Rice

For other uses, see Rice (disambiguation).

A mixture of brown, white, and red indica rice, also containingwild rice, Zizania species

Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa (Asianrice) or Oryza glaberrima (African rice). As a cerealgrain, it is the most widely consumed staple food for alarge part of the world’s human population, especiallyin Asia. It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest worldwide production, after sugarcane and maize,according to 2012 FAOSTAT data.[1]

Since a large portion of maize crops are grown for pur-poses other than human consumption, rice is the most im-portant grain with regard to human nutrition and caloricintake, providing more than one-fifth of the calories con-sumed worldwide by humans.[2]

Wild rice, from which the crop was developed, may haveits native range in Australia.[3] Chinese legends attributethe domestication of rice to Shennong, the legendary em-peror of China and inventor of Chinese agriculture.[4] Ge-netic evidence has shown that rice originates from a sin-gle domestication 8,200–13,500 years ago[5] in the PearlRiver valley region of China.[6] Previously, archaeologi-cal evidence had suggested that rice was domesticated inthe Yangtze River valley region in China.[5]

From East Asia, rice was spread to Southeast and SouthAsia.[6] Rice was introduced to Europe through WesternAsia, and to the Americas through European coloniza-tion.There are many varieties of rice and culinary preferencestend to vary regionally. In some areas such as the FarEast or Spain, there is a preference for softer and stickiervarieties.

Oryza sativa with small wind-pollinated flowers

Cooked brown rice from Bhutan

Rice, a monocot, is normally grown as an annual plant,although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial andcan produce a ratoon crop for up to 30 years.[7] The riceplant can grow to 1–1.8 m (3.3–5.9 ft) tall, occasionallymore depending on the variety and soil fertility. It haslong, slender leaves 50–100 cm (20–39 in) long and 2–2.5 cm (0.79–0.98 in) broad. The small wind-pollinatedflowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulousinflorescence 30–50 cm (12–20 in) long. The edible seed

1

2 2 COOKING

Rice can come in many shapes, colours and sizes. Photo by theIRRI.

is a grain (caryopsis) 5–12 mm (0.20–0.47 in) long and2–3 mm (0.079–0.118 in) thick.

Oryza sativa, commonly known as Asian rice

Rice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regionswith low labor costs and high rainfall, as it is labor-intensive to cultivate and requires ample water. However,rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a steephill or mountain area with the use of water-controllingterrace systems. Although its parent species are native toAsia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade andexportation have made it commonplace in many culturesworldwide.The traditional method for cultivating rice is floodingthe fields while, or after, setting the young seedlings.This simple method requires sound planning and servic-ing of the water damming and channeling, but reduces

the growth of less robust weed and pest plants that haveno submerged growth state, and deters vermin. Whileflooding is not mandatory for the cultivation of rice, allother methods of irrigation require higher effort in weedand pest control during growth periods and a differentapproach for fertilizing the soil.The name wild rice is usually used for species of the gen-era Zizania and Porteresia, both wild and domesticated,although the term may also be used for primitive or un-cultivated varieties of Oryza.

1 Etymology

First used in English in themiddle of the 13th century, theword “rice” derives from the Old French ris, which comesfrom Italian riso, in turn from the Latin oriza, which de-rives from the Greek ὄρυζα (oruza). The Greek word isthe source of all European words (cf. Welsh reis, Ger-man Reis, Lithuanian ryžiai, Serbo-Croatian riža, Polishryż, Dutch rijst, Hungarian rizs, Romanian orez).[8][9][10]

The origin of the Greek word is unclear. It is some-times held to be from the Tamil word அரிசி (arisi), orrather Old Tamil arici.[11][12] However, Krishnamurti[13]disagrees with the notion that Old Tamil arici is the sourceof the Greek term, and proposes that it was borrowedfrom descendants of Proto-Dravidian *wariñci instead.Mayrhofer[14] suggests that the immediate source of theGreek word is to be sought in Old Iranian words of thetypes *vrīz- or *vrinj-, but these are ultimately tracedback to Indo-Aryan (as in Sanskrit vrīhí-) and subse-quently to Dravidian by Witzel and others.

