Upload
gopal
View
221
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
DESCRIPTION
social pages
Citation preview
Research MethodologyFoundations – The Social
Sciences
T. JayaramanSchool of Habitat Studies
Lecture IV & V
Studying the Social World
What is the difference between the study of the natural and social worlds?
One view – There is no substantial difference. The natural sciences are the exemplar for the social sciences, especially as understood in the pursuit of the empirical perspective.
In later years, natural sciences as understood in the sense of “logical empricism”
Generally referred to as “positivism”
Typical tenets of Positivism
The empiricist view of the natural sciences is accepted
Science is valued as the highest or even the only genuine form of knowledge
Scientific method, as represented by empiricism, can and should be extended to the study of the human/mental/social, to establish them as science
Once social science has been established, it will be possible to have an “objective”, “predictive” view of the social world.
A Positivist Manifesto
In his 1929 presidential address to the American Sociological Society, William F. Ogburn laid out the rules.
In turning sociology into a science, he said,‘‘it will be necessary to crush out emotion.’’ Further, ‘‘it will be desirable to taboo ethics and values (except in choosing problems); and it will be inevitable that we shall have to spend most of our time doing hard, dull, tedious, and routine tasks’’ (Ogburn 1930:10). Eventually, he said, there would be no need for a separate field of statistics because ‘‘all sociologists will be statisticians’’
(p. 6).
Natural vs Social
But is not society different from nature? Thoughts, feelings, subjective experience
matter!! Thoughts and feelings matter and have a
causal effect on the world (both social and natural)
Acts based on the “meanings” we attach to them – The way we act depends on the way we think about the world around us.
Empiricism and Social Science
Are there facts in the social sciences? Natural facts and Institutional facts – Latter
created by human agency What about “emergence”? “Social” facts as a consequence of emergence
Critiques of Positivism
Are there “laws of society” ? Many of them turn out to be trivial.
Even if there are laws can we meaningfully determine what they are? There are no experiments to conduct.
More generally, vast variety of “conditions” under which laws will be valid, make it doubtful whether such laws would indeed be derivable or useful
Human vs the Natural Sciences
The question of humanism Endowed with feelings. Other issues like
values, rights, etc Importance of Empathy!!Value-ladenness of enquiry
More Fundamental CriticismInterpretation & Meaning
Actions have “meaning” invested in them. (Ex. Raising the hand to vote, going around the
temple) Key aim of social enquiry – Understanding why
people act the way they do Make sense of the actions, beliefs, value systems,
institutions, that form the social world Uncover the beliefs and intentions that inform
human action within the larger (social) context in which they reside
Aim is Understanding and NOT explanation (but which explanation?!)
What is “Meaning”?Perceptual meaning – How a subject perceives the
world, including actions of others and selfDoxastic meaning – What a subject believesIntentional meaning – What a subject intends,
desires, etc to bring aboutLinguistic meaning – How the verbal behaviour of
the subject is to be translatedSymbolic meaning – What the behaviour of the
subject (verbal or non-verbal) symbolizesNormative meaning – What norms are reflected or
embodied in the behaviour of the individual
The Traditions from the Social Sciences
This view of science as “Understanding” and not explanation embodied in the practice of many social sciences – sociology and anthropology
Economics a different case – Especially contemporary mainstream economics
Behaviourism in psychology (the equivalent of extreme empiricism in the natural sciences)(Social data based on purely behavioural description)
Descriptivism Descriptivism (Phenomenology)Seek to describe how people “make sense of their
everday world” - Draws from cultural anthropology and ethnomethodology
Aim – to uncover the sense of purpose and meaning of their beliefs and actions within the broader context of worldviews, institutions, values and practices.
Produces not explanation but a “thick description”
But is this sufficient for “critique” or tell us “what is going on”?
Hermeneutics Meanings yes, but not only that of the subject Dialogic interaction between that of the subject
and those studying it. Term taken from the study of texts – constant
interpretation and re-interpretation Meanings are not singular – Multiple meanings
that have to be negotiated between themselves Hermeneutical enquiry is “evaluative”(Positivism pushes values to the subjective,
descriptivism is “uncritical” of the values of the subject)
Hermeneutics as Explanation
As long as “meaning” can be expressed, they provide an empirical basis for understanding behaviour, actions.
Their validity can be verified. Meaning-ladenness not an issue when we have
accepted theory-ladenness in the natural sciences
Materialism/Marxism
Being determines consciousness The objective/natural and social/subjective are
both important but with a clear order of priority Marxism enables one to make sense of the
debate between interpretive and positivist schools of thought
Does it presuppose a definite commitment to a particular view (broadly speaking) of the evolution of society?
More on the D-N model of explanation
Closely related form is the I-S (inductive-statistical) explanationIn this form very common in the social sciences.
But statistical inference needs to be carefully handled. All correlations do not necessarily indicate causal connections.
More generally, DN is suspect in terms of causation (and therefore explanation)
Ex: Barometer is falling. Whenever a barometer is falling, a storm is approaching. Hence a storm is approaching. Obviously the barometer is not the cause.
Functional Explanation
Is an explanation with two characteristic claims:That a social practice or institution has a
characteristic effectThat this social practice or institution exists in order to
have this characteristic effectExamples:Birds have hollow bones in order to help flyingThe custom of brideprice among the Lele serves to
enhance social interdependence across generations
More on the FunctionalFirst part of functional explanation not very significant.Second part is the real key.A practice has a particular effectThe practice persists because it has that effectThe practice is causally prior to the effect.Example: Initiation rites and social solidarity(key – solidarity alone does not produce initiation)Also typical in trait-environment relations ( but need a selection process to select a particular practice)
Fresher's party and learning from peers!! (Ceremonial custom)
In general we must show a causal connection between the outcomes of a social institution/practice for preserving the overall equilibrium and the practice itself.
From Functional to the Evolutionary
Functional explanation may “freeze” the existing state of the world.
But a changing world will provide a better explanation of why a practice or institution survives. And how it comes into being.
In biology, very powerful.
Structural Explanation
Social phenomena determined by the causal properties of social structures
Social structures are persistent over long periods of time. Independent of the behaviour of individuals. Imposes constraints on the behaviour of individuals.
Social structures are enduring regulative systems that define opportunities and constraints that guide, limit, and inspire individual action.
Version 2: Structures are abstract constructions which are then realised in a particular form. Built by the mind, in abstract form.
Example: Kinship
Social Construction and Social Constructivism Revisited
Much more significant in the social sciences.
What about “poverty”? Is poverty natural ORSocially constructed?
Social construction much better here .....Explanation in terms of social, economic, political
processes that make social realityAlso explains how poverty is gradually eradicated
Social Constructivism
Identity is a typical arena for Social Constructivism.
How we conceive of ourselves makes for what is identity? Identity is constituted by the way we think about ourselves. Or the description of “roles” such as motherhood? Is it biology or is it the way we conceive of motherhood (caring, feminine qualities) that determines what it But is that all?
Critical Theory/Post-Modernism
Knowledge as PowerThe Skeptical ViewDeconstruction/etc.
Revisiting Marxism
Some characteristic featuresConcept of Ideology
Standpoint epistemology