroyalarmyapproachedScotland.AtNewminsterinNorthumberlandon27May,EdwardIIstatedthattheScotscouldbeexpectedtoassemble‘instrongholdsandmorassesbetweenusandour
castleofStirling’.AnEnglishchroniclerelatesthatthehostproceededbyforcedmarches:‘Briefwerethehaltsforsleep,brieferstillforfood;hencehorses,horsemenandinfantrywerewornoutwithtoilandhunger.’EnteringScotland,resplendentwithheraldricbannersandtrappings,theEnglishvanguard,ledbytheearlsofGloucesterandHereford,wasacolourfulandawe-inspiring
sight:
ThesunwasshiningbrightandclearAndarmsthatwerenewlypolishedFlashedinthesun’sraysInsuchawaythatthewholelandwasaflamewithBannersflutteringrightfreshlyAndpennantswavinginthewind.
ThegreathostproceededtoEdinburgh,andoccupiedthetown.Theslightedcastleaffordedlittlecomfort,but
theharbouratLeithwasusefulforunloadingprovisions.ThefollowingdaythevanguardsetouttowardsFalkirkandStirling.Despitethelackofan
Englishroyalwardrobebook,thesourcesforBannockburnareplentifulbycomparisonwithothermajorbattles.Thatblessingcreatesthedifficultyofreconcilingwhatareoftenconflictingaccounts,asthevariouseyewitnesses
recordeddifferentaspectsandepisodesofthebattle.WehavethreegoodchronicleaccountsfromtheEnglish,atleasttwoofwhichwerebaseduponeyewitnessaccounts.However,inthetopographydescribedtherearetwoforests–TorwoodandNewPark–twoapproachroads–theroadrunningnorthtowardsStirlingfromDenny,whichcorrespondstothemodernA80,andtheroad
fromFalkirkandLarbert,correspondingtothemodernA9–andtwochurches–thechurchofStNinian,amilesouthofStirlingCastle,andthechapelatLarbert,twomilesnorthofFalkirk;decidingupontheprecisemeaningofreferencestoplacesisthusfraughtwithdifficulty.Wehaveagoodideaofthegeneralwhereaboutsofthebattle:BarrowandDuncansharea
verysimilarideaastotheexactwhereaboutsofthemainengagementon24June.Artefactsfromtheperiod,possiblyconnectedwiththebattle,havebeendiscoveredinthatvicinity;recently,duringthecourseofaBBCarchaeologyprogramme,twopiecesofstirrupwerediscovered,andin2004a‘bodkin’,orarmour-piercingarrowheadwasunearthed.Thearchaeologistshavedone
well:thefieldwaspickedcleanimmediatelyafterthebattlebytheScottishcampfollowers.IntheBarbournarrative
thecourseofthebattleiscentral,representingthekeyvindicationofthehero-king’sstruggle,andBarbourhasnotresistedembroideringthenarrativewithanecdotesandmaterialtoentertainacourtlyaudience.Consequentlyhisaccountofthebattleoccupies
threebooksofTheBruce.RobertassembledhishostattheTorwood,whichwasaforeststretchingeithersideoftheroadtoStirling,betweentheTorBurnandtheRiverCarron.Understandably,Robertappearstohavebeenrackedbyindecision:tofightorflee?Andiftofight,whereandhow?AtfirsthedecidedtomakeastandontheTorBurn.Hedividedhisarmyintothree:Moraywastolead
thevanguard;EdwardBrucetheseconddivisionandhehimselfthethird,whichincludedthemenofCarrick,Argyll,KintyreandtheIsles.BarbourrecordsafourthdivisionledbyWaltertheStewardandDouglas,butsincetheEnglishchroniclesallrecordthreeitseemsthatBarbourinventedafourthtogiverolestoallhisheroes.Robertpositionedallhisforcesinornearwoodsto
keepthemsafefromcavalryattack.HisowndivisionhetooktothewoodsoftheNewPark,whileMoraywasorderedtostayintheTorwood,withinstructionsto‘keeptheroadbesidethekirk’.DuncantakesthistomeanthechapelatLarbert.Forthepresent,Moraywastoblockthemainapproachroad,theA9route.Roberthadselectedabattlefield,probablytheareaspanning
theA80justnorthoftheTorBurn,whereheorderedhismentodigatrapfortheEnglishcavalry:ahoneycombofshallowholes,‘afootindiameterandasdeepasaman’sknee’,eachconcealedwithtwigsandgrass.Thisdevicehasbeenlikenedtoaminefield;itwouldcertainlyhavedisruptedacavalrycharge.
TheEnglishspentthenightatFalkirk,andontheSunday23June‘afterdinner’theycamewithinsightoftheTorwood.TheywereanxioustoreachStirlingCastleeitherthatdayorthenext,beforeMowbraydelivereditupforlost,sotherewasatendencyforleadinggroupstopressahead.Thereweretwoencountersthatevening,whichtookplaceasthemain
bodyoftheEnglisharmywasstillarriving.Inthefirstincident,agroupofyoungaristocratichotheads,spyingsomeScots‘stragglingunderthetreesasifinflight’,gallopedoffaroundtheTorwoodtocutofftheirretreat.WhattheyhadseenwasMoray,retiringfromhispositionatthechapelofLarberttojoinKingRobertintheNewPark.ProbablyhehadseentheEnglishhost
fromafaranddecideduponwithdrawal.TheEnglishmusthaveseenfurtheractivityaroundtheNewPark,fortheyrodeoffinthatdirection,confidentthattheScotswereinfullretreatbeforethem.Greatwastheirsurprisethen,whentheScottishkinghimselfgallopedouttowardsthem,attheheadofaforceofcavalry:
Herodeuponalittlepalfrey,
Lowandbonny,anddirectingHiscompanywithanaxeinhishandAndonhisbascinetheworeAhatofboiledleatherAndontopofthatAsasignthathewasking,Ahighcrown.
AttheheadoftheEnglisharistocratsrodeSirHenrydeBoun,aknightofHereford’sretinueandpossiblyarelativeofthatearl.Levellinghislance,herodefulltiltatthe
king,butmissed,andashepassedRobertstoodupinhisstirrupsandbroughthisaxedownondeBoun’shead.Withtheforceoftheblow,Barbourtellsus,theaxe-shaftbrokeintwo,andBarbourhasthekingcomplainnonchalantlythathehadruinedabloodygoodaxe.TheEnglishknightsfled.Robert’svictoryinthisone-to-onecombatisattestedbytwoEnglishchronicles,and
suchapersonalfeatofarmsattheverycommencementofbattlesentScottishmoralesoaring.ItwasavindicationinitselfofRobert’srightasking.Enormouslyencouraging,newsoftheencounterwillhavespreadrapidlythroughouttheScottishranks.Shortlybeforeorafterthis,
RobertClifford,whoalsosawScotsclosebythewoods,ledacontingentofcavalryto
skirtaroundthewoodlandandcutofftheScots’retreat.CliffordwasaccompaniedbytheearlofGloucester,HenryBeaumontand,amongothers,toourgoodfortune,bySirThomasGray,whosesonincludedhisfather’seyewitnessaccountinhisnarrative,Scalachronica,writtenin1355–57.TheseknightsgallopedaroundthewooduntiloutofthesightofthemainbodyoftheEnglish
army,andtookupapositiontoblockaretreattowardsStirling.Suddenly,outofthewoods,camearushofScottishinfantry,bunchedcloselytogetherinatightschiltromformation,andcarryingpikes.MorayhadseenthattheEnglishcontingentwasisolated.TheEnglishcavalryhadhaltedtooclosetothetreestoformupandcharge,expectingtheretreatingScotstocomefrom
anotherdirection.ThehorseswerethemaintargetsoftheScottishpikemen,and,maddenedbytheirwounds,thechargersrearedupandthrewtheirriders.SirWilliamDeyncourtwaskilled.SirThomasGraywastakenprisoner.Gloucesterwasunhorsed–anomenofwhatwouldhappenonthemorrow.RobertCliffordwasrouted,andheledtheremainderofthecontingentbacktorejoin
themainarmy.Thusasecondandstrongergroupofcavalryrejoinedthemainbodyofthetroopswithwounds,excusesandtalesofthevalouroftheScots.Bothactionstookplacein
theevening,andthelightwasnowfading.TheEnglish,tiredwhentheyhadarrived,werenowthoroughlydemoralised;theScotswerebuoyant.Thesummernightwasheavywithexpectations,
fullofpossibilitiesandriddledwithpolitics.RobertshouldneverhavefoughttheBattleofBannockburn:inthefaceofsuchahostheshouldhaveprudentlyretiredtothehillcountrytokeephisforcesintactandwaitfortheEnglishtostarve.Yettheseincidentsmeantthat,psychologically,thebattlewasalreadywon.Hehaddecidedagainstpushinghisluck,however,andSirThomasGraytellsus
thathewaspreparingtowithdrawundercoverofnighttothehighcountryofLennoxwhenhereceivedadefectorfromEdward’scamp.ThiswasSirAlexanderdeSeton,whohadsupportedBrucein1308,buthadreturnedtothefaithofEdwardIIafter1310.HebroughtnewsofthedemoralisedstateoftheEnglishcamp,andRobertchangedhismindoncemore,
determiningtogambleeverythingontheoutcomeofthemorrow’sbattle.Setonwasnottheonlydefector:DaviddeStrathbogie,EarlofAtholl,EdwardBruce’sbrother-in-law,hadbeenalienatedfromtheBrucecampbytheknowledgethatEdwardhadscornedhissistertowhomEdwardwasaffianced,orpossiblyevenmarried,bydesertingherforIsabelofRoss.Atholl
defectedtotheEnglish,furtherdiminishingtheScottishcavalryandcarryingoffRobert’sstoresfromCambuskennethAbbey.TheexacttextofRobert’s
crucialeve-of-battlespeechtohislordsdoesnotsurvive,butechoesofithavecomedowntousinseveralversions.Barbourgivesthekingaspeechof150lines,inwhichhecommencesbyaskinghismenwhethertheyshould
fightorflee.Theyoptenthusiasticallyfortheformer.ThenRobertreassuresthemthatinthreewaystheyhavetheedge.‘ThefirstisthatrightisonoursideandGodwillalwaysfightfortheright.’Secondly,thearrivaloftheenemyhostaffordsatremendousopportunityfortheScotstoplunder.Thirdly,theenemyfightonlytodestroythem,buttheScotsfightfor
survivalitself:
AndforourchildrenandourwivesAndforourfreedomandourlandWeareboundtostandinbattle.
LaterRobertputsbeforehislordsthestarkchoicethatliesbeforethem:
Youbearhonour,reputationandrichesFreedomwealthandhappiness,Ifyoucarryyourselveslikemen;AndexactlytheoppositeWillbefallyouifyoulet
cowardiceAndwickednesstakeoveryourhearts.
InonepartoftheBarbourtextthekingacknowledgesthepersonalloyaltyandprofoundtrustthathismenaredemonstratingbytheirpresence:
Youcouldhavelivedinserfdom,But,becauseyouhaveyearnedtohavefreedom,Youaregatheredherewithme.
Thereisalsopracticaladvice:tochargewithspeedtowardstheenemyandnottobetooquicktoplunderortakeprisonersuntilthedayisindisputablywon.Inanotherversion–quitepossiblythe‘official’version,pennedaftertheeventbytheScottishchancery,especiallyforinclusioninchronicles–theseringingwordsareputintothemouthoftheking:
Wehavelostbrothersandfriendsandkinsmen.Yourrelativesandfriendsarecaptives,AndnowprelatesareshutupinprisonwithotherclergyAndnoorderofMotherChurchremainssafe;Thenoblesofthelandhavepassedawayinthebloodshedofwar…They[theEnglish]gloryintheirwagonsandhorses;forusTheNameoftheLordandvictoryinwarisourhope.Happyisthisday!SaintJohntheBaptistwasbornonit;
AndSaintAndrewandThomaswhoshedhisbloodAlongwiththesaintsoftheScottishfatherlandwillfighttodayForthehonourofthepeople,withChristtheLordinthevanguard!
ThemoodintheEnglishcampcontrastsdeeplywiththatintheScottish.ForthetiredEnglishtroopstherewasalotofworktobedoneinthedark.Theinfantrybivouackedinthecarse–themarshlandneartheriver–
andstayedunderarmsthewholenight,expectingScottishattack.Thehorses,however,hadtobemovedontofirmgroundacrosstheBannockBurn,andmakeshiftbridgeswereconstructedfromthethatch,doorsandshuttersofnearbydwellings.Atdaybreakeacharmy
heardmassforthefeastday,andthetroopsconfessedtopriestsandthenbreakfasted.Itwasthecustomthatmen
wereknightedonthemorningofbattle,andRobertusedtheoccasiontoconferthathonouruponWalterStewardandJamesDouglas.ThentheScottishtroopsarrayedintheirthreedivisionswithbannersdisplayed,andemergedfromtheforestofNewPark.AnEnglishchronicledescribesthemintheseterms:‘Notoneofthemwasonhorseback,buteachwasfurnishedwithlight
armournoteasilypenetrablebyasword.Theyhadaxesattheirsides,andcarriedlancesintheirhands.Theyadvancedlikeathick-sethedgeandinaphalanxsuchascannoteasilybebroken.’ChroniclesfromeithersideagreethatatsomedistancetheScotsknelttoprayaPaterNosterbeforeadvancing.‘Yonfolkarekneelingtoaskmercy’remarksEdwardIIintheBarbournarrative,andbyhis
sidetheAnglo–ScotSirIngramdeUmfravillereplies,‘Theyaskmercy,butnotfromyou.TheyaskGodformercyfortheirsins.Iwilltellyousomethingforafact;yonmenwillwinall,ordie;nonewillfleeforfearofdeath.’MeanwhileAbbotBernardofArbroath,thechancellorofScotland,wasmovingamongthetroops,bearingaroundhisnecktheBreccbennach,thelittlesilverreliquary,smaller
thanaman’shand,whichcontainedabonerelicofStColmcilleandwasbelievedtotransmitpotencyinbattle.BycontrastwiththeScots,
theEnglishinfantryremainedinasinglebody.TheEnglishtoohadtheirtalismans:oneEnglishmonkborethebannerofStCuthbert,thepatronofthebishopricofDurham;anotherthatofStJohnofBeverley.Thebattlefieldputthematasignificant
disadvantage.Cavalryneededspacetomanoeuvre,buttheavailablespacewasconfinedbytheBannockBurnandmarshestothesouth-eastandtreestothenorth-west.Moreover,theScotshadtheadvantageofattackingdownhill.Formalitiesover,the
conflictbeganwitharchersexchangingvolleys.ArcheryhadnotyetreacheditsheydayinEngland;
nevertheless,hadtheEnglishbeenabletomasstheirarchersinsufficientnumberstheywouldswiftlyhavethinnedouttheranksoftheScottishschiltroms.Butthenarrownessofthefield,coupledwiththesizeofthehostmadeitimpossibletogroupthemeffectively.Neverthelessthearchershadsomeimpact;anEnglishchroniclestatesthat‘theKingofEngland’sarchersquickly
puttheotherstoflight’.ThentheScottishinfantryadvanced,twoschiltromsabreastofoneanother,andathird,theking’s,behind.GloucesterledtheEnglish,stungintoaction,theVitaEdwardiSecundireports,byanaccusationoftreacherylevelledathimbyEdwardIIthepreviousnight,andhiscavalrysmashedintothephalanxledbyEdwardBruceandinwhichDouglasserved:
‘WhenbotharmiesengagedandthegreathorsesoftheEnglishchargedthepikesoftheScots,asitwereintoadenseforest,therearoseagreatandterriblecrashofspearsbrokenandofdestrierswoundedtothedeath;andsotheyremainedwithoutmovementforawhile.’Manyofthedestriersrefusedtochargeintotheforestofpikeheadsandthrewtheirriders.TheScottishspearmen
targetedthehorsesoftheenemy,andGloucester’shorsewaskilledunderhim.Atalleventstheearlrolledtothegroundwhere‘bornedownbytheweightofhisbodyarmourhecouldnoteasilyrise’.Hisdeathwasapivotaleventinthebattle.Therewasnoneedforittohavebeendecisive,butsuchwasthecriticalroleofgreatmagnatesthatthiseventtookallthesteamoutofthe
Englishattack.Othermagnatestoowereknockedordraggedfromtheirhorses:RobertClifford,EdmunddeMauley,PainTyptoft,andWilliamMarshall.InthemêléeaneweffortwasmadetomasstheEnglisharchers,but,realisingthis,RobertdirectedthesmallScottishforceofcavalryunderSirRobertKeithtoridethemdown.ThisKeithaccomplishedbyridinginto
theflanksofthearcherbattery.TheEnglishchroniclesareconsistentinreportingthatthegreatmassofEnglishinfantryneverengagedtheScots,sonarrowwasthefront.Meetingtheirownmenwoundedandfleeing,theEnglishinfantrythemselvesbegantoflee.Evennow,thebattlewas
notnecessarilylostfortheEnglish,butforachanceintervention.‘Yeomenand
boysandmenonfoot’,cartersandlabourersoftheScottisharmy,whohadbeenguardingthebaggagetrainheardthedinand,witnessingconfusionintheEnglishranks,andbelievingthebattlewon,sweptontothefield.Theywereanxioustosecureashareofthepickings;yetthesepoveraille,or‘smallfolk’,weremistakenforaScottishreinforcement.Itwasthisperceptionthatsecured
victoryfortheScots.AmongtheEnglishtheroutbecamegeneral,andhorsemenandinfantrystumbledintotheBannockBurnandweredrowned.EdwardIIhadappointedtheearlofPembrokeandGilesd’Argentanoneitherside‘totheking’sreins’,thatis,toleadhimoutoftrouble.Gilesd’Argentanrefusedtodesertthefieldandrodeofftoanhonourabledeathinbattle.
Illustratingtheheraldicpracticeofmaintainingrankingsofknightlyreputations,Barbourreportsthatd’Argentanwasthe‘thirdbestknight’ofhistime.ItwaslefttoAymerdeValence,nowEarlofPembroke,toleadEdwardtosafety,thoughtheEnglishkingleftmuchagainsthiswill.TheEnglishchroniclesagreethatEdwardshowednolackofpersonalcourageor
keennessforthefight,andthisistoberemarkedupon,fortheyareseldomgeneroustohim.OnechroniclehasScottishknightsonfoottuggingatthecoveringofEdward’shorsetopreventhisescape,whiletheEnglishking,vigorouslywieldinghismace,knockedthemtotheground.Robertgavethesignalthat
prisonersmightbetakenforransom,andtheScotsfell
uponabonanzaofplunder:horses,armourandweaponsthrownawaybyfleeingknights,harness–‘twohundredpairsofredspursweretakenfromdeadknights’–tentsandpavilions,richapparelandallthecostlytrappingsoftheEnglishroyalandthreecomitalhouseholdswereallforthetaking.AnEnglishchronicleremarksthathadtheScotsbeenlessgreedyforplundertheymight
havehadmanymoreprisoners.Butthevalueofprisoners’ransomswasneverunderestimatedbytheScots.KingRobertclaimedalltheleadingprisoners,aswashisprerogative,andinthebagweretheearlofHereford,theearlofAngus,IngramdeUmfraville,MauriceBerkley,JohnGiffard,AntonyLucy–apowerfulknightoftheEnglishWestMarch–JohnSegraveandmanyothers.
Onechroniclelistsseventy-fivenamesofcapturedgentry,andeventhatwillbeapartiallisting.Allwouldbeforcedtopayransomaccordingtorank.EdwardII,meanwhile,led
byPembroke,arrivedatStirlingCastleandsoughtadmittance.However,hisgarrisoncommander,SirPhilipMowbray,refusedtolowerthedrawbridge.Awarethatthecastlewouldnow
havetobesurrendered,hehonourablysavedhiskingfromcaptivity,andhonourablydeliveredthecastletoRobertinaccordancewiththeagreementhehadreachedwithEdwardBruce.ItistobelamentedhoweverthatMowbraydidnotdishonourablybringabouttheendofthewaratastrokebyadmittingEdward,makinghimprisonerandgiftingtoRoberttheonlythingthatthe
Englishmighttradeforpeace:theirking.SuchwasthecoursetakenbytheconstableofBothwellcastle,WalterfitzGilbert,whoafterthebattleadmittedtheearlofHerefordandretinue,madeHerefordhisprisonerandthen,changingsides,deliveredbothearlandcastletoRobert.Mowbray’sdecisionnottodeliverEdwardintocaptivityenabledwartodragonyearafteryear,
neithersideabletoinflictdecisivedefeatontheother.Forthepresent,then,EdwardIIfledthroughtheKing’sParktoLinlithgow,toPatrick,EarlofMarch,atDunbar,Douglaspursuinghimdoggedlywithaforceofsixtyhorse.Finally,EdwardtookshipforBerwickandsafety.Pembroke,hisrescuer,alsosucceededinbringinghisWelshretainersthroughninetymilesofhostile
countrysidetosafetyinCarlisle.Itwasamagnificent
victory,towhichRobertrespondedwithmagnanimitytowardsmanyofhisopponents.ThebodiesofGloucesterandCliffordwererestoredwithhonourtotheirfamilies.PerhapsweshouldnotbesurprisedthatRaouldeMonthermer,Gloucester’sstep-father,wasallowedtogohomewithoutpayingransom,
forthehouseofGloucesterhadbeenlooselyassociatedwiththeBrucesformanyyears.Robertwasreportedlysaddenedbythedeathoftheearl.Hisbodywasbroughtfromthebattlefieldandplacedinakirkunderguardbeforebeinghandedback.MarmadukedeThweng,veteranofmanyScottishcampaigns,wasalsoreleasedfreeofransom.Robertensuredthatthewidowof
EdmundComynofKilbride,whohadfoughtagainsthim,wasprovidedfor‘untilshecouldrecoverherrightfuldoweraccordingtotheassizeoftheland’.Theseofcoursewerealladversariesofhighrank,andRobertprobablytooknosuchinterestinthefatesoflessercaptives.Suchweretheconventionsoftheage.TherepercussionsofBannockburnwereseismic.IntermsofBritishmilitary
historyitwasrevolutionary:forthefirsttimeaninfantryarmyhadovercomeanarmyledbyheavycavalry,andEnglishchroniclerswerenotslowtodrawparallelswiththebattleofCourtraiin1302,whentheFlemishtownsfolkhadputtoflighttheflowerofFrenchchivalry.TheEnglishgovernmentcollapsed.TheroyalistadministrationheadedbyPembrokewasutterlydiscreditedandthe
dourleaderofthebaronialopposition,ThomasofLancaster,fivetimesanearl,tookcontrolofthegovernmentintheking’sname–totheking’sundisguiseddistaste.InScotlandonlythegarrisonsofBerwickandlittle,isolatedJedburghremainedfaithfultoEdward,andthoughhisgovernmentofScotlandcontinuedtoexistitwasreducedtomanagingthese
garrisonsandtheimmediatevicinityofBerwick.TheScotsenjoyedtheir
windfallofriches,estimatedat£200,000bytheVitaEdwardiSecundi,afigurethatmustbedismissedasawildexaggeration.Theyalsosustainedlosses:BarbournotesthattheScottishknightsWilliamVipontandWalterRossdiedinthebattle.But,atastroke,threemajorcastlestumbledintoRobert’slap:
Stirling,BothwellandalsoDunbar,whichEarlPatrickofMarchsurrenderedonthedepartureofEdwardII.Prisoners’ransomsbroughthugesumsofmoneytoindividualScottishlords.Robert,however,hadrelativestoredeem,andthefollowingyearhewasabletoexchangetheearlofHerefordforfourprisonerswhomtheEnglishhadheldsince1306:Elisabethhisqueen,hissister
Mary,hisdaughtertheladyMarjorie,andhisoldmentor,RobertWishart,BishopofGlasgow,nowblindwithage.Moneypouredintotheroyalcoffersfromtheransomsofotherprisoners:theearlofAngus,JohnSeagrave,MauricedeBerkleyandAntonyLucywereallredeemedbyransom.Yet,agreatdealremained
unchangedbyBannockburn.Robert’svictorydidnot
dissolveEdwardII’sclaimtoberightfulkingofScotland,nordiditbringhimanynearertoanegotiatingtable.TheEnglishremainedthestrongersidebyfar,andhadnoreasontogiveinonaccountofonedefeat.Theverynextyear,andeveryyearthereafter,iftheysochose,theycouldmarchapowerfularmytoStirlingorbeyond.NordiditvanquishtheScottishoppositionto
Robert.InArgyllandIreland,theirredentistJohnofArgyllcontinuedtomaketroublefortheBruces,andsince1313hehadbeenjoinedintheIrishSeatheatreofwarbytheGallovidianknight,DungalMacDowell.Itwouldtakemorethanasinglevictory,howevermomentous,toreconcilethesediehardwarriorstoaBruceregime.
TheBattleofBannockburninitiatedauniqueperiodinthehistoryoftheBritishIslesasScotlandenjoyedabriefmilitaryhegemonyfromthateventuntiltheendofRobert’sreign.InthisperiodtheScotscameclosetoconqueringIrelandandtodominatingtheIrishSea.TheychallengedEnglishcontroloftheNorthSeaandtherearesignstoothattheBruceswerefomenting
rebellioninWales.YetScotlandwasstrongerthanEnglandonlyinthesensethatshewasbetterled.Englandontheotherhandhadbeenweakenedontwocounts.Firstly,shewaspreoccupiedbythehostilitythatsmoulderedbetweenEdwardII,stillgrievingandresentfuloverthemurderofGaveston,hislover,andhisbarons,ledbyThomasofLancaster.Secondly,andmore
fundamentally,EnglandwasprofoundlyweakenedbytheonsetoftheGreatEuropeanFamineof1315–18,causedbytorrentialrainswhichruinedsuccessiveharvests,andthereafterbywidespreadanimalpestilence.Asthemorepopulous,andmoretillage-dependentofthetwowarringkingdoms,thefamineaffectedEnglandmoreseverely.Intheseconditionsitwasvirtuallyimpossiblefor
theEnglishtoassembletheprovisionsnecessarytosustainthelargeconcentrationsofmenandbeastsneededforamilitarycampaign.MuchlessisknownabouthowtheScottisheconomyfaredduringthefamineatthistime,butScotlandwasalessdenselypopulatedcountrythanEngland;waslessdependentuponsensitivewheatandmoresouponrain-
tolerantoats;and,inanycase,wasmuchmorepastoralthanarable.TheScotsdeployedrelativelysmallforcesintheirraids,preyingupontheenemyandlivingoffhislands.Whileconditionsvariedenormouslybetweenregions,ScotlandthereforewillnothaveseenthewidespreadagriculturaldistressthattherainscausedinEngland.Ironically,whilefamineinBritainwastheally
oftheScots,famineinIrelandwastheirAchilles’heel.TheIrishcampaignsof1316and1317endedwiththeScottisharmyretreatingandsufferingfromstarvation.Nevertheless,itisundeniablethatthesehistoricalaccidents–thefamineandthebitterdivisionsamongtheEnglishnobles–accountformuchofRobert’ssuccessintheseyears.Warrolledgrimlyon,and
notimewaswastedinfollowingupthevictoryatBannockburn.TheNorthumbrianswerehorrifiedatthenewsofdefeatinScotlandandknewexactlywhattoexpect;witnessthereactionoftworoyalofficialstryingtolevytaxesatMorpethwhentheyencounteredremnantsofthedefeatedEnglisharmyreturningfromthebattle:
RichardandRobertbegantotaxthegoodsofthesaidmen[ofNorthumberland]intheseventhyear[ofEdwardII],andtheysatatMorpethinthesaidcounty;andsuddenlytherearrivedStephenSeagraveandmanyotherswithhimandtheytoldthemthatthelordkingwasretreatingfromStirlingwithhisarmyandwascomingtowardsEngland,andatthistheywereterrified.Theyfledand,likeothersofthecounty,stayedinenclosedtownsandcastlesandforts.Andimmediatelyafterwardsbefore1August,there
cameEdwardBruceandThomasRandolphleadingtheScottisharmy.
AlthoughRobertdidnotparticipateinthisraid,itisworthoutliningitscoursebecauseitsetthepatternformanyotherstofollow.ItisparticularlywellattestedbytheEnglishchronicles,whichaddthatJamesDouglasandJohnSoulesalsoledcontingents.TheScottish
infantryseemstohavemarchedthelengthofNorthumberland,wheretheystayedthreedaysatNewburnonthebanksoftheTyne,burning,wastingandperhapstryingtotemptouttheNewcastlegarrison.Butthecavalryrodeon,throughDurham,whichboughtthemoff,overtheTeesandintoYorkshirewhere,atRichmond,theyturnedwestwardsintoSwaledale.At
theReycrossonStainmoretheymetwithanambushperpetratedbytheCarlislegarrison,buttheScotsfoughtofftheirassailantsandenteredthevalleyoftheEden.TheCarlislemenwereenergeticallyledbySirAndrewHarclay,whobeginstofeatureprominentlyinthenarrativefromthispoint.TheScotsburntthetownsofBrough,Appleby–wheretheydisruptedthe
proceedingsofthecountycourt–andthecastleofKirkoswald.WecantellfromtheaccountsoftheestatesoftheHonourofPenriththattheyvisiteddestructionuponitsfivemanors:Penrith,Carlatton,CastleSoweby,LangwathbyandScotby.AtSalkeldtheydestroyedthewatermill.TheyusedtheirstolenherdstotramplethecropsandthenrodeoffintoLiddesdale.Thepeopleof
Copeland,terrifiedatwhattheysawhappeningtonorthernCumberland,paidtheScots600marks(thatis,£400)foraguaranteeofsafetyfromChristmastoMidsummer,then24June.
This,then,wasthenatureofthewarfarethatRobertunleasheduponthenorthofEngland.InfantrywereinvolvedonlyinborderdistrictsandplaceswheretheScottishpresencecameclosetopermanentoccupation.Thelong-distanceraidswerecarriedoutbyhorsemenmountedonhackneysorponies.TheserodeswiftlyintoEnglandandsweptdown
theEastMarch,devastatingvillagesanddrivingoffcattle,takinghostageswherepaymentcouldbeexpected,tramplingstandingcropsandburningbarns,mills,andhomesteads.Theywerequitepreparedtobeboughtoff,anddealswerestruckwithterrifiedinhabitantscrowdedintotowersorchurches,orontocastleparapets.Religioushousesheldaspecialattractionforthe
raiders:theretheycouldfindsacredvesselsofpreciousmetals,costlyvestments,andotherobjectsofhighvaluebesidestheproceedsofestates,tithesandothercollectionsfromthelaity.SweepingwestwardsintoPenninedales,theraidersdrovethestolencattlebeforethem,pausingonlytowreakdestructionupontheuplandfarmsteadsastheycrossedthePennines.Finally,and
havingreachedtheWestMarch,theyturnednorthwards,bypassingtheheavilyfortifiedcityofCarlisle,intoLiddesdale,orcrossingbythefordsoftheSolwayFirth.MorayandDouglasregularlyledtheselong-distance,U-shapedmountedraidsthroughnorthernEngland.Raidingdevelopedovertime,withtheScotspenetratingdeeperanddeeperintoEnglandand
spendinglongeroneachraid.Thismayhavebeenduenotonlytotheirincreasingaudacity:theymayhavebeenforcedtogoeverdeeperintoEnglandbecausetherewaspracticallynothingleftwheretheyhadbeenpreviously.DuringEdwardBruce’sinvasionofIreland,theraidsbecamelessfrequent,fortheScotsareknowntohavetransferredlordsandtheirtroopsfromonetheatreof
wartoanother.Theraidswerepartlya
naturalconsequenceofvictoryoverahostileneighbourandpartlyanopportunitytorewardandenrichloyalandsuccessfullieutenants,butpartlytootheywereaninstrumentofroyalpolicy.RobertclearlyhopedthatsuchraidswouldforceEdwardIItonegotiatewithhimandconcedehisrighttothekingshipof
Scotland,buthishopewasillfounded.Edwardshowedsomeconcernoverthedevastationofhissixnortherncounties,buthisprimeandoverwhelmingobjectivewastheundermininganddefeatofhiscousin,ThomasofLancaster,whomhehatedwithapassion.OnefifthofEdward’skingdomwasundertributetoRobert,yethispreoccupationwithLancaster
wasunrelenting.Once–andonlyonce–EdwardandThomasmanagedtoco-operateforlongenoughtolaunchanattackagainstRobert,butthateffort,thesiegeofBerwickin1319,collapsedamidastormofrecriminationsandaccusationsoftreacheryonbothsides,andtheirmutualantagonismredoubled.ThefailureoftheraidstoforcetheEnglishtotheconference
tablewasonereasonwhyRobertfeltcompelledtounderwriteEdwardBruce’sgrandandultimatelydisastrousstrategyfortheconquestofIreland.Followingthebattleand
theraidofEdwardBruceandMoray,thefirstcessationofhostilitiesoccurredinOctober1314.OnthisoccasiontheEnglishadministration‘granted’atrucetotheScotsonthe
interventionofKingPhilipofFrance.NegotiationswiththeEnglishwereabletocommenceatDurhamon20October.Theyweretoencompassbothexchangesofprisonerstakeninbattleanddiscussionsaimedat‘aperpetualpeace’.Butitisquiteincrediblethateithersidewasgenuinelyinterestedincompromisingonthecentralissuesofkingshipandsovereigntyatthisstage.Both
stillhadhighhopesofvictory,andthefutilityofcontinuingthewarhadyettobedemonstrated.MoraywasatDurhamon17October1314,presumablyasRobert’schiefnegotiator.Thedetailsoftheprisonerexchangewerefinalised,butthetalksbrokedownsoonafterwards,presumablyassoonastheyproceededtotheissuesofkingshipandsovereignty.Roberthadtoapplyfurther
militarypressure,notthatitwillhavegalledhimtodoso.TheamnestyofferedtoirredentistAnglo-Scotswasduetoexpire,andataparliamentatCambuskennethAbbeynearStirlingon6November1314proclamationwasmadethatallwhohaddiedinoppositiontoKingRobertorwhohadnotyetcomeintohisfaithweredulydisinheritedforevermore.Ontheconclusionofthis
parliamentRobertledanotherinvasionofNorthumberland.Chroniclescontainnodetailsofthisexpedition;indeed,withrespecttothedevastatedandanarchicstateofNorthumberland,thechroniclesatthispointlapseintogenerallamentationsandyieldlittledetail.Itseemslikely,however,thatthiswastheoccasionofRobert’stakinghomagefromthepeopleofNorthTynedale,
andhisgrantofthatregiontoSirPhilipdeMowbray,whohadcomeintohispeaceondeliveringtohimStirlingCastle.RobertwasineffectthreateningtodismemberthekingdomofEngland.ThisposturingappearstohavehadasalutaryeffectupontheEnglish,forfurthernegotiationstookplace,thistimeatDumfries.ByChristmas,theytoohadcollapsed,neithersidebeing
preparedtogivewayonthesubstantiveissue.AgainRobertresortedtothethreatofforce,andearlyin1315YorkshirewasbracedforimminentattackbytheScots.InFebruaryandMarch
intermittentviolenceontheMarchesalternatedwithparleys.WeknowonlythatproposalsconcerningthekingshipofScotlandwerebeingdiscussed,butsimultaneouslybothsides
werepreparingforaseriousescalationoftheconflictinIrelandandthewest.RobertappearstohaveadvertisedhisintentiontointerveneinIreland.Earlyin1315theEnglishchancerylearnedthattheScotswereexpecting‘thirteengreatcogs’loadedwitharmsandsuppliesfromFlanders,probablyintendedtoequiptheexpedition.AmessengeroftheScottishkingwasarrestedinDublin
thatmonth.Pre-emptiveactionwasorganisedandbefore15February1315JohnofArgyll’sforcesrecapturedtheIsleofManforEdwardIIinanticipationoftheScottishinvasionofIreland.35On18FebruaryJohnreceivedorderstoraise10,000menand60ships,mannedatdoublestrength,tobereadyby6AprilforanattackonthewestofScotland.These
developmentsinthewestunderminedanyprogressmadeinnegotiations.Neithersidewassufficientlyinterestedinasettlementatthisstage:inScotlandEdwardBrucewasurgingextensionofthewartoIreland,whileinEnglandLancaster’sadministrationwassimplyplayingfortimeuntilthesummer,whenithopedtoorganiseafreshinvasionofScotland.
TheinvasionofIrelandwasenormousgamble,andthereasonswhyRobertsanctioneditaremanyandcomplex.OnesourcesuggeststhatEdwardhadreceivedaninvitationfromanIrishchief‘withwhomhehadbeeneducatedinhisyouth’;howeveritismuchmorelikelythattheimpetusfortheinvasioncamefromScotland,ratherthanIreland.EdwardBrucehaddynasticambitions
ofhisown,asBarbourrelates:
SirEdward,earlofCarrick,Whowasstrongerthanaleopard,Andhadnodesiretoliveinpeace,FeltthatScotlandwastoosmallForhimandhisbrotherThereforeheformedapurposeThathewouldbecomekingofIreland.
HereBarbourisborneoutbyanotherchronicler,whodescribesEdwardthus:‘very
mettlesomeandhigh-spirited,[he]wouldnotdwelltogetherwithhisbrotherinpeace,unlesshehadhalfthekingdomforhimself;andforthisreasonthiswarwasstirredupinIreland.’DuncanpointsoutthattheprisonerexchangelatelyagreedwiththeEnglishallowedforthereunionofRobertandhisqueen,andifchildrenwereforthcomingEdwardBrucewouldlosehispositionas
Scotland’sheirpresumptiveandanyhopeofgainingakingdomofhisown.Anotherfactor,unrelated
toEdwardBruce’sambition,wasthethreatfromScottishémigrés,ledbyJohnofArgyllandDungalMacDowall.John’sfleetwasdestinednodoubtforthewestofScotland.HehadorderstoreceivetothepeaceofEdwardII,magnatesandcommunitiesoftheWestern
Isles.HisrecentcaptureofManprovidedacentralbasefromwhichhecoulddominatetheIrishSeaandthreatenwesternScotland.ManwassurelycapturedinordertoforestalltheexpectedScottishinvasionofIreland,formostofthetwenty-twoScotsandotherscapturedweredistributedtoIrishgarrisonstoserveashostages.Johnandtheémigrésposedathreatthatcouldnotbe
ignored,andEdwardBruce’sinvasionwasatleastpartlyintendedtotakethewartothem,anddeprivethemoftheirlastrefuge.Other,lesserbenefits
wouldflowfromasuccessfulinvasionofIreland.OneofthesewouldbethecaptureofCarrickfergusCastle.ThismassivestrengthwasownedbytheearlofUlsterandwasideallypositionedtoserveasabaseforthoseattacking
ArgyllorwesternScotland.DevastatingIrelandwouldalsodeprivethecityofCarlisleofthesourceofhalfitsprovisions,andsimilarlystarveJohnofArgyll’sfleetatMan.Finally,RoberthopedthatbycapturingsomeprizeofenormousstrategicvaluehemightforceEdwardIItoconcedehisrighttothekingship.Hecertainlyappreciatedthediplomaticleveragethatthecaptureof
CarlisleandBerwickwouldbring;andhemayhaveseenIrelandintermsofsuchaprize.ThusRobertwaspushed
intoapprovingthewesternadventurebytheambitionsofhisbrother,andsimultaneouslydrawnintoIrelandbythetroublemakingactivitiesoftheMacDougallaffinityandtheprospectofaragbagoflesserbenefits.Andsoinspring1315hevastly
extendedthescopeofhiswarbyassentingtoEdward’sinvasionofIreland.AtAyron26April1315,acouncilmettosettletheevidentlyrelatedquestionsoftheroyalsuccession,andtheco-ordinatedcampaignsinIrelandandonthewesternseaboardofScotland.Aroyaltailzie–aformaldeed,whichsetasidethenormalcourseofthelaw–settledtheroyalsuccessiononRobert’sheirs
male,or,failingthat,onEdwardBruceandhisheirsmale,or,failingthat,onMarjorie,Robert’sdaughterandherheirsmale.Directlyafterthecouncil,
inthemonthofMay,Edward’sformidablearmyembarkedforIreland.WithhimwentMorayandseveralprominentknights,includingPhilipMowbray,JohnSoulesandJohnStewartofMenteith.Onarrival,Edward’sforce
appearstohavebeenwelcomedbytheGaelicIrishofthosepartsofUlsterwhichareclosesttoScotland,but,asourknowledgeofEdward’sIrishcampaignsisheavilydependentuponnon-Gaelicsources,thisdimensionoftheIrishadventureislargelyhiddenfromus.Edward,however,lostnotimeininvestingCarrickfergusCastle–justashisbrotherbegantobesiegeCarlisleon
theoppositeshore.HemayhavestagedaninaugurationofhimselfaskingofIrelandshortlyafterwards,orthismayhavetakenplaceinMayofthefollowingyear.36AfterabriefexpeditionintoLeinster,whereheburnttheIrishseaportofDundalk,hedefeatedanarmyledbytheearlofUlsteron1September1315atConnor.ThisforcedtheRedEarltovacateUlster
andmovetohisotherlordship,thatofConnaught.Edwardco-operatedcloselywithasquadronoffourshipsledbytheprivateerThomasDun,usingthisnavalsupporttoferryhismenacrosstheRiverBannandtoconveyMoraybacktoScotland.DuncarriedoutaspectacularraidontheharbourofHolyheadinAngleseyon12September,whenhecapturedashipladenwithprovisions.InEngland,
Dun’sreputationas‘acruelpirate’anda‘perpetratorofdepredationsonthesea’wasgrowing.Muchofthevalueofthese
IrishcampaignsforRobertwasthattheywereonepartofatwo-prongedstrategyagainsttheMacDougallémigrésinUlsterandtheMacDougallhomelandinArgyll.InviewoftheMacSweenexpeditionof1311,thecapturebytheScots
ofNorthburghCastleinCountyDonegalissurelysignificantasitmayhavethreatenedorblockedthepassageofsimilarexpeditionstoArgyll.Itisimportanttorecognisetheco-ordinationinthecampaignsofthetwobrothers.ThesamefleetthatcarriedEdward’sforcetoIrelandthenproceededagainstArgyll,whereRobertwastakingthehomageofthewesternlords.AtEastTarbert
Robertestablishedanewroyalburgh,intendedtoaugmenthisinfluenceinthearea.Interestingly,whileWaltertheStewardaccompaniedRobertontheArgyllcampaign,nolessthanthreemembersofhisextendedfamilywerewithEdwardBruceacrosstheNorthChannel:JohnStewartofJedburghandanAlanStewartwerethereduringthecourseoftheIrishcampaigns,
andthemagnateJohnStewartofMenteithwasalsopresentinIreland.TheStewartconnectionwasthenheavilyinvolvedinbothaspectsofthisstrategy.ItwasonthiscampaignthatRoberthadhismendraghisshipswithsailsunfurledacrosstheisthmusbetweenthetwoTarberts,whilehehimselfremainedintheship.Thekingwasdoingrathermorethanjusttakingashortcut,asBarbour
underlines:
Fortheyknew,byanoldprophecy,ThatwhoevershouldhaveshipsgoBetweenthoseseaswithsailsWouldsowintheIslesforhimselfThatno-onecouldwithstandhimbyforce.