2 Cooking

The varieties of rice are typically classified as long-,medium-, and short-grained.[15] The grains of long-grainrice (high in amylose) tend to remain intact after cooking;medium-grain rice (high in amylopectin) becomes moresticky. Medium-grain rice is used for sweet dishes, forrisotto in Italy, and many rice dishes, such as arròs ne-gre, in Spain. Some varieties of long-grain rice that arehigh in amylopectin, known as Thai Sticky rice, are usu-ally steamed.[16] A stickier medium-grain rice is used forsushi; the stickiness allows rice to hold its shape whenmolded. Short-grain rice is often used for rice pudding.Instant rice differs from parboiled rice in that it is fullycooked and then dried, though there is a significant degra-dation in taste and texture. Rice flour and starch often areused in batters and breadings to increase crispiness.

2.2 Processing 3

Milled to unmilled rice, from left to right, white rice (Japaneserice), rice with germ, brown rice

A: Rice with chaffB: Brown riceC: Rice with germD: White rice with bran residueE: Musenmai (Japanese: ), “Polished and ready to boil rice”,literally, non-wash rice(1): Chaff(2): Bran(3): Bran residue(4): Cereal germ(5): Endosperm

2.1 Preparation

Rice is typically rinsed before cooking to remove excessstarch. Rice produced in the US is usually fortified withvitamins and minerals, and rinsing will result in a loss ofnutrients. Rice may be rinsed repeatedly until the rinsewater is clear to improve the texture and taste.Rice may be soaked to decrease cooking time, conservefuel, minimize exposure to high temperature, and reducestickiness. For some varieties, soaking improves the tex-ture of the cooked rice by increasing expansion of thegrains. Rice may be soaked for 30 minutes up to severalhours.Brown rice may be soaked in warm water for 20 hours tostimulate germination. This process, called germinatedbrown rice (GBR),[17] activates enzymes and enhancesamino acids including gamma-aminobutyric acid to im-prove the nutritional value of brown rice. This methodis a result of research carried out for the United NationsInternational Year of Rice.

2.2 Processing

Rice is cooked by boiling or steaming, and absorbs waterduring cooking. With the absorption method, rice maybe cooked in a volume of water similar to the volume ofrice. With the rapid-boil method, rice may be cooked ina large quantity of water which is drained before serving.Rapid-boil preparation is not desirable with enriched rice,as much of the enrichment additives are lost when thewater is discarded. Electric rice cookers, popular in Asiaand Latin America, simplify the process of cooking rice.Rice (or any other grain) is sometimes quickly fried in oilor fat before boiling (for example saffron rice or risotto);this makes the cooked rice less sticky, and is a cookingstyle commonly called pilaf in Iran and Afghanistan orbiryani (Dam-pukhtak) in India and Pakistan.

2.3 Dishes

Main article: List of rice dishes

In Arab cuisine, rice is an ingredient of many soups anddishes with fish, poultry, and other types of meat. It isalso used to stuff vegetables or is wrapped in grape leaves(dolma). When combined with milk, sugar, and honey,it is used to make desserts. In some regions, such asTabaristan, bread is made using rice flour. Medieval Is-lamic texts spoke of medical uses for the plant.[18] Ricemay also be made into congee (also called rice porridge,fawrclaab, okayu, Xifan, jook, or rice gruel) by addingmore water than usual, so that the cooked rice is satu-rated with water, usually to the point that it disintegrates.Rice porridge is commonly eaten as a breakfast food, andis also a traditional food for the sick.