Intheyear1098,twohundredyearsbeforehand,thekingofNorway,MagnusBarelegs,hadperformedtheverysamesymbolicactionwhenhetoohadneededthemen,galley-
fleetsandmoneyofthewesternseaboardforaninvasionofIreland.Robertwasdemonstrating,asMagnusbeforehimhaddone,thatheclaimedmasteryoftheWesternIslesandthathewouldexercisethefullnessofthatlordship.HiscampaigndealtanotherterribleblowtoMacDougallinfluenceinArgyll,anditwasaMacDonald,AlexanderÓg,whodiedbearingthetitle
KingofArgyllin1318.Bycontrast,EdwardBrucehadnosuchspectacularsuccess;hewasforcedtoinvestCarrickfergusCastleanditdidnotfalluntilSeptember1316.Beforeproceedingtothe
attackonCarlisle–thecounterpartofEdward’ssiegeofCarrickfergus–Roberthadfurtherunfinishedbusinessofapersonalnaturetosettle,thistimewiththepeopleof
HartlepoolinthebishopricofDurham.TheanomalouspositionofthebishopricofDurhamduringtheseyearshaslongintriguedscholars.Since1312ithadbeenwellwithinrangeoftheScottishraiders,butfromthatdateithadconsistentlyboughtoffthethreat.Governedbyitsprince-bishopasastate-within-a-state,itpossessedaunityandcohesionthattheEnglishcountycommunities
ofNorthumberlandand,moreespecially,Cumberlandlacked.Unsurprisingly,Roberttreatedthebishopricashismilchcow.ItcontinuedtopayextortionatelyfortruceslongafterNorthumberlandandCumberlandhadsunkintochaos,andinoneagreementwiththecommunityofDurhamtheScotsreservedtothemselvestherighttoridethroughthebishopricontheir
waytoraidYorkshire.ButinJune1315paymentsseemtohavelapsed,andopportunitywastakentosettleagrudgeagainsttenantsofaformerBruceestate:‘SirRobertBrucecameintothebishopricofDurhamwithagreatarmyandsosecretlyhadhecomethathefoundpeoplesleepingsoundlyintheirbeds.HesentSirJamesDouglastothedistrictofHartlepoolwithmanyarmedmenwhilehe
himselfremainedatthevillofChesterleStreet.SirJamesdespoiledthesaidtown,andheledbackascaptivesmanyburgessesandmanywomen.Havingcollectedmuchbootyfromthewholecountrysidetheyallreturnedtotheirowncountry.’AnothersourceaddsthatthetownspeopletooktoseainshipstoescapetheScots,andthisgivesanotherclueastoreasonsforthisaction:Hartlepoolhad
becomeanavalbasefortheenforcementofEdwardII’smaritimeblockadeofScotland,andfromitsharbourtheEnglishwouldinterceptScottish,GermanandFlemishshipstradingandpreyingonEnglishshippingintheNorthSea.Scotland’scontinentaltrade,whichbroughtincashincomeandweaponry,wasvitaltotheprosecutionofthewar.But,inadditiontothis,Hartness–
andHartlepool–hadformedapartoftheBruceancestrallands,andRoberttookpersonallytheactiveinvolvementofformertenantsofhisfamilyundermininghiswar.HartlepoolremainedatargetforsubsequentScottishraidsin1318and1322,andwasspecificallyexcludedfromthepurchasedtruceswiththebishopric.AsaresultofthisraidanewtrucewithDurham
wasorganised,beginningon1July1315andtolastfortwoyears.Forthisthebishopriccoughedupthehugesumof1,600marks(thatis,£1,066).Now,morethanever
before,Robertneededmoney:notonlywasEdwardBruce’ssiegeofCarrickfergusdraininghistreasury,butintheverymonthaftertheHartlepoolraidhehimselfcommenced
thesiegeofCarlisle.ThattwosuchdauntingchallengeswereundertakensimultaneouslyistestimonytotheBruces’confidenceatthistime;allthemoresowhenoneconsidersthattheywereattemptedinconcertwithincreasedpressureonBerwick.WithhindsightwecanseethatvictoryatBannockburnhadtemptedRoberttooverstretchhisresources;hadthecombined
resourcesofthesethreesiegesbeenappliedseparatelytotheseprojects,allmighthavesucceeded.Asitwas,inthreeyearsRobertgainedtwoofhisthreetargets.Avividnarrativeofthe
siegeofCarlisle,clearlywrittenbyaneyewitness,iscontainedintheEnglishLanercòstchronicle.TheaccountrevealsthatRobertstrovetoapplythesophisticatedtechniqueshe
hadwitnessedatEdwardI’ssiegeofStirlingCastle,butwithfewerresources,inadequatematerialsandinadverseweatherconditions:
Oneverydayofthesiege[theScots]assaultedoneofthethreegatesofthecity,sometimesallthreeatonce;butneverwithoutloss,becausethereweredischargeduponthemfromthewallssuchdensevolleysofdartsandarrows,likewisestones,thattheyaskedoneanotherwhetherstonesbred
andmultipliedwithinthewalls.NowonthefifthdayofthesiegetheysetupamachineforcastingstonesnexttothechurchoftheHolyTrinity…butthereweresevenoreightsimilarmachineswithinthecity,besidesotherenginesofwar.
DefenceofthecitywasenergeticallyorganisedbySirAndrewHarclay,aremarkablyableCumberlandknight.TheScotsresortedtomanyingeniousstratagems.
Theybuiltasiegetower–calleda‘belfry’–topushupagainstthewallsandgaintheadvantageofheightonthedefenders,butsomedistancefromthewallsitstuckinearthsaturatedbythetorrentialrainsoftheworstsummerinlivingmemory.TheScotsattemptedtofillupthemoatbypouringintoithugebundlesofcornandhay,butthematerialwassimplyswallowedupandborne
awaybytheswollenwaters.Theybuiltdrawbridges,buttheseprovedtooheavyandsankcompletelyintothemoat.Onecanalmosthearthehowlsofderisionfromthedefendersonthecitywallsasthesesuccessiveexpedientsfailed.Then,on25July,anall-outassaultontheeasternwallswaslaunchedasadiversionwhileDouglas’scommandostriedtoscalethewesternwall.Douglas
himselfmayhavebeenwoundedinthisattempt.ThenextdayRobertgaveup.Perhapshewassimplyexasperated,buthemayalsohaveheardtwopiecesofbadnews:‘AfalsereportmeanwhilespreadthroughoutEnglandthatourarmyinIrelandhadscatteredtheScots,thatEdwardBrucewasdeadandthathardlyoneoftheScotsremainedalive.HenceRobertBruce,bothon
accountofthesewildrumoursandbecausehehadheardthattheEarlofPembrokehadrecentlyarrivedwithmanymen-at-arms,gaveupthesiegeandsetouttowardsScotland.’AbandoningtheirwarmachinestheScotsmarchedoff,insuchdisarraythatthedefenderswereabletocapturetwoScottishknights.EdwardBrucewasalive
andkicking.Notonlyhadhe
keptCarrickfergusunderconstantsiege,buthehadalsodecidedtoriskawintercampaigntoo.Towardstheendof1315,withwintercomingon,hemarchedsouthfromUlsterforasecondtime–quiteremarkablygiventheweatherconditions–rangingfarintoLeinster,theveryheartlandoftheAnglo–Irishcolony.ButtheEnglishmanagedtoretaintheloyaltybothoftheAnglo–Irishand
ofmanyGaeliclords.Ahigh-rankingroyalclerknamedJohndeHothum,whohadlongexperienceofIrishaffairs,hadarrivedinIrelandinSeptember1315toputbackboneintoEdwardII’sIrishgovernment.Bytakingoathsandhostages,andbyjudiciousdistributionofpardons,grantsandprivileges,HothummadeaninvaluablecontributiontokeepingIrishmagnates
onside.EdwardputtoflightRogerMortimeratKellsinDecember1315,andatArdscullnearSkerriesinJanuary1316heworstedinbattleanassemblyofAnglo–IrishmagnatesledbythejusticiarEdmundButler.Dublinmadereadyfordesperatedefence,andinthecityBrotherWalterdeAquawaspaidtodirectoperationsfrom9Decemberto5May,butEdwarddidnotattack.It
isafeatureoftheBruces’armiesthattheywereill-preparedtotakecitiesbystorm.SomeoftheGaelicIrishclansofLeinsterandMunsterwereinspiredbyhissuccesstoriseinrevoltagainsttheEnglish.ByFebruary,however,lackofsuppliesforcedEdwardtoretreattoUlster,hismen‘soweakened,bothfromhungerandexhaustionthatmanyofthembegantodie’.Some
timebeforeSeptember1316RoberthimselfseemstohavecrossedtoUlster,causingtheCarrickfergusgarrisonatlasttothrowinthetowel.OneofthemainobjectivesoftheIrishexpeditionhadthereforebeenaccomplished.Thethreewarlords,Robert,EdwardandMoray,returnedtoScotlandtohammeroutabasisforcontinuingtheconquestofIreland,andpartoftheagreementreachedwasthat
MorayshouldbegrantedtheIsleofMan,whichwasstillinEnglishhands.Therefollowedalullinthe
raidingofEngland.ScottishenergiesandresourcesmayhavebeendrainedbyEdwardBruce’scampaigninIreland.NegotiationswiththeEnglishgovernmentwereresumed,anditappearsthatatruceuntilMidsummer1316wasagreed.Forhispart,EdwardIIcommittedthekeepingof
northernEnglandtoasuccessionofcommanderswithwidespreadpowers,and–onparchmentatanyrate–significantforcesattheirdisposal.NoneoftheEnglishcommandersmadeanysignificantattackonScotland,andforaparticularlypowerfulreasonalreadyreferredtoabove.Intheyears1315–18summeraftersummerwasruinedbyincessantrain.Swordandfire
havingbeenvisitedonnorthernEnglandbytheScots,itwastheturnoffaminetoimmiseratethelivesofthenorthernEnglishpeasantry.Theraindestroyedcropsandfoodpricesbegantosoar.InnorthernEnglandthefaminewaspartlytheresultofthedevastationwroughtbytheScots.Itbecameimpossibleforcommanderstomustertroopswherethetenantrywere
desertingestatesandwheretherewasnofoodtosustainarmies.In1316theLancasteradministrationstruggledandfailedtomountacampaignagainstRobert,theireffortsrenderedhopelessbyshortageofsupplies,dissension,desertionoftenantryandincessantrain,whichmaderoadsandrivercrossingsimpassable.OntheNorthSeatherewas
notruce.Theadvantage
whichtheEnglishhadgainedthroughtheestablishmentoftheStOmerstaplein1313waslostintheearlysummerof1315,whenRobert,CountofFlanders,roseinrevoltagainstLouisX,hisFrenchoverlord.TheFrenchcalleduponEdwardIItohonourhiscommitmentsunderthealliance,byexpellingFlemishtradersandsendingshipstosupporttheFrenchagainsttheFlemish.ItwasinEdward’s
interesttodoneither.HeneededallhisshipstosupplyBerwickintheNorthSea,andtodefeatEdwardBruceandThomasDunintheIrishSea.TheEnglishwerestilltryingtoenforceablockadeonScotland,maintainingafleetoftwentyshipstokeeptheprivateersatbay;thistheynowhadtodivide.TheaddeddistractionallowedKingRoberttoblockadeBerwickbysea,aswellasonland,and
bytheautumnof1315thegarrisonwasdesperatelyshortoffood.ByOctobermenwerereportedlystarvingandthedesertionofthegarrisonwassaidtobeimminent.InNovemberreliefvesselswereforcedtojettisonmostoftheircargotoescapetheprivateers.Then,around6January1316,RobertandDouglaslaunchedanamphibiousattackonthetown:
IntheweekoftheEpiphany,theKingofScotlandcamestealthilytoBerwickonebrightmoonlitnightwithastrongforce,anddeliveredanassaultbylandandbyseainboats,intendingtoenterthetownbystealthonthewatersidebetweenBrighouseandthecastle,wherethewallwasnotyetbuilt,buttheyweremanfullyrepulsedbytheguardsandbythosewhohadansweredtothealarm,andacertainScottishknight,SirJdeLandelswaskilledandSirJamesDouglasescapedwithdifficultyinasmallboat.Then,inMarch1316,
thewardenwroteinbittertermstoEdwardII:‘Assuredly,sire,yourpeoplearedyingofhungerandIhavenothingbutfinewordsforthem…Andnowlatelymanyareleavingthetownandthosewhostaydieinanguishfromstarvationonthewalls.’
ByMayitwasimpossiblefortheEnglishtosupplythetownbysea;on10MaythemayorofBerwickreportedthattwovesselshadrecentlybeencapturedtryingto
supplythetown.AttacksonEnglishshippingincreased:JohnCrabbenowhadthewholeheartedsupportofCountRobert.FlemishcrewshadbeenexpelledfromEnglandanddeprivedoflegitimateemployment,andhadnooptionnowbuttojointheprivateersandpreyonEnglishvessels.CrabbecapturedtwoshipsfromGreatYarmouthinMarch1316,andofftheIsleof
ThanetheseizedanEnglishwineshipreturningfromGascony.WhatsavedthesituationfortheEnglishontheNorthSea,andforBerwick,wasthecessationofhostilitiesbetweenFranceandFlanderslatein1316,whichmeantthatEdwardIIcouldoncemoredeploythewholeofhisNorthSeafleettosupplyBerwickandsuppresstheScotsandEastlanders,whileFlemish
crewscouldabandonprivateeringandturnoncemoretolegitimatetrade.Assoonashistrucewith
theEnglishended,RobertmercilesslyunleashedhisraidersoncemoreonnorthernEngland.ThefirstmajorraidonYorkshiretookplaceatMid-summer,24June1316.MorayandDouglasprobablyledthisraid;RobertremainedinScotland.TheyrodethroughDurhamandcrossed
theTeesatMortham.ThatsettlementwassubsequentlyabandonedasresultofdestructionbytheScots.Thentheysplitintothreegroups:somecontinuedupTeesdale,devastatingtheestatesatBarnardCastle,andintothevalleyoftheEdenwheretheyburntPenrithandCarlatton.AnotherapproachedRichmondandwasboughtoffbythenobles,bargainingfromthesafetyof
thecastleramparts.TheyturnedupSwaledaletoStainmore.ThethirdgrouprodeintoWensleydale,destroyingthevillageofWestWittonand,meetingupwiththeircomradesonStainmore,rodeonintoKendalandLonsdale,andacrossthesandstoFurness.TheirroutehomealongtheCumberlandcoastisborneoutbytaxationrecords,whichrevealastringofimpoverishedparishesas
farasCockermouth.InJanuary1317Robert
crossedtoIreland.Bythistimehisoldnemesis,JohnofArgyll,hadretiredtoLondon‘impotentinbodyandhislandsinScotlandtotallydestroyed’.Johnlivedonlyayearandahalfafterwards,anddiedaroundthebeginningof1318onapilgrimagetoCanterbury.OtherScottishémigrésremainedinIrelandoraround
theIrishSea–DuncanMacGoffrey,DungallMacDowellandothers–keepingalivetheflameofresistancetotheBruces.RobertjoinedforceswithEdwardandMoray,settingoffsouthwardstolaywastetheheartlandsofLeinster.TheyapproachedDublinjustasEdwardhaddonethepreviouswinterwitheveryappearanceofassaultingthecity,but,asbefore,they
veeredawayfromitwhenthecitizenspreparedforastoutdefence.Fromhindsightandontheevidencewehave,thislookslikeawastedopportunitytodestroytheEnglishcolonyinIrelandandgainthatvitalbargaining-counterthatcouldhavebroughtanendtothewar.OnepossibleexplanationfortheScots’failuretoattackDublinisthatthecitywaswellsuppliedwithhostages.
BesidesmencapturedofftheIsleofMan,SirAlanStewartwasbeingheldinDublinCastleand,aswehaveseen,relatives,theStewarts,contributedsignificantlytomostIrishcampaigns.TheScotscontinued
southwards,destroyingthecountryside,whilethearmyofEdmundButler,thejusticiarofIreland,followedthematadistance,notdaringtoattack.ThenRobert
receivedanappealforassistancefromafactionoftheO’Briens–ClannBriainRuaid–andharedofftothewesttowardsLimerick.WhentheScotsarrivedinThomond,theydiscoveredthatthefactiontheyhadcometohelphadbeendefeatedbytheirrivals–ClannTaidc–andtheyfoundwaitingforthemthesehostileO’Briens.Thedecisionwastakentoretreat;Robertmighthave
receivedwindofthearrivalofafreshEnglisharmyunderRogerMortimer,atYoughalon7April.AtthispointinthenarrativeBarbouralludestoacuriousincident.Roberthaltedtheretreatofthearmy‘fromLimerick’–weshouldsay,rather,thebanksoftheShannon,sincetheScotsdidnotenterthatcity–inorderthatapoorlaundresssufferinglabourpainsmightgivebirth.Barbourincludes
thestorytoillustrateRobert’shumanity;somecommentatorshoweverhavesuggestedthatthestorymightimplythatthelaundresswasbearingtheking’schild.Theonlyactionofthecampaignoccurredon17April,whenaskirmishtookplaceatEliogartyinCountyTipperarywithIrishhobelars,andthiswasfollowedbyalonghardmarchbacktoUlster,duringwhichthe
Scottisharmyasecondtime‘nearlyperishedwithhungerandfatigue,andmanywerelefttheredead’.Thiscostlyandultimatelyfruitlessexpeditionistantamounttoadefeat.JustastheScotsavoidedgivingbattleinEngland,theAnglo-IrishlordshadavoidedconfrontationwiththeScotsandinthiswaysawofftheKingofScots.
Followingagoodharvestandinaclementwinter,campaigningwouldhavebeentough;inearly1317itisincrediblethattheBrucesevenattemptedit.Wastingthecolony,thoughitdeprivedtheEnglishWestMarchofprovisions,canhardlyhavebeenjustificationinitself,andhadRobertbeenseriousaboutthecaptureofDublinhewouldsurelyhavebrought
ormadeasiegetrain,andusedit.Itisquiteclear,however,thatRoberthadexpectedmuchmoresupportfromAnglo-IrishandGaeliclordsthanwasforthcoming.TheO’Brienfactionhadclearlydivertedtheexpeditionfortheirownends,andtheirmanipulationofRobertrecallsasimilarattemptbyanO’ConnorfactiontouseEdward’sexpeditionin1315against
theirlocaladversaries.BythesetwoinstancesweareremindedthatGaelicwasonlyasecondaryculturalinfluenceontheBruces:theycould‘talkthetalk’ofGaeliclords,butmightoccasionallybeshownupasnaiveAnglo-Normans,hopelesslyboggeddowninandsidetrackedbythemicro-politicsoftheGaidhealtachd.Thatsaid,thebrotherswenttosomelengthstopromotetheirstanceas
leadersofapan-CelticallianceagainstEngland.Edward’spropagandawascirculatinginWalesatthistime,andtheScottishroyalchancerymayhavehadahandincomposingtheRemonstranceoftheIrishPrinces.Inthislettertothepope,writtenin1317byDomnalO’Neill‘kingofUlsterandbyhereditaryrighttrueheirtothewholeofIreland’,alistofoppressions
andgrievancescommittedbyEnglishkingsandtheirministers,andEnglishsettlersinIrelandisrehearsed,andO’Neill’shereditaryrightistransferredtoEdwardBruce,‘illustriousearlofCarrick’.Robertwasbackin
Scotlandatleastby14June1317,andprobablywellbeforethat.OnhisreturnhecommendedWilliamSinclair,BishopofDunkeld,whohadseenoffaseaborneinvasion
ofFife,callinghim‘myownbishop’.Robertwasingoodtimeforanexpectedresumptionofhostilities.TheEnglishchanceryhadissuedordersforleviesoftroopsandaccumulationoffoodstuffsinpreparationforacampaignthatsummer.On13JulyEdwardIIwrotetohiscommandersinthenorththatfromafortnightafterMidsummer–8July–theScotshadbeenmusteringfor
aninvasionandthathefeareditwasalreadyinprogress.Buttherewasnochanceofseriouscampaigningbyeithersideinwhatpassedforasummerin1317.Theharvestwasdisastrousandgrainpricesrocketed;theroadshadbecomemires;andthepeasantry,impoverishedanddisplaced,werepreyeduponbyScottishraidersandEnglishgarrisonsalike.Suchweatherislikelytohavebeen
experiencedinScotlandtoo,though,asexplainedearlier,theconsequentagrariancrisisisunlikelytohavebeenquiteasharsh.Unwelcomenewshad
meanwhilebeenreceivedfromtheIrishSeainthesummerof1317.ThomasDun,theprivateerchiefwhohadbeenthescourgeofEnglishshipping,hadprovokedtheEnglishgovernmentintotaking
resoluteaction.InMayEdwardIIorderedtwoships;onewasa140-mangalley,andthereforemuchfasterthanothervesselsontheIrishSea,whereshipswerenormallyof18,22and26oars,tohuntdownthe‘cruelpirate’.AlreadyontheIrishSea‘forthedefenceofIrelandandtheking’slandofScotland’wasasquadronledbyJohnAthy.On2JulyAthyencounteredDun’ssquadron
and,afterafiercesea-battleinwhich40Scotsaresaidtohavebeenslain,thepiratechiefwastakenalive.AsquirecalledGeoffreyCoignerswasrewardedwithapaymentof£10forthisachievement.Beforehewasexecuted,Dunrevealed,orwasmadetoreveal,thatMoraywaspreparinganattackonManandalsointendedthroughtreacherytocaptureAnglesey.Thisdid
not,however,preventMoray’scaptureoftheIsleofMan,whichoccurredaroundOctober1317.Unabletocampaignin
1317,Robertturnedtointrigue.AnewpopehadascendedtheThroneofStPeter,JohnXXII,andherenewedthepapacy’sattemptstoreconcileEdwardIIwithRobert,whomheconsideredtobeEdward’svassal.Twopapallegates,
bothcardinals,hadarrivedinEnglandtosettleavarietyofecclesiasticaldisputesintheEnglishChurch,andalsotoimposeatwo-yeartruceontheAnglo-ScottishconflictatthebehestofEdwardII.Robertignoredthetruce,becauseintheirlettersthecardinalsfailedtoacknowledgehiskingship,andbecausehefelthimselftobeonthebrinkofcapturingBerwick.Heforbade
publicationinScotlandofthepapalbullannouncingthetruce,andhehadthecardinal’smessengersassaultedandtheirletterstornup.Thecardinalsdecidedtovisithiminperson.InSeptember1317theywereontheirwayintoScotlandtothreatenRobertwithrenewedexcommunicationandtoimposetermsforatrucewhollyunacceptabletohim.Travellingwiththemwasthe
bishop-electofDurham,LouisdeBeaumont,andprotectingthewholepartywashisbrotherSirHenrydeBeaumont,amagnateandveterancommanderoftheScottishwars.Aslongasthepapacy
deniedhisroyaltitle,Robertpreferredtoignoreitspeace-makinginitiatives,andhecouldnotaffordtohavetheseseniorchurchmenenteringScotlandandundermininghis
royaldignitybydenouncinghiminfrontofhismagnates.Heavoidedtheunwelcomevisit–itseems–byhiringahostofNorthumbrianrobber-knights,ledbyGilbertdeMiddleton,towaylaythecardinalsbeforetheyreachedDurham.ConsequentlytheseprincesoftheChurchwereambushedatRushyfordon1September1317,theirbelongings–includingthepapalbullssooffensiveto
Robert–stolen,and,humiliatedandseethingwithindignation,theywereforcedtocontinuetoDurhamonfoot.AtthissacrilegetheoutrageofEnglishecclesiasticalandsecularauthoritieswasapoplectic.However,itwasMiddletonandhisadherentswhowereroundlycursed,condemnedandexcommunicated;forRobertthewholeaffairhadthegreatadvantageof
‘deniability’,andenabledhimtopersistinhisviolationofthepapaltrucewithoutanembarrassingshowdownwiththecardinalsinScotland.Severalinterestsbenefitedfromtherobbery.ThemonksofDurhamPrioryhadnolovefortheirbishop-elect,LouisdeBeaumont,whomtheyresentedashehadbeenfoisteduponthemagainsttheirwill.SimilarlyGilbertdeMiddletonandotherlocal
knights,whohabituallyprofitedasmiddlemenorganisingthecollectionofRobert’stribute,resentedtheascendancyofthewarlikeBeaumontsinthedefenceoftheborder,worryingthattheywouldupsettheirapplecart.IntheaftermathoftherobberyMiddletonandhisassociates,ascontenttobehungforasheepasforalamb,ledtheEnglishEasternMarchinawidespreadrevolt
againstroyalmisrule,lackofpay,lackofprovisions,rapaciouscastlegarrisonsandagainsttheprospectofdominationbytheBeaumonts.IntheMiddletonRebellion,asitisknown,retainersofThomas,EarlofLancaster,wereprominent.Mysteriously,theearlhimselfhadbeenonhanddirectlyaftertherobberytoleadtheunfortunateprelatestosafety,almostasthoughLancaster
knewinadvanceofwhatwastohappen.TherobberyofthecardinalsandtheMiddletonRebellionisamurkyepisode,thefulltruthofwhichwillneverbeknown,butthereisnomistakingthehandoftheKingofScots,uponwhosepermissionlifeintheEnglishbordercountiesoutsidecastlesandwalledtownsdepended.Therevolt,whichevenspreadintoYorkshire,wascrushedbycastle
garrisonsandthoseanxioustododowntheirlocalrivalsorcurryfavourwithEdwardII.Capitalisingonthe
confusionhehadsown,towardstheendofSeptemberRobertrenewedhisassaultonBerwick.EdwardIIhastilydispatchedreinforcementsfromYorkandashipfromWhitbywithtwenty-eightarmedsailorsonboard.Thesiegelastedintothewinter,
andinDecemberRobertwassupervisingsiegeenginesbetweenonslaughts,determinedthat‘hewouldhaveBerwick’.InthespringRobertresortedtoguile,andonthenightof1/2April1318apartyofScotsledbyDouglasscaledthewallsofBerwick,ataplacewheretheguardhadbeenbribed.Thetownwastakenatlast.Thegarrisonretreatedtothecastleandheldoutuntil18June,
butthefallofthetownofBerwickheraldedageneralcollapseofEnglishstrongholdsontheEasternMarch.WarkonTweedsurrenderedon21May,andHarbottlearoundthattime‘becausereliefdidnotreachthemontheappointedday’andMitfordwastakenbyguilesoonafterwards.’AttheendofAprilorearlyinMayRoberthaddispatchedMorayandDouglasonadevastating
raidonYorkshire.Theraidwasapointeddefianceofthetwo-yeartrucewhichthepopehadannouncedandsoughttoimpose,and,althoughthereisnootherevidenceofcollusionbetweenLancasterandtheScotsatthisdate,itmayhavebeenintendedtosupportageneralLancastrianrevoltinEngland.TwogroupsofraidersleftScotland.OntheEasternMarchafirstgroup
passedthroughthebishopricofDurham,butstoppedtodevastatetheareaaroundHartlepoolinreprisalforthecaptureofaScottishship.ThentheycrossedintoYorkshireatYarm.AsecondgroupappearstohaveenteredEnglandbytheWestMarchandrodeuptheEdenValleyanddownTeesdaletoBarnardCastle,devastatingvillagesalongthesouthbankoftheriver,untilthetwo
groupsmetandjoinedforcesinlayingwastetheValeofYork.Taxationrecordsenableustotracethetrailofdevastation,andthesearesupplementedbychronicleaccountsandchancesurvivalsamongadministrativerecords.Richmondseemstohaveboughtofftheraidersasecondtime.Riponwasspared,inreturnfor1,000marks,asumnegotiatedwithtownsfolkcrowdedintothe
minsterforsafety.FountainsAbbeyboughtofftheraiders,butalargepartoftheScottishforcestayedattheabbey,andmanyofthegrangesandoutlyingfarmsweredestroyed.Northallertonshirewasdevastatedbyallaccounts,andonSunday28Maytheraidersdestroyedtheking’sgranaryatBoroughbridge.ThetwogroupsconvergedonKnaresborough.Theyburnt
140housesinthetown,leavingonly20standing,andtheysearchedtheForestofKnaresboroughforrefugeeswhomightbehidingtherewiththeircattle.ThearrivalofMorayinKnaresboroughmaynothavebeenbychance.TheearlofLancaster’srivalrywithEdwardIIhaddevelopedintoopenwarinsomepartsofEngland,andfromOctober1317totheendofJanuaryLancastrianrebels
associatedwiththeMiddletonRebellionhadheldKnaresboroughCastleagainsttheking.InJanuary1318Moraywasbelievedtohavebeenapproachingtoaidtherebels,anditmaybethatwhenheactuallysetoutinMayheexpectedtofindtheLancastriansstillholdingout.Whetherornotthiswasthecase,Roberthadnothingtolosebystirringtheantagonismbetween
Lancasterandhisroyalcousin.FollowingtheirusualU-shapeditinerary,theraiderscrossedthePenninesbyseveralroutes,includingAiredaleandWharfedale,wheretaxassessmentsandtherecordsofBoltonPrioryrevealtheirwakeofdevastation.EnteringLancashiretheydestroyeditforsixdays;Warton,CockerhamandGarstangweresaidtobe‘totally
burnt’;PrestonandKirkhamwere‘burntanddestroyed’.Oftheirreturnjourneynothingisknown:sinceitwasmadethroughcountrysidealreadydevastated,itdoesnotfigureintherecords.
WhiletheseeventsweretakingplaceinBritainwehearvirtuallynothingofwhatwashappeninginIreland.AfterRobertleftIreland,EdwardBruceremainedinUlsterforoverayear,butintheautumnof1318headvancedtothebordersofthatprovince.Anintriguingfour-monthgapinthesequenceofRobert’sdatedactsleavesitjustpossiblethat
thekingtookanarmytoIrelandatthattimetoassistEdwardonceagaininhisconquestofIreland.ThereisnofirmevidenceinIrishsourcesofRobert’spresenceinthatcountry,butthatRobertwasexpectedseemstobeimpliedintheAnnalsofClonmacnoise,whereitstatesthat‘fearinghisbrotherRobertBrucekingofScotland(thatcametothiskingdomforhisassistance)
wouldacquireandgetthegloryofthatvictorywhichhemadehimselfbelievehewouldgetoftheEnglishwhichhewassurehewasabletooverthrowwithouttheassistanceofhissaidbrother,herashlygavethemtheassault.’AtFaughartnearDundalkon14October1318EdwardencounteredthreeAnglo-Irishmagnates:EdmundButler,JohndeBirminghamandthe
ArchbishopofArmagh,RolandJoyce.Thebestsourceforthebattle,however,makesnomentionofRobert,yetitclaimsthatEdwardhadalreadybeenreinforced,andthatheapproachedthetownofDundalkwith‘agreatarmyofScotswhichhadnewlyarrived’.CertainlyEdwardwasaccompaniedbyMacRuaridhandMacDonaldchiefs;neverthelesshisforce
wasgreatlyoutnumberedbytheAnglo-IrishandhisGaelicIrishalliesrefusedtocommitthemselvestoafight.TheLanercostchronicleprovidestheclearestdescriptionofthebattle:‘They[EdwardBruce’sarmy]wereinthreecolumnsatsuchadistancefromeachotherthatthefirstwasdonebeforethesecondcameup,andthenthesecondbeforethethird,withwhichEdwardwas
marching,couldrenderanyaid.Thusthethirdcolumnwasrouted,justasthetwoprecedingoneshadbeen.Edwardfellatthesametimeandwasbeheadedafterdeath;hisbodybeingdividedintofourquarters,whichquartersweresenttothefourchieftownsofIreland.’BarbourcontendsthatthecorpseofGibHarper,whowaswearingEdward’scoatofarms–andwhomighthavebeen
Edward’sherald–wasmistakenforthatofEdwardhimself,andthatGib’sheadwassevered,placedinaboxofsalt,andsenttoEdwardII.Robert,wemayassume,
wasdistraughtatthelossofhislastremainingbrother.Allofhisfourbrothershadnowbeenkilledinvindicationofhisright;hewillhavegrievedsorely.HadEdward’sremainsescapedthefinalindignities,itcanhavebeen
ofcoldcomforttoRobert,andhemayhavebeguntowonderwhetherhisregalianrightwasworthsuchslaughter.AnightmareofawarwithoutendbetweenScotlandandEnglandnowloomed,fortheEnglishmightneverconcededefeat.FromthisstageinthestruggleRobertabandonedanydreamsofpan-CelticleadershipandtheconquestofIrelandthathemightstill
haveentertained.InsteadheredoubledhiseffortstoextractsubmissionfromtheEnglishand,iftheywouldconcedehistitleandScottishsovereignty,begantoofferremarkableconcessionsinhopeofalastingpeace.ThroughatinywindowonRobert’spersonalgriefitappearsthatheascribedthisdisastertothewrathofalong-deadIrishholyman:withinamonthofEdward’s
deathhehadprovidedforalampandacandletoburnperpetuallyatthealtarofBlessedMalachyintheCistercianabbeyofCouparAngus.
AsubtlebutperceptiblechangeoccurredinthenatureofRobertI’swaragainsttheEnglishfromtheyear1318.ThatyearwitnessedthecollapseofScottishgrandstrategywithdefeatintheIrishSeaanddefeatinIreland.However,italsowitnessedthecompletedestructionoftheValeofYorkinthespectacularlong-distanceraidof1318,thesurrenderofkey
NorthumberlandcastlesandtheadventofanimprovedsecurityforScotlandwiththerecaptureofBerwick.TheeuphoriaandunrealisticambitionthatpossessedtheBrucesinthewakeofBannockburnwasnowcurbed,yettherewasnomistakingtherealityoftheScottishmilitaryhegemonyortheextentofEnglishdefeat.Robertonlyrequiredtowrestadmissionofdefeat
fromEdwardIItoenablearealisticsettlementtoterminatetheincessantanddestructivewarfare.ButthenorthofEngland,thepartofEnglandwhichwaswithinRobert’srangeandwhichhecouldstrikeatregularly,didnotratehighlyinEdwardII’spriorities.Consequently,inthisnewphaseofthestruggle,Robertmanifestedamarkedanxietytocaptureavitalpawn,astrategicprize
orhostage,whichhecouldtradeforrecognitionofhiskingshipandpeace.On13April1318Edward
IIreceivedthenewsthatBerwickhadfallen.OnemightimaginethatthelossofBerwickwouldwonderfullyhaveconcentratedthemindsoftheEnglishkingandhismagnates.ThelargesttowninScotlandwasrecognisedasthekeytothesecurityofestatesontheEasternMarch,
avitalharbourinthebattleagainstNorthSeapredators,and,indeed,apotentsymboloftheEnglishclaimtoScotland.ThefollyofbickeringinthefaceofsuchapowerfulthreatasRobertposedhadbeenlongapparent;nowitwasblindinglyobviousthat,iftheEnglishmagnatesdidnotcombinetorecaptureBerwick,thewarwaslost.Alreadyitwastoolateto
organiseacampaignforthe1318season:termsforapeacebetweenthekingandhisobstreperouscousinLancasterwerenothammeredoutuntilAugust1318.Optimisticallythe
chronicleroftheVitaEdwardiSecundibeginsatthispointtolistimprovementsinEngland’sfortunes:thepopehadnowplacedScotlandunderaninterdict;EdwardBrucehad
beendefeatedinIreland;thefoodshortagesofthelastthreeyearshadbeenrelievedbyanabundantharvestin1318;andnowatlastkingandmagnateswereco-operating.Hevoicesthepioushopethat‘treachery,perjuryandhomicide,whichbroughtRobertBrucetothethrone,willleadhimatlasttoadesolateend’.AttheEaster1319
parliamentinYorkEdwardII
soughtandwasgrantedasubsidytomakewarontheScots,andtheamassingoffoodstuffsandthearrayingoffootsoldierscommenced.EnvoysweresenttoRobertclaimingthekingdomofScotland,butofferinghimpersonalsafetyinlifeandlimbifhewoulddesist.Robertrepliedthat‘hedidnotnotmuchcareforthekingofEngland’speace;thekingdomofScotlandwashis
andpertainedtohimbothbyhereditaryrightandbyrightofbattle.Hesaidthathewasjustifiedbythesetitles,andprotestedthatheneitheroughttonorwouldacknowledgeanysuperiororearthlylord.’EarlyinSeptemberthereassembledanarmyofperhaps5,000infantry.Astocavalry,theEnglishkingpaidaformidable1,300horsetocampaign,includingtheearl
ofPembrokeandcontingentssentbyRichmondandArundel;inadditiontothisthegreatmagnateLancastercontributedhisowncontingent.Theaccountsalsofeature500lighthorseorhobelars,themajorityofwhichwereledbyAndrewHarclay,thedefenderofCarlisle.TheEnglishadvancedonScotland.Atfirsttheybroughtnosiegeengines,andperhapstheir
originalintentionwastoseekbattle,butwhentheyreachedBerwicktheysettledinfrontofthetownandbegantoinvestit.SiegeenginesweresummonedfromYork,NorthamptonandBamburgh.RobertwasnotinthetownbutatArbroath.TheEnglish,however,believedhimtohaveswornanoathtorelieveBerwickbeforeacertaintime,andthuslookedforwardtobringinghimtobattle.
ThebriefbutfiercesiegeofBerwickfrom8to18September1319isanotherofthegreatsetpiecesofthewar,andBarbourclearlyrelishesthetellingofit.HesaysthatthetentsandpavilionsoftheEnglishmagnatesmadeatownbiggerthanBerwickitself,andthentheEnglishshipsalsoarrived,fillingtheharbourtotheutteramazementofthedefenders.EachEnglishlordwas
assignedasectionofthewalltoattack,andaftersixdaysofpreparation,duringwhichtheattackersisolatedthetownbydiggingaditchonitslandwardsideasEdwardIhaddonein1296,theEnglishunleashedtheirassault.Theyrushedthewallsbearingladders,whichtheScotsstrovetotopplebackwards.TheScotshadnothadtheopportunitytoimproveonBerwick’sdefences,andthe
townwallswereinsomeplacesperilouslylow.
Ingreatperiltheydefendedtheirtown,For,tobeperfectlyfrank,ThewallsofthetownwerethenSolowthatamanwithaspear[ontheground]couldhitanotheraboveintheface.’
Insidethetownthecommander,WaltertheSteward,andhisfollowersrodearoundthecircuitofthe
walls,helpingwhereverthedefenderswerehardestpressed.TheEnglishmadefulluseoftheirnavalsupport,andtriedtopositionatallshipagainstthewallontheseawardsidesothatitcoulddropadrawbridgeontothewall.Usingbargesrowedbyoarsmentotowtheship,theyendeavouredtokeepheragainstthewall,whilethedefendersfendedofftheshipwithspearsandlongpoles,
attackingcrewandoarsmenwithmissiles.Thetidebegantoebb,however,andtheshipsoonranaground.Whenshewashighanddry,thedefenderssalliedout,attackingtheshipandsettingfiretoit,killingorputtingtoflightthecrew,beforeboltingbackintothetownontheapproachofanothership.Theattackersresumedtheir
effortsbybuildingscaffoldstotoweroverthewalls.They
alsoconstructeda‘sow’,alargeandveryrobustwheeledshelter,designedtoshieldsappersfrommissilesandrocksthrownfromabovewhiletheyunderminedthetownwalls.Itprobablyincorporatedagreatbatteringram.Thedefendershadcapturedanexperiencedengineer,whomtheyforcedtoworkforthem,andtheydeferredtohisadviceonhowtodealwiththesow.This
engineer,whomBarbouridentifiesasJohnCrabbe,constructedawheeledcranetolowerflamingbalesofpitch,tar,flaxandtimberontotheroofofthesow.37On13SeptembertheEnglishlaunchedageneralassault.Againtheytriedtoscalethewallswithladders;againtheScotsshovedbacktheladdersandsentthemcrashingtotheground.ThentheEnglish
begantomanoeuvretheirsowintopositionunderthewalls.Theengineerattackedit,notwiththecrane,butwitha‘mangonel’orcatapult,launchinghugeboulders.Withaneyetokeepinghisaudiencehooked,Barbourdescribeshowthefirstattemptovershotthesowbyalongdistance,andthesecondfellshort,butthethirdstruckthesowdirectlyandbrokeitsmainbeam,causingthe
sapperswithintoscrambleoutandfleefortheirlives,andtheScotstolaughgleefully:
ThemenranoutprettyfastAndthoseonthewallshoutedThattheirsowhadfarrowedthere!