3 Nutrition and health

3.1 Importance

Rice is the staple food of over half the world’s popula-tion. It is the predominant dietary energy source for 17countries in Asia and the Pacific, 9 countries in North andSouth America and 8 countries in Africa. Rice provides20% of the world’s dietary energy supply, while wheatsupplies 19% and maize (corn) 5%.[19]

A detailed analysis of nutrient content of rice suggeststhat the nutrition value of rice varies based on a numberof factors. It depends on the strain of rice, that is be-tween white, brown, red, and black (or purple) varietiesof rice – each prevalent in different parts of the world. Italso depends on nutrient quality of the soil rice is grownin, whether and how the rice is polished or processed,the manner it is enriched, and how it is prepared beforeconsumption.[20]

4 4 RICE-GROWING ENVIRONMENTS

An illustrative comparison between white and brown riceof protein quality, mineral and vitamin quality, carbohy-drate and fat quality suggests that neither is a completenutrition source. Between the two, there is a significantdifference in fiber content and minor differences in othernutrients.[21]

Highly colored rice strains, such as black (purple) rice,derive their color from anthocyanins and tocols. Scien-tific studies suggest that these color pigments have antiox-idant properties that may be useful to human health. Inpurple rice bran, hydrophilic antioxidants are in greaterquantity and have higher free radical scavenging activitythan lipophilic antioxidants. Anthocyanins and γ-tocolsin purple rice are largely located in the inner portion ofpurple rice bran.[22]

Comparative nutrition studies on red, black and white va-rieties of rice suggest that pigments in red and black ricevarieties may offer nutritional benefits. Red or black riceconsumption was found to reduce or retard the progres-sion of atherosclerotic plaque development, induced bydietary cholesterol, in mammals. White rice consump-tion offered no similar benefits, which the study suggestsmay be due in part to a lack of antioxidants found in redand black varieties of rice.[23]

3.2 Comparison to other major staplefoods

Ch. = Choline; Ca = Calcium; Fe = Iron; Mg = Magne-sium; P = Phosphorus; K = Potassium; Na = Sodium; Zn= Zinc; Cu = Copper; Mn = Manganese; Se = Selenium;%DV = % daily value i.e. % of DRI (Dietary Refer-ence Intake) Note: All nutrient values including proteinare in %DV per 100 grams of the food item. Signifi-cant values are highlighted in light Gray color and boldletters.[24][25] Cooking reduction = % Maximum typi-cal reduction in nutrients due to boiling without drain-ing for ovo-lacto-vegetables group[26][27] Q = Quality ofProtein in terms of completeness without adjusting fordigestability.[27] The table below shows the nutrient con-tent of major staple foods in a raw form. Raw grains,however, are not edible and can not be digested. Thesemust be sprouted, or prepared and cooked for humanconsumption. In sprouted and cooked form, the relativenutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of thesegrains is remarkably different from that of raw form ofthese grains reported in this table.

3.3 Arsenic concerns

Main article: Arsenic toxicity

Rice and rice products contain arsenic, a known poisonand Group 1 carcinogen.[29] There is no safe level of ar-senic, but, as of 2012, a limit of 10 parts per billion has

been established in the United States for drinking water,twice the level of 5 parts per billion originally proposed bythe EPA. Consumption of one serving of some varietiesof rice gives more exposure to arsenic than consumptionof 1 liter of water that contains 5 parts per billion arsenic;however, the amount of arsenic in rice varies widely withthe greatest concentration in brown rice and rice grown onland formerly used to grow cotton; in the United States,Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Texas.[30] The U.S.Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is studying this is-sue, but has not established a limit.[31] China has set alimit of 150 ppb for arsenic in rice.[32]

White rice grown in Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri,and Texas, which account for 76 percent of American-produced rice had higher levels of arsenic than other re-gions of the world studied, possibly because of past use ofarsenic-based pesticides to control cotton weevils.[33] Jas-mine rice from Thailand and Basmati rice from Pakistanand India contain the least arsenic among rice varieties inone study.[34]

3.4 Bacillus cereus

Cooked rice can contain Bacillus cereus spores, whichproduce an emetic toxin when left at 4–60 °C (39–140 °F). When storing cooked rice for use the nextday, rapid cooling is advised to reduce the risk of toxinproduction.[35] One of the enterotoxins produced byBacillus cereus is heat-resistant; reheating contaminatedrice kills the bacteria, but does not destroy the toxin al-ready present.