TheEnglishthenrenewedtheattackontheseawardside,sendinghigh-castledshipsagainstthewallinanefforttogainaheightadvantageover
thedefenders.Boatsfullofarmedmenwerehoistedhighupthemaststobringthemlevelwiththeparapets,butoneboatsufferedadirecthitfromthecatapult,smashingtheboat,andtumblingthemenintothewater.WhileEdwardIIand
LancasterweremakingtoattackBerwick,Robert,todistractthem,haddispatchedMorayandDouglasintoEnglandattheheadofalarge
raidingparty.TheycrossedtheborderontheWesternMarchandrodedownTynedale.FromtheretheyravagedNorthumberlandandthebishopricofDurham.TheyhadbeeninYorkshirefromasearlyas3September,buttheEnglisharmyhadrefusedtofallforsuchanobviousployandhadcontinueditsapproachtoBerwick,beginningtoinvestandbesiegeit.However,the
daringoftheScotsatthistimeknewnobounds,andMorayandDouglasappeartohavehatchedaplottowinforRobertthatvitaledge,thepawnthathecouldtradeforrecognitionofhiskingship.Astoryisrecountedinindependentnarrativesthattheraidof1319includedaplottokidnapthequeenofEnglandfromherhouseholdquartersinYork.Asonechroniclerremarks,‘ifthe
Queenatthattimehadbeencaptured,IbelievethatScotlandwouldhaveboughtpeaceforherself’.ItappearsthattheScotsapproachedYorkstealthily,assistedbyanEnglishspy,EdmundDarel–oneofLancaster’smen–andestablishedasecretlairnotfarfromthecity,nearMyton-on-Swale.Inthecity,however,anotheroftheiraccomplicesrevealedtheplottoArchbishopMeltonandthe
citizens,andofferedtoleadthemtowheretheScottishraiderslayinwait.EdwardIIhadorderedthe
wholeoftheYorkshiremilitiatoBerwickforthesiege,andthecityofYorklaydefenceless.QueenIsabellawassenttosafetyinNottingham,andMeltonassembledamakeshiftarmyofcitizens,peasantsfromnearbyvillages,clergyandchanceryclerks–including
thechancellorhimself,JohndeHothum.Thisrabbleheledouton12SeptembertoconfronttheveteransofMorayandDouglas,anditmetwithdisaster.TheScotssetfiretohaystackstocreateasmokescreen,and,emergingoutofthis,theysetupontheinexperiencedEnglishclerics,citizensandpeasantry.Greatslaughterensued;manyweredrownedtryingtofleeacrosstheRiverSwale,andmany
royalservantsweretakenprisoner.BecauseofthelargenumbersofEnglishclergyinvolved,thewholeepisodewasdubbedtheChapterofMyton.ThereaftertheScotscausedwidespreaddestructioninAiredale,WharfedaleandinLancashiretoo,beforeescapinghomewardsbytheWestMarch.Tensionranhighinthe
EnglishcampatBerwickas
newsfromYorkshirewasawaited.On10Septembermostofthelargecontingentofalmostathousandarchersand350hobelarsledbytheCumberlandknightAndrewHarclayceasedtobeattheking’swages;clearlytheyhaddeparted,eithertotrytocutoffMoray’sretreatbytheWesternMarchortodefendestates.NewsoftheChapterofMytonreachedtheEnglishcampatBerwickon14
September,andinstantlytheEnglishfelloutamongthemselvesoverhowtoreact.NorthernlordsledbyLancasterwantedtoleaveanddefendtheirestates.EdwardIIandthesouthernerswereforpressingonwiththesiegeregardless.Accusationsoftreacherybegantofly,‘Foritwascommonlysaidthattheearlhadreceived£40,000fromRobertBrucetolendsecretaidtohimandhismen,
andthatatthesiegewhileeveryonewasattackingthewall,noneoftheearl’sretinueassaultedit,andthatthetownofBerwickwouldhavesurrenderediftheearl’scautionhadnotfoughtagainstthis,andthatJamesDouglasonhiswaybacktoScotlandpassedthroughtheearl’slines,andthattheearlwentthroughthemidstoftheScots.’Amidbitterrecriminations
Edward’sarmybegantodisintegrateandhewasforcedtocalloffthesiege.Thustheraidof1319hadpreciselytheeffectthatRobertintended:theEnglishhadbeendivertedfromthecaptureofBerwickandreturnedhomeon17September1319moredividedthaneverbefore.EdwardIIblamedLancaster,ofcourse;healsoblamedJohnCrabbe,theprivateerchiefand
engineer,andtheCountofFlandersforhisrefusaltoprohibittradewithScotland.HecomplainedbitterlytothecountthatCrabbehadbeenprominentinthetown’sdefenceandthatshipswhichhadsailedfromZwynhadbornearmstoScotland,enablingtheScotstodefeathissiegeofBerwick.Tothis,thecountrepliedon14November1319thatJohnCrabbewaswantedfor
murderandwouldbepunishedonthewheelifcaught.HeprotestedthathehadalreadyprohibitedtheshippingofmilitaryaidtotheScots.OftheconvoytoScotlandthecountsaidheknewnothing;hebelievedthatshipshadgonetoScotlandandIrelandonlytotrade.Therefollowedan
interestingsequeltothesiegeofBerwick.On1November
1319‘whenthecrophadbeenstoredinbarns’MorayandDouglascrossedtheWestMarchintoGilslandandlaidallwaste,asfarsouthasBroughonStainmore.ThereareindicationsthattheWesternMarchhadbeenrecoveringfromearlierdevastations,andthisrecoveryhadbeenreflectedinthesizeoftheforceAndrewHarclayhadbroughttoBerwick.Tojudgefrom
thechronicleaccount,thisdestructionwasofparticularlyintensivenature,moreconcentratedeventhantheburningsvisitedupontheValeofYork,anddesignedtoinflictfamineanddislocationupontheWestMarchforyearstocome.MorayandDouglasreturnedtoGilslandbywayofWestmorlandaftertenortwelvedaysanddevastated‘Cumberland’,beforeretiringtoScotland
withagreatspoilofcattleandprisoners.ClearlythethreatposedbyAndrewHarclayhadbeenrecognisedandactedupon.BeforeDouglasandMoray
hadreturnedhomefromthisdemonstrationofScottishpower,thetrustedclerkandcourtfavouriteRobertBaldockwasonhiswaytoBerwickwithaninvitationforKingRoberttonegotiate.Thetalkstookplaceat
NewcastleinDecember,andtheEnglishteamcomprisedthreemagnateswhoenjoyedthefullconfidenceoftheEnglishking:Pembroke,BartholomewBadlesmereandHughleDespensertheyounger–Baldock’spatronandapowerfulcourtfavourite,andsoontomonopoliseallaccesstoEdwardII.Alsopresent,aschancellorofEnglandandbishopofEly,wastheable
JohndeHothum,hewhohadcontributedsomuchtosavingIrelandfromconquest.TheScottishteamwasundistinguished,butRobertandhiscourtmovedtoBerwick,withinproximityofthenegotiations.Termsforatrucewereagreed.Remarkablyforonewhoheldtheupperhand,Robertmademostconcessions,thechiefofwhichinvolvedcastles.Hehandedbackthecastleof
Harbottle,thegatewaytoRedesdale,toEdwardII’senvoys–asprivatepersons–onconditionthatifnofinalpeacewereagreedbyMichaelmas1321itwouldbedestroyedorhandedbacktohim.Heundertooktobuildnonewcastlesinbordersheriffdoms.Inaddition,Englishships,menorpropertywreckedonScottishcoastswouldbereturned,anddisputesbetweenEngland
andScotlandwouldbesettledbyrepresentativesfrombothsides.Theseconcessions,andindeedthetwo-yeartruceitself,wereincentivesthatRoberthadtoprovidetopersuadetheEnglisheventotalkaboutthesubstantiveissuesofsovereigntyandkingship.AtChristmasitwassettledthatthereshouldbeatwo-yeartrucetorunfrom29December1319,duringwhichitwashopedthata
finalpeacecouldbeagreed.Toincreasehisleverageat
thecomingpeaceconference,andalsobecauseRobertandfourbishopswerecitedtoappearbeforethepapalcuriaatAvignon,thedecisionwastakentosendacarefullychosendelegation,armedwithacomprehensivestatementoftheScottishcase,toJohnXXIIin1320.ThisdocumentwastheDeclarationofArbroath,an
impassionedstatementofScottishrightsandofRobert’stitletothethrone.38Inthespringof1320RobertsentEdwardIIaletterinvitingnegotiations.ItsformalityandtheloftytermsofitsintroductionsuggestthatitwasprobablyintendedtobepresentedtothepopeasevidenceofEnglishintransigence.Itisunconditionalinitsdesireto
achieveapeace:
Sincewhileagreeablepeaceprevails,themindsofthefaithfulareatrest,theChristianwayoflifeisfurthered,andalltheaffairsofholymotherchurchandofallkingdomsareeverywherecarriedonmoreprosperously,weinourhumilityhavejudgeditrighttoentreatofyourhighnessmostearnestlythat,havingbeforeyoureyestherighteousnessyouowetoGodandtothepeople,youdesistfrompersecutingusanddisturbingthepeopleofourrealm,sothat
theremaybeanendofslaughterandsheddingofChristianblood.Everythingthatweourselvesandourpeople,bytheirbodilyserviceandtheircontributionsofwealthcandowearenow,andshallbepreparedtodosincerelyandhonourablyforthesakeofgoodpeace.
Intheeventnothingmuchwasdoneinthefirstyearoftruce:bothkingswerepreoccupied,RobertwiththeSoulesconspiracyandthe
BlackParliament–discussedinthenextchapter–EdwardwithjourneyingtoFrancetodohomagetoPhilipVofFrance,andmagnatepolitics.Earlyin1321RobertgrantedsafeconductsforfiftyEnglishenvoystocometoBerwick.Still,theEnglishenvoyswereinnohurrytoreachasettlement;whiletheywereanxiousfortherespiteoftrucetocontinue,theirroyalmasterrefusedto
countenanceanyconcessiononhisclaimtothesovereigntyofScotland.DuringMarchandApril1321earnestnegotiationstookplaceatlastinthecastlesofBamburghandBerwick.PresentwererepresentativesofPhilipVandofPopeJohn,whohadnowreceivedandrepliedtotheDeclarationofArbroath.ButsinceneitherEdwardIInorRobertwouldcompromiseonthevitalissue
ofsovereignty,thesetalkswerestilldoomedtofail.PeacewouldnotbeachieveduntiltheEnglishadmitteddefeat.UnabletoextractsuchanadmissionfromEdward’srepresentatives,theScotschangedtheirtacticsandproposedalongtruce.Twenty-sixyearswasthetermtheysuggested.Suchaproposalwouldhavesensiblyshelvedtheintractableproblem,allowingtimefor
theBrucedynastytoestablishitself.ButEdwardIIwouldnotcompromise,norcouldhebeseentodoso.Bothpartiesweretoblame
whentheconference,predictably,brokeupwithoutsettlement,andtheexpiryofthetwo-yeartrucenowloomedonthehorizon.Confidentthatthefailureoftheconferencehadprovenhispoint,RobertsenthisaccountoftheScottishcasetothe
curia.Edwardhadboughttimetorecoverfromasuccessionofhumiliatingdefeats,confrontthebaronsoftheWelshMarch,andhenowplannedtoinvadeScotland.AtonceRobertandhislieutenantsbegantostirupdomestictroubleforhim,byenteringintosecrettalkswithhishatedcousin,theearlofLancaster.ThepoliticaltemperatureinEnglandhadrisensharplywhentheking’s
favourites,thetwoHughDespensers,fatherandson,provokedtoviolencethelordsoftheWelshMarch,includingLancaster’smainally,theearlofHereford.MorayandDouglasbegantocorrespondwithLancaster,whointheselettersisreferredtobythecode-nameKingArthur.RobertcanscarcelyhaveseenLancasterasonewhomightbeabletodeliverasettlement,buttheScots
mayhavesecuredapromiseofinactiononthepartoftheearlshouldwarbetweenthekingdomsberesumed.Thetruceexpiredon1
January1322andtheScotswastednotimeinonceagainvisitingdeathanddestructionuponthenorthofEngland.InthelastfortnightofJanuary,Moray,DouglasandtheStewardlaunchedaparticularlysevereraidagainstthebishopricof
Durham,intendedtocoincidewitharevoltstagedbyLancaster,HerefordandotherdisaffectedEnglishmagnates.AnanonymousletternowknowntobewrittenbyLancastertoanunnamedaddressee–clearlyaScottishlord–describestheassemblyofhisforcesandaskshimtonameameetingplace,andtograntpermissionforthirtyhorsemen‘tocomesafelytoyourparts’.KingRobert
sealedtherequiredsafeconduct,thoughwhetheritwasissuedorusedisunknown.OnhiswaytoDurham,MorayissuedafurtherletterofprotectiontoanemissaryofLancaster,whowasonhiswaytoScotlandtobegforhelp.AccordingtoadocumentlaterfoundonthecorpseoftheearlofHereford,thethreeleadersofthisScottishinvasionweretojoin
LancasterandHerefordinmakingwarontheirenemiesinEngland,WalesandIreland.TheScots,however,continuedtoworktotheirownagenda.TheaccommodatingpriorofDurham,GeoffreydeBurdon,hadjustbeendeposedbythewarlikebishop,LouisdeBeaumont.PossiblyasaresultofthisthecommunityofDurhamceasedtopaytributeduetotheScots,and
Robertdecideduponaseverepunishment.MoraytookuppositionontheTees,poisedtointerveneintheuncertainsituationtothesouth.WaltertheStewardledaraidingpartytoRichmondshire,whichcouldbereliedupontopayupifmenaced,andheexactedaheavyfinefromtheinhabitantsinreturnforsparingthemfromdestruction.DouglasravagedClevelandandthearea
aroundHartlepool,afavouritetargetoftheScots.TheyspentawholefortnightinDurham,pillagingandrobbingthoroughly:
Thatsameyear[1322]aroundthePurificationoftheBlessedVirgin[2February]theScotsenteredthebishopric;andthewholeoftheeasternplainwasdestroyed.TheyburntbarnsfullofgrainandthentheymadeasthoughtocrosstheTeesintoRichmondshire;butatnighttheyreturnedsecretlytotheeast.MenandwomenwhohadreturnedbyboatfromClevelandsuspectednothing,andreckonedthattheScotshadcrossedtheTees.Theytookthemintheirbeds.Andhavingperpetratedmanyevil
deeds,theyreturnedtotheirowncountry.Sogreatafaminefollowedthatdevastationinthebishopricthataquarterofwheatmightoftenfetch40s.thatsummer,ifitcouldbehadatall.
Socomprehensivewasthedevastationof1322thatinacontemporarydocumenttheepisodeisreferredtosimplyas‘theburningofthebishopric’.Financialrecordssurvivefortheestatesof
DurhamPriory,revealingthata‘suddenandcatastrophic’lossoccurredatthistime.TheflockofthepriorywassuccessfullyevacuatedtoClevelandforthedurationoftheraid;neverthelessthestockmanreportedthathehadlostfortysheepasaresultofthe‘abominabledepredationsoftheScotsandotherrobbers’.Attheendofthemonththispunitiveraidcametoanend.
Robert,however,keptupthepressureontheborderdistrictsthroughoutthespring,threateninginvasionsoneastandwestmarches.AndrewHarclaypleadedwiththekingofEnglandforassistance.AchroniclerwellinformedabouteventsatcourtcharacterisedEdwardII’sresponsetohimasfollows:‘Youmayknowforcertain,Andrew,thatifRobertBrucethreatensme
frombehind,andmyownmenwhohavecommittedsuchenormitiesagainstmeshouldappearinfront,IwouldattackthetraitorsandleaveRobertBrucealone.SmallwonderiftheScots,whoareinnowayboundtome,invademykingdom,whilethosewhoareboundtomebyfealtyandhomageriseagainstme,plundermymenandsetfiretomytowns.’Butthesmoulderingresentment
inEnglandagainstroyalmisruleeruptedintocivilwarwhenthealliesofLancasterandHerefordbesiegedtheroyalcastleofTickhill.EdwardIIandtheDespensersmarchednorthandconfrontedthematBurtononTrenton10March,causingtheearlstoretiretoPontefract.TherethedecisionwastakentoretiretoLancaster’sNorthumberlandcastleofDunstanburghandthereawaitthesupportofthe
Scots.ButAndrewHarclay,havingreceivedorderstoraiseaforceontheWestMarch,movedswiftlysouthandacrossthePenninestointerceptthem.HemettheearlsinbattleatBoroughbridgeon16March,drawinguppikemenasaschiltrom‘intheScottishfashion’.InthebattlethatfollowedHerefordwaskilledandLancastersurrendered,tobeexecutedafewdayslater.
ForhisservicetoEdwardIIAndrewHarclaywascreatedearlofCarlisle,andthereisnodoubtthat,forhispart,theKingofScotsrecognisedinHarclayaformidableopponent.EnglishpreparationsforaninvasionofScotland,tocommenceon1August,wentonregardless.Robertdecidedtopre-empttheattackbyrepeatinghiseffortsin1319toimpoverishandweakentheWestern
March,andhopefullyneutralisethethreatposedbyHarclay.Roberthimselftookthefield.Attheageofforty-eighthewasalreadyanoldmanbymedievalstandards,yethesaddledupandledanarmyintoEngland,provinghimselftobeastrenuousknightyet:
Theking[EdwardII]musteredanarmyinordertoapproachScotlandaboutthefeastofStPeterin
Chains[1August];hearingofwhichRobertdeBrusinvadedEnglandwithanarmybywayofCarlisleintheweekbeforethenativityofStJohntheBaptist[thatis,around17June],andburntthebishop’smanoratRose,andAllerdale,andplunderedthemonasteryatHolmCultram,notwithstandingthathisfather’sbodywasburiedthere;andthenceproceededtolaywasteandplunderCopeland,andsoon,beyondthesandsofDuddontoFurness.
Thepathofdestruction
describedbythechroniclerisborneoutbyadministrativerecords;weknow,forexample,thattwowatermillspertainingtoEgremontcastlewereburntaroundMidsummer’sday.TheabbotofFurnesswenttomeetRobertandpaidaransomtosavethatdistrictfromdestruction.Robertstayedattheabbey,butthechroniclerrelatesthat,despitethis,theScotssetfiretovarious
placesandrobbedthem.HepressedonfurtherintoEngland,beyondtheSandsofLeventoCartmel,andburntthelandsofCartmelPriory,robbingthemanddrivingofftheircattle.HecrossedthesandsatthemouthoftheRiverKent,visitingdestructionuponYealand,WartonandCarnforthtoarriveatLancaster.TheretheScotsburntthetown,sparingonlytheBenedictineand
Dominicanreligioushouses,nodoubtataprice.AtLancasterRobert’sforcewasjoinedbyanother,ledbyMorayandDouglas.TheyhadarrivedbywayofKendal,Whittington,HornbyCastleandQuernmoreForest.Perhapsthissecondpartyhadmetwithsomeresistance,fortwoScotshadbeentakenprisoneratHornbyMooron2July.TenementsatTorrisholme,nowapartof
Morcambe,weredestroyed.ThecombinedforcestayedatLancasterforfourdaysandnightsandtherewasextensivedamage,robberyandtramplingofcrops.Thecastlewasburnt,andthetownsfolksubsequentlypetitionedtheEnglishkingfortherighttotaketimbertorebuildthetown.Stilltheraidersrodeon,drivingbeforethemlargenumbersofrefugees.Theyentered
Amounderness;atPrestonarentrollof1324bearsevidenceoftheirvisitation.OnlythehouseoftheFriarsMinorwasspared,andagainthetownsfolkhadsubsequentlytopetitionEdwardIIfortimbertorebuild.ThewholevillageofSkertonwasdestroyedandcorntrampleddown.SomeoftheScotsraidedfifteenmilestothesouthofPreston;themanorofSamlesburywas
pillaged.Nodetailsareavailableof
Robert’sreturnjourney,exceptintheregisterofthebishopofCarlisle,whereitisrecordedthattheScotsstayedaboutCarlisledoingdestructionforeightdays,doubtlesstotemptHarclayandthegarrisonintobattle.ThemainchroniclesourcehoweveraddsthattheScots‘re-enteredScotlandonthevigilofStJamestheApostle
[24July]sothattheyspentthreeweeksandthreedaysinEnglandonthatoccasion.’ItgoesontosaythattheScotswhorodebeyondPrestonweresomeeightymileswithinEngland;infactitdescribesarideofaboutahundredandfortymilesintoEngland.FortheScotsthewesternraidof1322wasaconsiderableachievement,whichnotonlydiminishedthemenancewhichHarclay
represented,butaccumulatedfundsfortheexpecteddefensivecampaigninScotlandandraisedtonewheightsthemoraleoftheScotsandtheirconfidenceandprideintheirking.ItispossibletoothattheScotsweresearchingforaveryspecifictargetintheuplandforestsofLancashire,namelytheenormousherdsofcattlepertainingtotheearldomofLancasterwhichareknownto
havegrazedthereinsummermonths.IftheearlofLancaster’scollusionwiththeScotshadsafeguardedthemfromraidingin1319,hisrecentexecutionmeantthattheymightnowbedrivenoff.Itisimpossibletosay,however,whethertheScotsgainedthisenormousbooty.TheraidonLancashire
wouldnotpreventtheEnglishinvasionofScotland,preparationsforwhichwere
nowfaradvanced.EdwardIIhadnowwipedoutvirtuallyalldomesticopposition,andwasfreetodemandmilitaryserviceofunprecedentedseverityfromhissubjects.TheroyalistParliamentofYorkinMay1322nullifiedtheOrdinancesof1311andwentontograntextravaganttaxationtoEdwardtofacilitatehisattackonScotland,includingagrantofonefoot-soldierfromevery
villagetoservefor40days.Thiswasontopofwritsofarrayfor37,800men,comingfromalmosteverycountyinEngland,10,000fromWalesand7,000fromIreland.Furthermore,11,000menweretobestationedattheWesternMarch.Onlyapercentageofthisservicematerialised;neverthelessEdwardIIenteredScotlandwiththelargestEnglisharmyyetdeployed:almost20,000
infantryand1,200hobelarswerepaidbytheroyalwardrobe.Heinsisteduponincreasedrequirementsforarmour,andfavouredheavilyarmouredfootspearmen.Hisarmywas,however,deficientincavalry,theresultofhishavingrecentlyeliminatedsomanyEnglishmagnatesuponwhomtheroyalhostdependedforunpaidservice.Therewereabout300knights–includingearls,bannerets
andbarons–andabout950men-at-arms.Amassivepurveyancingoperationswungintoactiontofeedsuchaforce.AnItalianmerchant,ManentiusFrancisci,supplied2,614quartersofwheattotheNewcastledepot.Edwardwasdependentuponships,however,totransportsuppliestothearmyinScotland,andthiswastoproveafatalweakness.
About10August1322EdwardII’shugearmyleftNewcastleuponTyneandmarcheduptheTweed,bypassingBerwick.TheyenteredScotlandbywayofMelroseAbbeyandLauderdale,makingforEdinburgh.BarbourrecountsthatRobertwithdrewacrosstheForth.HehadpreparedforinvasionbyevacuatingallthelivestockfromLothian;wemayassumethathealso
removedordestroyedsuppliesofgrainandothersustenance.Itwasineffecta‘scorchedearth’reactiontoinvasion.
HelayquietlywithhisarmyAtCulross,forhemeanttotryTocausehisfoestolosestrengthBystarvationandbylongmarches,ThenwhenhehadweakenedtheirstrengthHewouldengageinafightwiththem.
On18AugustEdwardIIwasatCrichton,andnextdayhemovedtoMusselburgh,onthecoast.HewasatLeith,wheretherewasagoodharbour,on20August,andsomeprovisionsfromhisfleetmusthavearrivedthenextday,forhewasabletoissuestorestohistroops.ThearmymeanwhileamuseditselfbysackingHolyroodAbbey.Butthefleetbearingthebulkoftheprovisionsdid
notarrive,andtwoexplanationsareadvancedtoaccountforthis.AdraftletterofthekingtohisbishopsindicatesthatfearofFlemishprivateerspreventedthefleetfromreachingLeith:‘TheFlemingshadcometotheaidofourenemies,theScots,andtheyputtoseainshipsjustasourfleetwasnearingScotland.Theytookshipswithgoodsonthemsothatnonedaredtocometous.’
Notonlyhadthefleetbeenmenacedbyprivateers,butstormshaddestroyedfourteenofthesupplyships.Withthevastarmyalreadystarving,EdwardhadnochoicebuttoretreattoMusselburghon22AugustandfromthereacrossAncrumMooron30August,returningtoEnglandon2September.OntheirretreattheEnglishsackedthemonasteriesofMelroseandDryburgh.AScottish
chroniclerdescribeswithhorrorhowmonkswerekilled,andvariousimpietiescommittedbytheEnglishtroops.Roberthimselfledthe
retaliation,accompanyingMorayandDouglasforasecondlong-rangeraidintoEngland.HemusteredtroopsfromtheWesternIsles,ArgyllandnorthandsouthoftheForth,andon30September1322hecrossed
theSolwayFirthatBowness,and‘ravagedthedistrictaroundCarlisleforfivedays’.AndrewHarclay,whomighthaveprovedaveryableopponent,hadjustdismissedtheforceof500hobelarshehadmaintainedatCarlisleduringEdward’sinvasion.WhileRobertwastedthevicinityofCarlisle,hisraiders,lednodoubtbyMorayandDouglas,sweptonpurposefullydownthevalley
oftheEden,raidingthevillagesofCastleSowerby,ScotbyandCarlattonontheway.ShortlyafterwardsRobertfollowedthem.Awell-informedchronicleclaimsthatfromthefirstRobertwasseekingtoencounterandcaptureEdwardIIhimself.TheseizureofacrucialhostagewouldhavebeenaveryappositereactiontotheEnglishinvasion,foronly
suchaprizewouldpreventfutureEnglishinvasionsandforcetheEnglishtoconcedeRobert’skingship.Englishperceptionsof
Scottishmovementsareinteresting.EdwardIIbecameawarethatRoberthadenteredtheWestMarchon2October,andhesummonedtenmagnates,includingHarclay,toattendhimat‘Blakehoumoor’,anunidentifiedlocationonthe
NorthYorkshireMoors.Harclay,however,hadjustretiredintoLancashiretoraiseanarmy.By5OctoberArchbishopMeltonatNunMonktonhadheardalreadythattheScotswereinYorkshireandnearRichmond.ThenextwehearisthatEdwardII,on13OctoberatRievaulxAbbey,understoodthemtobeatNorthallerton,andbegantopanic.Hewasextremely
angrythatHarclayhadnotyetshownup.Writswerehastilyissuedtosheriffs,keepersandcastellanson2and5Octoberinafranticefforttoraisetroopsfromlocalmilitias.WeknowfromanothersourcethatMoraywasonthatdayonly15milesaway,atMalton,andalreadyalmostinapositiontocutofftheEnglishking’sretreat.TheEnglishmagnatesassembledonahilltop
positionnearRievaulxandOldBylandthathasbeenidentifiedbyBarrowasRoulstonScar,tobartheprogressoftheScotsandtogivetheirkingtimetoescape.Battlewasjoined,andforatimetheEnglishmagnatessucceededinholdingofftheScots,butRobertusedtheIsles-mentoscaletherockyclifftotherear,andtheEnglishpositionwasturned.Meanwhile,EdwardII
‘chicken-heartedandlucklessinwar’,fledtoBridlingtonandtoYork,leavinglootworthafortune.ThehaulfromtheBattleofBylandswasvast.BylandandRievaulxAbbeysweresacked.AmongtheprisonerswasthehaughtyearlofRichmond,JohnofBrittany,whohadbeenguardianinScotlandin1305andagainin1307.Robertandheclearlyhadunfinishedbusiness,and
anangryrowdeveloped:
WhenhesawJohnBrittanyHeshowedhimgreatindignationForJohnwasaccustomedtospeakhaughtilyAndtoomaliciouslyathomeThekingorderedthatJohnbetakenquicklyawayAndseethathewascloselyimprisoned,SayingthatifhehadnotbeensuchawretchHewouldhaveboughthisdisgracefulwordsdearlyAndJohnmiserablybeggedhim
formercy.
Theunfinishedbusinessmightwellhavebeentheearl’spossessionoftheBrucefamilypossessionsofHartandHartlepool,whichEdwardIIhadgrantedtoRichmondin1322.Richmondwasheldincaptivityfortwoyears,afterwhichhisransomwassetatacrippling14,000marks(thatis,£9,333),perhapstwicethe
annualincomeofarichmagnate.HenrydeSully,butlerofFrance,wascapturedbyRobert,andthreeFrenchknightsweretakenprisonerbyDouglas.TheknightswereredeemedandreleasedbyRobert,withaneyetotheFrenchking’sfavour,toreturntoFrancewithoutransom.Robertdidnotresistthe
urgetoflaunthismasteryofnorthernEnglandandhis
humiliationoftheEnglishking.MoraywassenttooccupytheValeofPickering,wherearansomwasextractedfromthemenofthevale.Subsequentreductionsinparishtaxassessmentssuggestthatthedamageinflictedbytheraiderswaswidespread,extendingeventocoastalparishes.RoberttooktemporarypossessionoftheEastRiding,anareathathadhithertoescapedraiding,
andsetuphisstandardatHunsley.ThereligioushousesofBridlingtonandBeverleysentemissariestoRobertatthatplacetoofferco-operationandmoney,hopinginreturntobespareddestruction.OntheapproachoftheScots,thecanonsofBridlingtonevacuatedtheirvaluables,relicsandmunimentstotheirchurchofGoxhillacrosstheHumber.NineScotsandeighteen
horsesarrivedatBridlingtontotakeupbilletatthemonastery.ThenearbyvillagesofRudstonandKilhamwereburntanddespoiled,theircattlebeingdrivenoff.Finally,about22October,RobertledhisraidersbacktowardsScotland.DestructioninAiredale,atSkiptoninCravenandatBarnardCastle,detailedinadministrativeaccounts,revealstheroutes
hometakenbytheraiders.ThoughRobertfailedto
captureEdwardIIonthisgreatraidof1322,itwasanawe-inspiringdemonstrationofScottishpower.ThepersonalprestigeoftheEnglishmonarchwasatanall-timelow.Hehadnowtwicebeenhumiliatedinbattle.Hehadshownhimselfincapableofprovidingprotectionevenforvassalslivingfarbeyondtheborder
regionsofhiskingdom.YeteventhiswasinsufficienttopersuadeEdwardIItomakepeace,andinFebruary1323hewasissuingordersforafreshcampaignagainstScotland.WhileEdwardII’s
insistenceuponfightingawarhecouldnotwinwasmakinggenuinepeacenegotiationimpossible,thereweremagnatesofnorthernEnglandsoutterlyexasperatedwith
theirkingthattheywerepreparedtotakemattersintotheirownhands.AtLochmabenon3January1323RobertmetwithAndrewHarclay,thevictorofBoroughbridgeandrecentlyelevatedearlofCarlisle,andtheyhammeredoutproposalsforapeacetreaty.Harclay’smotivesweremixed.Heisknowntohavebeengraspingandacquisitive,andhisstar–sorecentlyintheascendant–
hadplummetedfromroyalfavouronhisfailuretosaveEdwardIIfromhumiliationatBylands;clearlyEdwardIIsuspectedhimofawaitingtheoutcomeofthebattle,inexpectationofanEnglishdefeat.Nevertheless,HarclaywassurelyrepresentativeofthosenorthernerswhoselandshadbeendevastatedandlivesblightedbytheruinouscontinuationofthewaragainstScotland.Thedetails
oftheproposedsettlementwereasfollows:Robertwastohavehiskingdom‘freeandquit,forhimselfandhisheirs’;eachkingdomwastobedistinctandseparate,eachgovernedbyitsownlawsandcustoms;twelvearbiters,sixfromeachcountry,weretoformacommitteetosettledifferencesthatmightarisebetweenthekingdoms.IfEdwardIIcouldbepersuadedtoacceptthesetermswithina
year,RobertundertooktopayEnglandatarateof4,000marksperyearfortenyears,tofoundandgenerouslyendowamonasteryinScotlandtoprayforthesoulsofthosekilledinthewar,andtoassenttoamarriagebetweenhisheirandtheEnglishroyalfamily.Finally,neitherkingwouldbeforcedtoacceptbackintohiskingdomorrestoreforfeitedlandstoanyonewhohad
foughtagainsthim.Themoststrikingaspectof
theBruce–Harclaytreatyisthegeneroustermsforpeaceofferedbythevictoriousside.ThisisproofpositivethatRobertlongedforanequitableandlastingcessationofviolenceandthat–savinghisroyaldignityandScotland’sindependence–hewaspreparedtomakeenormoussacrificestoachieveit.Thereisfurther
evidencefromBarbourthatthelossoflifeengenderedinpursuitofhisrighttroubledthekingonhisdeathbed.YetRobertalsohadalessaltruisticreasontopursuepeaceatthistime.Robert,CountofFlanders,haddiedinSeptember1322,leavingachildashissuccessor.TheregentswhogovernedFlandersthereafterwerelessinclinedtoturnablindeyetoco-operationbetween
ScottishandFlemishprivateersontheNorthSea,andScotlandhad,ineffect,lostanimportantallythathadboughtherwoolandbroughthervitalimportsoffoodstuffsandweaponry.Asmightbeexpected,
newsofapossiblesettlementwashugelypopularinthenorthofEngland,andLanercostreportsthat‘thepoorfolk,themiddlingsortsandthefarmersinthe
northernpartswerenotalittledelightedthattheKingofScotlandshouldfreelypossesshisownkingdomonsuchtermsthattheythemselvesmightliveinpeace.’HarclaywasquiteincapableofdeliveringEdwardII’sassenttoanysuchagreement,andbeforehehadevenbroachedthesubjectwithhisroyalmaster,localrivals,jealousofhissuccess,lostnotimein
relayingaccountsofhissecretnegotiationswithRoberttothegovernment.HarclayhadreceivedacommissiontotreatwiththeScotsforafinalpeaceinthefailednegotiationsofFebruary1322,buthehadnosanctionwhateverforcommittinghiskingtosuchterms,andconsequentlyhehadviolatedhisallegianceandhishomage.On25February1323Harclaywas
arrestedinCarlisleCastlebyhislocalrivals,andhewastriedandhanged,drawnandquarteredshortlyafterwards.Yet,evenasheprepared
foracampaignin1323,itdawnedonEdwardIIthathecouldnolongerpersevereinyetanothercostly,futileexpedition.Hehadjustexecutedtheonemagnatecompetenttodefendthenorth.RobertsoughttheassistanceofHenrydeSully,
whomhehadrecentlycapturedatByland,toconveyamessagetoEdwardIIwhilehewasinEnglandenrouteforFrance.Inperson,heaskedtheFrenchmagnatetotransmitanofferofatruceuntil22May.ReturningtoFrancebywayoftheEnglishcourtinMarch1323,SullyboreRobert’slettersandhisoralcommentstoEdwardII.SullysentRobertadraftversionoftheletterwhich
wouldshortlybeforthcomingfromEdwardIIandwhichwasaddressednottoRobertasking,butto‘thepeopleofScotlandwhoareatwarwithhim’.BarrowseesinthetextofRobert’sreplytoSullyasenseofhumour,butitcanalsobereadasanexplosionofoutrageddignity:
WedesiredanddesirealwaystonegotiatewiththekingofEnglandafroresaidintheformofafinal
peacebetweenhimandourselves,savingalwaystousandtoourheirsourkingdomfreeandquitandalsotheconditionofourallies…Sironthismatterwehave
receivedlettersofyoursandtranscriptsof[EdwardII]’ssayingthathehasgrantedtothepeopleofScotlandwhoareatwarwithhimatruce;andthismannerofspeakingisverystrangetous,forinothertruceswhichhavebeenmadebetweenhimandus,wehavebeennamedastheprincipalashehasbeenontheother,thoughhewould
notstyleusking……thereisnomorereference
madetousthantothemeanestofourrealm.Anddonotwonderthereforethatwehavenotagreedtothistruce,butifithadappearedinthepropermannerweshouldwillinglyhaveacceptedit…
InfactthefinishedversionofEdwardII’sletterdoesaddressRobertasprincipal.Thissimplecaseof‘crossedwires’demonstratesthatRobertwasindeadlyearnest
abouthisclaimtothethroneandhisinsistenceonroyaldignity.Nevertheless,bythe
beginningofMayteamsofnegotiatorsmetonceagain,thistimeatNewcastle.TheEnglishwererepresentedbyPembrokeandthecurrentroyalfavouriteHughDespensertheyoungeramongothers;theScottishenvoyswereledbyMoray.Byapragmaticcompromise
eachsideacknowledgedthatafinalpeacecouldnotbereachedincurrentcircumstances,butundertooktoshelvetheconflictforthetimebeing,andtohopethatasolutionwouldsomehowemergeinthefuture.Fundamentalissueswereleftunsolved:neitherRobert’sroyaltitlenorScottishsovereigntyhadbeenacknowledgedbytheEnglish.Instead,itwasagreedthat
thereshouldbeatrucefrom12June,andthatitshouldlastforthirteenyears.NonewcastlesweretobebuiltintheEnglishorScottishmarches.ThegoodsofScottishshipsdrivenagroundontheEnglishcoastwouldberestored.EdwardwouldnotstandinthewayofRobert’sapproachestothepapacytohavesentenceofexcommunicationlifted.On30May1323theagreement
wasreached,anditwassubsequentlysealedatBishopsthorpenearYorkon12June1323.Asitwas,theEnglish
noblescouldbarelystomachthecompromise.AttheBishopsthorpecouncil,ominousrumblingsofdiscontentwereheardfromthosewhohadlosttitlesandestates.HenryBeaumont,who,havingfoughtformanyyearsinScotlandandmarried
AliceComyn,consideredthatheheldatitletotheearldomofBuchan,refusedtogivethekingcounselwhenasked,hadtobeorderedout,andonhiswayoutremarkedcontemptuouslytoEdwardIIthathepreferredtobeabsent.Magnateswhoharbouredsuchgrievancesbecameknownas‘theDisinherited’,andovertimetheyweretobecomeaforcepowerfulenoughtodestabilisethe
temporarytruce.Itstandstotheenormous
creditofRobertBrucethathedidnotinsistonfullrecognitionofhisrightsbutagreedtosucha‘fudge’.Now,sincetheexecutionofHarclay,hewouldhavefounditeasierthanevertoinflictfurthermiseryandstarvationuponthepopulationofnorthernEngland,devastatemoreterritory,extractmoresilver,enrichhisfollowers
andenhancehisreputationstillfurther.ItisunlikelythatRobertrealisedfullythegrowingunpopularityofEdwardII’sregimeatthisstage,orforesawanydangerofitscollapseandreplacementbyamorebelligerentregime.ButhewouldhavebeendeeplytroubledbythelossofsupportfromFlemishprivateerswhohadactedashisnavyintheNorthSea;his
worstfearswererealisedwhen,on18April1323,allScotswereorderedtoleaveFlanders.HewascertainlylookingoverhisshoulderatBallioloppositionwithinScotland.Crucially,Robertwasstillwithoutanheir,andexpectationofonemusthavebeendiminishingwithtime.Consequentlyhekeenlyfelttheneedforstabilityandpeacetoassistinestablishmentofadynasty.
Finally,tojudgefromhisofferintheBruce–Harclayagreementofamonasterytoprayforthesoulsofthosekilledinthewar,hewasmovedbyChristianhumanitarianconsiderationstopostponeextractionoftherecognitionthathecravedinordertosparethepresentgenerationtheevilsofanotherwar.ThusheallowedEdwardIIthisface-savingformula,trustingthatthe
futurewouldbringaboutconditionsforafinalsettlement.Forty-nineyearsold,war-wearyandplainlymostanxiousforapeace,Robertwouldhaveexpectedthetrucetolastatleastfortheremainderofhisownlifetime.Hewouldhavebeensurprisedtolearnthathisfightingdayswerenotyetover.
fundamentaldutyofallmedievalkings,andRobertstillhadmuchtodotosecureScotlandfromattack.Yetdefencewasonlyonefacetofmedievalkingship,thoughperhapsthemostimportant.Aboveall,akingwasexpectedtoshowerhisfaithfulfollowerswithfavours,privileges,giftsandsilver.Robert’sexpenditureonwarwasheavy,andtheeconomicburdenprobably
fellheaviestonhispoorersubjects,buttherewardsofsuccessfulwarwerecopious.RaidingtherelativelyrichcountiesofnorthernEnglandanddispossessionofhisScottishopponentsenabledRoberttorewardhisnobilitygenerously,tocreateatleasttheimpressionofagoldenage,fondlyrememberedforgenerations.Thecessationofhostilities
thatlastedfrom1323–26
affordsabreakinthenarrative,andanopportunitytoassessaspectsofRobert’skingshipunrelatedtowarfare.Akinginearlyfourteenth-centuryEuropewasexpectedtolookeveryinchaking;tobehaveregallyinword,gestureanddeed;tobrooknoequal;andtodominatethepoliticalandsociallandscape.Onewhofailedtoliveuptoexpectations–asEdwardIIofEnglanddid–couldfind
himselfinserioustrouble.Amonghisotherroles,thekingwasexpectedtomaintainthelawsandcustoms,providefortheroyalsuccession;safeguardtheinterestsoftheChurch(withouthoweveracceptingdictationfromchurchmen);protecthisownpositionagainsttreachery;managehisnobilitythroughroyalpatronage;maintainarecord-makingbureaucracy;and
sustainrelationswithotherkingdomsandcommunities.Legislationwasacrucial
functionofthemedievalmonarch,andthetendencyatthistimewasincreasinglyforlawstobepromulgatedinparliament,whichimpliedthefullestpossibleassentofthecommunityoftherealm.Novotesweretakeninmedievalparliaments;rathertheseassemblieswereusedbythemonarchtogatherconsentor
legitimacyforhisrule,forspreadingresponsibilityfordecisions,andespeciallyforspreadingfinancialresponsibilities.WeknowoftenparliamentsheldbyRobert,andtheremayhavebeenothers.Robertvaluedtherepresentativenatureofparliament,andonthreeoccasions–1312,1326and1328–heinvitedburgessesfromeachroyalburghtoattendtoenable
representationoftradinginterests.Sincetheburghsgeneratedconsiderablewealththeirinvolvementwascrucialwhenthekingrequiredagrantoftaxation.InJuly1326,attheparliamentofCambuskenneth,Robertwasgrantedforlifeonetenthofallrentsand‘ferms’(profitsorcontracts)throughoutScotland,and,inthesummonstothefollowing
parliamentatEdinburghinFebruary1328,burgesseswereobligedtobringwiththemthesealsoftheircommunitiessothattheirassentwouldbebinding.Atthatparliamenttheburgesseswerealsotogiveauthorityforthecollectionofthefirstinstalmentofthe£20,000‘contributionforpeace’inaccordancewiththeTreatyofEdinburgh–Northampton.After1326,burgh
representationatparliamentbecamethenorminScotland.Robertwasanxiousnotto
beseenasaninnovator,andthelawsheintroducedwereforthemostpartre-enactmentsofthelawsofpreviouskings.AttheSconeparliamentofDecember1318aseriesoftwenty-sevenlaws–theLawsofGoodKingRobert–werepromulgated,manyofthemrepetitionsoflawssupposedlypassedby
KingWilliamtheLioninthetwelfthcentury.TheybeginwithadeclarationthatthefreedomsofHolyChurchweretoberespected,andinclude:an‘assizeofarms’,whichlaiddownwhatweaponsandarmourweretobeproducedatthemusterbymenofvaryingdegreesofwealth;anadjustmentofpropertylawtotakeaccountoftheextensivechangesinpropertyownershipbrought
aboutbyforfeituresofwar;andinjunctionsthatmagnatesshouldkeeptheking’speace.Otherlawsrelatetoeverydayrurallife:oneregulatesthemeshoffishtrapssothatfrymightescape;anotherrestatestheoldlawregardingthesalmoncloseseason;athirdlaysdownfirmmeasurestopreventthespreadofsheepmurrain–infectedbeaststobeslaughteredwithineightdaysonpainofa£10fine.
Thislastmeasurewasapparentlyaresponse–somewhatbelated–totheepidemicofsheepdiseasewhichaccompaniedthefamineyears1315–17.Provisionforthe
successionwasafundamentaldutyoftheking,andthiswasdifficultforRobertbecausewarhadtakensuchaheavytollonhisbloodrelatives.ThereturntoScotlandofQueenElisabethin1315after
anabsenceofeightyears,aspartoftheprisoner-exchangefollowingthebattleofBannockburn,renewedRobert’schancesofanheir–and,aswehaveseen,deprivedEdwardBruceoftheprospectofathrone,motivatinghimtoinvadeIreland.Atthatpoint,theroyalsuccessionhadbeensettledbyaroyal‘tailzie’orentail,whichsetasidethenormalcourseofthelaw.
Robert’sson,werehetohaveone,wouldsucceed,but,intheeventofhishavingnoson,theclaimofhisdaughterMarjorie,hischildbyhisfirstmarriage,wouldbe–withherpermission–setaside,andEdwardBrucewouldinheritthekingdom.Suchwasthepremiumplacedonhavingasoldieronthethrone,abletoprotectthekingdom.OnthedeathofEdwardBruceinIrelandin1318,theroyal
successionwassettledonceagainbytailzieattheSconeparliament:intheeventofRobert’sdyingwithoutmaleheir,thethronewouldpasstoRobertStewart,thechildofthemarriagebetweenWaltertheStewardandMarjorie.ElisabethdeBurghhadpreviouslyborneRoberttwogirls:Maud,whofirstmarriedasimplesquire,butwasthenweddedtoHugh,EarlofRoss;andMargaret,who
marriedWilliam,EarlofSutherland.Roberthashadasmanyassixillegitimatechildrenascribedtohim;infactonlythreeofthesearenowthoughttohavebeenhisoffspring.Noneofthesecouldsucceedtothethrone,thoughtheelder,namedRobert,wasknightedontheeveofBannockburnandseemstohavebeenespeciallytrustedandable.39Atlast,on
5March1324maletwinswereborntoRobert.TheheirwasnamedDavidafterthewiseandsuccessfulDavidI,KingofScots(1124–53);theothertwin,John,diedininfancy.OnDavid’ssecondbirthdayin1326thenoblescongregatedatCambuskennethtoperformhomageandfealty,andthereitwassettled,onceagainbyroyaltailzie,thatRobertStewartwouldinheritonlyif
DavidBrucediedwithoutheir.40Itwasalwaysenvisagedthat,intheeventofRobert’sdyingbeforeDavidshouldcomeofage,Morayshouldbecomeguardianofthekingdomforthedurationoftheroyalminority.Thiscametopassin1328,whenthefive-year-oldDavidsucceededtothethrone.Religionbeingsucha
dominantaspectofmedieval
life,everykinghadtomanageecclesiasticalaffairscarefully.Asstatedalready,theScottishChurchwasremarkableforitsgroupsolidarityandtheclosenessofitstieswithRome.Yetinspiteofpapaldisapprovalandapplicationofthestrongestreligioussanctions,RobertwasabletorelyuponthebishopsofGlasgowandStAndrews,AbbotBernardofArbroathandotherleadersof
clericalopiniontomaintaintheChurchasamainstayoftheBrucemonarchy.41TheDeclarationoftheClergypublishedattheStAndrewsparliamentof1309wassuccessivelyreissuedbytheChurchtoemphasizeitssupportfortheregime.A‘generalcouncil’oftheChurchwasheldatDundee,inthechurchoftheFriarsMinorinFebruary1310,and,
onthereleaseoftheagedbishopRobertWishartafterBannockburn,allthebishopsofScotlandappendedtheirsealstothedeclarationshowingthesolidarityoftheScottishepiscopatewiththemonarch.Inreturnforclericalsupport,Robertwasamunificentpatron.HispatronageoftheFranciscans–theGreyfriars–waspartlyperhapsinpenitenceforthesacrilegiousmurderof
Comynin1306.HegrantedtheGreyfriarsofDumfries,inwhosechurchthemurderhadbeencommitted,anannualrentof40marks,and20markstoeachoftheotherhouses.HecompensatedtheCisterciansofDeerAbbeyfordamageprobablycausedduringtheherschipofBuchan.Inthepresenceofsevenbishopsandfifteenabbots,Robertattendedthededicationofthenewly
completedStAndrewsCathedralon5July1318,makingovertothecanonsofthecathedraltheparishchurchofFordoun,whichwasinhisgift.TheCistercianhouseatMelrosehoweverbenefitedmostfromRobert’sgenerosity.Fortherebuildingofthathouse–possiblyafterwardamage–in1325,hegranteditaclassofroyalrevenuesfromRoxburghshireuntilitshouldhave£2,000.
Then,earlyin1326hemadearemarkablegranttothemonksofMelrose,providingdailytoeachmonkanexpensiveluxury,adishofriceinalmondorpea-water‘tobecalledtheking’sdish’.Ifanymonkrefusedit,itwastobegiventothepoor.Outofincomessetasideforthispurpose,themonksweretoclotheandfeedfifteenpaupersannually.Robert’sexcommunication
wasfirstpronouncedin1307,asmurdererandrebelagainsttheauthorityofEdwardIandhisson,madenormalrelationswiththepapacyimpossible.By1310,thishadbeencancelled.However,PopeJohnXXII,newlyelectedinAugust1316,acceptedtheEnglishviewthattheScottishWarofIndependencewasnothingmorethanrebellionandhecalledontheScotstodesist:
‘theircontumacyacauseofperiltoChristiansoulsandthecauseofthespillingofmuchChristianblood,whileonlytheinfidelwhotrampledontheHolyLandcouldfindinitcauseforrejoicing.’DispatchingthecardinalsGaucelinandLuketoScotlandin1317aswehaveseen,heattemptedtoimposeatwo-yeartrucebetween‘ourdearsoninChrist,Edward,theillustriouskingof
England’and‘ourbelovedsonthatnoblemanRobertdeBrus,callinghimselfkingofScotland’.Atfirsttwoenvoysweresentbythecardinals,bearinglettersannouncingthecoronationofJohnXXIIandothersrelatingtothetrucebetweenthekingdomswhichthepapacywasattemptingtoimpose.OnenteringScotlandtheenvoyswereinterviewedinAugust1317atRoxburghCastlebyJamesDouglasand
AlexanderSeton,thestewardoftheroyalhousehold.TheywerethenescortedbyaroyalclerktoMelrosewhereRoberttoldthem‘notwithoutindignationandwrath’thathewouldnotacceptbullsorlettersthatdidnotaddresshimasking,andthathehadnointentionofallowingpublicationoftheletterswhichaddressedhimonlyas‘GovernorofScotland’.Robertpointedoutthatthere
wereinScotlandseveralRobertBruceswho,incommonwithothernobles,weregovernorsofthekingdomofScotland,and,whileheopenedandreadpapallettersbearingaddresstotheScotsingeneral,herefusedtoopensealedpapallettersthatwerenotaddressedtohimspecificallyasking.IntheirreporttheenvoyscitedaletterwrittenbythebaronsofScotlandto
thecardinalsstatingthat,eveniftheScottishkingwerewillingtoforgotheroyaltitle,hiscouncilandbaronswouldoverrulehim.Thisdidnotreflectpoliticalreality;Robertwasmerelyusingthisconvenientfictiontospreadresponsibilityforrefusaltoco-operatewiththepapacyfromhisownshouldersontothecommunityoftherealm.HeapparentlyhiredNorthumbrianbanditsto
ambushthecardinalsandpreventtheirentryintoScotlandastheyapproachedtheborderon1September1317,asdescribedinapreviouschapter.LaterintheyearRobertsentthecardinalsalettercomposedbyhisbaronsthatspeltouttothecardinalsthattheirkinghadnopowertowaivehisrightsinthismatter.‘Withouttheroyaladdress,therecouldbenodiscussion.’
UnabletodelivertheirlettersintoScotland,thecardinalscomplainedthatRoberthad‘stoppedhisearsafterthemannerofadeafadder,lesthemighthearthewordsofthewisefatherwhoexhortedhim’.TwofriarswhoenteredScotlandbearingthelettershadthemsnatchedandtorntopieces,andthefriarsthemselvesweresetuponandrobbed.Theseatleastwereallowedtogo
unharmed;thenextmessenger,Adam,guardianoftheFranciscanhouseatBerwick,wasnotsolucky.IntrepidationhesetouttofindtheKingofScotson16December.Hedidnothavefartogo:RobertwasinthewoodsatOldCambus,preparingsiegeenginesforanassaultonBerwick.Seton,theroyalsteward,deniedAdamaccesstothekingbutdemandedthelettersfrom
him,sayingthathewoulddeliverthemtoRobert.BeforehandingthemovertoSeton,Adambravelyproceededtoproclaimthetrucethereandthen,whileacrowdgatheredtoshouthimdown.Asexpected,RobertrefusedtoacceptthelettersfromSeton’shandbecausetheydidnotaddresshimasking,andSetonreturnedthemtoAdam,tellinghimtoclearoutofScotland.Seton,
however,deniedhimasafeconduct,andonhiswaybackAdamwasroughedupbyfourmenandrobbedoftheletters,hisclothesandeverythinghepossessed.RobertwentontocaptureBerwickandraidEnglandinpointeddefianceofthepapaltruce.Bythisheprovokedtherenewedpapalexcommunicationof29May1318,ofhimselfbynameandofhissupporters,andthe
impositionofaninterdictontheirlands,excludingthefaithfulfromparticipationincertainservicesandrituals.Sofaraswecantell,thesentencewasignoredinScotland.Thecardinalsgaveup
tryingtodeliverthepapalsentence,anddecidedthatpublishingthelettereverywhereelseinBritainandIrelandwouldhavetodo.Accordingly,byletterposted
uponthechurchdoorsthroughoutEnglandon19August1318,RobertBruceandhissupportersweregiventendaystodesist,orfaceimmediateexcommunication.ThisnewsentenceextendednotonlytoBruce’ssupportersbuttoallwhosomuchasprovidedthemwithsupplies.AllobligationsordebtstotheScotsweretoberegardedasnullandvoid.Thecardinalswithdrewto
FrancefulminatingthatBrucehad‘hardenedhisheartinanidolatrousmanner,notwithoutsuspicionofhereticaldepravity.’On8January1320,the
popecitedRobertandthefourbishopsofStAndrews,Dunkeld,AberdeenandMoraytoappearbeforehiminpersonorbyproxyon1May,andhefurnishedsafeconductstoenablethemtodoso.Robertandthebishops
ignoredthesummons,but,followingaroyalcouncilatNewbattleinMarch1320,decideduponawrittenreplytothebarrageofpapalsanctions.TheresponsetoJohnXXIIisamasterpieceofpatrioticrhetoric,whichexpresseslucidlythepassionofsmallnationseverywhereforfreedomandjusticeandrecognition.IntheDeclarationofArbroathsomeseeonlyRobert’sresponseto
theaccusingpapalbulls,otherstheoriginsofScottishconstitutionalism,whileothersstillviewitasanexpressionofmedievalnationalism.Thefamousletterofthe
baronsofScotlandtoPopeJohnXXII,dispatchedtothepapalcuriaafter6April1320anddeliveredatAvignonbetween17Juneand29Julybythreehandpickedenvoys,hasmanyantecedents.The
earliestandmostobviousmodelistheletteroftheEnglishbaronstoBonifaceVIIIof1301,rejectingpapalinterferenceonbehalfoftheScots.Thoughitborethesealsofsevenearlsandsixty-fourbarons,ithadbeenframedbyroyalclerks.TheDeclarationtoo,thoughitpurportedtobethespontaneousresponseofthecommunityoftherealm,wasclearlyorganisedandwritten
byRobert’schancery.AseconddocumentthatfurnishedmuchofthereasoningintheDeclarationwastheProcessusofBaldredBisset,alsowrittenin1301:itcontainedacomprehensivelistofargumentsforrejectionofEdwardI’sclaims.Athirdantecedent,theRemonstranceoftheIrishPrinceswassenttothepapalcourtbyDonalO’Neillin1317,andcomplainedbitterlyandat
lengthofEnglishinjusticesinthatcountryandembracedEdwardBruceaskingofIreland.However,theimmediateforerunneroftheDeclarationappearstohavebeentheletter,nowlost,writtenfromtheScottishbaronstothecardinalsin1317.Thetextofthedeclarationwasthustheculminationofalongthoughtprocess,towhichtherehadbeenmanycontributors.
TheformandsentimentsoftheDeclarationhadthenbeendevelopedovertwentyyears,anditwascomposedwithgreatcare,probablyunderthesupervisionofRobert’schancellor,AbbotBernardofArbroath.CertainofitsphrasesaredrawnfromtheclassicalauthorsSallustandCicero;otherinternalevidencepointstofamiliaritywiththeOldTestamentbooksoftheMaccabees;italso
drawsfreelyuponcanonlawarguments.Sinceitwasdraftedbyroyalclerks,theDeclarationreflectstheBruceregime’sviewofitself,ratherthantheobjectiveviewofthebarons.ItisscarcelysurprisingthentofindinthedocumentapanegyriconRobert’sachievements,andstressonthedebtScotlandowedtoRobert:
Butfromthesecountlessevilswe
havebeensetfree,bythehelpofhimwhothoughheafflictsyethealsandrestores,byourmostvaliantprince,kingandlord,thelordRobert,who,thathispeopleandhisheritagemightbedeliveredoutofthehandsofenemies,borecheerfullytoilandfatigue,hungeranddanger,likeanotherMaccabeusorJoshua.Divineprovidence,thesuccessiontohisrightaccordingtoourlawsandcustomswhichweshallmaintaintothedeath,andthedueconsentandassentofusallhavemadehimourprinceandking.Wearebound
tohimforthemaintainingofourfreedombothbyhisrightsandmerits,astohimbywhomsalvationhasbeenwroughtuntoourpeople,andbyhim,comewhatmay,wemeantostand.
Whenafaircopyofthedocumenthadbeenmade,thematricesofthemagnates’privatesealswerecollectedinorderthatsealscouldbeattachedatonceandwithoutthedocumenthavingtobebroughtalloverthecountry
totheirvariousresidences.Thefictionthatthedocumentexpressedtheviewsofthebaronswasplayedupontogreateffect;however,itisthoughtthatthegovernment’sroundingupofmagnates’personalsealsgeneratedresentmentandmayhavecontributedtosupportfortheconspiracyofthatyear.Thefollowingclause–the‘constitutionalclause’–expressedtheideathatthe
king’shandsweretiedbytheunanimousandresoluteoppositionofhismagnatestoanydilutionofhisdemands:‘Yetif[Robert]shouldgiveupwhathehasbegun,seekingtomakeusorourkingdomsubjecttothekingofEnglandortotheEnglish,wewouldstriveatoncetodrivehimoutasourenemyandasubverterofhisownrightandours,andwewouldmakesomeothermanwho
wasabletodefendusourking;foraslongasahundredofusremainalive,wewillneveronanyconditionsbesubjectedtothelordshipoftheEnglish.’ThethemethattheKingof
Scots’powercould,undercertaincircumstances,belimitedhadbeenfirstanticipatedinKingJohn’sresponsetoEdwardI’saccusationsattheWestminsterparliamentof
1293,andthenechoedinthebarons’lettertothecardinalsof1317.Thisideaisunlikelytohavehadanyfoundationinlaworcustom;itrepresentsaconvenientfictionadoptedbyScottishkingswhenunwillingtoadoptaparticularcourseofaction,arhetoricalflourish,ratherthanevidenceofanyproto-constitutionalarrangementoractuallimitationofroyalpower.Thelanguageofthe
Declarationbuildsslowlytoamemorableclimax:‘Forwefightnotforglory,norriches,norhonours,butforfreedomalone,whichnogoodmangivesupexceptwithhislife.’Therehasbeenmuchdiscussionastohowthis‘freedom’isintendedtobeunderstood:thepersonalfreedom,ofmenfromanoverweeninglord–incontrastwithserfdom?Orgroupfreedom,ofapeople
fromsubjection?Ifthelatter,thenthereissubstancetotheclaimthattheDeclarationexpressesnationalistsentiment.YetRobertneverclaimedtobefightingfortheScottishnation.Hedisplayedanunderstandingof‘thenation’thatisdifficulttoreconcilewithnationalismasweunderstandit.Inhisletterto‘allthekingsofIreland,totheprelatesandclergyandtheinhabitantsofIreland’he
seemstohaveconceivedof‘ournation’asembracingnotjustthepeopleofScotlandbutthepeoplesofIrelandaswell.Hisideaofthenationwasthereforearchaic,farremovedfrommodernnationalismaswehaveknownitfromtheFrenchRevolutiononwards.TheDeclarationisthe
greatestmonumenttoRobertBruce:itishismissionstatement,hisjustificationfor
wagingwar.Itsvalues–justice,acknowledgementofindependenceandrespectforethnicdifference–applyacrosshistory;anditraisesperennialquestions:whatisfreedom?Whatisthenation?Whatissovereignty?Andwhatjustifiesresistancetogovernment?TheDeclarationmaynotbethefountofScottishconstitutionalism,itmaynothaveinspiredtheAmericanDeclarationof
Independence,butitstimelessqualitiessaveRobertfromdenigrationas‘justanotherwarlord’.Robertconceivedofhimselfasfightingforright,andengagedinajustbutunevenstruggleworthyoftheattentionandrecognitionoftheknownworld.InthefaceofRobert’strenchantopposition,themedievalpapacy,lessimpressedbytheDeclarationofArbroaththanpainfullyawareofitsown
weaknessinthefaceofintractablemonarchies,knewwhentoseekaccommodation,andbytheendofthereign(1328)hadliftedalltheexcommunicationsandtheinterdict,restoringScotlandfullytoitspositioninmedievalChristendom,eventotheextentofgrantingtheritesofcoronationandunctiontoitskings.TheDeclarationof
ArbroathwasintendedtopresentapictureofabaronageunitedinitsdemandforrecognitionofBruce’skingship.Itisironicthat,virtuallycoincidentwiththesendingofthisdocument,thereemergesintothepartiallightaconspiracyagainstthatkingship,knownastheSoulesConspiracy.HistoryhasbeensothoroughlyrewrittenbyRobert’sadmirersthatscantrecord
survivesofoppositiontotheBrucemonarchy.YetweknowfromEnglishsourcesthatsuchopposition–forexamplethecontinuedMacDougallandMacSweenactivityinArgyllandKnapdale–wassignificantandoftensponsoredbytheEnglishgovernment.Legitimacywasaverystrongclaimtokingship,anditisnotsurprisingthatsupportfortheBalliolclaimpersisted.In
1320,aglimpseisaffordedofthestrengthoflegitimistoppositiontoRobert,andasenseofthepotentialforinstabilitywhichexistedintherealmofthehero-king.Untilrecentlythe
collectionbyforceoflords’privatesealsforappendingtotheDeclarationofArbroathwasconsideredtobeaprincipalcauseoftheconspiracy.MichaelPenmanhoweverhastraceditsorigins
backto1318,andidentifiedothercauses:aweaknessintheBruceregimeafterdefeatinIrelandandapplicationofrenewedpapalsanctions;theeffortsofEdwardIItoeffectregimechangeinScotlandthroughhissponsorshipofEdwardBalliolasanalternativecandidateforkingship;failureoftheBrucelandsettlementinthesouthwesttoplaceasinglestronglordincontrolofthe
chieftainsofGallowayandtheformerBalliolretainers;andexclusionfromroyalpatronageofBalliolandComynretainerswhohaddefectedtoRobert’ssideandexpectedtoberewardedwithtitles,landsandgrants.Chroniclesarefairly
consistentastowhowasinvolvedintheplot:themagnateWilliamSoules;Agnes,wifeofearlMaliseofStrathearn;theprominent
knightsSirDavidBrechinandSirRogerMowbray;andtheminorknightsSirGilbertMalherbeandSirJohnLogy.TothislistBarbouraddsRichardBroune,asquire.Therearemanypuzzlingfeaturestotheconspiracy.Barbourclaimsthatitwasrevealedtotheauthoritiesby‘acertainlady’–usuallytakentomeanthecountessofStrathearn–whereasanothersourcestatesthatitwas
MurdochMenteithwhoinformedtheregime.Barbouralsorelates,improbably,thattheconspiratorsintendedtoinstallWilliamSoulesasking.ConspiracyinfavourofBalliolandComyninterestsishowevervastlymorelikely.ItisremarkablehowmanyofthemalcontentshadComynwivesormothers.CountessAgnesofStrathearnwasadaughterofAlexanderComyn,EarlofBuchan;so
toowerethemothersofWilliamSoulesandDavidBrechin,andthewivesofGilbertd’Umfraville,earlofAngusandPatrickearlofMarchandDunbar–allofwhomwere,toagreaterorlesserdegree,involvedintheplot.42AlthoughSoules’fatherhadbeenaCompetitorfortheScottishthronein1286,theSoulesinteresthadneverbeencanvassedasa
seriousalternativetotheBrucemonarchy.Furthermore,hadWilliamSoulesbeenthefocusforrevolt,hewouldmostcertainlyhavesufferedexecutionwhenfoundguilty,whereashewasmerelyimprisonedforlife.MostlikelytheconspiracyaimedtoreplaceRobertwithEdwardBalliol,thesonofKingJohn,whosubsequently,in1324,wasinvitedtoEnglandand
whoseclaimtotheScottishthronewasaccordedfullrecognitionbytheEnglishking.Inthespringof1320the
arrestsweremade.SouleswascapturedinBerwick,wherehehadbeenassemblinghisfollowers,suggestingthatexecutionoftheplotwasimminent.Penmandoesnotruleoutthepossibilityofanopenconfrontationbytherebels,a
battleorindeedashortcampaign,culminatinginthesurrenderofSoules’360liveriedfollowersinBerwickin1320.InAugust,attheBlackParliamentatScone,ashowtrialwasheld,theleadingconspirators–thecountess,SoulesandMenteith–admittingtheirguilt.Menteith,theinformer,wasacquitted;Soulesandthecountesswerebothsentencedtolifeimprisonment.Brechin,
Malherbe,LogyandBrounewereallsentencedtobedraggedbyhorsesandbeheaded.RogerMowbrayhaddiedbeforethetrialcommenced,buthiscorpsewascarriedintocourtonalitterandmadetostandtrial–afactomittedbyBarbour.Thereasonforthismacabreproceedingwasthatforfeitureoflandscouldonlybepronouncedoverthebodyoftheconvict,andthusthe
presenceofthecorpseenabledRoberttoclaimMowbray’slands.Robertsparedthecorpsemutilation,andpermittedburial,yetthisanxietytoseizethedeadman’sestatesrevealsapettyorgraspingsidetohischaracter.PatrickGrahamandfourotherswereacquittedinthetrial;AlexanderMowbray,alsoreportedtobeinvolvedintheplot,fledtoEnglandtoavoid
trial.SuppressionoftheconspiracymayhavecostRobertdearlyintermsofpublicaffection.Barbourshowsgreataffectionfor‘goodSirDavyofBrechin’andsadnessathisexecution;hehasSirIngramdeUmfravilleleaveScotland,disgustedandgrievingforBrechin.UmfravilleismorelikelytohavefledScotlandinfearofhislife,sincemembersofhisfamilywere
involvedintheconspiracy.Thesemaybereflectionsofnoblerevulsionagainsttheexecutions.ThatRobertweatheredthestormmustbedowntothehandlingofthecrisis,andtohisaccumulationofsufficientsupporttowithstandattacksfromBalliollegitimists.Oneofthemainfactors
thatpermittedRobertsuchcontrolofhisnobilitywasthefactthatduringhislongwar
toestablishhimselfaskinghehaddestroyedvirtuallyalltheprivatefortificationsinScotland,denyingthearistocracytheluxuryofremaininguncommittedtohiscause,andplacingthemathismercy.AlltheauthoritiesagreeupontheconservatismofRobertIwithrespecttohisanxietytopreservethetitlesandpropertyrightsoftheScottishnobility.Fewofthegreataristocraticlineageshad
supportedtheBruceclaimfrom1306,theprincipalexceptionsbeingMalcolm,EarlofLennoxandAlan,EarlofMenteith.ToalargeextentthestoryofthereignishowScotland’sgreatfamiliesbecamereconciledtotheBrucemonarchy.Somehewonovertohissidebypersuasion,othershecompelledbythreatsandintimidation.William,EarlofRoss,hehadatfirstto
intimidatein1308,thoughfromthenRossremainedafaithfulally.Malise,EarlofStrathearn,wascompelledearlytodohomage.MalisethendefectedtotheEnglishanddefendedPerthagainstRobertin1312and1313,and,thoughhewasallowedtoliveinpeace,heappearstohavebeendivestedofhislandsandtitleandhissoninstalledasearlinhisstead.David,EarlofAtholl,
defectedtoRobert’ssidein1312;Duncan,EarlofFife,in1315.SinceDuncanhadlefthiswifeinEnglishcustody,aspecialtailziehadtobedevisedonthisoccasiontoensurethattherewouldalwaysbeanearlofFife;itwas,afterall,theearlofFifewhobycustomledthemonarchtothethroneontheoccasionofenthronement.Robertdidnotgenerally
raiseuppretendersto
earldomswheretheearlsidedagainsthim.Wehaveseenhow,attheparliamentofDundeeinOctober1313,Robertissuedanultimatumthat,afteroneyear,anyAnglo-ScotswhohadnotcometohispeacecouldnotexpecttoinheritinScotland.AyearlateritwasdulyproclaimedattheparliamentofCambuskennethinNovember1314thatScotswho‘hadnotcomeintohis
peaceandfaith,althoughoftencalledandlawfullyawaited,bedisinheritedforeveroftheirlandsandholdingsandalltheirotherestatewithinthekingdomofScotland,andbeheldasenemiesofthekingandkingdom,deprivedofallvindicationofheritablerightoranyotherrighthereafterforthemselvesortheirheirsforever.’RoberthadrefusedtodisinheritMar,Dunbar,
AngusorAthollwhentheseearlschosetostayloyaltoEdwardII.Duringthirtyyearsofwarfare,Robertinonlytwocaseswasdriventodisinheritearls:AtholldesertedRobertontheveryeveofBannockburn,andasaconsequencehecouldhardlydootherwisethandisinherithiminNovember1314.ThetitleoftheUmfravilleearlsofAngus,whofoughtconsistentlyagainstRobert,
wasnotinterferedwithuntiltheveryendofthereignwhenRobertgrantedittoSirJohnStewartofBunkle.Justastherewasno
wholesaleintrusionofmenoflowerstatusintotheancientearldoms,sotherewasaminimumofinterferenceintheirstructure.Robertdismemberedoneearldomandcreatedoneother.HehadalreadydestroyedthelandsoftheearldomofBuchanwith
fireandswordwhentheComynearlsfailedinthemaleline,withthedeathwithoutchildrenin1308ofJohnComyn,ConstableofScotland.Thereweretwoco-heiresses,niecesofJohnComyn;one,thewifeofJohnofRoss,cameintohalftheestate,butsincehersister,theotherco-heiress,wasoutsidetheking’speace–shewasinfactthewifeoftheking’senemyHenryBeaumont–
Roberttookadvantageofthesituationtodismemberanearldomwhichwasafocusofbitteropposition,andheparcelledoffitslandsandappurtenancestohisfaithfulfollowers:SirRobertKeith,SirGilbertHay,ArchibaldDouglasandothers.TheearldomwhichRobertcreatedwasthatofMorayin1312,forhisnephewandchieflieutenantThomasRandolph.Itcomprisedvariouslands
heldbythecrown,includingBadenochandpartsofLochaber,whichhadbeenheldbythemurderedJohnComyn.Robertistobefaultedfordiminishingtheestateofthecrown,yet,giventhatthekingwasexpectedtorewardhisfaithfulfollowers,thisisscarcelytobewonderedat.Theearldomwascreated,afterall,forhisownclosestcompanionandhischiefcommander,aman
towhomheowedaverygreatdebt.AccordinglyRandolphreceivedmanygeneroustitles:thelordshipofNithsdalefromabout1306,theearldomofMorayfrom1312,theoldBrucelordshipofAnnandalefromthesametime,andthelordshipofManin1316,arewardforpromisedserviceinIreland.TheIsleofManwassubsequentlyregrantedtohimin1324,intermsthatwere
spectacularlycompleteintheiralienationofroyalrights.EvenpleasofthecrownandadministrationofroyaljusticeonManweremadeovertohim.Intermsofthelargessehereceivedfromthecrown,MorayeclipsedevenEdwardBruce:Edward’searldomofCarrick,grantedin1313,carriednocomparableprivileges.Moray’spre-eminentpositionamongthenoblesofScotland
wasundoubtedlyanimportantfactorinmotivatingEdwardtoseekakingdomofhisowninIreland.Forfeituresofwarprovided
Robertwithenormousreservesofpatronagewithwhichtorewardfaithfulfollowersandtemptrecalcitrantnoblestocometohispeace.SeizuresofthepropertyofsuchpowerfulmagnatesasJohnBalliol,JohnComynofBadenoch,
and,aswehaveseen,JohnComyn,EarlofBuchan,gavethekingvastestates,privileges,titlesandrightstodisposeof.A‘dangerousmess’ofclaimsandcounter-claimsexisted–especiallyinthesouth-westofScotland–inthewakeoftwodecadesofwarfare.ThechiefflawinRobert’spost-warlandsettlementwashisfailuretoappointasinglecontrollinginterestinthisdeeply
troubledregion,overtheformerBalliollandsinGallowayandWigtownshire.JohnBalliol’slordshipofGallowaywasgrantedfirsttoEdwardBruceand,followingEdward’sdeathin1318,thekinggrantedthechiefcastleofthatlordship,Buittle,toJamesDouglas.DouglasalsoreceivedBalliol’spropertyofLauder.RobertBoydreceivedKilmarnockandRobertStewart,theking’s
grandson,gainedformerBalliollandsinCunningham.InthefarwestofScotland,RobertI’sexpulsionoftheMacDougallsallowedhimtorewardJohnofMenteith–towhomRobertgavetheMacSweenterritoryofKnapdale–andtherelativesofSirNeilCampbell–ArthurCampbellreceivedDunstaffnageCastleandLorn,andDuncanCampbellwasgivenLoudonand
StevenstoninAyrshire.ButRobert’smainalliesinthewestweretheMacDonalds,ledbyAngusÓg.Robertprobablyaccordedhimmanygrantsandprivileges,butfewareextant.AnguswasprobablyconfirmedinhispossessionofIslayandthetraditionalMacDonaldlandsinKintyre,andhewasrewardedwiththeformerComynlordshipofLochaber,MorvernandArdnamurchan,
alongwithDurorandGlencoe.FormerMacDougalllandsofMullandTireeweregrantedtoAlexanderofIslay,whowassuccessortoAngusÓg.PerhapstheMacDonaldsreceivedmanymoreterritoriesthatweknownothingof,butperhapsnot,forRobertseemstohavebeenconsciousofthedangerofraisingupover-mightysubjectsinthewest.Manylandsthatmighthavebeen
grantedtotheMacDonaldswenttoothers,andRoberthimselfretainedDunavertyCastleinhisownhands,andbuiltanothercastleatTarbert,increasingroyalpoweranddiminishingthatoftheGaelicclans.Nevertheless,MacDonaldsupportforRobertprovidedthefoundationoftheireventualaccessiontopower,forthe‘lordshipoftheIsles’emergedwithinafewyears
ofRobert’sdeath.AlongwithMorayandthe
MacDonalds,therewereothersparticularlyfavoured.ThefamilyofthehereditarystewardofScotlandwasrepeatedlyandlavishlyrewarded.WaltertheStewardreceivedin1315thehandinmarriageofMarjorie,thenRobert’sonlychild.HealsoreceivedthebaronyofBathgateandmostoftheComynbaronyof
Dalswinton.Hissonandhisrelatives,theStewartsofBunkle,alsobenefitedfromroyallargesse.JamesDouglastoowasgrantedmanyforfeitures:Buittle,Lauderdale,Cockburn,Bedruleandothers.Besidesrewardinghisleadingcommanders,Robertalsoremuneratedthosewhohadshownfaithinhimatanearlystage:thesmallgroupofearlysupporterswho
embracedhiscausein1306andthosewhosharedhisoutlawexistenceinGallowayandCarrickin1307–8.TheyincludedChristopherSeton,NeilCampbellandSimonFraser,eachofwhomwasrewardedwithmarriagetoasisteroftheking.SirRobertKeith,themarischal;SirGilbertHay,thehereditaryconstableofScotland;andSirRobertBoydallreceivedspecialmarksofroyalfavour.
Onthebackofahugelysuccessfulforeignwar,RobertIdidnotperhapsneedtobeaconsummatemanagerofroyalpatronage.Neverthelesstherewasnothingrandomorunpredictableaboutthedistributionoffavours,titlesandprivileges,andthosewhosupportedtheregimewererewarded,oftenhandsomely,andatthelong-termexpenseofthecrown.TheEnglandof
EdwardIIfurnishesastarkcontrast,whereaccesstothecornucopiaofroyalfavourwascontrolledbyanarrowcliqueofgreedyroyalfavourites,andwhereagrowingsenseofinsecuritycharacterisedrelationsbetweenmagnatesandcrown.Itisremarkablehowthe
royalbureaucracy,shatteredbydefeatin1296,wasrevived,firstbytheguardians,andthenbyKing
Robert.Thewholeoftheexistingroyalarchive–therollsuponwhichcopiesofoutgoinglettersweremade–appearstohavebeencarriedoffbyEdwardI.ButRobertwillhavebeenabletocalluponsomeofAlexanderIII’schancerypersonneltocompensateforthis,amongthemAbbotBernard.BernardservedRobertaschancellorfrom1310or1311to1328.Forthelastyearofthereign,
WalterTwynhamtookovertheoffice.Chancellorandchamberlainco-operatedclosely,and,becauseofthesmallsizeofbothbureaucracies,thereappearstohavebeengreatflexibilityintheiroperation.Aregisterofdeedswaskeptonrollsofparchment,and,thoughallbutoneoftheoriginalrollswerelostwiththefounderingofashipin1660,muchoftheinformationtheycontained
hasnowbeenrecoveredfromothersources.Robert’schartershavebeenpainstakinglycollectedfromscatteredsourcesandeditedbyProfessorDuncan,forgeriesdiscoveredanddiscarded.Likethechancery,thechamber,theroyalfinancialapparatus,musthavebeenfullyrestoredandfunctioningaccordingtousageofAlexanderIII’stimebyabout1309,whenthe
BrucecourtwaspossessedofsufficientgravitasandcashtoconductrelationswiththekingofFrance,toentertainthreeEnglishearls,andtostage-manageageneralcounciloftheScottishKirk.Theexchequerrollof1326–27showsthatrestorationofthechamberwasconservative,aswemightexpect.Nevertheless,theresuscitationoftheapparatusoftheAlexandrine
bureaucracywasatremendousfeat,andthesingleaccomplishmentthatunderpinnedmostofRobert’sotherachievements.Regulatingtheeconomy
wasofcoursefarbeyondthecompetenceofanymedievalmonarch,yettheactivitiesofkingshadprofoundeconomicrepercussions.Robert’sachievementofkeepingtheEnglishlargelyoutofthecountrywillnothave
protectedScotlandfromtheilleffectsofthemovementoffriendlyarmies,ofteneverybitasharmfulasforeigninvasion.Duringthe1310sScotlandwasboundtohavebeenaffectedbythesamemeteorologicaldisastersastherestofEurope:shewillnothaveescapedthefamineandmayhavebeenparticularlybadlyaffectedbydiseasesofsheepin1315–17andofcattlefrom1318to
1322.InthesedifficultcircumstancesspoilsofsuccessfulforeignwarwillhavehelpedsecureRobertonhisthrone,butitisimpossibletosaywhethertheinfluxoflootandtheransomsextortedfromthenorthofEnglandeasedtheplightofthepoorinanyrespect,orwhethertherewasinanysenseageneralenrichmentofScotland.Ariseinthepricesoffoodandeverydaycommoditiesmight
indicateaninfluxofbullionintothecountry,butthereisinsufficientdataonthebehaviourofpricesatthisstage.Agreatdealofcashmustalsohaveleftthecountry,muchofitforthepocketsofIrishkingsandmagnatestopurchasetheiralliance.Muchtoowasspentonimportsoffoodstuffsandwarmaterials–thecargoesofthethirteengreatcogsof1315willhavecomeata
heavycost.Kingswere,however,
expectedto‘liveofftheirown’,toprovidefortheroyalhouseholdoutofroyalestatesandcustomaryincomes,andonlyexceptionallytoburdentheirsubjectswithdemandsfortaxation.Financialrecordsoftheking’sincomeexistonlyfortheveryendofthereignhowever:thehalfoftheexchequeryear1327andthewholeof1328and1329.This
representsapartialsnapshotofroyalfinances;whatislackingisafilmshowingtheirdevelopment,anditisimpossibletoknowwhetherRobert’sincomeswereincreasingordecreasing.Exportdutiesonwoolandhideswereamajorsourceofrevenue,theking’s‘greatcustom’broughtin£1,851in1328.OnethirdofthiscamefromBerwick,andtheportsofEdinburgh,Aberdeenand
Dundeecontributedsuccessivelysmalleramounts.Townsproducedlesserincomestoo,butratherthancollectthesethroughroyalofficialsinlargetowns,Robertfarmedouttheprofitsoftheburghtothecitizens.In1319heallowedtheprofitsoftheburghofAberdeentobeheld‘infee-farm’bythecitizens,and,inreturnforanannualpaymentof£213,allrevenuesduetothekingwere
waived.Tollsonproduceenteringandleavingtheburgh,feesandlevieswerehenceforthcollectedbythecitizensandusedforcommunalprojects.Largertownstooweregrantedfee-farmcharters:in1320royalprofitsofBerwickweresoldinthiswaybythecrownfor500marks(£333);in1329thoseofEdinburghwerecommutedfor£34.Littlecansafelybeinferredfromthe
differingratesofcommutation;muchwillhavedependeduponroyalwhim,andweareuncertainastowhethertheseagreementswerebutapartofwiderbargainsstruckbetweencrownandburghs.Thiswasgoodfortheburghs,whichsufferedlessfromroyalinterferenceandenjoyedmoreself-government,butnotsogoodforthemonarchywhichhadsettledforan
annualfixedsum.Profitsofthetwenty-sixroyalburghscameto£1,133in1328.RobertcreatedanewburghatTarbert,thenarrowisthmusbetweenKintyreandKnapdale,whichappearstohavebeenaneconomicsuccesswhilehisreignlasted.Therehealsobuiltalargecastle,costinginexcessof£450atEastLochTarbert,andhadatrackcutforthehaulageofgalleystoWest
LochTarbert,wherehebuiltasmallerfortification.ClearlyRoberthopedtounderpinastrategicconsolidationofroyalpowerinthewestbytheestablishmentofaprosperousurbancommunity.Medievalmonarchshad,
finally,tomanagerelationswithotherkingdomsandcommunities.Sincetheydominatethehistoryofthereign,relationswithEnglandherselfarenotconsideredin
thisbriefsurvey.RobertreopenedrelationswithNorwayin1312bytheTreatyofInvernessatatimewhenthemusteringofgalleyfleetsforwarintheIrishSeabecameofcrucialimportance.OnewonderswhetherhereceiveddirectassistancefromtheNorwegianterritoriesofShetlandandOrkneyforhisassaultsontheIsleofManandUlster;howeverthatmaybe,
harmoniousrelationswithNorwaywillhaveservedhimwellwhenheneededtoassemblethegalleysoftheHebrides.Francewas,ofcourse,potentiallyScotland’smostpowerfulally,andin1309and1326Robertpursued,asbesthecould,thealreadytime-honouredtraditionofthe‘auldalliance’,cultivatingFrancewhenEnglandthreatened.France,however,wasbut
rarelyavailabletoRobertasanally.Theearlyfourteenthcenturywascharacterisedbyco-operationbetweenFranceandEnglandagainsttheirsmallernorthernneighbours,FlandersandScotland.IntheDeclarationofArbroath‘theScottishnobles’remindthepopebitterlythatthelargerkingdomsco-operatedtocrushsmallercountries:‘ThenrousetheChristianPrinceswhoforfalsereasons
pretendthattheycannotgotheHolyLandbecauseofwarstheyhavewiththeirneighbours.Theotherreasonthatpreventsthemisthatinwarringontheirsmallerneighbourstheyanticipateareadierreturnandweakerresistance.’However,Robertwas
remarkablyfortunateinthe1310sthatthecountofFlandersatthistimewassufficientlyindependentof
Francetotoleratetheco-operationofScottish,FlemishandGermanprivateersinrobbingEnglishwoolships.ThisindeedwasRobert’smostnotable‘foreignpolicy’enterprise:co-operationnotwithpowerfulprincesbutwithsmallercommunitiesand‘irregulars’intheNorthSeathatallowedlifelines–accesstoforeignmarketsforScottishproduceandimportsoffoodandmaterial–
makingpossiblethemaintenanceofScotland’sindependenceinspiteofEnglishblockade.Itisnotgoingtoofartosaythat,withouttheFlemings,RobertwouldnothavesucceededinwinningScotland’sindependence,andwhenin1323FrenchinterestscametocontrolFlanders,RobertwiselymadeatrucewithEngland.RobertmayhaveseenhisrelationswithIreland
inthesamelight:anallianceofsmallercommunities–theGaelickinshipgroups–and‘irregulars’–disaffectedAnglo-Normanlords–againstthemajorplayers–thelordshipofIreland,andtheAnglo-Irishlords.Inthewest,however,thevitalcommercialaxiswaslacking.Irelandprovidedsupplies,andperhapssomewarmaterials,butnotinthesamequantitiesasFlanders,and
certainlynothingthatjustifiedtheenormousScottishcommitmentrepresentedbytheinvasionofEdwardBruceandtheinvolvementofMorayandRoberthimselfin1317.TheIrishSeaandNorthSeatheatresdifferedinthattheformerreturnsweremeagreandtheoutlayvast.WhatissurprisingisthatRobertdidnotabandonhiswesternaspirationsin1318,butreturnedtothemin1327
andagainin1328,asisrelatedinthefollowingchapter.Robert’s‘artofkingship’
haditslimitations.TheBrucecourtwasneveratanystageacentreofgreatartorculturesofaraswecantell;therewasneitheranEdwardianoverhauloflegislation,noranAngevindevelopmentofadministrationsuchasoccurredinthereignsofgreatEnglishkings.Manyof
Robert’sgrantsofextensiveprivilegestonoblesandreligioushousesreducedroyalgovernment,impoverisheditandultimatelytendedtowardsweakeningthemonarchy.Somemedievalkings,suchasEdwardI,arerememberedasgreatbuilders;Robert,bycontrast,wasagreatdestroyerofcastles,and,besidesTarbert,builtlittlethatweknowof.TheSoules
ConspiracyandtheBlackParliamentcastthereigninaslightlysinisterlight.Victoryovertheinvaderdidnotexpungeearlierloyalties,andRobertlivedwithausurper’sinsecurityandsuspicion.Recoveryofthekingdom;repulseofEnglishinvasionsin1311,1314and1322;theraidingofEngland;andtheattemptedconquestofIrelandmustallhaveenormouslydisruptedeveryaspectoflife
inScotland.Nevertheless,againstthisturbulentbackground,Robert’sgovernmentalachievementsareimpressive:revivaloflocalgovernmentthroughbolsteringthepowerofmagnatesandbaronage;restoringthemachineryofjusticethroughsheriffsandjusticiars;renewalofforeignrelationswithFranceandNorway;andwinningroundthepapacyfromapositionof
completealienationtoapositionwhereitwaspreparedtograntnotonlyrelieffromexcommunication,butrighttofullcoronationtoScottishkings.Inadditiontothese,Robertsucceededinachieving–albeitforashorttime–thatkeytoScotland’ssecurityandprosperity,peacewithEngland.
difficultythatRobertIexperiencedintryingtoconverthisstringofimpressivemilitaryvictoriesintodiplomaticandpoliticaltriumph.In1323,withthethirteen-yeartruceofBishopsthorpe,itseemsthatRobertgaveupforthepresenttheideaofforcingtheEnglishkingtoconcededefeatandyieldrecognitionofhissovereignrightinScotland.Yetaftertwenty-
sevenyearsofwar,thetrucecouldhardlyusherinaneweraofgenialityinAnglo-Scottishrelations.Contactsbetweenthekingdomscontinuedtobefrostyatbest,andoccasionallyviolent.Atsea,EnglishmarinerscontinuedtoharassandattacktheScotsenroutetoFlanders,andScotsandFlemingswhoputinatEnglishportswereilltreatedandmightbekilled.An
appallingmassacreoccurredwhenaFlemishvessel,thePelarymwasseizedbyEnglishsailors,bearingacargoworth£2,000.Scotsonboard,includingpilgrims,womenandchildrenwerekilled.In1324EdwardIIwrotetoEdwardBalliol,whowastomanyScotsthelegitimateheirtotheScottishthrone,invitinghimtocometoEnglandwiththeobviousintentionofunderminingthe
Bruceregime.Ballioldidnottakeuptheinvitationuntil1331;however,thismovewasclearlyinspiredbythebirthofanheirtoRobertthatsameyear.Bothsidescontinuedtolobbythepapalcourt,andin1323amissionledbyMoraysucceededinhavingthePopeaddressRobertforthefirsttimeasKingofScots.Contrarytothetruce,EdwardIIwrotetothepopeon24September1325
urginghimnottorevoketheexcommunicationofRobertBruce,andwroteagaintothankhimwhenthepopehaddonehisbidding.Inretaliation,theScotsmadeborderforaysinviolationofthetruceandmountedanocturnalattackonCarlisleCastleinthespringof1325.Thoughhumiliatedby
ScotlandandincreasinglythreatenedbyFrance,EdwardIIofEnglandwas,in
domesticterms,attheheightofhispowerinthe1320s.HehadcowedoppositionfromthebaronsoftheWelshMarch;hehadusedHarclaytoseeofftheLancastrianthreatin1322;andthefollowingyearhehaddispatchedHarclayhimself,fortreasonablenegotiationswiththeScots.WealthfloodedintotheEnglishroyalcoffersfromconfiscatedlands,and,opposition
vanquished,unpopularexchequerreformswereforceduponthecountrytofurtherincreasethetaxyield.Anarrowcoterieoffavouritescontrolledallaccesstothekingandtoroyalpatronage.ThetwoHughDespensers,fatherandson,RobertBaldockandEdmundfitzAlan,EarlofArundel,betweenthemmonopolisedroyalpatronageandterrorisedallopposition.