4 Rice-growing environments

Rice can be grown in different environments, depend-ing upon water availability.[36] Generally, rice does notthrive in a waterlogged area, yet it can survive and growherein[37] and it can also survive flooding.[38]

1. Lowland, rainfed, which is drought prone, fa-vors medium depth; waterlogged, submergence, andflood prone

2. Lowland, irrigated, grown in both the wet seasonand the dry season

3. Deep water or floating rice

4. Coastal Wetland

5. Upland rice is also known as Ghaiya rice, wellknown for its drought tolerance[39]

5

Rice broker in 1820s Japan of the Edo period ("36 Views ofMount Fuji" Hokusai)

5 History of domestication and cul-tivation

See also: Oryza sativa § History of domestication andcultivation

There have been plenty of debates on the origins of thedomesticated rice. Genetic evidence published in theProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of theUnited States of America (PNAS) shows that all forms ofAsian rice, both indica and japonica, spring from a singledomestication that occurred 8,200–13,500 years ago inChina of the wild rice Oryza rufipogon.[5] A 2012 studypublished in Nature, through a map of rice genome vari-ation, indicated that the domestication of rice occurredin the Pearl River valley region of China based on thegenetic evidence. From East Asia, rice was spread toSouth and Southeast Asia.[6] Before this research, thecommonly accepted view, based on archaeological evi-dence, is that rice was first domesticated in the region ofthe Yangtze River valley in China.[40][41]

Morphological studies of rice phytoliths from the Diao-tonghuan archaeological site clearly show the transitionfrom the collection of wild rice to the cultivation of do-mesticated rice. The large number of wild rice phytolithsat the Diaotonghuan level dating from 12,000–11,000 BPindicates that wild rice collection was part of the localmeans of subsistence. Changes in the morphology ofDiaotonghuan phytoliths dating from 10,000–8,000 BPshow that rice had by this time been domesticated.[42]Soon afterwards the two major varieties of indica andjaponica rice were being grown in Central China.[41] Inthe late 3rd millennium BC, there was a rapid expansionof rice cultivation into mainland Southeast Asia and west-wards across India and Nepal.[41]

In 2003, Korean archaeologists claimed to have dis-covered the world’s oldest domesticated rice.[43] Their15,000-year-old age challenges the accepted view thatrice cultivation originated in China about 12,000 yearsago.[43] These findings were received by academia with

strong skepticism,[44] and the results and their publiciz-ing has been cited as being driven by a combination ofnationalist and regional interests.[45] In 2011, a combinedeffort by the Stanford University, New York University,Washington University in St. Louis, and Purdue Univer-sity has provided the strongest evidence yet that there isonly one single origin of domesticated rice, in the YangtzeValley of China.[46][47]

Rice spread to the Middle East where, according to Zo-hary and Hopf (2000, p. 91), O. sativa was recoveredfrom a grave at Susa in Iran (dated to the 1st century AD).

6 Regional history

In a recent study,[48] scientist have found a link for dif-ferences in human culture based on either wheat or ricecultivating races since ancient times.

6.1 Africa

Main article: Oryza glaberrimaAfrican rice has been cultivated for 3500 years. Between

Rice crop in Madagascar

1500 and 800 BC, Oryza glaberrima propagated from itsoriginal centre, the Niger River delta, and extended toSenegal. However, it never developed far from its origi-nal region. Its cultivation even declined in favour of theAsian species, which was introduced to East Africa earlyin the common era and spread westward.[49] African ricehelped Africa conquer its famine of 1203.[50]

6.2 Asia

Today, the majority of all rice produced comes fromChina, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Thailand,Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Korea and Japan. Asianfarmers still account for 87% of the world’s total rice pro-duction.

6 6 REGIONAL HISTORY

Ricefields at Santa Maria, Bulacan, Philippines

Rice fields in Dili/East Timor

Indian women separating rice from straw

6.2.1 Sri Lanka

Rice is the staple food amongst all the ethnic groups inSri Lanka. Agriculture in Sri Lanka mainly dependson the rice cultivation. Rice production is acutely de-pendent on rainfall and government supply necessity ofwater through irrigation channels throughout the cultiva-tion seasons. The principal cultivation season, known as“Maha”, is from October to March and the subsidiarycultivation season, known as “Yala”, is from April toSeptember. During Maha season, there is usually enoughwater to sustain the cultivation of all rice fields, neverthe-less in Yala season there is only enough water for cultiva-tion of half of the land extent.