Theregimewasdeeplyunpopularandoppressive,anditsfailuretodefeatScotlandaddedtotheopprobriuminwhichitwasheld.EdwardIIwasnomore
adeptatmanagingrelationswithFrancethanhewaswithScottishaffairs.RelationsbetweenEnglandandFrancedeterioratedmarkedlyin1324asaresultoftheaccessiontotheFrenchthroneof
aggressiveCharlesIVin1322,adisputeoverthejudicialrightstothetownofSaint-Sardos,andthedemandthattheEnglishkingperformhomageforhisFrenchfiefofGascony.Seeinghischance,Robertbeganpressingmoreaggressivelyforafinalpeace,andissuedasternwarning.AchroniclerparaphrasesRobert’swords:‘Manyofmymenhaveagreedtothesetruceswithdifficulty.
WhenceIfearthatifpeaceisrefusedImaybeunabletokeepmyword,forIcannotalonerestrainthefuryofaragingthrong.’NegotiationstookplaceatYorkinNovember1324,butaccordingtothisaccountRobert’sdemandsbythistimeincludedaclaimtoperambulationofthemarches,returnoftheformerBrucebaronyofWrittleinEssexandreturnoftheStone
ofDestiny.HealsoproposedaroyalmarriagebetweenadaughterofhisandEdwardII’syoungsonEdward–laterEdwardIII–tosealaperpetualpeace.EdwardII,however,refusedtocountenancetheseproposals:
Forhow,withoutprejudicetoourCrown,canwesurrendertherightwehaveinScotland,whichfromthecomingoftheBritonstothecomingoftheSaxonsanddowntoourowntimeisknownalwaysto
havebeensubjecttoourancestors?…TheycannotclaimanyrightintheMarch,ofwhichtheyneverhadpossession…RobertBruceclaimstheinheritancewhichmyfatheroncetookfromhimformanifestcrime…Weshouldmakelittledifficultyaboutreturningthestone,iftheirotherdemandswerenotbeyondallreason…ThemarriagewhichRobertofferswedonotagreetoatpresent,sincewethinkthat,asoffered,itisunsuitableforus…Theirdemandsaretoodamagingtous,theyshallreturnhomeunsatisfied.
OnrejectionofhisdrafttreatyRobertneverthelessagreed,showingimmenseforbearance,thatthetruceshouldcontinuetobeobserved.ButwhentheWarofSaint-SardosbrokeoutbetweenEnglandandFrancein1324,RobertseizedtheopportunitytoratchetuppressureontheEnglishandhenegotiatedatreatyofmutualassistancewithFrance,threateningEngland
withwarontwofronts.ThepactisknownastheTreatyofCorbeil,sealedon26April1326andratifiedbytheStirlingparliamentofJuly.ByiteachkingdomundertooktogivemilitaryaidtotheotherintheeventofeithergoingtowarwithEngland.ItincludedclausesforbiddingeitherkingdomtomakeaseparatepeacewithEngland.RelationswithEnglandhad
becomestrainedtoapointwherearenewalofthewarhadbecomealmostinevitable.ButarevolutioninEnglandintervenedbeforewarmaterialised.TheleaderoftheEnglishmarcherbarons,RogerMortimerofWigmore,hadbeenimprisonedbyEdwardIIintheTowerofLondon,butinAugust1323,hisgaolershavingbeendruggedwithasleepingpotion,heescapedto
France.QueenIsabella,whohadbrokeredpeacewithFrancefollowingtheWarofSaint-Sardos,usedtheopportunityofadiplomaticmissiontoFrancetoescapetheEnglishcourtforthatofherbrother,CharlesIV.BeforeherdisaffectionbecameovertEdwardsenthisheirtoFrance–thefutureEdwardIII–toperformhomageforhisFrenchfiefsinhisstead.Hefeared,with
everyjustification,thatifhehimselfleftEnglandhisfavouriteswouldbeover-thrown.AttheFrenchcourt,IsabellaandMortimercommencedanopenliaisonandrefusedtoreturntheyoungEdwardtoEngland.InFrance,andlaterinHainhault,acountyinmodernBelgium,agrowingbandofEnglishémigréscoalescedandplottedthedownfallofEdwardII.
Isabellaadoptedwidow’sweedsasthoughherhusbandhaddied,refusingtoreturnuntiltraitorstothekingandrealmhadbeenremovedfromEdward’scompanyandpunished.HenryBeaumont,whoseclaimtoScottishestateshadbeensweptasidebythetruceofBishopsthorpe,joinedher;sotoodidEdmundofWoodstock,theking’shalf-brotherandearlofKent.InSeptember1326
MortimerandIsabellainvadedEnglandwithasmallforcespearheadedby700men-at-armsledbyJehandeHainault.AmongthoseinEnglandwhoflockedtoIsabella’ssidewereothersoftheDisinherited,ThomasWakeandHenryPercywho,likeBeaumont,feltthatEdward’speacewithScotlandhadcheatedthemofestatesandtitles.ThetyrannousregimeofEdward
IIcollapsedalmostwithoutawhimper.TheLondonmobriotedandmurderedseveralprominentcourtiersincludingBaldock,andinNovemberEdwardIIhimselfwaspursuedbyMortimerandothers,asachroniclerelates,intoWales:
lesttheyshouldembarkthereandsailacrosstoIreland,theretocollectanarmyandoppresstheEnglishastheyhaddonebefore.
AlsotheaforesaidlordsfearedthatifthekingcouldreachIrelandhemightcollectanarmythereandcrossoverintoScotland,andbythehelpoftheScotsandtheIrishtogetherhemightattackEngland.Foralready,alarmedatthecomingtoEnglandoftheFrenchandsomeEnglishwiththeQueen,thekinghadbeensoill-advisedastowritetotheScots,freelygivinguptothemthelandandrealmofScotland,tobeheldindependentlyofanyKingofEngland,and(whichwasfarworse)bestoweduponthemwithScotlandanda
greatpartofthenorthernlandsofEnglandlyingnexttothem,onconditionthattheyshouldassisthimagainstthequeen,hersonandtheirconfederates.
ThereisnoevidencethatEdwardIImadeanysuchoffertoRobert,yetEdwardclearlysoughtsafetyinthewest,andthroughDonald,heirtotheearldomofMar,whoresidedattheEnglishcourtandwasaclose
confidentoftheEnglishking,hehadapossiblecontactwithRobert.EdwardIIwassooncapturedandimprisonedbythequeen’ssupporters,andinJanuary1327thereoccurredinEnglandastrangeand,fortheMiddleAges,rareevent,thedepositionofalivingmonarch.Adeputationofchurchmenandnoblesrenouncedhomageonbehalfofthekingdom,andinabriefceremonyEdwardIIwas
triedanddeposed,withthelossofScotlandcitedasoneofmanyreasonsforhisinadequacy.HisheirwascrownedEdwardIIIon1February1327.Asmightbeexpected,the
formerkingbecameafocusforrestorationplotsandescapeattempts.TheKingofScotsmayhavepreferredtheancienregimeofhisoldadversary,withwhomhehadatreaty,totheunpredictable
andillegalregimeofIsabellaandMortimeranditsDisinheritedsupporters.OntheverynightofEdwardIII’scoronation,theScotsattemptedtocapturebysurprisethecriticallyimportantbordercastleofNorham.Robert’snephew,DonaldofMar,whohadbeentakenprisonerandrearedattheEnglishcourt,wasdeeplyattachedtoEdwardII.Capturedin1306whenonly
fouryearsofage,hehadin1315refusedtoberepatriatedinaccordancewiththeexchangeofprisonersthatfollowedupontheBattleofBannockburn.DonaldwasthenassociatedwiththeelderDespenserinfutileeffortstoresistthequeen’sinvasionofEngland,and,followingthetriumphofIsabellaandMortimer,hefledtoScotland.Robertreceivedhimbackwithcordiality,and
Donaldwasinvestedwithhisearldom.However,hedidnotabandonthecauseofEdwardII.OnechronicledescribesMaras‘hopingtorescue[EdwardII]fromcaptivityandrestorehimtohiskingdom,asformerly,withthehelpoftheScotsandofcertainadherentsthedeposedkingstillhadinEngland’.MarsentagentstotheWelshMarchestostiruptroubleforthenewEnglishregime,and
hemayhavemadeheadwayinpersuadingRoberttosupporthisplanstorestoreEdwardII.IsabellaandMortimerhadeveryintentionofmakingwaronScotlandwhentheywereready.ButinMarch1327,towardofffurtherScottishattacks,theyappointedenvoystotreatforafinalpeaceinYorkandconfirmedthetruceofBishopsthorpe.Atthesametimehowever‘precautionary’
measureswereputinplace.AmusterwasplannedforNewcastleon18May,torestrainpossibleScottishaggression,andfleetswerepreparedonbothNorthandIrishSeas.IsabellaappealedforhelptoJehandeHainault,whohadprovidedmercenariesfortheirinvasionofEnglandthepreviousautumn,andtowardstheendofMaytheHainaultersreturnedtoEngland.Among
themwasJehanleBelofLiège,whokeptarecordofhisexperiencesinhisnarrative,LesVrayesChroniques.JustasScottishenvoysarrivedinYorktotreatofthepeace,furtherwritsofarraywereissuedtomusteranEnglisharmy.Thenegotiations,intendedonlytobuytimefortheEnglishtoprepareforwar,soonbrokedown.OntheirdeparturetheScottishenvoysnailedtothe
doorofStPeter’schurchinStangatethefollowingcurioussatiricalcommentonEnglishdressandcustoms:
LongbeardheartlessPaintedhoodswitlessGaycoatsgracelessMakeEnglandthriftless.
Patienceatanend,Moray,DouglasandMarstruckdeepintoEnglandinthemiddleofJune.Movingunpredictablyandwithgreatspeedthe
ScottishveteranraidersburntandplunderedvariouslocationsinthebishopricofDurham.On15JulytheEnglishhost
arrivedatDurham.LeBelgivesagraphicaccountoftheWeardalecampaignof1327,amadcapchaseaftertheraidersthroughbogsandforests,barrenhillsidesandswollenriversthatlastedthreeweeks.Inthesereminiscencesherecountshis
disorientationasaforeigner,thefightingbetweentheEnglishinfantryandhiscompatriotstheHainhaulters,thediscomfortsoflifeinthefieldanddisappointmentsatthefailure,timeandagain,tobringtheScotstobattle.WhenleBelandhiscomradesfinallyencounteredtheScotson30July,theraiderswereensconcedinapositionofextraordinarynaturalstrengthinStanhope
Park,fromwhichtheycouldnotbetemptedtomoveorgivebattle.Theyhaddrovesofstolencattletoliveoffandcouldnotbestarvedintosurrender,whileleBelandhiscomradesstarvedandshiveredintherain.BeforefinallygivingtheEnglishthesliponthenightof6/7August,DouglasmountedadaringforayintotheEnglishcamp,duringwhichhecuttheguyropesoftheroyal
tent.ItistemptingtoseeinthisincidentafurtherattemptbytheScotstocapturearoyalprisonerandforcetheEnglishtoconcedeRobert’ssovereignty.MorayandDouglasturnedback,drivingagreatbootyofcattleintoScotland,andontheirwayhomemettheearlsofMarchandAngus43leadingafreshforceofraidersintoEnglandtoensurethattheenemywas
givennorespite.WellbeforeDouglasand
MorayhadcrossedintoEngland,Robert,nowaged53,himselftookanotherforceacrosstoUlster,wherehelandedatLarnearoundEaster–12April.RicharddeBurgh,theRedEarl,haddiedon29July1326.AsaresultofEdwardBruce’sinvasion–and,onesuspects,ofcontinuedScottishintervention–theearl’s
lordshipinUlsterhaddeterioratedgreatly,anditisnotsurprisingthat,onhisdeath,Robert,hisson-in-law,shouldtakepossessionofalordshipofsuchstrategicimportancetohiskingdom.AreporttothemotheroftheheirtoUlster–thiswasElisabethdeClaredeBurgh,widowofSirJohndeBurgh,theRedEarl’seldestson,andmotherofheir,WilliamdeBurgh–statedthatunlessthe
heirarrivedsoontoclaimtheearldom,themenofUlstermight‘chooseanotherlordinorderthattheymighthavemaintenance’.ThisisprobablyanobliquereferencetotheKingofScots,theonlyotherlord-abletofillthevacuumleftbytheRedEarl.Furthermore,therehadasyetbeennorevolutioninIrelandcorrespondingtothatwhichhadoccurredinEngland.JohnDarcy,EdwardII’s
justiciarofIreland,wasstillinofficeandhehadinFebruarysentaFranciscanfriarasaspecialmessengertoScotland‘tofurthercertainconfidentialbusinesstouchingthelordking’.Wecanspeculateastowhatmayhavebeenonthetable:anofferofassistanceinrestoringtheoldkingtotheEnglishthrone;detachmentoftheIrishgovernmentinDublinfromtheregimeof
IsabellaandMortimer;with,possibly,anoffertoRobertoftheearldomofUlster,orwardshipoftheheir,inreturnforaScottishinitiative.Theseatanyratewerethesortsofrumoursnoisedabroad.ItisnotonlytheEnglishchroniclesthatexpressthefearthatScots,IrishandWelshwerecombiningtoeffectarestorationoftheancienregimeinEngland.Thereporttotheheir’s
motherstatedthatRoberthadarrivedtosecureIrishco-operationforthelandingofanarmyinWaleswhichwastoattackEngland.TheIrishadministrationwaskeentoascertainwhichwaythechiefmenoftheearldomwouldjump.Atadateunspecifieditdispatchedtheseniorchanceryclerk,RogerOutlaw,priorofKilmainham,toUlster‘totreatwiththemenofUlsterandto
scrutinisetheirheartsonresistancetotheScots,enemiesandrebelsofthesaidlordking,andoncurbingtheirmaliceifitshouldhappenthattheylandthere’.ThisatanyratewasthepretextgivenforOutlaw’smissionayearlatersothatexpensescouldberecovered;wewillneverknowthetruenatureofthemission,orwhetherOutlawactuallymettheKingofScotstodiscuss
HowtypicalofRoberttofishinthetroubledwatersofUlsterevenwhilegravelyill.Therehasbeenmuchspeculationastothenatureofthisillness.ElisabethdeClare’sinformantseemsconfidentthatRobertwasdying:‘RobertBruceissofeebleandsofailedthathewillnotlastthatlongwithGod’shelp,becausehecannotmoveanythingexcept
histongue.’Robertwasparalysed,possiblybyastroke.Yethisconditionstilllefthimabletospeak,andthuspursuehisaimsbydiplomacy,andwarifnecessary.RobertstayedinUlsterforfourwholemonths.Perhapshewastooilltobemoved,orperhapstherewasapurposebehindhiscontinuedpresenceinUlster.Probablyhehadtoomuchrespectforpropertyrightsto
considerintrudinghimselfasearl.Neverthelessheseemstohaveeffectivelytakentheearldomintohisownhandsduringtheperiodoftheheir’sminority,1326–28,asthoughhe–andnotthekingofEngland–wereoverlord,awaitingpaymentofarelieffromtheheir.TheknightsandminorlordsofUlsterdecidednottoresisthimanditisevenpossiblethathestayedinitiallywiththe
connivanceofthejusticiarofIreland,JohnDarcy.However,JohnDarcywasforcedtofleeIrelandinMay,whenthegovernmentofIsabellaandMortimerimposedThomasfitzJohn,EarlofKildare,asthenewjusticiaron12May1327.ThenextdaythereignofEdwardIIIwasproclaimedbelatedlyandforthefirsttimeinIreland.Roberthadthentosoundoutasecondset
ofIrishofficials.Inthemeantime,on12
JulyatGlendunontheAntrimcoast,RobertmadeanagreementwiththestewardofUlster,HenrydeMandeville.Thelocationmaybesignificant:Robert’spresenceinlandswhichweregrantedinthetwelfthcenturytohisgreat-grandfather,DuncanofCarrick,mayindicatethathewasstrivingtorevivethatclaim.Robert
maynotthenhavecovetedtheearldomofUlsteritself,butwasratherpursuingtheoldclaimtotheGallowaylands,longsinceabsorbedbythatearldom.Thatwouldbeincharacter.WehaveseenhimattempttoreviveBrucefamilyclaimstoWrittleinEssexandtoHartnessinDurham.BytheagreementhegrantedatrucetothepeopleoftheearldomofUlsterforoneyearinreturnfor100
measuresofwheatand100ofbarley,halfatMartinmas–11November–andhalfatWhitsun–22May1328.Robert’salliesamongtheGaelicIrishofUlsterwerealsotobeincludedinthetruce,whichmayhavebeenparticularlygallingforMandevilletoaccept,forRoberthadboundhimtodoso,onpainofforfeiture.Duringthesummerof1327therewasalloverIrelanda
markedriseinthelevelofviolencebetweentheGaeliclordsandtheAnglo-Irishcolony.WesurmisethatRobert’sinterventioninUlsterwasintendedtomenacethenewIrishgovernment,andperhapshisverypresencewasenoughtocauseGaelicIrishrevolts.Achronicleentry,
apparentlymisdatedto1328,relatesthatRobert‘senttothejusiciarofIrelandandtothe
councilthattheyshouldcometoGreencastle[theearldom’ssouthernmostcastle]todrawupapeacebetweenScotlandandIreland,andbecausethesaidJusticiarandCouncildidnotcomeashewishedhereturnedtohisnativelandafterthefeastoftheAssumptionoftheBlessedVirginMary[15August]’.Thisisborneoutbyaninquisitionintotheepisodetakenin1331bytheIrish
government,andbypaymentsof100shillingstoRobertCruysandJohnJordan‘forgoingtoUlstertoexpeditecertainmatterstouchingthebusinessofthekingandhislandofIreland’.FurthermoreJohnJordanwaspaidasmallrewardfor‘goodandpraiseworthyaction’.ThispraiseworthyactionwasprobablybreakingthenewstotheKingofScotsthatthenewIrishgovernmentwould
standbytheregimeofIsabellaandMortimer,andnotbebulliedintoalliancewithScotland.OnreceivingthisresponseRobertgaveuptryingtodetachtheIrishgovernmentfromtheEnglish,andwithitprobablyallthoughtofrestoringEdwardIItotheEnglishthrone.HereturnedtoScotlandjustadayortwoearlierthanstatedintheIrishchronicle,forhewasatMelroseon14August.
MorayandDouglashadjustreturnedfromgivingtheEnglishhosttherunaroundinWeardale,andMarchandAnguswerekeepingtheEnglishoccupied.ElisabethdeClare’s
informantmayhaveexaggeratedtheextentoftheking’sinfirmity,forsoonafterhisreturntoScotlandhemountedhorseandrodeonalastcampaignintoEngland.Itwasacriticaltime.Hisheir
wasbutathree-year-oldchild,sohemusthavebeenextremelyanxioustowrestfinalandlastingrecognitionofhissovereigntyfromtheEnglishbeforehisowndeath.HehadtestedandgivenuponthepossibilityofeffectingarestorationofEdwardIItotheEnglishthrone:theonlycourselefttohimwastobringsuchmilitarypressuretobearonthenorthofEnglandthatIsabellaand
Mortimerwouldhavenochoicebuttoconcedehisright.AnyairofdesperationthataccompaniedRobert’slastgreatcampaignhasbeenwrittenoutofhistorybyRobert’spropagandists,andthereis,ifanything,alight-heartedfeeltotheScottishnarratives,fullofadmirationatRobert’smagnificenceanddaring.IttakesanefforttorememberthatneitherinWeardalenorin
NorthumberlandweretheScotstoyingwiththeEnglish:bothcampaignswereindeadlyearnest,forRobertprobablyknewhisdayswerenumbered.HesethissightsonthegreatbordercastlesofNorthumberland,thelossofanyoneofwhichmightbringtheEnglishgovernmenttothenegotiatingtable.Accordinglyheraisedagreatarmyanddivideditintothree:oneparttobesiege
Norham,oneAlnwick,andonetorangefreelyacrossNorthumberland,devastating,takinghostagesandmoney,andweakeningtheEasternMarchineveryconceivablemanner.Barbourrecountsthatthekingleftthedetailedprosecutionofthesiegestoothers,andtookhisleisurehuntingintheparksofborderlordsandgrantingawaytheirlandstohisownfollowers:
ThekinglefthismenbeforethosecastlesAsIexplainedAndheldhiswaywiththethirdhostFromparktoparkforhisrecreationHuntingasthoughitwereallhisown.TothosewhowerewithhimthereHegavethelandsofNorthumberlandThatlaytherenearesttoScotlandInfeeandinheritageAndtheypaidthefeeforsealing.
Iffeeswerepaidforthesealingofthesedeeds,Robert’sgrantingawayofNorthumberlandestateswasregardedasnoemptygesture.InthepasthehadmadespeculativegrantsoflandintheEnglishborderstoencouragegranteestotakepossession,but,inthecontextofsiegesandtributetaking,thislookslikeadeterminedefforttoannexNorthumberland
permanently,andwasintendedtobeunderstoodassuch.MorayandDouglas
besiegedAlnwickcastle,heldbyHenryPercy,forafortnight,hostilitiesbeinginterspersedwithoccasionaljoustswiththeenemy.ThentheygaveupthatsiegeandattackedWarkworthinstead,allowingPercytosallyoutonaraidintoTeviotdale.TheypreventedPercyfrom
returningtoAlnwickhowever,andforcedhimtoretiretothesafetyofNewcastle.FinallytheyretiredtoassistwiththesiegeofNorham,wheretheFlemishengineerandprivateerchiefJohnCrabbehadbuiltsiegeenginestohastenitscollapse.WitnessingthedevastationofNorthumberland,othercountycommunitiesofnorthernEnglandhastenedto
purchaseimmunityfromattack.ThebishopricofDurham,Carlisle,WestmorlandandevenClevelandandRichmondinYorkshire,allpaidupreadily.IntheaccountsofDurhamCathedralPriorythereisevidenceofalevyoneachmanorandanotheroneachchurchlivingtomeettheransomdemandforatruceuntil22May1328.
TheEnglishgovernmenthadtheimpressionthatRobertwasrevivingtheScottishking’sancientclaimtoNorthumberland,andfearedageneralcollapseofresistanceandultimatelythearea’sannexation.TheysummonedaparliamenttoLincolnfor15September,andsubsequentlystatedthatBrucehadthreatenedtosubjugatethepeopleof
Englandandtodestroythem;thathehadbuiltandgarrisonedpeelsandfortalicesinNorthumberland;andthathehadgrantedawayEnglishlandsbycharter.Inthemid1310sRoberthadalsobuiltpeelsinEnglishterritoryandgrantedlandsinNorthumberlandtohisfollowersbycharter,butitappearstohavebeenthecombinationofthesewiththethreatstoEngland’scrucial
frontiercastlesthatwassodeeplydisturbing.TheunstableruleofIsabellaandMortimercouldnotaffordfurthermilitarycatastrophe,andtheirgovernmentwaspanickedintofreshpeacenegotiations.PlotsandattemptstoreleaseEdwardIIhadcontinuedtoplaguetheirregimeofdubiouslegality.Onthenightof21/22September1327Mortimer’shenchmenarethoughttohave
disposedoftheformerking.Tothisdayitisnotcertainhowtheoldkingdied;andtheoriesofhissurvivalarestilladvancedbyscholars.Suchrumoursdonotconcernus,forRobertappearstohavegivenupallhopeofresuscitatingEdwardII’sregime.Forthefirsttimeboth
EnglishandScottishgovernmentswerebothtrulydesperatetoachieveapeace.
On9OctobertheEnglishappointedHenryPercyandWilliamDenholmetotreatofafinalpeace,andon18OctoberRobertsetoutsixtermswhichtousseemextraordinarilyreasonable:heinsisted,ofcourse,uponrecognitionofhiskingshipanduponholdingthekingdomofScotlandfreeofanyobligation;heofferedhisinfantsonDavidinmarriagetoEdwardIII’ssister,Joan
‘oftheTower’,asameansofmakingthesettlementlast;therewastobenorestorationoftheDisinherited,thoseEnglishandAnglo-ScottishlordswhohadlostestatesandtitlesinScotland;eachkingdomwastoassisttheotheragainstitsenemies–thoughthiswasnottoapplytoRobert’srecentlynegotiatedTreatyofCorbeilwithFrance;theEnglishweretoassistintheremovalof
papalsanctionsagainstScotland;andfinally,andmoststrikingofall,Robertoffered£20,000tobepaidwithinthreeyearsofconfirmationofthepeace.WehaveseenfromtheBruce–Harclaytreatyof1323thatRoberthadforsomeyearsbeenpreparedtopayhandsomelytosecureapeace,astrangepositionforthevictorofalongandbitterstruggle.Itwasnotspecified
exactlywhatthepaymentwasfor;itwasneithercompensationforRobert’stributetakinginEngland,norwasitcompensationforlossofthekingofEngland’srightsinScotland.ItisnotdescribedasreparationfortheexactionofransomsortheimmensedamagewhichScottishraidshadinflicted:Durhamaloneclaimedtohavepaid£20,000totheScotsovertheyears.Itis
simplydescribedas‘contributionforpeace’.RobertmayhaveseenpaymentasadevicetogivetheEnglishagreaterstakeinthepeace;perhapsheknewthatpayingoffoftheHainhaultersandthecostsofcampaigninghadlefttheEnglishgovernmentflatbroke–theWeardalecampaignhadcost£70,000.IsabellaandMortimer
rapidlyrespondedthatthese
termscouldserveasabasisfornegotiation.TheEnglishparliamentofFebruary1328atYorkconsideredtheterms,andsenttwobishopstodiscusscertainarticleswiththeScots.On1MarchEdwardIIIformallyagreedthatthe‘magnificentprince,LordRobertbythegraceofGodtheillustriousKingofScots’shouldholdScotlandfreefromanysubjectionordemand,‘separateinall
thingsfromthekingdomofEngland,assuredforeverofitsterritorialintegrity,toremainforeverquitandfreeofanysubjection,servitude,claimordemand’.ItissignificanttoothattheEnglishhadtotraveltoEdinburghtosuetoconcludethetreaty.TwobishopsandthreenobleswerenominatedtojourneytoEdinburgh,anytwoofwhomwereempoweredtoswearonthe
king’ssoulthathewouldabidebythearticles.Theyarrivedaround10March,andRobertsummonedaparliamentfortheoccasion.On17March1328theagreementwasformallyconcludedintheking’schamberatHolyrood,whereRobertagainlayill.Itwasindeed‘thesubstanceofeverythingforwhichBrucehadfought’.Finalnegotiationsadded
refinementstotheterms.Robertconcededonlyoneofhissixpoints:ageneralprohibitionoftheclaimsoftheDisinheritedwasnotwrittenintothetreaty,andhefirstpermittedHenryPercytherighttosueinScottishcourtsforlandsgrantedhisfatherbyEdwardI,andthenmadehimanoutrightgrantofthoselands.Inexchangeforthisrecognitionoftherightsofthemostimportant
Disinheritedlord,itmayhavebeenintendedthatScotlandshouldreceivebacktherelicslootedbyEdwardIin1296.TheStoneofDestinywasorderedtoberemovedtoScotland,buttheLondonersandtheAbbotofWestminsterpreventeditsremoval.Itispossible,however,thatatthistimetheScotsregainedtheCrossofStMargaret,theBlackRood;atanyratetheyhadpossessionofitin1346–
whentheylostitagaintotheEnglishattheBattleofNeville’sCross.AlldocumentsimplyingthesubjugationofScotlandweretobesurrenderedandarecordmadeoftheirdelivery.GreatimportancewasattachedbyRoberttothemarriagebetweenDavidandJoan,asthoughheconsideredthistobeameansofensuringthatthesettlementwouldlast.Asdower,Joanwouldreceive
landsworth£2,000inannualrentinScotland.TheKingofScotswasnottoaidtheenemiesofthekingofEnglandinIreland;norwasthekingofEnglandtoaidtheenemiesoftheKingofScotsinManorotherScottishisles.TherightsoftheChurchinbothrealmsweretobesafeguarded,whichseemstohaveimpliedthatlandsforfeitedfromreligioushousesweretoberestored.
TheancientLawsoftheMarchesbetweenthekingdomsweretobekept,andanydisputesreferredtothecouncilsofthetwokings.Finally,theEnglishparliamentwastoratifythepeacebeforeAscensionDay–12May1328;itwasactuallyratifiedbytheparliamentofNorthamptonon4May.ItisasignofIsabellaandMortimer’sgreatweaknessatthispointthatthe
TreatyofEdinburghwasoneofveryfewforeigntreatiesmadebyanEnglishmedievalgovernmenttobesubmittedtoparliamentforratification.RobertconveyedtoDavid
theearldomofCarrick,inorderthathisfourandahalf-year-oldsonshouldbedignifiedwithacomitaltitlefortheoccasionofhismarriage.But,clearlyasamarkofhispersonaldisapproval,EdwardIIIgave
nodowrywiththeseven-year-oldJoan.On17July1328theroyalmarriagebetweenDavid,aged4,andJoan,aged7,tookplaceatBerwick,but,althoughIsabella,nowqueenmother,waspresent,EdwardIIIconspicuouslyabsentedhimselffromtheceremony.ExplainingRobert’sabsencefromthenuptialsofDavidandJoan,Barbourstates:
ForanillnessafflictedhimsobadlyThatinnowaycouldhebethere.HisdiseasearosefromcatchingachillThroughhiscoldlyingWhenhewasinhisgreattribulationsThatseriousillnesscameuponhim.
His‘coldlying’seemstorefertoRobert’ssleepingroughintheheatherwhileafugitiveandguerrillachief.
ButtheabsenceoftheEnglishking,intendedasasnub,mayhaverequiredRobert’sreciprocalabsence.However,thequestionof
whatRobertwassufferingfrominAntrimin1327andpossiblyagainatBerwickin1328remainsunsettled.Itmayhavebeenasymptomofafinal,lingeringillness.Englishchronicles,includingthegenerallyreliableLanercost,assertthathehad
contractedleprosy.Consideredavileandloathsomedisease,leprosywasregardedasa‘diseaseofthesoul’,andofteninterpretedasdivinepunishmentforlechery.ThesereportsinEnglishchroniclesmaybefalse,butcannotaltogetherbediscounted.Scottishchronicles,bythesametoken,cannotbeexpectedtoownuptotheirking’s
contractingleprosy,asitwoulddetractfromthevisionofregalitythattheysoughttoportray.Themedievaldiagnosisofleprosymightinanycasehaveextendedtovirtuallyanyseriousskindisorder.Recentlyanauthorityontheosteologicalappearanceofleprosyclaimedtohavedetectedfeaturesassociatedwithfaciesleprosa,thefacialcharacteristicsofleprosy,in
theplasterofPariscastthatsurvivesofRobert’sskullmadein1820,thoughheaddedthat,withoutexaminationoftheskullitself,hecouldnotbecertain.ThefactthatthereisnorecordofRobert’ssegregationfromhumancontactdoesnotnecessarilyhaveabearingonthequestion.BaldwinIV,thetwelfth-centuryleperkingofJerusalem,wasnot
segregatedinanywayduringhisreign.Moresignificant,perhaps,arethefactsthatnocontemporarysource,noteventhosemosthostiletoRobert’sregime,levelsathimtheaccusationthathehadcontractedleprosy.Othermedicalauthoritiesassertthatthecastbearsevidenceofsporadicsyphilis.ProfessorKaufman,themostrecentauthoritytoexaminetheproblem,considersthatthe
castbearscharacteristicsconsistentwitheitherleprosyorsyphilis.AthirdsuggestionisthatBrucehadcontractedRaynaud’sdisease–whichcanbecontractedfromlyinginthedamp–andthatitssymptomsmight,intheMiddleAges,havebeenconfusedwiththoseofleprosy.Theresurvivesafingerbone,lootedfromtheexhumationof1819,analysisofwhichmayyieldfurther
evidenceofmaladiesfromwhichRobertsuffered.Theillnessesof1327–the
firstrealenough,thesecondprobablya‘diplomatic’illness–didnotpreventRobertfromattendingtomattersheconsideredimportant.WilliamdeBurgh,theyoungandrecentlyknightedheirtotheearldomofUlster,hadattendedtheBerwicknuptialsandsoughtassistancefrombothIsabella
andRobertingainingcontrolofhispatrimony.TheEnglishgovernmentbegrudginglyissuedthenecessarywarrantfortransferringcustodyofCarrickfergusCastleintoWilliam’scustodyinNovember1328,andassentedtoRobert’stakingpersonalchargeoftheyoungearl’sinstallation.ThisisanindicationbothofRobert’sresidualpowerinUlsterandofhisanxietytoensurethat
thestrategicallyimportantcastleshouldremaininthecareofaclientearl.TogetherwithMurdoch,EarlofMenteith,RobertsetsailforUlster,escortingWilliamtoCarrickfergusandmakinghimapresentofstockfishtohelphimprovisionthecastle.Hereagain,asquidproquo,RobertmayhavebeenseekingrestorationfromthenewearlofUlsterofthe‘Gallowaylands’inAntrim,
towhichhemighthavelaidclaim.HedatedaletteratLarneLoughon13August1328,andprobablyreturnedtoScotlandsoonafterwards.Duringhislastyears,1327
to1329,Robert’sfavouriteresidencewashismanorhouseatCardross,aretreatwhichhehadplannedandbuiltforhimself.Hisqueen,ElisabethdeBurgh,predeceasedhiminNovember1327.Shehad
diedatCullen,whereshemayhavebeenonpilgrimage,andherentrailswereburiedthereintheLadyChapel.Onesurmisesthat,giventheantagonismbetweenRobertandhisfather-in-law,Elizabeth’sreportedremarksatRobert’sinauguration,andtheexistenceofillegitimatechildren,theirmarriagehadneverbeenacloseunion.RobertarrangedthatachaplainatCullenwaspaid
£4annuallyforcelebratingmassesforhersoul.Thiswasmodestprovisionforthesoulofaqueen;Roberthadsetaside£20perannumforthesoulsofAlexanderIIIandJohn,EarlofAtholl.NeverthelessRobertshowsattachmenttoElisabethinthatherbodywasbornetoDunfermlineAbbeyforburial:heclearlywantedhisspouseathissideindeath.Havingenduredthelossof
hisfourbrothers,Robertseemsalwaystohavevaluedmalecompanionshipmoredearlythanfemale.TheclosestofallhiscompanionswasMoray,oftenwithhimintheselastmonthsandsharinghisactivities.ThekinghadanewchamberbuiltatCardross–withglassworkinthewindowsandapaintedinterior–agarden,andashedforhisfalcons,andhemaintainedaconsiderable
huntingestablishment.Helivedwell,threwfeastsanddispensedgiftsandcharity.Hekeptapetlion,astheyoungandriotousEdwardofCaernarfonhaddonetwentyyearsbefore.HeandMoraytookspecialinterestintheking’s‘greatship’,makingrepairs,andorderingsails,pitch,ironandothermaterials.OnoneoccasionRoberthadithauledfromtheseashoreintotheriverbeside
thehouseformaintenance.Robert’slastjourney
appearstohavebeenapilgrimage;thiswaspossiblyinsearchofamiraculouscure,thoughequally,aspilgrimagesoftenprovidedexcuseforwandering,itmayhavebeenmerelyapretextforanoutingonhisgreatship.WithMorayhesetofffromCardrossforTarbert,thencetoArranwherehecelebratedChristmas1328at
thehallofGlenkillnearLamlash,andthencehesailedtothemainlandtovisithissonandhisbride,merechildren,nowinstalledatTurnberry,theheadoftheearldomofCarrickandoncehisownmainresidence.HejourneyedoverlandtoInch,southofStranraer:houseswerebuiltthereandsuppliesbroughttothatplace,asthoughtheking’sconditionhaddeterioratedwhilehewas
beingcarriedacrosstheisthmus.AttheendofMarchhewasstayingatGlenluceAbbeyandatMonreith,fromwhichStNinian’scavewasvisited.EarlyinAprilhearrivedattheshrineofStNinianatWhithorn.HereturnedbyseatoCardross,wherehewasplaceduponhisdeathbed,Moraynodoubtbyhisside.Barbourrelates–andheisborneoutbyothersources–thatRobert
summonedthelordsofthekingdomtohisbedsideforafinalcouncil,atwhichhemadecopiousgiftstoreligioushousesandrepentedofhisfailuretofulfilavowtoundertakeacrusade.Hedispensedsilvertoreligiousfoundationsofvariousorders,sothattheymightprayforhissoul.IntothemouthofthedyingkingBarbourputsaspeechwhichincludesanalmostmodernrepentancefor
‘warcrimes’:
IthankGodforgivingmeTimeinthislifetorepent,Forbecauseofmeandmywar-makingTherehasbeenmuchspillingofbloodInwhichmanyinnocentmenwereslain;ThereforeIacceptthissicknessandpainAsrewardformytransgressions.
Whetherthesesentimentswereactuallyexpressedby
thedyingkingisuncertain;itisunconventionalforamedievalkingtoexpressguiltabout‘collateraldamage’inflictedoninnocentsinpursuitofhisright,andforthisreasonitmightindeedrepresentanactualdeathbedutterance.Robert’sfinalwish,however,reflectsconventionalpietyexpressedinanovelfashion,quitepossiblyintendedtoperpetuatehismemory:after
hisdeathhisheartwastoberemovedfromhisbodyandbornebyanobleknight,onehonest,wiseandbrave,againstGod’senemies–probablyintendedfromthefirsttobeJamesDouglas.44Robertdiedon7June1329havinglivedalifeextraordinarilyrichandvaried.Hediedutterlyfulfilled,inthatthegoalofhislifetime’sstruggle–
untrammelledrecognitionoftheBrucerighttothecrown–hadbeenrealised,andconfidentthathewasleavingthekingdomofScotlandsafelyinthehandsofhismosttrustedlieutenant,Moray,untilsuchtimesashisinfantsoncouldholdthereinsofstate.Howevergreathisfinalagony,hecouldnothaveaskedforgreatercomforts.Sixdaysafterhisdeath,tocompletehis
triumphstillfurther,papalbullswereissuedgrantingtheprivilegesofcoronationandunctionattheenthronementoffutureKingsofScots.TheobsequiesofRobertI
wereasbefittedagreatking.Thebodywasembalmed.Separateburialofheartandbodyhadbeenforbiddenbyapapalbullof1299,butthecustomwasattractiveinthatmorethanonereligiouscommunitycouldbeinvolved
inintercessionforthesoul.IthadbeencarriedoutatthefuneralsofLouisIXofFrance,RichardIandHenryIIIofEngland,EleanorofCastile–EdwardI’squeen–and,aswehaveseen,inthecaseofRobert’sownqueen.AccordinglythebreastboneofRobert’scorpsewassawntoallowextractionoftheheart,whichDouglasplacedinasilvercaskettobewornaroundhisneck.Thebody
wastakenfromCardross,throughDunipaceandCambuskennethtoDunfermline,themausoleumoftheScottishkings.Barbourclaimsthat:
whenhispeopleknewthathehaddiedSorrowspreadfromhometohome.Youcouldseementeartheirhair,Andfrequentlyknightsweepingcopiously,Strikingtheirfiststogetherandtearingtheirclotheslikemadmen,
Mourninghisseemlygenerosity,Hiswisdom,strengthandhishonestyButaboveallthewarmcompanionshipWhich,inhiscourtesy,heoftensharedwiththem.
Wecannottellwhetherthegildedhearsewasfollowedbycrowdsofmourners;nordoestheresurviveanymorereliableindicationofgenuinewidespreadgrief.Therewillhavebeensomereliefand
anticipationfromtheanti-BruceelementsthatRoberthadsuppressed,yetwecanscarcelydoubtthatthefuneralwasanoccasionforanoutpouringofaffectionsuchasBarbourdescribes,forakingwhohadendedforeignoccupation,ledsuccessfulandlucrativeforeignwar,distributedlargesseabundantlyandtriumphedmagnificentlyandrepeatedly.Anenormousweightof
wax–478stone,orjustover3,000kg–waspurchased,presumablyforthemakingoffunerarycandles;copiouslengthsoffinelinenandblackclothwereprocuredformourningclothes:black‘budge’forknights,othervarietiesforofficersofthehouseholdandtheirfollowers.Robeswerebought,andfursforknights.Amarbletomb,whichRoberthadcommissionedyears
previouslytobemadeinParis,wasbroughtbywayofBrugestoDunfermline.GoldleafwasacquiredinEnglandforitsdecoration,andanironrailingplacedaroundthegrave.Achapeloftimberwaserectedoverthegraveonthedayofthefuneral,andRobertwasinterredinwhatwasthentheverycentreofDunfermlineAbbey,beneaththehighaltar,andbesidehisqueen.Thoughthechurch
arounditisgreatlyaltered,theplaceisnowmarkedbyamagnificentVictorianbrass.ThefaithfulDouglashad
beenselected–probablypre-selected–tofulfilRobert’scrusadingvow.InacodatohisepicpoemBarbourrelateshowDouglassetofffromBerwickforSpaintodobattlewiththeMoors.Itwasanactofpiety,butforbothBruceandDouglasitwasalsoself-promotion,a‘farewell
Europeantour’.Noonehadevergoneoncrusadeinquitethisfashion,andtheexcursionwasintendedtocultivatethelegendsofRobertBruceandtheBlackDouglas.NoexpensewassparedtodeckoutDouglaswithasplendidentourage.HepassedthroughEngland,andinSeptember1329EdwardIII’schanceryequippedhimwithlettersofprotectionandcommendationtoKing
AlfonsoXIofCastille.HisshipanchoredinthebusyportofSluisinthesouthernNetherlandsfortwelvedays,butDouglasdidnotdisembark.Rather,guestswereinvitedonboardtobidfarewelltoalegend,andDouglasentertainedthem‘asthoughhewerekingofScotland’.Douglas’sfamewentbeforehimandhewasreceivedinSpainwithhonour,aboveallfromthe
Englishknights.InbroadtermsBarbour’sversionofeventsinSpainisborneoutbyleBelandbyaSpanishsource.Douglaswasclearlypreparingtoexitthislife,andhadnointentionofreturningsafelyfromSpain.Hewaskilledinaskirmishon25August1330atTebasdeArdales,thedaybeforethemainengagementthere,alongwithSirWilliamSinclair,andRobertandWalterLogan.
Traditionhasit,fromlinesinterpolatedintotheBarbourtext,that,seeinghispositiontobehopeless,Douglastossedthecasketbearingtheking’sheartintothethickofthefight,andchargedtheenemywiththewords:
Nowpassthouforthbefore,Asthouwaswontinfieldtobe,AndIshallfolloworelsedie.
Recoveredfromthefield,
Douglas’sbodywasboiledinordertoremovefleshfrombones–anothernotuncommonfunerarypractice–andthenhisbones,togetherwiththeheartofRobertBruce,werebornebacktoScotlandbySirWilliamKeithofGalston.Douglaswasburiedinhisparishchurch,StBride’sKirkatDouglas,wherein1307hehadambushedtheenemygarrison,and,inaccordance
ThelifeofRobertBrucewasnottheunqualifiedsuccesswhichpropagandistsforhisdynastyhaverepresented.Inparticular,Barbour,FordunandBowerexaggeratethedegreetowhichScotlandunitedbehindRobert.Thestrengthofanti-BrucefeelinginScotlandisrevealedbythedoggedresistanceofJohnofArgyll,bythetreasontrialsoftheBlackParliamentthatrevealenduringpro-Balliol
sympathiesandbythesuddencollapseoftheBrucepowerbasewithinafewyearsofRobert’sdeath.Undoubtedlytoo,RobertBrucehadbeenfortunate.HeappearstohaveacknowledgedreadilythattheincompetenceofEdwardI’ssuccessorenabledhimtorecoverthekingdomofScotland.AlsoreadilyapparentisRobert’sgoodfortuneinthepowerlessness
ofEnglishgovernmentthatoccurredinthedecadeafterBannockburn,causedpartlybystrifebetweentheEnglishkingandhisbarons,andpartlybythenaturalcatastrophesoffamineanddiseaseofanimals.Itisnotsurprisingthat
Robertfailedtoachievesainthood,thatultimateaccoladeofpopularmedievalkings,fromeitherChurchorpeople.Sainthoodwas
associatedwithcaseswhenthebodydidnot,foronereasonoranother,decay,butRobert’sbody–whetherleprousornot–wasalreadymanifestlyindecaylongbeforehisdeath.Besides,Robertdiedanexcommunicate,thoughthismightnothavebeengenerallyknowninScotlandatthetime.‘Canonisationbypopulardemand’,or‘politicalcanonisation’,wasaccorded
tocertainpopularlordsintheMiddleAges,andcontemporaryexamplesofthisoccurredinEngland.Afterhisexecutionin1322EarlThomasofLancasterwaswidelyrecognisedasamartyrandsaint,andpilgrimagesweremadetothesiteofhisgrave.EdwardofCaernarfon,Robert’scontemporaryandoldadversary,hadalively‘afterlife’.Storiesabouthow
EdwardIIescapedmurderin1327andwanderedfarandwideuntilaslateas1338weresufficientlyconvincingandnumeroustocausethemagnificenttombinGloucesterCathedraltobeopenedinOctober1855toestablishtheexistenceofacoffin,andtohavesowndoubtinthemindsofsomemodernhistoriansastowhetherEdwardwasmurderedasreported.Thez
ofinventedafterlivesandpopularcanonisationwastosalvagesulliedreputationsandlacklustrecareerstotheembarrassmentofpoliticalauthorities.ButtohissupportersRobert’sreputationamongScotswasunsullied–despitethemurderandsacrilegeof1306–andtocontemporarieshiscareerlackednolustre.Canonisationand‘afterlife’wereunnecessaryand
inappropriate.Thetrulygreatarenever
allowedtorestinpeace.DuringtheProtestantReformation,DunfermlineAbbeywasattackedbyCalvinistreformersandthemarbletombwithgold-leafdecorationwassmashed,probablyfornootherreasonthanitrepresentedagravenimage,forbiddenbyOldTestamentstricture.Butcenturieslater,in1817,
magistratesoftheburghofDunfermlinedecidedtobuildanewchurchonthesiteoftheabbey,andthelandhadtobeclearedtoallowrebuilding.RobertBruce’stombwasoneofmanydiscovered–othersincludedthoseofStMargaretandMalcolmCanmore.SuchwasthefascinationofcontemporarieswiththeMiddleAgesthat,afterthenewchurchhadbeenbuilt
aroundit,Robert’sremainswereexhumedinNovember1819,measured,andleftabovegroundforfivedaystoallowforthoroughexamination.Thereisnodoubtthatthe
remainsbelongedtoRobertBruce:thebreastbonehadbeensawntoallowfortheremovaloftheheart.AplasterofPariscastoftheskullwasmade,duringwhichtwoorthreeteethmayhave
comeout.Examinationyieldedconsiderableevidenceofinjurytothehead.Theofficialreportread,‘Thereisakindofmarkontherightsideofthesagittalsuture,mostprobablytheconsequenceofasevereinjury,andofsubsequentexfoliation.’Itisalsoofinterestthataconsiderableportionoftheleftzygomaticarch,onthesideoftheskull,ismissingfromthecast.
AccordingtoPearson,whowrotein1924,‘Thecastlackstheleftzygomaticridge,whetherbrokenoffintheskullormorerecentlyfromthecastisnotclear…detailedanalysisofthecaststronglysuggeststhatthisdeficiencywaspresentwhenthecastwasmade,andthetwoendsofthearchappeartoshowevidenceofhealing…’Inlife,then,Roberthadsustainedasevereblowon
thetopofhisskull,andanotherontheleftsideofthehead,exactlyaswemightexpectofawarriorking.Hewillhavebeenbadlyscarred,anditmaybethatsuchscarringgaverisetothenotionentertainedbyhisdetractorsthathehadcontractedleprosy.Phrenologywasapseudo-
sciencemuchinvogueinthenineteenthcentury,andtheskullwassubjectedto
examinationbyphrenologistswhoclaimedtoreadcharactertraitsfromtheshapeofthehead.Phrenologicalobservationswerepublished,andthoughcouchedin‘scientific’termsitisclearthattheywereheavilydependentuponwrittenaccountsfortheirassessmentofBruce’spersonality.Acuriousstoryexiststhat,duringthistime,alocaldignitaryenteredthechurch
atnightandremovedatoe,togetherwithapieceoftheshroudandfragmentsfromthecoffin.AlthoughtheseitemsarepreservedintheHunterianMuseuminGlasgow,ithasbeenimpossibleforthemuseumauthoritiestoverifythatparticularpieceofantiquefleshasRobert’stoe:itistoodecayedforDNAtestsorcarbon-dating.Afingerwasalsoretainedbyasouvenir
hunter,asreferredtointhepreviouschapter.OtherreputedbonefragmentsareheldatStConan’sKirkatLochawe,andalsointhemuseumofDunfermlineAbbey.Whenthescientists–andthesouvenirhunters–hadcompletedtheirwork,thebodywasreturnedtotheleadcoffin.Moltenpitchwaspouredintothecoffin,ameasureintendedtopreservetheskeleton,andthena
numberofarticleswereplacedinit,amongthemacopyofthe1714editionofTheBruce,oneofKerr’sHistoryofScotlandandsevengoldandninesilvercoins.Thetombwasthenrebuiltandresealed,andasuperbVictorianbrassnowmarkstheplaceofburial.Furtherexhumationstook
placeinthetwentiethcentury.Aconicalleadcontainer,teninchesinheightandbelieved
toholdBruce’sheart,wasdiscoveredbeneaththeflooroftheChapterHouseatMelroseAbbeyinMarch1921.Itwasconfirmedthataheartwasenclosed,andthecontainerwasreburied.Thesamecontainerwasfoundasecondtimein1996andinvestigatedusingfibreopticcable.Thisrevealedaninnercasket,alsooflead.Sincehowevertherewasnodoubtitcontainedthemuch-decayed
heartofRobertBruce,nothingwastobegainedbypenetratingitandthecontainerwasreburiedintactin1998.OnthatoccasionthesecretaryofstateforScotlandunveiledaplaqueonthefloorovertheplacewheretheheartisburied.TheinscriptiononthestoneistakenfromBarbour,andreads‘Anoblehartmayhavenoease,giffreedomfailye.’Theplaquebearsasimplecarvingofa
heartentwinedwiththeStAndrew’sCross.Fascinationwiththe
subject’scorporalremainsisonlyoneofanumberofyardsticksbywhichthesignificanceofanhistoricalfiguremaybeassessed.Anothertestof‘greatness’ishowlongafterdeaththeindividual’sachievementslast.Athirdishiscontributionmadetothehostsociety.Afourthindicationof
significancemightbethedegreeofinteresttakeninthesubjectsincehisdeath.Thereareyetothersstill:whatplacethesubjectholdsinthepopularpantheonofheroes,andwhetherthesubjecthasanyrelevanceforcontemporaries.InsofarasRoberthelped
topreserveadistinctandvibrantScottishidentity,hiscontributionsurvivesthetestoftime;however,his
particularachievement,thepoliticalsettlementof1328,wasdoomedtolastlessthanfouryears.Awarethatnoscrapofparchmentwasanyrealguaranteeofhisson’sthrone,Roberthadbuiltintohissettlementsuchsafeguardsaswereavailabletohim:installationofhismosttrustedandablelieutenant,Moray,asregent;marriagebetweentheroyalfamilies,designedtolockthe
kingdomstogetherinharmony;andpaymentofaverylargesumofmoneyspreadoutoverthethreeyearsfollowing.ThesetermshoweverwerenotnearlysufficienttoreconciletheEnglishtothetreatytheydubbedtheShamefulPeace.EnglishchroniclesuniformlydenouncetheTreatyofEdinburgh–Northamptonasasell-out.Realisingthedepthofitsunpopularity,the
Englishregimedidnotevenpublishitsterms,andthesecrecysurroundingtheagreementservedonlytoattractfurthervilification.YoungEdwardIII,however,beingunder-age,wasabsolvedfromtheopprobrium:‘accursedbethetimethatthisparliamentwasordainedatNorthampton,fortherethroughfalsecounselthekingwastherefalselydisinherited;andyethewas
withinage’.Thatkinghadmadenosecretofhisdispleasureatthesettlement,andwhenthetimecameEdwardIIIusedthispretexttoavoidhonouringtheagreement.On19October1330
EdwardIIIcarriedoutadaringcoupd’état,overthrowingthegovernmentwhichhismotherandherloverhadcarriedoninhisname.Mortimerheexecuted;
Isabellahesentintohonourableconfinement;andsoattheageofeighteenhegraspedthereinsofpower.WaitinginthewingsweretheDisinherited,ledbyHenryBeaumontandThomasWake,whofeltthemselvescheatedbythepeaceoftitles,landsandincomesinScotland.Beaumont’sclaimtotheearldomofBuchanwasthroughhiswife,AliceComyn;Wakeclaimedthe
baronyofKirkandrewsandtheborderlordshipofLiddesdalethroughhisgreat-grandmother,Joand’Estuteville.AmongtheotherDisinheritedlordswereGilbertdeUmfraville,whomRoberthaddisinheritedoftheearldomofAthollandhalfthelandsofJohnComyn,whomRoberthadkilledatDumfries.TheotherhalfofthoselandswasclaimedbyRichardTalbot,whohad
marriedtheotherco-heiress.EdwardIIInowlentunofficialEnglishroyalsupporttothedemandsofthetwomostpowerfuloftheaggrievedlords.TheScotspaidnoattentiontohisadvocacyoftheDisinheritedcause;theymighthavebeenwisertobuyoffBeaumontandWake,thetwomostdangerous,asRoberthadvirtuallypromisedthemrestorationinanycase.On
Midsummer’sDaythelastinstalmentofthepromised£20,000waspaid,andScotlandlostthesecuritythatthepromiseofpaymenthadafforded.BeaumontbegantoorganisetheDisinheritedlordsforanexpeditiontoScotlandtorealisetheirclaimsbyforce,andinanastutemovehebroughtovertoEnglandEdwardBalliol,thesonofKingJohn,toleadtheexpedition.Theinvaders
wouldthenbeabletotapintolegitimistsentimentthatwasstillstronginScotland.EdwardBalliolsecretlydidhomagetoEdwardIIIforthekingdomofScotland,andEdwardIIIlentBalliolandtheDisinheritedhistacitco-operation.Inviewofthegrowing
threatposedbytheDisinherited,Moray,GuardianofScotland,broughtforwardthedateof
thecoronationofRobert’ssonasDavidII,andon24November1331theseven-year-oldDavidwascrownedandanointedinaparliamentatScone.HewasthefirstKingofScotstobeaccordedthefullritesofroyalinauguration;fordecadesScotshadbeenlobbyingthepapacyfortherightstocoronationoftheirkings,andthesolemnitiesandfestivitiesonthisoccasionmaybe
consideredasthelasttriumphofRobertBruce.YetScotlandhadbeenprofoundlyweakenedbythedeathsofmanyofherleadingmagnates.KingRobert’sdeathhadbeenfollowedbythatofJamesDouglas,WaltertheSteward,theformerchancellorBernardofArbroathandbishopsDavidofMorayandWilliamLambertonofStAndrews.Thisstringofcatastrophes
concludedwiththedeathoftheguardian,Morayhimself,atMusselburghon20July1332,whileorganisingthedefencesofsouthernScotlandagainsttheanticipatedonslaught.ItisallegedthathewaspoisonedatthecommandofBeaumont,thoughtheevidenceforthatisunconvincing.Hearingthenewsof
Moray’sdemise,theDisinheritedwerequicktoset
sail,andtheylandedatKinghornon6Augustwith500men-at-armsand1,000foot.Invasionbyseawasamasterstroke:itwasintendedtoallowEdwardIIIdeniabilityintheeventofadebacle,itkepttheScotsguessingastowheretheywouldland,andfinallyitdeprivedtheScotsoftheopportunitytoretreatbehindscorchedearth.TheinvadersvanquishedthefirstScottish
forcethatmetthem,andthusgainedafoothold.TheenormousScottisharmywhichthenconfrontedthemwaspoorlyledanddisorganised.Theleaderssquabbled:DonaldofMar,recentlyelectedguardianinplaceofMoray,felloutwithSirRobertBruce,thelateking’sillegitimateson,onthedayofconfrontationwiththeinvaders.ThebattleatDupplinMooron11August
shouldhavebeenwoneasilybytheScots,buttheScottishhostshowedlackofdisciplineanditscommanderscompletelymismanagedtheencounter.Defeatofsomanybysofewwaswidelyinterpretedasamarkofdivinefavour,andwhentheDisinheritedcapturedPerth,ScottishnoblesbegantodefecttoBalliol’sside.ThecoalitionofnobleintereststhatRobert
hadweldedtogetherbyforceofpersonalityandbyfearnowstrainedandcracked:incredibly,Duncan,EarlofFife,ledBallioltothethroneatSconeon24September1332,andBishopWilliamSinclairofDunkeld–whomKingRoberthadfulsomelypraisedas‘hisownbishop’–crownedBalliolKingofScotsatScone.ThusthestagewassetforarenewalofthatScottishcivilwarwhich
RobertIhadallbutwonatBannockburn.Therewakeningofthe
Bruce-Balliolcivilwar,fuelledbyEdwardIII’ssupport,andtheunravellingofRobert’splanfordynasticuniononanequalbasisbetweenthekingdomswerecatastrophesforEnglandandScotlandalike.ThoughBalliolwasdrivenoutofScotlandbeforetheyear1332ended,hereturned,thistime
withEngland’sdeclaredbacking.AnarmyheadedbyEnglishmagnatescapturedBerwickandwonasignalvictoryatHalidonHillon19July1333,andBalliolwasre-installedinScotland.ButEdwardIIIsoonlostinterestinScotland,asfrom1336ScotlandbecameasideshowinEngland’sHundredYearsWaragainstFrance.KingDavid’sfortunesebbedandflowed:from1334to1341he
wasexiledinFrance;in1346hehadrecoveredsufficientlytoraidNorthumberlandandDurham;then,havingbeencapturedattheBattleofNeville’sCross,wasfrom1346to1357aprisonerinEnglishjails.EdwardBalliolenjoyedasimilarebbandflowoffortune;buteventually,havinglosthislastfootholdinScotlandin1356,heresignedtoEdwardIIIhisclaimtothekingship.
ThisclaimtoScotlandEdwardandhissuccessorspursuedduringrespitesfromtheFrenchwar.ScotlandandEnglandbecamelockedintoafutilecycleofviolence,inwhicheachkingdomcouldinflictgreatharmontheother,butneithercouldwindecisivevictory.TheScotsraidedtheEnglishbordercountiesperiodically,devastatingthecountrysideandwastingthelabourof
centuries;theEnglishmarchedexpeditionstoEdinburghvirtuallywhenevertheywished,forcingtheScotsintotemporaryretreatnorthoftheForth.TheAnglo-Scottishborder,apreciselydefinedandmutuallyagreedlinethatin1296crossedthecountrysidefromonelandmarktothenext,blurred,expandedinwidth,andbecameabroadtractofbanditcountry,whereclans
ofraidersrodeatwill,andwherethewritofneitherkingran.Robert–nomore
responsiblethanEdwardIorhissonforunleashingwar–canscarcelybeblamedforthewell-nighperpetualhostilitybetweenEnglandandScotlandintheMiddleAges.Beforehisdeathhehaddoneeverythinginhispowertopromotelastingpeacebetweenthekingdoms.Itis
truethathehadorderedandparticipatedintheimpoverishmentofnorthernEngland,yetbydoingsohedemonstratedtoScottishkingswhocameafterhimhowScotlandmightwithstanditshostileneighbour.GoodKingRobertwastraditionallysaidtohavebequeathedtotheScotstheexampleofhowshemightbestdefendherself.ThepopularbeliefthatRobert’s
innovationsintacticsandstrategyassistedlatergenerationsofScotstoresistforeignoccupationisreflectedintheverseknownas‘GoodKingRobert’sTestament’.Pennedbyanunknownauthorinthemidfourteenthcentury,itrepresentsthefolkmemoryofRobert’sresponsetotheinvasionsof1319and1322:
OnfootshouldbeallScottishwar
LethillandmarshtheirfoesdebarAndwoodsaswallsprovesuchanarmThatenemiesdothemnoharm.InhiddenspotskeepeverystoreAndburntheplainlandsthembeforeSo,whentheyfindthelandliewasteNeedsmusttheypassawayinhasteHarriedbycunningraidsatnightAndthreateningsoundsfromeveryheight.Then,astheyleave,withgreatarray
Smitewiththeswordandchaseaway.ThisisthecounselandintentOfGoodKingRobert’sTestament.
Thesestricturesamounttocommonsenseforasmallnationfacedwithamightyenemy,butthereisjusticeintheclaimthatRobertpioneeredthemethodologyofresistanceandshatteredchivalrictaboosagainstguerrillawarfare.
Paradoxicallyperhaps,ScotsofthelaterMiddleAgesalsoclaimedthatRobertwasaparagonofchivalricvirtue.ThemythofhimselfwasperhapsRobert’smainlegacytothekingdomofScotland;aswehaveseen,herepresentedhimselfasthemostgallantofknights,acrusader,‘anotherMaccabeusorJoshua’whohadsavedhispeoplefromservitude.InhisownlifetimeRoberthad
becomealegendofchivalricvalour.JehanleBel,theHainaultermercenarywhoin1350–58wroteofhisownexperiencesintheWeardalecampaignof1327,recountedsomeofthestoriesofRobert’scareerthatwerecurrent.ThispassagefromleBelimpliesthatRoberthimselfcontributedtothelegend:‘Onetime,itissaid,andfoundinastorytoldbythesaidKingRobert,thatthe
goodKingEdwardhadhimchasedthroughthesegreatforestsforthespaceofthreeorfourdays,bydogsandleashhoundstobloodandtrainthem,buthecouldneverfindhim,nor,whateverthemiseriesheendured,wouldheobeythisgoodKingEdward.’WhetherRoberthimself
activelycontributedtohismyth,hislegendgrewandgrew.Robertrepresentedhis
careeringlowingtermsasisevidencedbytheDeclarationofArbroath.ButanaltogetherseparatearistocraticdynastyfoundeditsfortunesontheBrucelegend:theBlackDouglasesincorporated‘theBludyHart’intotheirheraldicarms,andmadethemostofthepropagandaaffordedthembytheparticipationofGoodSirJamesinKingRobert’sheroicachievements.
TheBrucelegendwasmostfamouslyexpoundedinBarbour’sTheBruce,composedaround1375,butwasalsopopularisedbyFordun,writtenafter1363,theninthefifteenthcenturybyWalterBower.BarbourdescribesGilesd’Argentineasthethird-bestknightofhisday;later,inhisnarrationoftheBattleofBylandsin1322,heindicatesthatSirRalphCobhamwasesteemedthe
bestknightinallEngland,butthatfromthatdayforthhiscompanionatBylands,SirThomasUghtred,wasesteemedaboveSirRalph.Whothenwasthepickofthechivalriccrop?AnanecdoteisretailedbyBower,thatatthecourtofEdwardIIthequestionofwhowasthegreatestknightinChristendomwasputtoaherald,who‘saidopenlybeforeeverybodythatthe
mostpeerlessandgallant,themostdaringandmightiestinwarlikedeeds,wasthatinvincibleprinceKingRobertBruce;andthisheopenlysupportedandmadegoodbymanyarguments,andheofferedtodefendhisopinionwithhisbody.HenceheincurredthegreatdispleasureoftheEnglish;butheearnedtherespectandgoodwordofthestrangerswholovedthetruth.’
LongaftertheMiddleAges,thememoryofRobertBruceremainedapowerfulsymbolofpatriotismandpoliticalindependence.ThereisasenseinwhichRobertdefinedtheScottishidentity:hiscareerdeterminedthatScottishidentitywouldhenceforthtoalargeextentbedefinedin,andassociatedwith,oppositiontoEngland.Oneofthepracticalimplicationsofthiswasthatit
wasnolongerpossibleforlandownerstoholdlandinbothkingdoms.Secondly,herevivedtheScottishmonarchy,whichtheEdwardiansettlementof1305hadplacedinabeyanceandmightwellhaveabolished.Thatiswhy,againandagain,fromhisdeathuntilthepresent,thememoryoftheself-declaredherokinghasbeenpressedintoservicetoinspireScotlandtocherish
herindependenceandseparateidentity.Fromtheearlynineteenthcentury,publicmeetingshavebeenheldannuallyonthesiteoftheBattleofBannockburntocelebratethevictoryof1314.Itissurelythemostfrequentlyre-enactedbattleoftheMiddleAges.MagnificentstatueshavebeenerectedinRobert’smemory.InthelatertwentiethcenturyRobert’smemory,andhismission
statement,theDeclarationofArbroath,werefreelyavailedofbyScottishnationalistsandfiguredprominentlyinthedevolutiondebates.ThroughoutthecenturiestothepresentdayBarbour’sTheBrucehasenjoyedcontinuingandwidespreadpopularity;thestirringrhetoricoftheDeclarationofArbroathhasbeenrecitedwhereverthreatstotheScottishidentityhavebeenperceived.
YetinsomewaysitissurprisingthatRoberthasnotachievedwarmerrecognitionfromsubsequentgenerationsofScots.InScotlandhismemoryisrevered,ratherthancherished.HiscareerwasoneofseveralfactorswhichensuredthatScotland’s‘nationalquestion’,theissueofwhetherheridentitywastobemergedwiththatofhersouthernneighbour,wassettledearly–muchearlier
thanmostotherEuropeannationalities,and,indeed,wellbeforemodernnationalismitselfwasbornintheFrenchRevolution.Robert’spartintheearlysettlementofScottishidentityeffectivelymeantthathisownreputation,gloriousintheMiddleAgeswhiletherewasanexternalthreat,wouldgrowstalewhenthatthreatreceded.Consequently,whenin1603thethroneofEngland
passedtotheKingofScotsandthecrownswereunitedinthepersonofJamesVIandI,Scotlandnolongerhadneedofamythichero-king,oranideologyofresistance.TheimagesofRobert,BannockburnandtheDeclarationrapidlybecamehackneyed,stockepithets,recallingpastglorieswhichoftencontrastedruefullywithpresentadversity.When,in1707,unionofthetwo
kingdomsandparliamentswasdebated,thedukeofHamiltontriedtostirScottishpeersintoresistingtheUnionbyasking,‘Arenoneofthedescendantshereofthoseworthypatriotswhodefendedthelibertyoftheircountryagainstallinvaders,whoassistedtheGreatKingRobertBrucetorestoretheconstitutionandrevengethefalsehoodofEnglandandtheusurpationofBalliol?’
GeorgeLockhartofCarnwathremarkedthatHamilton‘outdidhimselfinhispatheticallremonstrance’.Thepre-VictorianandVictorianlearnèdelites,fascinatedbyallthingsGothic,showedconsiderableinterestinthefigureofRobertBrucefollowingtheexhumationof1819,buttheirconceptionofhimappearstohavelingeredoverlongwithus,andnowhisimage
appearsoftenasstuffy,moribundandofmerelyantiquarianinterest.InmanymindsBruce,BannockburnandtheDeclarationofArbroathbelong,asitwere,totheoutmodedhistoryof‘dates,kingsandbattles’ratherthantothetrendierhistoriesofideas,ofperspectivesandsocialrelations.Furthermore,Robert’sreputationhasbeenoneofthecasualtiesofthe
divisionofhistoryintonarrownationalperspectives.FreshapproachestohistoryhaverecognisedhisplaceinthehistoryofnorthernEngland,ofIreland,ofthe‘IrishSeaProvince’,oftheGaidhealtachd,oftheBritishIsles,ofthe‘NorthSeacommunity’andindeedofEurope.Robertrarelystandsonhis
own:heishabituallymentionedinthesamebreath
asSirWilliamWallaceandoftenappearssomewhatinWallace’sshadow.Thissituationdatesfromtheearlynineteenthcentury,whenthemartialvirtuesshownjointlybyWallaceandBrucewereextolledasanticipatingthecontemporaryexploitsoftheBritisharmyinempire-building.Theselfless,patrioticanduncomplicatedlymartialfigureofWallacewasmoreeasilyabsorbedintothe
ideologyofBritainandtheEmpirethanthatofthewilysoldier-politicianwhohadhimselfmadeking.From1800to1858oversixtyworksonthelifeofWallacewerepublished,andstatuestoWallacesprangupatDryburgh,Falkirk,AyrandCraigieinAyrshire,beforetheWallacemonumentatStirlingwasconstructed.TherewasnotthesameinterestinBruce.Inthe1859
designforanEdinburghmonumenttotheWarsofIndependence,thefigureofBrucewasincludedasrepresentingPerseverance,whilethatofWallacewaspresentedastheepitomeofPatriotism.Itisinterestingtonote,inthisandsimilardesigns,thatmidnineteenth-centurytendencytocommemoratetheWarsofIndependence,notbecausetheysecuredScottish
independencefromEngland,butbecausetheyultimatelyenabledScotlandtoenteronanequalbasisintopeacefulandprosperousunionwithEnglandfivehundredyearslater!ThecareerofRobertBrucewasdifficulttoaccommodatewithinsuchanhistoricaloverview.RobertBruce’sreputation
generallysuffersfromcomparisonwithWallace,afactespeciallyapparentinthe
wakeofthe1996motionpictureBraveheart.Anactionmoviethatdisplayedonlyanoddingacquaintancewithhistoricalaccuracy,BraveheartportrayedBruceasascheming,turncoatpolitician.OnmanylevelscomparisonwithWallaceisinvalid.WeknowonlyalittleofWallace,hisbackground,properties,activitiesandmotives.Infact,weknowonlythebarehighlightsofhis
career;whereasweknowagreatdealaboutBruce,hisshortcomingsanderrorsaswellashisbrilliance.Wallaceisthusasimplercharactertoportray,whileunderstandingBrucerequiresamoresophisticatedappraisal.PortrayalofWallaceasaproletarianhero,ademocraticdynamowhoeclipsedthevacillatingandtimidScottishnoblesofhisdayisnotfoundedinfact.Thesonofa
squireandthusamemberofthegenteelclasses,WallacehadcertainlynomoreregardfortheopinionsandwelfareoftheScottishpeoplethanhadBruce.ThepopularappealofWallaceliesinhisperceivedsimplicity:hissingle-mindeddevotiontohisliegeKingJohnandhismartyr’sdeathforwhathebelieved.Asfarasweknow,Wallacehadnodynasticorpersonalinterestinthewar;
noclaimtothethronetoconsider;nolandsinEnglandthatmightbeforfeited,andnotenantswhosewelfarehadtobetakenintoaccount.RobertBrucebycontrastcamewithallthesecomplications.ThusitiseasytoportrayWallaceasanattractive,unselfishidealistwhosufferedamartyr’sdeath,whileBruceisvulnerabletocaricatureasashiftingpolitician,a
pragmatistwhocompromisedanddelivered,butwholookedafterhisowninterestsaboveall.Suchacontrastbetween
WallaceandBrucemaysuittwentieth-centurytasteinnarrativeandcinema,butthereisnohistoricalbasisforit.ThetruthisthatinsidingnowwithEdwardI,nowwiththeComynsashisfamilyinterestrequired,RobertBrucewasbehavinginthe
samewayasmostofhispeersandcontemporaries.Probably,asProfessorDuncanhasneatlyexpressedit,contemporariesthoughtnonetheworseofhimforit.ThecontrastbetweenWallaceandBruceisthereforesuperficial.Conversely,Brucedidnot‘succeedwhereWallacefailed’.Rather,BrucebuiltuponWallace’sachievement:manyofthosewhofoughtatStirlingBridge
foughtalsoatBannockburn,andsharedthesameoutrageattheEnglishoccupationandhumiliationoftheircountry.Thebestmonumentsto
Robert’smemoryarethecaptivatingnarrativeofBarbour’sTheBruceandthestirringrhetoricoftheDeclarationofArbroath.Inaddition,everyoneshouldreadandenjoy,withoutbeingdupedby,themedievalpropagandistsfortheBruce
dynasty:Fordun,BowerandWyntoun,whohideRobert’sfaultsandmaskhistruegoalstogenerateacrudeandunreconstructednationalisticfervour.Roberthimselfmadenogeneralisationsonthebasisofnationality.DuringhisrebellionagainsttheEnglishkingin1306itisinterestinghowhighlyRobertvaluedhisEnglishknights–YorkshiremenChristopherSetonandhisbrothers,and,
later,theNorthumbrianSirWilliamBurradon,withwhomhefledintothemountains.Inhislettertothe‘kingsprelatesandclergyandtheinhabitantsofIreland’Robertunderstands‘ournation’asapan-Celticconglomeration,embracingIrishandScots.Hisstatedconceptofnationhoodwasalreadyarchaic,andfarremovedfromtheself-contained,homogeneous
unitsthathavebeenunderstoodasnationssincethetimeoftheFrenchRevolution.TemptingasitistoportrayRobertasachampionofsmallidentities,nations,languagesorculturesunderthreatfromthehomogenising,destructiveforcesofglobalisation,todosowouldbeunjusttotheGallovidianandManxidentitieswhichRobertrepressed.Itistempting,too,
inviewofhislettertotheIrish,torepresentRobertasachampionofGaeliccultureandofthepan-Celticideal,yetthiswasmostlikelyaposeadoptedbyRobertandEdwardBrucetoattractGaelicsupport,fortheircareersshowedonlysuperficialcommitmenttothatideal.Itis,rather,forhis
leadershipofabeleaguredpeople,hisrevivalofthe
Scottishkingship,hispreservationoftheScottishidentityinthefaceofdireexternalthreat,hispersonalqualitiesofdaring,leadershipanddetermination,thatRobertBruce’smemoryshouldbehonouredandcherished.HoweveronepicturesRobert–ontherunfromthetrackerdogsinGalloway,wadinguptohisneckintheicymoatatPerth,manfullydispatchingHenry
deBounonthedaybeforeBannockburn,orridingatfullpeltacrossthePenninesinhisefforttocaptureEdwardIIin1322–Robert’sremarkableadventureswillneverfailtoentertain,intrigueandinspire.Valiantknight,greatsea-lordoftheGaidhealtachdandtriumphantking,hislifeservestoillustratethatresoluteaction,determinationandperseverance,eveninthefaceofoverwhelmingodds,
Notesonsources
Introduction:brushingoffthecobwebs
ThefirstchapterofYoung,RoberttheBruce’sRivalsdescribesthewholesalerewritingofhistorythatoccurredtosupportthecauseoftheBruceandStewart
kingsagainsttheclaimsofEdwardBalliolandEdwardIIIofEngland.TheComynswerepaintedveryblackindeedbytheBruceanpropagandists,andanaccountofWallace’scareerwasmodifedtoenablefavourablecomparisonstobemadebetweenRobertandWallace.Quotationsinthischapterarefromthepro-Brucepartisanchroniclers,FordunandBower.Theprincipal
milestonesintherevisionofRobertBruceareasfollows:Barron,TheScottishWarofIndependence,1934;Barrow,RobertBruce,whichfirstappearedin1964,andDuncan,TheActsofRobertI,whichappearedin1988.
1Amanofhistime,amanofhisplace:Scotlandinthelatethirteenthcentury
SeeGenealogicaltable1for
Robert’sancestryand2forhissiblings.TheperiodisdescribedinthefinalchaptersofDuncan,Scotland:theMakingoftheKingdomandintheopeningchaptersofNicholson,Scotland:theLaterMiddleAges,andalsointheinitialchapterofBarrow,RobertBruce.Nicholsonisespeciallystrongonmedievaleconomyandsociety.TheScottishmonarchyatthistimeis
describedbyDuncaninthefinalchapterofScotland:TheMakingoftheKingdom,andtheconceptandprocessofking-makinginTheKingshipoftheScotsbythesameauthor.GaelicScotlandinthisperiodisexploredbyMcDonaldinTheKingdomoftheIsles;andIrishaspectsandresonancesbyDuffyin‘TheAnglo-NormanErainScotland’andin‘TheBruceBrothers’.Ihaveused
Prestwich’sexamplestoillustratetherelativevaluesofcommodities:EdwardI,‘ANoteonMoney’.
2Aninheritance,agrandfather’sambitionanda‘coveytous’king(1286–96)
EarlyfamilyhistoryiscoveredbyDuncanin‘TheBrucesofAnnandale,1100–
1304’.Young,RoberttheBruce’sRivalsisavaluablestudyofthepowerfulComynfamily.TheoriginoftheBruceclaimtothethroneisdiscussedinDuncan,TheKingshipoftheScots.DuncanisdismissiveofRobertBruceV’sclaimtohavebeenacknowledgedasheirtoAlexanderII,whoin1238hadnoheirofhisbody.OpinionsonEdwardIvarymarkedly:Prestwichdefends
theEnglishkinginhisbiographyEdwardI,fromBarrow’scriticisms,setoutinRobertBruce.EventsfollowingthedeathofAlexanderIIIarediscussedinBarrow,RobertBruceandinDuncan’sreviewofthefirsteditionofthatwork,‘ThecommunityoftherealmofScotlandandRobertBruce’.Nicholson,Scotland:TheLaterMiddleAges,providesathirdperspective.Stonesis
themainauthorityontheGreatCause,anddocumentsinAnglo-ScottishRelationsconveyaflavourofit.UsefulsummariesfromtwodifferentperspectivesaregiveninPrestwich,EdwardIandBarrow,RobertBruce.Thecampaignof1296anditsaftermatharecoveredintheLanercost,andGuisboroughchronicles,andtheexcerptsofpopularsongarepreservedinPeterLangtoft’srhyming
chronicle.