Cambodian women planting rice.

Traditional rice varieties are now making a comebackwith the recent interest in green foods.

6.2.2 Thailand

Main article: Rice production in Thailand

Rice is the main export of Thailand, especially whitejasmine rice 105 (Dok Mali 105).[51] Thailand has alarge number of rice varieties, 3,500 kinds with differ-ent characters, and five kinds of wild rice cultivates.[52]In each region of the country there are different rice seedtypes. Their use depends on weather, atmosphere, andtopography.[53]

The northern region has both low lands and high lands.The farmers’ usual crop is non-glutinous rice [53] such asNiew Sun Pah Tong rice. This rice is naturally protectedfrom leaf disease, and its paddy (unmilled rice) (Thai:ขา้วเปลอืก) has a brown color.[54] The northeastern re-gion is a large area where farmers can cultivate about36 million square meters of rice. Although most of itis plains and dry areas,[55] white jasmine rice 105—themost famous Thai rice—can be grown there. White jas-mine rice was developed in Chonburi Province first andafter that grown in many areas in the country, but therice from this region has a high quality, because it’s softer,whiter, and more fragrant.[56] This rice can resist drought,acidic soil, and alkaline soil.[57]

The central region is mostly composed of plains. Mostfarmers grow Jao rice.[55] For example, Pathum Thani 1rice which has qualities similar to white jasmine 105 rice.Its paddy has the color of thatch and the cooked rice hasfragrant grains also.[58]

In the southern region, most farmers transplant aroundboundaries to the flood plains or on the plains betweenmountains. Farming in the region is slower than other re-gions because the rainy season comes later.[59] The pop-ular rice varieties in this area are the Leb Nok Pattaniseeds, a type of Jao rice. Its paddy has the color of thatchand it can be processed to make noodles.[60]

6.5 Caribbean and Latin America 7

6.2.3 Companion plant

One of the earliest known examples of companion plant-ing is the growing of rice with Azolla, the mosquito fern,which covers the top of a fresh rice paddy’s water, block-ing out any competing plants, as well as fixing nitrogenfrom the atmosphere for the rice to use. The rice isplanted when it is tall enough to poke out above the azolla.This method has been used for at least a thousand years.

6.3 Middle East

Rice was grown in some areas of Mesopotamia (southernIraq). With the rise of Islam it moved north to Nisibin,the southern shores of the Caspian Sea (in Gilan andMazanderan provinces of Iran)[61] and then beyond theMuslim world into the valley of the Volga. In Egypt, riceis mainly grown in the Nile Delta. In Palestine, rice cameto be grown in the Jordan Valley. Rice is also grown inSaudi Arabia at Al-Hasa Oasis and in Yemen.[62]

6.4 Europe

Rice was known to the Classical world, being importedfrom Egypt, and perhaps west Asia. It was known toGreece by returning soldiers from Alexander the Great’smilitary expedition to Asia. Large deposits of rice fromthe first century A.D. have been found in Roman campsin Germany.[63]

The Moors brought Asiatic rice to the Iberian Peninsulain the 10th century. Records indicate it was grown inValencia and Majorca. In Majorca, rice cultivation seemsto have stopped after the Christian conquest, althoughhistorians are not certain.[62]

Muslims also brought rice to Sicily, where it was an im-portant crop[62] long before it is noted in the plain of Pisa(1468) or in the Lombard plain (1475), where its cultiva-tion was promoted by Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan,and demonstrated in his model farms.[64]

After the 15th century, rice spread throughout Italy andthen France, later propagating to all the continents duringthe age of European exploration.In European Russia, a short-grain, starchy rice sim-ilar to the Italian varieties, has been grown in theKrasnodar Krai, and known in Russia as “Kuban Rice” or“Krasnodar Rice”. In the Russian Far East several japon-ica cultivars are grown in Primorye around the Khankalake. Increasing scale of rice production in the region hasrecently brought criticism towards growers’ alleged badpractices in regards to the environment.