3ResistanceandsurvivalinoccupiedScotland(1296–1306)
Fisher,WilliamWallace(Birlinn,Edinburgh,2002)istheleadingauthorityonWallacehimself,thoughtherebellionisdescribedinBarrow,RobertBruce.The
invasionofEnglandisanalysedbyMcNamee,‘WilliamWallace’sInvasionofNorthernEnglandin1297’.ThesubsequentEdwardianinvasionsofScotlandarediscussedinPrestwich,EdwardIandinWarPoliticsandFinancebythesameauthor.AmorerecentstudyhoweverisF.Watson,UndertheHammer:EdwardIandScotland1286–1307.Forthe
MacDougallrebellion,IhaveusedMcDonald,TheKingdomoftheIsles.GuisboroughisthesourcefortheBruce’s‘speechtotheknightsofAnnandale;andGuisboroughandLanercostarethemainchroniclesourcesfortheeventsof1297–98.Cressingham’sfascinatingletterstotheEnglishgovernmentandkingaretranslatedinthesecondvolumeofStevenson,
Documents.TheBattlefieldsTrustwebsitecontainsdetailedmapsandplansofseveralofthebattlesconnectedwithRobertBruce,including:Stirling,Falkirk,BannockburnandMyton(http://www.battlefieldstrust.com/resource-centre/medieval/).IhaveavailedofBarrow’s
translationsofthefollowingdocuments:theletterdescribingthefracasinthepatriotcampatPeeblesin
1299;theagreementbetweenBruceandEdwardI;andthelettertoMelroseAbbeyin1302.ThereissomeuncertaintyastothepreciseidentityoftheMacDonaldlordmurderedin1299.ThisisdiscussedinMcDonald,TheKingdomoftheIsles.Stones,Anglo–ScottishRelationsincludesatranslationofthepapalletter‘ScimusFili’.TheideathatWallace’srelationshipwith
theComynshadbeendifficultcomesfromachronicletradition,preservedinBower,thathehadsuppressedtheComynfaction.Theepisodemaybelongto1297–98.
4‘Playingatkingsandqueens’(1306):Murder,revolutionandenthronement
ForthecoupitselfandthecoronationthemainsourceisGuisborough,interpretedbyBarrow,RobertBruce.ForRobert’sescapefromMethventothewest,IusedDuncan’scommentaryin(ed.),Barbour,TheBruce.TheevaluationoftheRedComyn’scareerisbaseduponthatinYoung,RoberttheBruce’sRivals.ThecrucialletteroftheBerwickcorrespondentistranslatedin
Stones,Anglo–ScottishRelations,No.34.Duncan’sdiscussionoftheriteofking-makinginTheKingshipoftheScotsisveryrevealing.SnatchesofEnglishpopularsongarefromPeterLangtoft’schronicleandWright(ed.),ThePoliticalSongsofEngland.Strathearn’spredicamentisrecountedinNeville,‘ThePoliticalAllegianceoftheEarlsofStrathearnduringthe
WarsofIndependence’.
5‘Throughthemountainsandfromisletoisle’(1306–07):Defeatandexile(1306–07)
ThequotationinthetitleofthischapterisSirThomasGray’sdescriptionofthefugitiveking’swesternodysseyfromhis
Scalachronica.ForthischapterIhavereliedextensivelyuponBarrow,RobertBruce.ThedramaticchangesofallegianceinthewestaredescribedinMcDonald,TheKingdomoftheIsles.AsDuncanpointsoutinhiseditionofBarbour,TheBruce,themurderedRedComyn,JohnofBadenochIII,wasnotJohnofArgyll’suncle,buthiscousin.ForRobert’sescapefrom
Methventothewest,Duncan’scommentaryinhiseditionofBarbour’s,TheBruceisimportant.Duncan’sviewsonRobert’sintendeddestinationonleavingDunavertyaregivenin‘TheScots’InvasionofIreland,1315’.ThelettertoallthekingsofIrelandistranslatedinBarrow,RobertBruce;andfortheremarkable‘T’and‘A’letterseeDuffy‘TheBruceBrothersandtheIrish
SeaWorld,1306–29’.MacDowall’srewardisrecordedinCDSiv,no.6.BooksIVtoVIIIofTheBrucedescribetheking’sprecarioussurvivalinthesouth-westin1307.BarbourisalsothesourcefortheterrifiedstateofCarrickandRandolph’sobjectionstotheking’slackofchivalryinhiswarfare.Duncan’scommentaryonTheBrucehasbeenfollowedforthe
battlesofGlentroolandLoudonHill.TheimportantletteroftheForfarcorrespondentistranslatedinBarrow,RobertBruce.
6Recoveringthekingdom(1307–11)
Thischapterisbasedon:Barrow,RobertBruce;Duncan(ed.),Barbour,The
Bruce;and,fordevelopmentsinEngland,Haines,EdwardII.Higden’sfamousdescriptionofEdwardIIisfromPolychronicon.Robert’ssupposedcomparisonofEdwardIIwithhisfatherisderivedfromtheAnnalesPaulini.TheletterfromtheearlofRoss,writtenperhapsinOctoberorNovember1307,isavitalsource,translatedinBarrow,RobertBruce.Furthervaluable
informationabouteventsinlate1307tospring1308comesfromabadlydamagedletterofDuncanofFrendraughttoEdwardII,whichDuncantranslatesinhiscommentarytoBarbour,TheBruce.The‘BattleofInverurie’(orOldMeldrumtogivethebattleitspreciselocation)isrecountedatDuncan(ed.),Barbour,TheBruce,Bk.IX;andthe‘herschipofBuchan’follows.
ThespecialrelationshipbetweentheScotsandtheFlemingsisexaminedinthreearticlesbyReid:‘Trade,TradersandScottishIndependence’;‘TheScotsandtheStapleOrdinanceof1313;and‘SeaPowerandtheAnglo-ScottishWar1296–1328’.ThecampaignagainstJohnofArgyllisdiscussedinMcDonald,TheKingdomoftheIsles.Barrow,RobertBruce,translatesJohn’sletter,
butIhavefollowedDuncanindatingthelettertoaftertheBattleofBenCruachan.Theepisodeofthe‘Douglaslardner’isrecountedinDuncan(ed.),Barbour,TheBruce,BkV.ThesourcesfortheGallowaycampaignareLanercost,BowerandBarbour,TheBruce,Bk.IX.ThesourceforRobert’sacquisitionofthepapaltenthisanarticlebyEasson,‘TheScottishAbbeysandtheWar
ofIndependence:AFootnote’.TheEnglishcampaignof1310–11isdiscussedinHaines,EdwardII,andMcNamee,WarsoftheBruces.ThetranslationoftheGaelicpoemisbyMeek,‘“NorsemenandNobleStewards”:TheMacSweenPoemintheBookoftheDeanofLismore’.
7TheroadtoBannockburn(1311–14)
ThechiefchroniclesourcefortheraidingofEnglandisLanercost.McNamee,WarsoftheBruces,analysestheraidsintoEngland.Barbour,TheBruceisthemainsourceforthecaptureoftheScottishcastles.Galbraith,‘ExtractsfromtheHistoriaAureaandaFrenchBrut’revealsthedevastatingeffectsofthewar
onNorthumberland.ThedevelopingwarintheIrishSeaisrecordedinManxchronicleChronicaRegumManniaeetInsularum,andintheAnglo-Irishchronicleknownasthe‘LaudAnnals’(containedintheChartulariesofStMary’sAbbey,Dublin).DuncandiscussesthetimingofthearrangementsoverStirlingCastleinhiscommentaryonBarbour,TheBruce,Bk.XI.FortheBattle
ofBannockburnIhaverelieduponBarrow,RobertBruce,andDuncan’s‘BannockburnCommentary’inhiseditionofBarbour,TheBruce.Themainprimarysourcesforthebattleare:Duncan(ed.),Barbour,TheBruce,Bks.XI,XIIandXIII;andthethreeEnglishchroniclesLanercost,VitaEdwardiSecundi,andScalachronica.TheBattlefieldsTrustwebsitecontainsdetailedmapsand
plansoftheBattle:http://www.battlefieldstrust.com/resource-centre/medieval/Thepolished,possiblyofficial,versionoftheking’seve-of-battlespeechsurvivesinBower.
8Triumphsanddisasters(1314–18):Famine,warandIreland(1314–18)
PartsofScotlandwillhavebeenseriouslyaffectedbythewidespreadanimaldiseasesthatoccurredinEnglandintheearly1320s,describedinKershaw,‘TheGreatFamineandAgrarianCrisisinEngland1315–1322’.FortheraidsintoEngland,seeBarrow;RobertBruceisperhapsabitthinonthisaspect.LiteratureontheIrishcampaignsisgrowing.TheyarediscussedinDuncan,‘The
Scots’InvasionofIreland,1315’;Frame,‘TheBrucesinIreland,1315–18’,and‘TheCampaignoftheScotsinMunster,1317’;andDuffy,RoberttheBruce’sIrishWars.OnthewarintheNorthSea,inadditiontotheReidarticlesmentionedabove,Stevenson,‘TheFlemishDimensionoftheAuldAlliance’throwslightonthecomplicatedrelationshipbetween
England,France,FlandersandScotland.AlltheseaspectsareexaminedinMcNamee,WarsoftheBruces.BarbourshowsinterestinraidsintoEnglandonlywherechivalricfeatsofarmsareperformed;butheiswellinformedaboutIrelandanddevotesBkXIV,andpartsofXV,XVIandXVIIItoeventsinthattheatreofwar.Theonlysourcesuggestinganinvitationto
Edwardisachroniclefragment,printedinPhillips,‘DocumentsontheEarlyStagesoftheBruceInvasionsofIreland,1315–1316’.ThesiegeofCarlisleisrecountedinLanercost,andtheanarchicstateofNorthumberlandisdescribedinScammell,‘RobertIandtheNorthofEngland’,andMiller,WarintheNorth.Prestwichanalysestheintriguingepisodesoftherobberyofthecardinalsand
theMiddletonrevoltin‘GilbertdeMiddletonandtheAttackontheCardinals,1317’andargues,contrarytomyconclusion,thattherobberywasnotorchestratedbyKingRobert.Theraidof1318,describedinLanercost,isanalysedinKershaw,‘TheScotsintheWestRiding,1318–19’andMcNamee,WarsoftheBruces.SourcesforthedecisiveBattleofFaughartnearDundalkare
theAnnalsofClonmacnoise,Lanercost,andBarbourTheBruce,BkXVIII.
9Thestruggleforpeacewithhonour(1318–23)
Lanercostremainstheprincipalchroniclesourceforthisnextphaseofthewartoo.TheprincipalsecondaryworksareBarrow,Robert
BruceandMcNamee,WarsoftheBruces.Haines,EdwardII,coverstheimportantbackgroundofEnglishpolitics,andisalsousefulforrelationsbetweenthepapacyandthetwowarringkingdoms.BarbourshowsgreatinterestinthesiegeofBerwickandinthechivalricfeatsoftheScottishraidofOctober1322.ThesiegeofBerwickistreatedindepthinMaddicott,Thomas
ofLancasterandMcNamee,WarsoftheBruces.Themainchronicleaccountsfortheraidof1319andtheBattleofMytonareVitaEdwardiSecundiandLanercost.FortheEnglishinvasionof1322,seeFrydeTheTyrannyandFallofEdwardII,pp.129–31.Robert’sletterof1320toEdwardIIistranslatedinBarrow,RobertBruce,andeditedandcommentedonbyDuncan,TheActsofRobertI.
ThedevastationofthebishopricofDurhamearlyin1322isdescribedinthechronicleofRobertofGraystanes,containedinRaine(ed.),HistoriaeDunelmensisScriptoresTresanddiscussedinScammell,RobertIandtheNorthofEngland.Apartfromthestockman’saccount,mostofthefinancialaccountskeptfaithfullybyDurhamCathedralPriorythroughout
thisperiodlapseatthispoint,acircumstancewhichmaybeconnectedwiththecomingoftheScots.Harclay’sappealforassistanceandEdwardII’sevasivereplyisfromtheVitaEdwardiSecundi.Robert’spreemptiveattackonLancashireandtheWesternMarchisdescribedindetailbyLanercost.TheEnglishinvasionofScotlandisdescribedinBarbour,TheBruce,BkXVIIIand
discussedinHaines,EdwardIIandFryde,TheTyranyandFallofEdwardII.LanercostprovidesthenarrativeofRobert’scounterattack.ThewidespreaddevastationofPickeringandtheEastRidingisrevealedinMcNamee,WarsoftheBruces.TheBruce–HarclaytreatyistranslatedinStones,Anglo–ScottishRelations,no.39;andRobert’slettertoSullyinBarrow,RobertBruce.
10Robert,KingofScots:thegovernanceofScotland
ThischapterrelieschieflyuponanalysesbyNicholson,Scotland:TheLaterMiddleAgesandBarrow’schapter‘GoodKingRobert’inRobertBruce.AttemptstodeliverpapalbullstoRobertin1317–18aredetailedintheregisteroftheArchbishopofYork,WilliamMelton,andrecountedinHill‘AnEnglish
ArchbishopandtheScottishWarofIndependence’.Wedonothavethetextofthebarons’lettertothecardinals,butDuncaninfersitsexistencefromotherdocuments;andashesaysinTheActsofRobertI,itmusthaveanticipatedcloselytheDeclarationofArborath.Duncan,TheNationofScotsandtheDeclarationofArbroath(HistoricalAssociation,1970)was
consultedfortheDeclaration.OneofthemostentertainingconsiderationsofthedocumentisBrothestoneandDitchburn,‘“1320andAThat”:theDeclarationofArbroathandtheRemakingofScottishHistory’,wherethemodernrelevanceoftheletterisdiscussed.AntecedentsoftheDeclarationareconsidered.TheletteroftheEnglishbaronsisdiscussedin
Prestwich,EdwardI;theletteritselfwascopiedintoGuisborough.TheProcessuswasalegalbriefcompiledbyBaldredBisset,thechiefScottishlawyeratthepapalcourtin1301.ManyofthematerialsmakingupthebriefareinBower,vol.vi,andasummarywassenttoEdwardIbyhisownlawyersatAvignon,Stones,Anglo-ScottishRelations,no.31.TheScottishargumentsare
summarisedandtheEnglishreportgivenintranslationinBarrow,RobertBruce.TheRemonstranceoftheIrishPrincesistranslatedinBower.CowandiscussesthepossiblemeaningsoffreedomintheDeclarationin‘Identity,FreedomandtheDeclarationofArbroath’.Penman’sarticle‘Afellconiuracioun’isthefirstindepthanalysisoftheSoulesconspiracy.Theconspiracy
revealstheinsecurityoftheBruceregime.ThemainchroniclesourcesforitareBarbour,TheBruce,BkXIXandScalachronica.ThediscussionofRobert’srelationshipwithhisnoblesisabstractedfromBarrow,RobertBruce.ForRobert’sgenerositytoMoray,seeDuncan,TheActsofRobertI.TheroyaladministrationisdiscussedbrieflyinBarrow,RobertBruce,pp.294–96;
andthediscussionofRobert’sfinancialarrangementsisbaseduponNicholson,Scotland:TheLaterMiddleAges.
11EndgamewithEngland,anddeath(1323–28)
Barrow,RobertBruce,McNamee,WarsoftheBruces,andNicholson,
EdwardIIIandtheScotsformthebasisofthischapter.TwoarticlesbyNicholson,‘ASequeltoEdwardBruce’sInvasionofIreland’and‘TheLastCampaignofRobertBruce’,discusstheIrishexpeditionsof1327and1328andtheWeardalecampaignrespectively.Themainchroniclesources–LanercostandBarbour,TheBruce,BksXIXandXX–aresupplementedbya
foreigner’spointofviewinJehanLeBel’sLesVrayesChroniques.ThepartofLeBel’sworkwhichcoverstheWeardalecampaignof1327istranslatedinDuncan(ed.),Barbour,TheBruce.LeBel’schroniclewascopiedintothechroniclesofFroissart’schronicle,whichismuchmorereadilyavailablethanthePolaineditionoftheoriginal.TheAnglo-Scottishnegotiationsof1324are
describedintheVitaEdwardiSecundi,whereitisinterestingthatRobertdemandsforthefirsttimethereturnoftheStoneofSconeinexpectationofthebirthofanheir.Haines,EdwardIIandFryde,TheTyrannyandFallofEdwardIIdescribetheoverthrowofEdwardIIanditsrepercussionsforEnglishpolicytowardsScotland.Nicholson,EdwardIIIandtheScots,isthebestaccount
ofthisvolatileperiod.LeBel,Barbour,LanercostandScalachronicaallagreethatDouglasattackedtheEnglishking’scamp;DuncanprovidesalltheseaccountsinhiseditionofBarbour,TheBruce.ThepossibilityofnegotiationsbetweentheIrishgovernmentandRobertin1327isconsideredinMcNamee,WarsoftheBruces.FortheTreatyofEdinburgh–Northampton,I
haveusedNicholson,EdwardIIIandtheScots,whichtakesaccountofatrioofarticlesbyProfessorStonesintheScottishHistoricalReviewin1949,1950and1951.Theformalquit-claimbywhichEdwardIIIrenouncedanyclaimonScotlandisinStones,Anglo–ScottishRelations.TheBarbourpassagedescribingtheking’sillnessisinBarbour,TheBruce,BkXX.Ontheissue
ofleprosyversussyphilis,IhaveconsultedMoller-Christensen,andInkster,‘CasesofLeprosyandSyphilisintheOsteologicalCollectionoftheDepartmentofBiomedicalSciences,UniversityofEdinburgh:WithaNoteontheSkullofRoberttheBruce’,andKaufmanandMacLennan,‘RoberttheBruceandLeprosy’.Hamilton,TheLeperKingandhisHeirs
furnishestheinterestingcomparisonwiththetwelfth-centuryleperkingofJerusalem,BaldwinIV.FinancialrecordswhichexistonlyfortheverylastyearsofthereignareprintedinStuartandBurnett(eds.),TheExchequerRollsofScotlandandcontainsomedetailsoftheroyalfuneral.Barbour’saccountofRobert’sdeath-bedspeechinTheBruce,BkXX,maybecomparedwiththe
versioninLeBel(copiedintoFroissart).Cameron,‘SirJamesDouglas,SpainandtheHolyLand’andSimpson,‘TheHeartofKingRobertI:PiousCrusadeorMarketingGambit?’discussRobert’sposthumouscrusadeandDouglas’sexploitsinSpain.TheinterpolationintoBarbour’stextwasborrowedfromtheallegoricalpoembySirRichardHolland,TheBookoftheHowlat,writtenc.
1448.
12Theimage,thelegendandthelongshadowofRobertBruce
Haine,EdwardIIandMaddicott,ThomasofLancastereachdescribethepopularcanonisationoftheirsubjects.ThepossibilitythatEdwardIIsurvivedhis
reporteddeathin1327isreconsideredbyMortimer,‘TheDeathofEdwardIIinBerkleyCastle’.PartofthereportontheexhumationofRobertIwaspublishedas‘ExtractsfromthereportmadebyHenryJardine’.Littlehasbeenwrittenabouttheexhumationsince,exceptforKaufmanandMacLennan,‘RoberttheBruceandLeprosy’.OntheInternet,however,manysites
showinterestinthepresent-daywhereaboutsofRobert’scorporealremains.ThesubsequenthistoryofScotlandthatisgivenhereisbaseduponNicholson,Scotland:TheLaterMiddleAgesandEdwardIIIandtheScots.ThereferencetoRobertintheUniondebateisfromSzechi(ed.),‘Scotland’sRuine’:LockhartofCarnforth’sMemoirsoftheUnion(Aberdeen,1995).The
analysisofnineteenth-centuryattitudestoBruceandWallaceisbaseduponthatinMorton,UnionistNationalism:GoverningUrbanScotland,1830–1860.
Genealogicaltables
KingsofScotlandareshownindarktype.‘Competitors’arethosewhoparticipatedin
theGreatCauseof1290–92.Tables1and2arebasedonthoseinBarrow,RobertBruceandtheCommunityoftheRealm,withadditionalmaterialinserted.Table3isthatgiveninDuncan,Scotland:TheMakingoftheKingdom.Tables4and5arebasedonthoseinYoung,RoberttheBruce’sRivals.IhaveassumedinTable5thatEmmaandAgnesarethesameperson.Tables6and7
Furtherreading
AboutRobertBruceBarrow,G.W.S.,RobertBruceandtheCommunityoftheRealmofScotland(EdinburghUniversityPress,2006),thescholarlybiography.
Duncan,A.A.M.(ed.),JohnBarbour,TheBruce,
(Cannongate1997),theverseepicwhichistheprincipalnarrativesourceforhislife,intheoriginalScotswithtranslationonfacingpages.
AboutmedievalScotland
BrounD.,FinlayR.J.,andLynchM.(eds.),ImageandIdentity:TheMakingandRe-makingofScotlandThrough
theAges(JohnDonald,1998)Ditchburn,D.,ScotlandandEurope:themedievalkingdomanditscontactswithChristendom,1214–1560(TuckwellPress,2001),theEuropeancontext.
Duncan,A.M.M.,Scotland:theMakingoftheKingdom(EdinburghUniversityPress,1975)
MacDonald,R.A.,TheKingdomoftheIsles:Scotland’sWesternSeaboardinthe
CentralMiddleAges,c.1000–1336(Tuckwell,1997)
Nicholson,R.,Scotland:theLaterMiddleAges(EdinburghUniversityPress,1974)
Young,A.,RoberttheBruce’sRivals:theComyns,1212–1314(TuckwellPress,1997)
AbouttheEnglishwareffortinScotland
Haines,R.M.,EdwardII:EdwardofCaernarfon:HisLife,HisReign,andItsAftermath(1284–1330)(McGill-Queen’sUniversityPress,2003)
Nicholson,R.,EdwardIIIandtheScots(OxfordUniversityPress,1965)
Prestwich,M.,EdwardI(Methuen,1988)
Watson,F.,UndertheHammer(TuckwellPress,1998)
AbouttheDeclarationofArbroath
Duncan,A.M.M.,TheNationoftheScotsandtheDeclarationofArbroath(HistoricalAssociation,1970)
Brotherstone,T.andDitchburn,D.(eds.),FreedomandAuthority:Scotlandc.1050–c.1650:HistoricalandHistoriographicalEssaysPresentedtoGrantG.Simpson(TuckwellPress,
2000)
AboutthewidercontextofRobertI’swars
Davies,R.R.,(ed.),TheBritishIsles1100–1500:Comparisons,ContrastsandConnections(JohnDonald,1988)
Duffy,S.(ed.),RoberttheBruce’sIrishWars:the
InvasionsofIreland1306–1329(Stroud,TempusPublishing,2002),areviseditineraryandchronologyinEdwardBruce’sinvasionofIreland.
McNamee,C.,TheWarsoftheBruces:Scotland,EnglandandIreland1307–1328(TuckwellPress,1997),asurveyofthewiderimplicationsoftheconflict.
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Phillips,J.R.S.,‘DocumentsontheEarlyStagesoftheBruceInvasionsofIreland,1315–1316’ProceedingsoftheRoyalIrishAcademylxxixc(1979),pp.269–70
Prestwich,M.,EdwardI(London,1988)
——WarPoliticsandFinance(London,1972)
——‘GilbertdeMiddletonandtheAttackontheCardinals,
1317’inT.Reuter,WarriorsandChurchmenintheHighMiddleAges:EssaysPresentedtoKarlLeyser(Hambledon,1992),pp.179–94
Reid,W.S.,‘Trade,TradersandScottishIndependence’Speculumxxix(1954),pp.210–22
——‘TheScotsandtheStapleOrdinanceof1313Speculumxxxiv(1959)pp.598–610
——‘SeaPowerandtheAnglo-
ScottishWar1296–1328’TheMariners’Mirrorxlvi(1960),pp.7–23
Runciman,S.,AHistoryoftheCrusades,iii(London,1954)
Scammell,J.,‘RobertIandtheNorthofEngland’EnglishHistoricalReviewlxxiii(1958),pp.385–403
Scott,SirWalter,‘RobertBruceKingofScotlandandtheSpider’,inTalesofaGrandfather:BeingtheHistoryofScotland
(Edinburgh,1827–29)Simpson,G.G.,‘TheHeartofKingRobertI:PiousCrusadeorMarketingGambit?’inB.E.Crawford(ed.),Church,ChronicleandLearninginMedievalandearlyRenaissanceScotland(Edinburgh,1999),pp.173–86
Stevenson,A.,‘TheFlemishDimensionoftheAuldAlliance’inG.C.Simpson,ScotlandandtheLow
Countries1124–1994(EastLinton,1996)
Watson,F.,UndertheHammer:EdwardIandScotland1286–1307(EastLinton,1998)
Young,A.,RoberttheBruce’sRivals:TheComyns,1212–1314(EastLinton,1997).
Notesandreferences
NowpublishedwithtranslationandnotesinDuncan(ed.),Barbour,TheBruce.Seegenealogicaltables1AncestryandchildrenofRobertBruceand2Siblings
ofRobertBruceandtheirmarriages.GenealogicaltablesofthetwomainComynlineagesareprovided.SeeGenealogicaltable1:AncestorsandchildrenofRobertBruce.InnumberingthelordsofAnnandaleirrespectiveoftheirChristiannamesIhavefollowedProfessorDuncan.AlthoughthefuturekingisherereferredtoasRobert
VII,thenumeralreferstohisplaceinsuccessiontothelordshipofAnnandale.HewasinfactthesixthRobertBruceofthename.SeetheGenealogicaltable3:SuccessiontotheScottishthrone.RobertBruceVII,‘our’RobertBruce,wasnotpresent.ThemainproblemsurroundingthistreatyiswhethertheEnglish
reservationsnullifiedtheguaranteeofScottishindependenceundertheproposedunion.Seegenealogicaltables6and7.AlsopresentwasJohnComynofBadenochIII.Ittakesanefforttoremember,inthefaceofsuchbitterness,thatnationalismasweknowit,didnotexistintheMiddleAges.Thecorollaryofmodern
nationalismis‘popularsovereignty’,theassumption,bornoftheAmericanandFrenchrevolutions,thatsovereigntyresidesinthepeople.Nosuchideaexistedinthemiddleages.Loyaltytoone’scountrycertainlyexisted,butitwastemperedbyloyaltytoone’slord,andtothesupra-nationalchurch.Medievalracismandprejudicewerenonethelessvirulent.
Seegenealogicaltables6and7.Imprisonmentofaclergymanwascontrarytocanonlaw,andWishart’scasewouldbringpapaldisapprovaluponEdward.Thisassertion,byFordun,isnowconsideredtobeanerror,possiblyintendingBruce’sfatherRobertVI,theLordofAnnandale.NeitherRobertVInorRobertVIIappearontheFalkirkRollof
Arms.Errorornot,itisamostunusalstatementforaScottishsourceotherwisedesignedtoglorifythememoryofRobertBruce.TherewashowevernotreatyofpeacebetweenEnglandandFranceuntilMay1303.DeThwengwasunfortunateenoughtobecapturedafterBannockburnaswell.Thiswasexactlyhow,thirtyyearslater,EdwardIIIusedEdwardBallioltodestabilise
theBrucemonarchy.ThefactthatBrucehadnotbeenatcourtintheperiodleadinguptoComyn’smurderdisprovesthemyth,reflectedinseveralchronicles,thattheearlofGloucesterhadtippedoffBruceaboutimminentarrestandfacilitatedhisescape.Thetalepointstotwotruths,however:firstly,thattherehadbeenalong-standingsympathybetweenthehouses
ofGloucesterandBruce,andsecondlythatBrucewasworriedabouthisstandingatcourt,andmayhavefearedrevelations.BarbourgivesapenportraitofDouglas:‘Hewasloyalinallhisactionsforhedidnotdeigntohavetruckwithtreacheryorfalseness.Hisheartwassetonhighhonour,andhebehavedinsuchawaythatallwhowerenearhimlovedhim.Buthewasnotso
good-lookingthatweshouldsaymuchofhisbeauty.Hisfacewassomewhatpale,and,asIheardit,hehadblackhair,buthewaswellmadeinhislimbswithstrongbonesandbroadshoulders.’ThecoronetwaslaterdiscoveredandkeptbyGeoffreydeCoignersafterRobert’sdefeatatMethven.AftertheBrucecoupitisnolongerpossibletowriteof‘patriots’,forRoberthad
irrevocablysplitthatgroupofScottishmagnates.InshorthandreferencetoScotsco-operatingwiththeEnglishagainsttheBrucestheclumsyterm‘Anglo-Scots’iscommonlyused.Theearl’sheirwasahostage,andhisothersonswereintheserviceofEdwardI.ElsewherethestoryisthatJohnofHaliburtoncapturedRobertinthisfashion,but
then,onrecognisinghim,releasedhim.SeeGenealogicaltable4:TheComynsofBadenoch.TheseplacesaremarkedonMap6forgreaterclarity.DunavertyhadactuallybeenbuiltbytheMacDougallsandwasasymboloftheirlordshipinthearea.ButMacQuillanappearstohavebeenentrustedbyEdwardIwiththisformidablecastleduringtheyearsof
MacDougallrebellion.Priortothecoupof1306,MalcolmMacQuillangavethecastletoRobertinexchangeforanother.Thelettersurvivesasanexemplarorillustrationdesignedtoshowroyalclerkshowlettersshouldbephrased,butinsuchexamplesthelettersA,BandCaregenerallyusedtoindicatewherepropernamesshouldbeinserted.Inthisparticular
exemplar,theletters‘T’and‘A’areusedtodenotethenamesoftheplenipotentiaries.SéanDuffyarguesconvincinglythattheinitialsstandfor‘Thomas’and‘Alexander’,andthattheyare‘ourdearkinsmen’referredtointhetext.DuncanplacestheattackonTurnberryCastleinthespringof1306,andtheattackonthebilletedsoldiersinthevillageinasubsequentattackon
GallowayaroundSeptember1307.ThisactionusedtobeknownastheBattleofBranderPass;nowthenameBattleofBenCruachanispreferred.Douglashadapparentlylefttheforesttojointhekingonthisexpedition.‘DonaldofIslay’appearstobeascribalerrororshorthandfor[AngusÓgMac]Donald,LordofIslay.Morayisdescribedby
Barbourinthefollowingterms:‘Hewasofmoderatestatureandwell-formedinproportion,withabroadface,pleasantandfair,courteousanddebonairinallrespectsandofassureddemeanour.Helovedloyaltyaboveeverything,alwaysstooddiligentlyagainstfalsehood,treasonandfelony.Heexaltedhonourandgenerosityandalwayssupportedrighteousness.Hewascaring,
evenlovingincompany,andhealwayslovedgoodknights,for,totellthetruth,hewasfullofspiritandmadeofallthevirtues.’Robertmayofcoursealreadyhavehadhishandsonthismoney,requiringonlyratificationofthestatusquo.ThesepapaltenthshadbeenpromisedbypopestothekingofEngland.IntheBarbournarrativethearrangementismadealmosta
yearearlier,andRobertberatesEdwardBruceforgivingEdwardIIsolongtorelievethecastle.Barbourwasmistakenhowever.DuncanrecentlypointedoutthatthecampaignwasnotoccasionedbyathreattoStirlingCastlebutbythedecreeofOctober1313.ThefallofStirlingbecameimminentonlyinMay1314,whentheEnglisharmywasalreadyapproaching.
InSeptember1314JohnwassaidtobecoursingontheIrishSeawithtwelveships,probablyaccompaniedbyhisvassalDuncanMacGoffrey.TheLaudAnnalsstatethattheinaugurationofEdwardBruceaskingofIrelandtookplaceveryshortlyafterthefeastofSaintsPhilipandJames–1May–whichreferstothatdatein1316,ormaybeanerrorforasimilarlynamedfeastdayin1315.
BarbourhasCrabbeworkfortheScotsunderduressandthreatenedwithdeath.Thereissomethingstrangehere,forifitwereCrabbe,theprivateeringscourgeofEnglishshipping,hewouldneitherhavebeenontheEnglishside,norwouldhehavetobeforcedtoworkagainsttheEnglish.ButtheengineerdoesindeedseemtohavebeenJohnCrabbetheformerpirate.Heworkedfor
theScotsagainasengineerinNorthumberlandin1327,butchangedsidesandworkedfortheEnglishwhentheybesiegedBerwickin1333.TheDeclarationofArbroathwastimedtorespondtoa‘witheringblastofecclesiasticalcensure’,partlyinspiredbytheCardinalsinsultedin1317,partlybyEnglishdiplomacyatthecuria’.Theotherillegitimate
childrenappeartohavebeenMargaretBruce,whomarriedRobertGlen,andElizabeth,whomarriedSirWalterOliphantofGask.Intheevent,DavidIIdiedchildlessin1371andRobertStewartsucceeded,initiatingtheStewartdynasty.AnEnglishchronicleTheBrut,allegesthatScottishchurchmenwereexecutedforfailuretosupportRobert,butthereisnoreliableevidence
tosupportthis.GenealogicalTable5illustratesthecloseconnectionsbetweentheconspiratorsandtheComyninterest.Aswehaveseen,theUmfravilleearlsofAngushadbeendisinherited.ThenewearlwasJohnStewartofBunkle,notyetaknight.Thiswishislikelytohavelefthisfriendsinaquandary,forthepreviousmonthina
letterRobertreferredtoanearlierwishthathisheartbeburiedatMelroseAbbey.Hewasfortunatethatboththesewisheswerefulfilled.
Index
Kingsarelistedastitled;henceJohnBalliolislistedasJohnI,andRobertBruceasRobertI.Earlswhohadfamilynamesarelistedunderthem,ratherthanunderthenameoftheearldom.Inplace-names,referencesaretohistoric,ratherthanmodern,counties.
Aberdeen,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10
Aberdeen,bishopof,HenryleCheyne,ref1
Aberdeenshire,ref1Abernethy,Alexander,ref1Acre,ref1Ada,daughterofDavidearlofHuntingdon,ref1,ref2
Adam,guardianofFranciscanhouseatBerwick,ref1
Aeneas,theAeneid,ref1
Airedale(Yorks,W.R.),ref1,ref2,ref3
Albany,poeticnameforScotland,ref1,ref2
AlexanderII,kingofScotland(1198),ref1,ref2,ref3
AlexanderIII,kingofScotland(1249),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9
AlfonsoXI,kingofCastile(1311),ref1
Allerdale(Cumb.),ref1Alnwick(Northumb.),ref1Amounderness(Lancs.),ref1
AncrumMoor(Rox.),ref1Anglesey,ref1,ref2Anglo–Norman,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7
Angus,earldomofref1,ref2,n.42ref3earlsof,seeUmfraville,Gilbertde,Robertde;andStewart,John,ofBunkle
Annan,Annandale(Dumf.),lordshipof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,
ref17,ref18Antrim,County,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
AppealoftheSevenEarls,source,ref1
Appleby(Westm.),ref1Aqua,Walterde,ref1Arbroath(Angus),abbey,ref1,ref2Declarationof,seeDeclarationofArbroathBernardof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6
Ardnamurchan,West
Highlands,ref1Ardscull(Kildare),ref1Argentan,Gilesd’,ref1,ref2,ref3
Argyll,County,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12John(MacDougall)of,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,n.35ref15
Arickstone(Dunbartons.),ref1Arran,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,
ref5,ref6Arrochar(Dunbartons.),ref1Arthurianliterature,ref1Artois(Fr.),ref1Arundel,earlof,seeFitzAlan,Edmund
Asnières,truceof(1302),ref1,n.15ref2
Athy,John,ref1Atholl,earldomofref1,ref2,ref3,ref4earlsofseeStrathbogie
Avignon(Fr.),ref1,ref2Awe,River,ref1
Ayr,Ayrshire,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12
Badenoch(Inverness.),lordshipof,ref1
Badlesmere,Bartholomew,ref1Baldock,Robert,ref1,ref2,ref3BaldwinIV,kingofJerusalem(1174),ref1,ref2
Balliol,aristocraticfaction,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11
Balliol,Alexander,ref1
Balliol,Edward,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4n.17ref5claimsthethroneofScotland,ref1
Balliol,Ingram,ref1Balliol,John,seeJohnIofScotland
Balliol,William,ref1Bamburgh(Northumb.),ref1,ref2
Balvenie,orMortlach(Banff.),ref1
Banff,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6
Bann,River,ref1Bannockburn(Stirlings.),battleof(1314),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14
Barbour,John,historianandchronicler,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23,ref24,ref25,ref26,ref27,ref28,
ref29,ref30,ref31,ref32,ref33,ref34,ref35,ref36,ref37,ref38,ref39,ref40,ref41,ref42,ref43,ref44,ref45,ref46,ref47,ref48
Barclay,David,ref1BarnardCastle(Durham),ref1,ref2,ref3
Barron,E.M.,historian,ref1,ref2
Barrow,G.W.S.,historian,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12
Bathgate(W.Lothian),ref1BattlefieldsTrust,ref1,ref2Beauchamp,Guyde,earlofWarwick,ref1
Beaumont,Henry,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8
Beaumont,Louis,bishopofDurham,ref1,ref2
Bedrule(Rox.),ref1Bek,Antony,bishopofDurham,ref1
Bel,Jehanle,historian,chronicler,ref1,ref2,ref3,
ref4,ref5BenCruachan(Argylls.),battleof(1308),ref1,ref2,n.29ref3
Berkley,Maurice,ref1,ref2BernardtheChancellor,seeArborath,Bernardof
Berwick,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23,ref24,ref25,ref26,ref27,ref28,ref29,
ref30,ref31,ref32,ref33,ref34,ref35,ref36,ref37siegeandmassacre(1296),ref1,seeplate8recapturebyWallace,ref1,ref2strategicimportanceof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6‘Berwickcorrespondent’,ref1,ref2,ref3Robert’sattemptstocapture,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5Englishsiegeof(1319),ref1,ref2,ref3
negotiationsat,ref1Beverley(Yorks.E.R.),ref1,ref2,ref3
Biggar(Lanark),ref1Biggar,Nicholas,ref1Bigod,Roger,earlofNorfolk,ref1
Birgham,treatyof(1290),ref1,ref2,ref3,n.8.ref4
Birmingham,John,ref1Bishopsthorpe,York,truceof,(1323)ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Bisset,Baldred,ref1,ref2,ref3Bisset,Hugh,ref1,ref2
Bisset,Thomas,ref1,ref2,ref3BlackDeath,ref1BlackParliament(1320),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
BlackRoodofStMargaret,ref1,ref2
‘Blackhournoor’(Yorks.N.R.),ref1
Bohun,Humphrey,earlofHereford,ref1,ref2ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8
Bolton(Yorks.W.R.),priory,ref1
BonifaceVIII,pope,ref1,ref2,
ref3,ref4,ref5BonniePrinceCharlie,ref1Boroughbridge(Yorks.W.R.),ref1;battleof(1322),ref1,ref2
Bothwell(Lanark.),ref1,ref2,ref3
Botetourt,John,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Boun,Henryde,ref1Bower,Walter,historianandchronicler,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10
Bowness(Cumb.),ref1Boyd,Robert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9
BranderPass,battleof(1308),seeBenCruachan,n.29ref2
Braveheart,film(1996),ref1,ref2
Breadalbane,ref1Breccbennach,orMonymuskreliquary,ref1,seeplate14
Brechin(Angus),ref1,ref2bishopof[JohnKinninmonth],ref1
Brechin,David,ref1Bridlington(Yorks.E.R.),ref1,ref2,ref3
BritishIsles,ref1,ref2,Brittany,Johnof,earlofRichmond,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Brix(Fr.),ref1TheBruce,source,seeBarbour,John
Brodick(Arran),ref1BroughonStainmore(Westm.),ref1,ref2
Broune,Richard,ref1
BruceofAnnandale,aristocraticfaction,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23,ref24,ref25;seeTurnberryBand
Bruce,Adam,ref1Bruce,Alexander,brotherofRobertanddeanofGlasgow,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,n.27ref9;
Bruce,Christina,sisterof
Robert,ref1,ref2;Bruce,Edward,brotherofRobert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13;earlylife,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4asRobert’slieutenant,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4subjugationofGalloway,ref1‘LordofGalloway’,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4alienatesDavidearlofAthollfromtheBrucecause,ref1raidsEngland,ref1
invasionofIreland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10kingshipofIreland,ref1,ref2,ref3,n.36ref4deathinbattle,ref1,ref2,ref3
Bruce,Isabel,sisterofRobert,queenofNorway,ref1,ref2,ref3
Bruce,Margaret,daughterofRobert,ref1
Bruce,Marjorie,daughterofRobert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8
Bruce,Mary,sisterofRobert,ref1,ref2
Bruce,Matilda,daughterofRobert,ref1
Bruce,Neil,brotherofRobert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Bruce,RobertI,ref1Bruce,RobertII,ref1Bruce,Robert(dbefore1194),ref1
Bruce,RobertIV,ref1;Bruce,RobertV,grandfatherofRobert,lordofAnnandale,‘theNoble’or
‘theCompetitor’,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7characterof,ref1crusade,ref1claimstothethrone,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5attemptedcoupd’état,ref1negotiationswithNorwegianambassadors,ref1threateningattitude,ref1CompetitorintheGreatCause,ref1resignsclaimtothronetoRobertBruceVI,ref1
death,ref1Bruce,RobertVI,fatherofRobert,earlofCarrickinrightofhiswife,lordofAnnandale,ref1,ref2,ref3marriage,ref1,ref2personality,ref1attemptstoresignearldomtoRobert,ref1sideswithEdwardIagainstJohnI,ref1seeksvassal-kingshipofScotland,ref1,ref2standsalooffromWallace
rebellion,ref1,ref2,ref3possiblyatFalkirk,onthesideofEdwardI,ref1,ref2,n.14,ref3death,ref1
Bruce,RobertVII,earlofCarrick,lordofAnnandale,kingofScotland,seeRobertIofScotland
Bruce,RobertillegitimatesonofRobert,ref1,ref2
Bruce,Thomas,brotherofRobert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,n.27ref8
Bruce,William,thirdlordofAnnandale,ref1
Bruges,ref1,ref2Buchan,earldomofref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5;earlof,seeComyn,AlexanderandJohn‘herschipof’,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Buittle(Kirkcudb.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Bunnock,William,ref1Burdon,Geoffreyde,priorofDurham,ref1
Burgh,EgidiaorGelisde,ref1Burgh,Elisabethde,secondwifeofRobert,queenofScotland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9
Burgh,Johnde,ref1,Burgh,Richardde‘Red’earlofUlster,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13
Burgh,Williamde,‘Brown’earlofUlster,ref1,ref2
burghs,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,
ref5BurghbySands(Cumb.),ref1Burradon,William,ref1,ref2Burstwick(Yorks.E.R.),ref1BurtononTrent(Staffs.),ref1Bute,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4Butler,Edmund,ref1,ref2,ref3Bylands(Yorks.N.R.),battleof(1322),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Bywell(Northumb.),ref1
Caddonlee(Selkirks.),ref1Caerlaverock(Dumf.),ref1,ref2Caernarfon,Edwardof,see
EdwardIICaithness,earldomofref1,ref2Cambridge,ref1Cambuskenneth(Perths.),abbeyof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Campbell,Gaelickingroup,ref1,ref2
Campbell,Neill,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Campbell,Arthur,ref1Campbell,Duncan,ref1Canterbury(Kent),ref1Cardross(Dunbarton.),ref1Carlatton(Cumb.),ref1,ref2,
ref3Carlisle(Cumb.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23provisioningof,ref1strategicimportanceof,ref1Robert’ssiegeandattackon,1315,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4earlof,seeHarclay,Andrew
Carnforth(Lancs.),ref1Cartmel(Lancs.),priory,ref1
Carrick,earldomof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23,ref24,ref25,ref26earlsof,Duncan,earlof,ref1,ref2Neil,earlof,ref1Marjorie,countessof,ref1,ref2,ref3andseeBruce,RobertVI,inrightof
hiswifeRobertI,kingofScotlandBruce,EdwardDavidII,kingofScotland
Carrick,Christinaof,ref1Carrickfergus(Antrim),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5Robert’scaptureof,ref1
Carron,River,ref1CastleSowerby(Cumb.),ref1,ref2
CastleSween(Knapdale),ref1CastleUrquhart(Morays.),ref1,ref2
Castleford,Thomasof,historianandchronicler,ref1
CharlesIV,kingofFrance(1322),ref1,ref2
Cherbourg(Fr.),ref1ChesterleStreet(Durham),ref1Cheyne,Reginald,ref1,ref2,ref3
Church,Scottish,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16
Cistercianorder,ref1,ref2,ref3Clairvaux,abbey,France,ref1
Clare,Elisabethde,deBurgh,ref1,ref2
Clare,Gilbertde,earlofGloucester,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9
Clare,Thomasde,ref1Clergy,DeclarationofseeDeclarationoftheClergy(1309),ref1,ref2
Cleveland(Yorks.N.R.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Clifford,Robert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,
ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,Clonmacnoise,Annalsof,source,ref1,ref2
Closeburn(Dumf.),ref1Clyde,River,ref1,ref2,ref3Cobham,Ralph,ref1Cockburn(Berwicks.),ref1Cockerham(Lancs.),ref1Cockermouth(Cumb.),ref1Coigners,Geoffrey,ref1,n.20ref2
communityoftherealm,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6
Comynaristocraticfaction,ref1,
ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23,ref24,ref25
Comyn,Alexander,earlofBuchan(d.1289),constableofScotland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Comyn,Alexander,brotherofJohnearlofBuchan,ref1,ref2
Comyn,Alice,wifeofHenry
Beaumont,ref1,ref2,ref3Comyn,Edmund,ofKilbride,ref1,ref2
Comyn,John,earlofBuchan(d.1308),constableofScotland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17
Comyn,JohnofBadenochI(d.1277),ref1
Comyn,JohnofBadenochII,‘theelder’,Guardian,(d.1302)ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Comyn,JohnofBadenochIII‘theyounger’,Guardian(d.1306),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,n.10ref12careerandreputation,ref1,ref2,ref3asGuardian,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6possiblymadeanagreementwithRobert,ref1murderofref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7
Comyn,JohnIV,titularlordof
Badenoch(d.1314),ref1Comyn,Marjorie,ref1Comyn,Robert,ref1,ref2Comyn,Walter,ref1Concarn(Aberdeens.),ref1Connor(Antrim),battleof(1315),ref1
Cologne,ref1Copeland(Cumb.),ref1,ref2,ref3
Corbeil,Treatyof(1326),ref1,ref2
Corbridge(Northumb.),ref1,ref2,ref3
Cornwall,earlof,seeGaveston,Piers
coronationandanointingofkings,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,seeplate10
CouparAngus,ref1Courtrai,battleof(1302),ref1,ref2,ref3
Crabbe,John,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,n.37ref7
Craigie(Ayrs.),ref1Crawford,Reginald,ref1Cree,River,ref1,ref2Crichton(Lothian),ref1
Cressingham,Hugh,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
crusades,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,seeRobertIofScotland,posthumouscrusade
Cruys,Robert,ref1Cullen(Banff.),ref1Culross(Fife),ref1Cumberland,County,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15
Cumbria,ref1
Cumnock(Ayrs.),ref1,ref2Cunningham(Ayrs.),ref1,ref2Cupar(Fife),ref1currency,ref1,seeplate12Cuthbert,spy,ref1Cyprus,ref1
DalRiata,ref1Dalry(Perths.),battleat(1306),ref1
Dalswinton(Dumf.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Darcy,John,justiciarofIreland,ref1
Darel,Edmund,ref1DavidI,kingofScotland(1124),ref1,ref2,ref3
DavidII,kingofScotland(1329),sonofRobertI,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,n.40ref7
David,earlofHuntingdon(d.1219),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
DeclarationofArbroath,(1320),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,n.3810,seeplate15
DeclarationoftheClergy
(1309),ref1,ref2Dee,River,ref1Deer(Aberdeens.),abbey,ref1,ref2
Denholme,William,ref1Denmark,ref1Denny,ref1Despencer,Hugh,theelder,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Despencer,Hughtheyounger,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Deyncourt,William,ref1Dickson,Tom,ref1Disinherited,ref1,ref2,ref3,
ref4,ref5,ref6;attackofthe,ref1
Dominicanfriars,ref1,ref2Donegal,County,ref1,ref2Douglas,Archibald,ref1Douglas,James,‘GoodSirJames’,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23,ref24Barbour’spen–portrait,n.19ref1
attacksBrodickCastle,ref1attacksDouglascastle,Lanarkshire,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4atLoudonHill,ref1atBenCruachan,ref1,n.30ref2raidsEngland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13andMoray,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12;
rewardedbyRobert,ref1crusadingwithRobert’sheart,ref1,ref2death,ref1,ref2
Douglas,William‘leHardi’,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Dryburgh(Berwicks.),ref1,ref2Duffy,Séan,historian,ref1,ref2,ref3,n.27ref4
Dumbarton,ref1,ref2,ref3Dumfries,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16
Dunaverty(Kintyre),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5n.26
Dunbar(E.Lothian),ref1,ref2Dunbar,battleof(1296),ref1,ref2,ref3
DunbarorMarch,earldomof,seeMarch,earldomof
Dunblane,bishopof[NicholasdeBalmyle],ref1
Dunkeld,bishopof,seeSinclair,William,BishopofDunkeld
Dublin,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4DuddonSands(Lancs.),ref1Dun,Thomas,ref1,ref2,ref3
Duncan,earlofCarrick,ref1,ref2
Duncan,A.A.M.,historian,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,
Dundalk(Louth),ref1,ref2Dundarg(Aberdeens.),ref1Dundee,burgh,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12Robert’scaptureofref1,ref2,ref3
Dunfermline(Fife),abbey,ref1,
ref2,ref3,ref4Dunipace,ref1Dunkeld,bishopof,WilliamSinclair,ref1
Dunstaffnage(Argyll),ref1,ref2,ref3,seeplate11
Dunstanburgh(Northumb.),ref1Dunyvaig,Islay,ref1DupplinMoor(Perths.),battleof(1332),ref1
Durham,townof,ref1,ref2,ref3bishopricof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,
ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14
Durham,archiveoftheDeanandChapter,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Duror(Argylls.),ref1Durward,Alan,ref1
Eastlands,Eastlanders,seeGermans
Eden,River,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Edenhall(Cumb.),ref1Edinburgh,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,
ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14
Moray’scaptureof,ref1,ref2,ref3
Edinburgh–Northampton,Treatyof(1328),ref1,ref2
Edmund‘Crouchback’ofLancaster,ref1
EdwardI,kingofEngland(1274),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,
ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,seeplates5,6reputation,ref1,ref2character,ref1,ref2,ref3crusade,ref1ScottishcouncilandGuardiansapplyforhisaidandcounsel,ref1,ref2lackofregardforScottishsensibilities,ref1,ref2presidesovertheGreatCause,ref1claimsoverlordshipofScotland,ref1,ref2,ref3
hearsappealsfromScotland,ref1confrontationwithKingJohn,ref1campaignof1296,ref1,ref2possibleerrorsinScotland,ref1,ref2,ref3dismissesBruceclaimtovassalkingship,ref1warwithFrance,ref1campaignof1298,ref1campaignof1300,ref1campaignof1301,ref1;campaignof1303,ref1
anticipationofhisdeath,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5anxietytocaptureRobertBruce,ref1,ref2deathof,ref1,ref2,ref3
EdwardII,EdwardofCaernarfon,KingofEngland(1307),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23,ref24,ref25,ref26,ref27,ref28,seeplates
5,10character,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5planforhismarriagetoMargarettheMaidofNorway,ref1assistsincampaignof1301,ref1knightedatFeastoftheSwans,ref1assistsincampaignsof1306,ref1,ref2indifferencetoplightofScottishliegemen,ref1,ref2,
ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6indifferencetoplightofnorthernEnglish,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5campaignof1307,ref1campaignof1310,ref1campaignof1314,ref1,ref2campaignof1319,ref1campaignof1322,ref1,ref2,ref3misgovernmentofEngland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4possibleapproachestoRobertBruce,ref1,ref2
andhisbarons,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16Robert’sattempttocapture,ref1,ref2andFrance,ref1,ref2,ref3overthrow,ref1attemptstorestorehim,ref1,ref2,ref3death,ref1‘afterlife’,ref1,ref2
EdwardIII,kingofEngland(1327),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,
ref5,ref6,ref7campaignof1327,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4interventionsinScotland,ref1,n.17ref2
EdwardofCaernarfon,seeEdwardII
Egremont(Cumb.),ref1EleanorofCastile,queenofEngland,wifeofEdwardI,ref1
Elgin(Morays.),ref1,ref2,ref3Eliogarty(Tipperary),ref1England,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,
ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16warbetweenScotlandand,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13Wallace’sinvasionof,ref1tributetakenfrom,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,see‘suffrauncesdeguerre’truceswith,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10
proposedmarriagealliancewith(1290)ref1,ref2;(1324)ref1;(1327)ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4;unionwith(1707),ref1,ref2,ref3
Englishlanguage,ref1,ref2,ref3
Erceldoune,Thomasof,ref1EricII,kingofNorway(1280),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Eskdale(Dumf.),ref1Essex,ref1,ref2,ref3Estuteville,Joand’,ref1
exchangeofprisoners,ref1,ref2,ref3
exchequer,Scottish,ref1,ref2exchequer,English,ref1
Falkirk(Stirlings.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Falkirk,battleof(1298),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6
famine(1315),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10
FanadPeninsula(Donegal),ref1Faughart(Louth),battleof
(1318),ref1,ref2Ferambrace,heroinmedievalliterature,ref1
Fiennes,Guilleminde,ref1Fife,earldomof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7Duncan(d.1289),ref1,ref2,ref3Duncan(d.1353),ref1,ref2,ref3
FinnMacCool,heroinGaelicliterature,ref1
FirthofForth,seeScottishSeaFisher,Andrew,historian,ref1
FitzAlan,Edmund,earlofArundel,ref1,ref2
FitzGilbert,William,ref1FitzJohn,Thomas,earlofKildare,ref1
FitzPayne,Robert,ref1Flanders,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6
FlemmingsinScotland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
FlemishnavalsupportforRobert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10
relationswithFrance,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5countof,seeRobertIII
Florent,CountofHolland,Competitor,ref1
Fowlis,ref1Fordoun(Aberdeens.),ref1Fordun,Johnof,historianandchronicler,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8
Forfar(Angus),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
‘Forfarcorrespondent’,ref1,ref2
Forth,River,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6
fostering,Robert’sfoster–brother,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
FountainsAbbey(N.Yorks.),ref1
France,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12treatieswithScotland:(1295)seeTreatyofParis,(1326)seeTreatyofCorbeilrelationswithEngland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,
ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,n.15ref12Robert’srelationswith,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6kingsof,seePhilipIV,LouisX,PhilipV,CharlesIV
Francis,William,ref1Franciscanfriars,(FriarsMinororGreyfriars),ref1,ref2,ref3
Francisci,Manentius,ref1Fraser,Simon,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8
Fraser,William,bishopofStAndrews,ref1,ref2
Frederick‘Barbarossa’,Emperor,ref1
Frenchlanguage,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Frendraught,Duncanof,ref1,ref2,ref3
Fryde,N.,historian,ref1Furness(Lancs.),abbey,ref1,ref2
Fyvie,ref1
Gaeliclanguageandsociety,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,
ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21
Gaidhealtachd,areawhereGaelicisspoken,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7
galloglasses,warriorsfromtheWesternIsles,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Galloway,lordshipof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18
Robertfailstoraiseinrevolt,ref1,ref2ThomasandAlexanderBrucecapturedin,ref1,ref2justiciarshipofref1ForestPark,ref1Bruceattackson,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7
‘Gallowaylands’(Antrim),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Gallovidians,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Galston(Ayrs.),ref1Garioch(Aberdeens.),lordship
of,ref1,ref2Garmoran,lordshipof,ref1,ref2,ref3
Garstang(Lancs.),ref1Gartmore(Perths.),forestof,ref1
Gascons,Gascony,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6
Gaveston,Piers,earlofCornwall,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8
Genoa,ref1GermansinScotland,ref1,ref2seafarersandcommunities
supportRobert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
gentillese,ref1Ghent,ref1Giffard,John,ref1Gilsland(Cumb.),ref1,ref2Glasgow,bishopricof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7;seeWishart,Robert,bishopofGlenTrool(Kirkcud.),battleof(1307),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Glencarnie,Gilbertof,ref1Glencoe(Argylls.),ref1
Glendochart(Stirlings.),ref1Glendun(Antrim),ref1‘Glenheur’,ref1Glenkill,Arran,ref1Glenkinglass(Argylls.),ref1Glenluce(Wigt.),abbey,ref1Gloucester,earlsofref1,n.18ref2seeClare,Gilbertde,
Gordon,Adam,ref1Goxhill(Lincs.),ref1Graham,David,ref1,ref2,ref3Graham,Patrick,ref1Gray,Thomas,historianand
chronicler,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6
GreatCause,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
GreatGlen,ref1GreatYarmouth(Norfolk),ref1Greencastle(Down),ref1GuardiansofScotland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16
Guisborough(Yorks.N.R.),prioryof,ref1,ref2,ref3
Guisborough,Walterof,historianandchronicler,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8
HalidonHill(Berwicks.),battleof(1333),ref1
Hainhault,Hainaulters,ref1,ref2,ref3
Hainhault,Jehande,ref1,ref2Haines,R.M.,historian,ref1,ref2
Halton,John,bishopofCarlisle,ref1
Haltwhistle(Northumb.),ref1Hamburgh,ref1Harbottle(Northumb.),ref1,ref2,ref3
Harclay,Andrew,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12;agreementwithRobert,1323,ref1,ref2,ref3
Harper,Gib,ref1Hastings,John,Competitor,ref1,ref2
HatfieldBroadoaks(Essex),ref1
Hart,Hartness(Durham),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Hartlepool(Durham),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Hay,Gilbert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6
Hay,Hugh,ref1Hebrides,seeWesternIslesHenryI,kingofEngland(1100),ref1
HenryII,kingofEngland(1154),ref1
HenryIII,kingofEngland(1216),ref1,ref2
Henry,earlofHuntingdon(d.1152),ref1
Hereford,earlof,seeBohun,Humphreyde
Hesilrig,William,ref1Hexham(Northumb.),ref1,ref2Highlands,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4HolmCultram(Cumb.),abbey,ref1,ref2
HolyLand,PalestineorOutremer,ref1,ref2
Holyhead,Anglesey,ref1Holyrood(Midlothian),abbey,ref1,ref2,ref3
Holystone(Northumb.),ref1homageandfealty,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21
Hornby(Lancs.),ref1Hothum,Johnde,ref1,ref2Hull,ref1Humber,River,ref1Hume,David,of,Godscroft,ref1
Hunsley(Yorks.E.R.),ref1
HunterianMuseum,Glasgow,ref1
Huntingdon,earldomof,ref1Huntly(Aberdeens.),ref1
Inch(Wigtowns.),ref1Inchaffray(Perths.),abbeyof,ref1,ref2,ref3
Inchmahome(Perths.),ref1Inchtavannach(LochLomond),abbeyof,ref1
InglewoodForest,ref1,ref2Inverkip(Renfrews.),ref1,ref2Inverlochy,ref1
Inverness,ref1,ref2,ref3Treatyof(1312),ref1,ref2
Inverurie(Aberdeens.),ref1Ireland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23,ref24,ref25,ref26,ref27Brucefamilyconnectionswith,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5troopsandsuppliesinsupport
oftheEnglish,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4Scottishémigrésin,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5supportfortheBrucesfrom,ref1,ref2,ref3Robert’slettertothekings,prelates,clergyandinhabitantsof,ref1,ref2,n.27ref3Scottishinterventionof1315,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6Robert’sinterventionsof
1327and1328,ref1,ref2seealso,RemonstranceoftheIrishPrinces
IrishSea,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,n.35ref9
Irvine(Ayrs.),ref1,ref2Isabella,queenofEngland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
regimeofIsabellaandMortimer,ref1,ref2,ref3
Isabel,daughterofDavidearlofHuntingdon,ref1,ref2,ref3
IsabelofFife,countessof
Buchan,ref1,ref2Islay,ref1,ref2Donaldof,n.ref1,ref2
IsleoftheMonks,ref1Italy,ref1,ref2
JamesVIandI,kingofScotlandandEngland(1603),ref1
Jedburgh(Borders),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Jettour,Williamle,ref1Joan‘oftheTower’,ref1,ref2,ref3
JohnI,JohnBalliol,kingofScotland(1292),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,seeplate7claimsthroneofScotland,ref1,ref2promiseoflandtoBishopBek,ref1relationshiptoComyns,ref1,ref2CompetitorinGreatCause,ref1awardedkingship,ref1
enthronement,ref1,ref2appearancebeforeEdwardIin1293,ref1surrenderandun-kinging,ref1governmentofScotlandinhisname,ref1,ref2,ref3releasedfromEnglishcustody,ref1,ref2,ref3possibilityofrestoration,ref1,ref2,ref3relationswithFrance,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,seealsoParis,Treayof
JohnXXII,pope(1317),ref1,ref2,ref3
Jordan,John,ref1Joyce,Roland,archbishopofArmagh(1311),ref1
Jura,ref1
Kaufman,M.H.,scientist,ref1,ref2
Keith,Robert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Keith,Williamof,ofGalston,ref1
Kells(Meath),ref1
Kelso(Rox.),abbeyof,ref1Kendal(Westm.),ref1,ref2Kenmore,(Perths.)ref1Kent,River,ref1Kent,earlof,seeWoodstock,Edmundof
Kershaw,Ian,historian,ref1Kilcreggan(Dunbartons.),ref1Kildare,earlof,seeFitzJohn,Thomas
Kildrummy(Aberdeens.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Kilham(Yorks.E.R.),ref1Kilmarnock(Ayrs.),ref1
Kinghorn(Fife),ref1Kinloss(Morays.),abbeyof,ref1
Kinross,ref1Kintyre,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9
Kirkandrews(Kirkcudb.),ref1Kirkham(Lancs.),ref1Kirkinner(Wigtons.),ref1Kirkintilloch(Dunbartons.),ref1
Kirkoswald(Cumb.),ref1Kirkpatrick(Dumf.),ref1Kirkpatrick,Roger,ref1
Knaresborough(N.Yorks.),ref1,ref2
Knapdale,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
knighthood,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7
Kyle,ref1
Lamberton,William,bishopofStAndrews,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14pactwithRobert,ref1
Lanark,Lanarkshire,ref1,ref2Lancaster,townof,ref1Lancaster,Thomasearlof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13
intrigueswithRobert,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Landels,J[ohn?]de,ref1LanercostChronicle,source,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,
Lanercost(Cumb.),priory,ref1,
Langtoft,Peter,chronicler,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Langton,Walter,bishopofLichfield,treasurerref1,ref2
Langwathby(Cumb.),ref1Larbert(Stirlings.),ref1,ref2Larne,LarneLough(Antrim),ref1,ref2
Latimer,William,ref1Lauder,Lauderdale(Berwicks.),ref1,ref2,ref3
LawoftheMarches,ref1,ref2LawsofGoodKingRobert,ref1leprosy,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,
ref5Ledhouse,Symeofref1Leith(Midlothian),ref1,ref2Lennox,earldomofref1,ref2,ref3Malcolm,earlof(d.early1290s)ref1Malcolmearlof(d.1333),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10
LesVrayesChroniques,source,seeBel,Jehanle
Lewes,battleof(1264),ref1LevenSands(Lancs.),ref1
Liddesdale,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4Limerick,ref1Lincoln,earlof,HenrydeLacy(d.1311),ref1
Lindsay,aristocraticfaction,ref1
Lindsay,Alexander,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9
Lindsay,James,ref1Lindsay,Robert,ref1Linlithgow(W.Lothian),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6
Lismore,WestHighlands,ref1
LochAwe,ref1LochBroom,ref1LochDoon,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4LochEtive,ref1LochFyne,ref1LochLinnhe,ref1,ref2LochLomond,ref1,ref2,ref3LochLong,ref1LochNess,ref1LochRyan,ref1Lochaber(Inverness.),ref1,ref2Lochmaben(Dumf.),Annandale,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,
ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,seeplate4
Lockhart,George,ofCarnforth,ref1
Logan,Robert,ref1Logan,Walter,ref1,ref2Logy,John,ref1London,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10
Lonsdale(Lancs.),ref1Loudon(Ayrs.),ref1LoudonHill,battleof(1307),ref1,ref2
Lorn(Argylls.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Lothian,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8
LouisIX,kingofFrance(1226),ref1
LouisX,kingofFrance(1314),ref1
Lowlands,ref1,ref2Lubaud,Piers,ref1Lübeck,ref1Lucy,Antony,ref1,ref2
MacAlpin,Kenneth,ref1
Maccabeus,Judas,Maccabees,ref1,ref2,ref3
MacCann,Gibbon,ref1MacCann,Dungal,ref1,ref2MacCulian,seeMalcolmMacQuillan
McDonald,R.A.,historian,ref1,ref2
MacDonald,lordsofIslay,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9
MacDonald,Alexanderîg,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
MacDonald,Alexander,of
Islay,‘KingofArgyll’(d.1318atFaughart),ref1,ref2,ref3
MacDonald,AngusM—r,ref1,ref2
MacDonald,Angusîg(d.1314×1318),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,n.31ref10
identificationwith‘DonaldofIslay’,ref1,n.31ref2
MacDougall,lordsofArgyll,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,
ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,n.26ref15
MacDougall,Alexander,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8
MacDougall,JohnBachach,seeJohnofArgyll
MacDougall,Juliana,marriesAlexanderMacDonald,ref1
MacDowall,Dungal,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9
MacDuff,ayoungersonofthatMalcolmearlofFifewho
died1204,ref1MacGoffrey,Duncan,ref1,n.35ref2
MacLachlan,Gillespie,ref1McNamee,Colm,historian,ref1MacQuillan,Malcolm(alsoknownasMacCulianorlefitzEngleys),ref1,ref2,ref3,n.26ref4
MacSween,family,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8
MacSween,John,ref1,ref2MacRuaridh,lordsof
Garmoran,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8
MacRuaridh,Christina,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
MagnusIII,kingofMan(d.1265),ref1
MagnusBarelegs,kingofNorway(1103),ref1
MalcolmIII,kingofScotland,‘MalcolmCanmore’,ref1,ref2
MalcolmlefitzEngleys,seeMacQuillan
Malherbe,Gilbert,ref1
Malton(Yorks.N.R.),ref1Man,Isleof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11Robert’scaptureof,ref1,ref2JohnofAryllrecaptures,ref1
MorayrecoversitfortheScots,ref1,ref2,ref3
Mandeville,Henryde,ref1Manton,Ralph,ref1Mar,earldomofref1,ref2,ref3Duncan,earlof(d.1297),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4Garnaitearlof(d.1302),ref1
Donaldearlof(d.1332),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7
Mar,Isabelof,firstwifeofRobert,ref1,ref2,ref3
MarchorDunbar,earldomofref1,ref2,ref3,ref4Patrick,earlof(d.1289),ref1,ref2,ref3Patrickearlof(d.1308)ref1Patrick,earlof(d.1369),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Margaret,daughterofDavid,earlofHuntingdon,ref1
Margaret,‘maidofNorway’,ladyofScotland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7
Margaret,sisterofPhilipIV,marriesEdwardIofEngland,ref1
Marjorie,countessofCarrick,motherofRobert,ref1,ref2,ref3
Marshall,William,ref1Mauley,Edmundde,ref1Maxwell,family,ref1Maybole(Ayrs.),ref1Melrose(Rox.),abbeyof,ref1,
ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11
Melton,William,archbishopofYork,ref1,ref2
Menteith,earldomof,ref1,ref2earlsof,seeStewart
Menteith,John(Stewart)of,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9
Merlin,ref1,ref2Methven(Perths.),battleof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,notes20&22ref7
Middleton,Gilbert,ref1,ref2,
ref3militaryservice,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10;seealsoknightservice
Mitford(Northumb.),ref1Monreith(Wigtowns.),ref1Morvern(Argylls.),ref1Mowbray,Alexander,ref1Mowbray,John,ref1,ref2Mowbray,Philip,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6
Mowbray,Roger,ref1Montacute,Simon,ref1,ref2
Montefichet,Williamde,ref1,ref2
Montfort,Simonde,ref1Monthermer,Raoulde,ref1Morayearldomof,ref1,ref2earlof,seeRandolph,Thomasbishopof,152;seeMurray,Davidbishopofref1,ref2
Moray,Andrew,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Morcambe(Lancs.),ref1Morham,Herbert,ref1
Morpeth(Northumb.),ref1Mortham(Yorks.N.R.),ref1Mortimer,Roger,ofWigmore,earlofMarch(d.1327),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Morton,Robertde,ref1Mounth,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Mull,ref1Multon,Thomasde,ref1Murray,David,bishopofMoray,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Musselburgh(Midlothian),ref1Myton-on-Swale(Yorks.N.R.),
battleof(1319),ref1,ref2
Nairn,ref1Neil,earlofCarrick,ref1Netherlands,ref1Neville,Cynthia,historian,ref1Neville’sCross,battleof(1346),ref1,ref2
NewPark(Stirlings.),ref1,ref2,ref3
Newbattle(Midlothian),abbey,ref1
Newburn(Northumb.),ref1NewcastleuponTyne,ref1,
ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13
Newminster(Northumb.),abbey,ref1,ref2
Nicholson,Ranald,historian,ref1,ref2,ref3
Nithsdale,lordshipof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Norfolk,earlof,seeBigod,Roger
Norham(Northumb.),ref1,ref2,ref3
NorthSea,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,
ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15
Northallerton(Yorks.N.R.),ref1,ref2
Northampton,ref1,ref2,ref3Northburgh(Donegal),alsoknownasGreencastle(Donegal),ref1
Northumberland,County,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18
Northumbria,ref1Norway,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4Maidof,seeMargaretRobert’srelationswith,ref1,ref2
Nottingham,ref1NunMonkton(Yorks.N.R.),ref1
Odysseus,theOdyssey,ref1Ordinances(1311),theLordsOrdainer,ref1,ref2,ref3
OldByland(Yorks.N.R.),ref1OldCambus(Berwicks.),ref1
OldMeldrum(Aberdeens.),ref1Oliphant,William,ref1,ref2,ref3,
O’Connor,Gaelickingroup,ref1
O’Briens,Gaelickingroup,ref1O’NeillofTyrone,Gaelickingroup,ref1
O’Neill,Domnall,‘kingofUlster’,ref1,ref2
Orkney,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Ormsby,William,ref1Outlaw,Roger,priorof
Kilmainham,ref1
Paisley(Renfrews.),abbeyof,ref1
pan-Celticsentiment,alliance,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8
papacy,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17
papaltruceof1317,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Paris,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Paris,Treatyof,withScotland(1295),ref1,seealsoJohnIofScotland
parliament,Scottish,ref1,ref2,ref3Scone(1286),ref1Feb(1293),ref1Stirling(1293),ref1Stirling(1295),ref1Berwick(1296),ref1Rutherglen(1300),ref1StAndrews(1309),ref1,ref2Dundee(1313)Cambuskenneth(1314),ref1
Scone(1318),ref1,ref2Scone(1320),see,BlackParliamentStirling(1326),ref1Cambuskenneth(1326),ref1Edinburgh(1328),ref1,ref2Scone(1331),ref1
parliament,English,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,seeplate6
Pearson,K.,scientist,ref1peasantry,ref1Peebles,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4peels,ref1,ref2
Pelarym,ref1Pembroke,earlof,seeValence,Aymerde
Penman,Michael,historian,ref1,ref2,ref3
Penrith(Cumb.),honourof,ref1,ref2,ref3
Percy,Henry,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12
Perth,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14Treatyof(1266),ref1
Robert’scaptureof(1313),ref1,ref2,ref3
PhilipIV(‘theFair’)kingofFrance(1285),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,
PhilipV,kingofFrance(1316),ref1
Philip‘theForester’,ref1Pickering(Yorks.N.R.),Valeof,ref1
Picts,ref1,ref2Pontefract,ref1Preston(Lancs.),ref1,ref2
Prestwich,M,historian,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4propagandaBrucean,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5seealsoDeclarationoftheClergy;DeclarationofArbroathEnglish,ref1
QuernmoreForest(Lancs.),ref1
RagmanRoll,source,ref1Ramsey(IsleofMan),ref1
Randolph,Thomas,EarlofMoray,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10Barbour’spen-portrait,ref1n.32supportsthecoupof1306,ref1;defectstoEdwardIandJohnofArgyll,ref1,ref2returnstoRobert’sallegiance,ref1beratesRobertforunchivalrouswarfare,ref1,
ref2,ref3andDouglas,seeDouglas,JamesraidsEngland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5asRobert’spre-eminentlieutenant,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6inIreland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4generouslyrewarded,ref1,ref2atthepapalcourt,ref1guardian1328,ref1,ref2,
ref3,ref4death,ref1
Rathlin(Antrim),ref1,ref2religion,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,seealsoChurch,Scottish;papacy;
RobertI,religionRenfrew,ref1RedComyn,seeComyn,John,ofBadenochIII
Redesdale(Northumb.),ref1,ref2
RemonstranceoftheIrish
Princes,source,ref1,ref2,ref3
ReycrossonStainmore(Westm.),ref1
RichardI,kingofEngland(1153),ref1
Richmond(Yorks.N.R.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7
Rievaulx(YorksN.R.),abbey,ref1
Ripon(Yorks.N.R.),ref1RobertI,RobertBruceVII,kingofScotland(1306),ref1,ref2,
ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20careerbirth,ref1earlylife,ref1family,ref1religion,ref1,ref2,ref3firstappearsinhistoricalrecord,ref1knighted,ref1,ref2marriagetoIsabelofMar,ref1
investedasearlofCarrick,ref1supporterofEdwardI(1296),ref1,ref2supporterofWallace(1297),ref1,ref2,ref3aspirationstokingship,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5developmentasamilitarycommander,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8possibilitythathewaspresentatFalkirk,ref1,ref2asjoint–guardian,ref1
defectstoEdwardI,ref1,ref2,ref3pursuitofWallace,ref1,ref2murderofJohnComynIII,ref1,ref2excommunications,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4decisiontoseizetheScottishthrone,ref1coupdétat,ref1,ref2,ref3destructionofcastles,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8enthronement,ref1,ref2
defeatatMethven,ref1,ref2escapetoandsojourninthewest,ref1,ref2,ref3returnfromthewest,ref1,ref2ontheruninGalloway,ref1insistenceuponrecognitionofhiskingship,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20;raidsonEngland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,
ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19participationinraidingexpeditions:ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5failurestocapturecities,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4pursuitofancestralpropertyrights,ref1atBannockburn,ref1andIreland,seeunderIrelandexcommunicationsof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
involvementintheambushofcardinals(1317),ref1heirs,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6illegitimatechildren,n.39ref1periodsofillness,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6finalpilgrimage,ref1deathandfuneral,ref1,ref2posthumouscrusade,ref1,ref2goodfortune,ref1,ref2,ref3characterorpersonality,ref1,
ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5exhumations,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,n.43ref6seeplates16,17,18,20,21reputation,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,seeplate19
RobertII,RobertStewart,kingofScotland(1371),ref1,ref2,ref3,n.40ref4
RobertIII,countofFlanders(1305),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Rome,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,
ref5,ref6,ref7Ros,Williamde,ref1Rose(Cumb.),ref1Roslin(Midlothian),battleof,ref1,ref2
Ross,earldomofref1,ref2,ref3,ref4sheriffdomof,ref1bishopof[ThomasofDundee],ref1William,earlof(d.1323),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9Hugh,earlofRoss(d.1333),
ref1Ross,Isabelof,ref1Ross,Johnof,ref1Ross,Walter,ref1Rothesay,onBute,ref1RotuliScotiae,source,ref1,RoulstonScar(Yorks.N.R.),ref1
Roxburgh,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11Douglas’scaptureof(1314),ref1
Roxburghshire,ref1
Rudston(Yorks.E.R.),ref1Rushen(IsleofMan),ref1Rushyford(Northumb.),ref1Rutherglen(Lanarks.),ref1,ref2
Saint-Sardos(Fr.),ref1,ref2StAndrew,ref1,ref2,ref3StAndrews(Fife),burghof,ref1,ref2,ref3
StAndrews,bishopricof,ref1;seeLamberton,William
StColumcille,ref1,ref2,seeBreccbennach,plate14
StEdwardtheConfessor,ref1,
ref2StFillan,ref1,ref2StJohn,Aymerde,ref1StJohn,Johnde,ref1StKessog,ref1StMalachy,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4StNinian,ref1,ref2;churchof,atBannockburn,ref1
StOmer,ref1,ref2StKentigern(orMungo),ref1Salisbury,treatyof(1289),ref1Salkeld(Cumb.),ref1Samlesbury(Lancs.),ref1Sanquhar(Dumf.),ref1
Scalachronica,source,seeGray,Thomas
Schelde,ref1ScottishSea(theFirthofForth),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Scone(Perths.),abbeyof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7
Stoneof,seeStoneofDestinyScimusFili,source,ref1,ref2Scotia,justiciarshipof,ref1,ref2
Scotichronicon,source,seeBower,Walter
Scotland,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22,ref23,ref24,ref25,ref26,ref27,ref28,ref29,ref30,ref31,ref32,ref33formationof,ref1kingshipof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16identityof,ref1,ref2,ref3,
ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,n.11ref15institutionsof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,seealsoparliamentinvasionsof,listedunderEdwardI,IIandIII,campaignsofsociety,ref1,ref2economy,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7relationswithFrance,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6see
alsoCorbeil,treatyof,andFrance,Robert’srelationswithsovereigntyof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20,ref21,ref22royalsuccession,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Scotby(Cumb.),ref1,ref2Scotlandwell(Kinross.),ref1Scotslanguage,ref1,ref2,ref3
Scott,SirWalter,ref1,ref2Scrymgeour,Alexander,ref1Segrave,John,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Seagrave,Stephen,ref1Selkirk,peelof,ref1,ref2,ref3Selkirk,Forestof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13
SelucidEmpire,ref1Seton,Alexander,royalsteward,ref1,ref2,ref3
Seton,Christopher,ref1,ref2,
ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8
ShamefulPeace,seeEdinburgh–Northampton,Treatyof
Shannon,River,ref1Shetland,ref1,ref2Sinclair,William,ref1Sinclair,William,BishopofDunkeld,ref1,ref2,ref3
Siward,Richard,ref1Skelbo(Sutherland),ref1Skerton(Lancs.),ref1SkiptoninCraven(Yorks.
W.R.),ref1Skye,ref1,ref2Slains(Aberdeens.),ref1Slioch(Aberdeens.),ref1Sluis(Fr.),ref1SolwayFirth,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7
Soules,family,ref1Soulesconspiracy,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Soules,John,Guardian(d.1310),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Soules,John,ref1,ref2Soules,William,ref1,ref2
Spain,ref1Stainmore(Westm.),ref1;seealsoBroughandReycross
Standard,battleofthe(1138),ref1
StanhopePark(Durham),ref1Stevenson,Alexander,historian,ref1
Stevenston,ref1Stewart,aristocraticfaction,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Stewart,Alan,ref1,ref2Stewart,Andrew,ref1Stewart,Jamesthe,ref1,ref2,
ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9supportsWallacerebellion,ref1,ref2,ref3forfeitshislandstoEdwardI,ref1mediatesbetweenBruceandComyn,ref1supportsRobert,ref1,ref2
Stewart,John,brotherofJamestheSteward,ref1
Stewart,John,ofBunkle,ref1,ref2,earlofAngus,ref1,n.42ref2
Stewart,John,ofJedburgh,ref1Stewart,RobertseeRobertII,kingofScotland
Stewart,Walterthe,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8defendsBerwick,ref1
Stewart,Walter,earlofMenteithinrightofhiswife(d.1293),ref1Alexander,earlofMenteith(d.1297x1306),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5Alan,earlofMenteith(d.
1306x1309),ref1,ref2Murdoch,earlofMenteith(d.1332),ref1,ref2
Stirling,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17EdwardI’ssiegeofStirling(1304),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,RobertandEdwardBruce’ssiegeof,ref1,ref2,n.34ref3Robert’scaptureof,ref1,ref2
StirlingBridge,battleof,ref1,
ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5StoneofDestiny,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,seeplate9
Stones,E.L.G.,historian,ref1,ref2,ref3
Stranraer(Wigtowns.),ref1Strathbogie,JohnearlofAtholl(d.1306),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11
Strathbogie,DavidearlofAtholl(d.1326),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6
Strathearn,earldomof,ref1,ref2,ref3earlsofMalise(d.1317),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,n.22ref10Malise(d.1328×30),ref1,ref2,Agnes,countessof,ref1
Strathfillan(Perths.),ref1Strathtay(Perths.),ref1,ref2‘suffrauncesdeguerre’,purchasedtruces,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,
ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15,ref16,ref17,ref18,ref19,ref20
Sully,Henryde,butlerofFrance,ref1,ref2
Sutherland,earldomofref1,ref2William,earlofSutherland(d.1330),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Swale,River,ref1Swaledale(Yorks.N.R.),ref1,ref2
Tain(Ross),ref1Talbot,Richard,ref1Tarbert(Argylls.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Tarbet(Dunbartons.),ref1Tarradale,ref1Tay,River,ref1TebasdeArdales,battleof,ref1Tees,River,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4Teesdale,ref1,ref2Teviotdale,ref1Thanet,Isleof,ref1Threave,ref1Thweng,Maramadukede,ref1,
ref2,n.16ref3Tibbers,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Tickhill(Yorks.W.R.),ref1Tiree,ref1TorBurn,ref1,ref2Torrisholme(Lancs.),ref1Torwood(Stirlings.),ref1,ref2Tottenham(Middlesex),ref1Tunis,ref1Turnberry(Ayrs.),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,n.28ref8
TurnberryBand,agreement
(1286),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Tweed,River,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6
Twynham,Walter,ref1Tyne,River,ref1,ref2Tynedale,libertyof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6
Typtoft,Pain,ref1,ref2
Uamh-an-Righ,nearCraigruie,(Stirlings.)ref1
Ughtred,Thomas,ref1Ulster,Annalsof,source,ref1
Ulster,earldomof,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14earlsof,seeBurgh,RicharddeBurgh,Williamde
Umfraville,Gilbertde,earlofAngus(d.1307),ref1
Umfraville,Gilbertde,earlofAngus(d.1381),ref1
Umfraville,Ingram,guardian,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,
ref11,ref12Umfraville,Robert,earlofAngus(d.1325),ref1,ref2
UrrWater,ref1,ref2,
Valence,Aymerde,earlofPembroke,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,ref15
Valence,Joande,ref1Vienne,Councilof,ref1Vipont,William,ref1Virgil,ref1
VitaEdwardiSecundi,source,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6
wardrobebooks,source,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4
Wake,Thomas,ref1,ref2Wales,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14
WelshsoldiersinEnglisharmies,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6
Brucescanvassingforsupportin,ref1,ref2,ref3EdwardII’sflightinto,ref1
Wallace,William,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13revoltof(1297),ref1,ref2invasionofEngland,ref1,ref2,ref3socialorigins,ref1,ref2execution,ref1,ref2reputation,ref1
Wallace,Malcolm,ref1,ref2
Walwayn,John,ref1Warren,Williamfitz,ref1Warenne,John,earlof(d.1304),ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4John,earlof(d.1347)ref1,ref2
Warton(Lancs,nrLancaster),ref1
Warton(Lancsnr.Blackpool),ref1
WarkonTweed(Northumb.),ref1,ref2
Warwick,earlof,seeBeauchamp,Guyde
Watson,Fiona,historian,ref1Weardale(Durham)campaign,seeEdwardIII,campaign(1327)
weather,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9
Wensleydale(Yorks.N.R.),ref1WestWitton(Yorks.N.R.),ref1WesternIsles,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14supplyofmanpowerforBrucearmies,ref1,ref2,ref3,
ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7Westminster,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5
Westmorland,County,ref1,ref2,ref3
Wetheral(Cumb.),priory,ref1Wharefdale(Yorks.W.R.),ref1,ref2
Whitby(N.Yorks.),ref1Whithorn(Wigtowns.),ref1Whittington(Lancs.),ref1Wigtown,Wigtownshire,ref1,ref2,ref3
William‘theLion’,kingof
Scotland,ref1,ref2,ref3Wiseman,William,ref1Wishart,Robert,bishopofGlasgow,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13,ref14,n.13ref15
Writtle(Essex)ref1,ref2,ref3Woodstock,Edmundof,earlofKent,ref1
wool,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6
Wyntoun,Andrew,historianandchronicler,ref1
YGroesNaid,theCrossofNeath,ref1
Yarm(Yorks.N.R.),ref1Yealand(Lancs.),ref1Yolande,queenofScotland,ref1,ref2
York,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9,ref10,ref11,ref12,ref13
York,Valeof,ref1,ref2,ref3Yorkshire,ref1,ref2,ref3,ref4,ref5,ref6,ref7,ref8,ref9
Youghal,ref1,ref2