6.5 Caribbean and Latin America

Rice is not native to the Americas but was introduced toLatin America and the Caribbean by European colonizersat an early date. Spanish colonizers introduced Asian riceto Mexico in the 1520s at Veracruz; and the Portugueseand their African slaves introduced it at about the sametime to colonial Brazil.[65] Recent scholarship suggeststhat enslaved Africans played an active role in the estab-lishment of rice in the New World and that African ricewas an important crop from an early period.[66] Varietiesof rice and bean dishes that were a staple dish along thepeoples ofWest Africa remained a staple among their de-scendants subjected to slavery in the Spanish New Worldcolonies, Brazil and elsewhere in the Americas.[50]

The Native Americans of what is now the Eastern UnitedStates may have practiced extensive agriculture withforms of wild rice (Zizania palustris) , which looks simi-lar to but it not directly related to rice.

6.6 United States

South Carolina rice plantation, showing a winnowing barn(Mansfield Plantation, Georgetown)

In 1694, rice arrived in South Carolina, probably origi-nating from Madagascar.[65]

In the United States, colonial South Carolina and Georgiagrew and amassed great wealth from the slave labor ob-tained from the Senegambia area ofWest Africa and fromcoastal Sierra Leone. At the port of Charleston, throughwhich 40% of all American slave imports passed, slavesfrom this region of Africa brought the highest prices dueto their prior knowledge of rice culture, which was putto use on the many rice plantations around Georgetown,Charleston, and Savannah.From the enslaved Africans, plantation owners learnedhow to dyke the marshes and periodically flood the fields.At first the rice was laboriously milled by hand usinglarge mortars and pestles made of wood, then winnowedin sweetgrass baskets (the making of which was anotherskill brought by slaves from Africa). The invention of the

8 6 REGIONAL HISTORY

rice mill increased profitability of the crop, and the ad-dition of water power for the mills in 1787 by millwrightJonathan Lucas was another step forward.Rice culture in the southeastern U.S. became less prof-itable with the loss of slave labor after the AmericanCivil War, and it finally died out just after the turn of the20th century. Today, people can visit the only remainingrice plantation in South Carolina that still has the originalwinnowing barn and rice mill from the mid-19th centuryat the historic Mansfield Plantation in Georgetown, SouthCarolina. The predominant strain of rice in the Carolinaswas from Africa and was known as 'Carolina Gold'. Thecultivar has been preserved and there are current attemptsto reintroduce it as a commercially grown crop.[67]

In the southern United States, rice has been grown insouthern Arkansas, Louisiana, and east Texas since themid-19th century. Many Cajun farmers grew rice in wetmarshes and low-lying prairies where they could also farmcrayfish when the fields were flooded.[68] In recent yearsrice production has risen in North America, especiallyin the Mississippi embayment in the states of Arkansasand Mississippi (see also Arkansas Delta and MississippiDelta).

Rice paddy fields just north of the city of Sacramento, California

Rice cultivation began in California during the CaliforniaGold Rush, when an estimated 40,000 Chinese labor-ers immigrated to the state and grew small amounts ofthe grain for their own consumption. However, com-mercial production began only in 1912 in the town ofRichvale in Butte County.[69] By 2006, California pro-duced the second-largest rice crop in theUnited States,[70]after Arkansas, with production concentrated in sixcounties north of Sacramento.[71] Unlike the Arkansas–Mississippi Delta region, California’s production is dom-inated by short- and medium-grain japonica varieties, in-cluding cultivars developed for the local climate such asCalrose, which makes up as much as 85% of the state’scrop.[72]

References to wild rice in the Americas are to the unre-lated Zizania palustris.More than 100 varieties of rice are commercially pro-

duced primarily in six states (Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana,Mississippi, Missouri, and California) in the U.S.[73] Ac-cording to estimates for the 2006 crop year, rice produc-tion in the U.S. is valued at $1.88 billion, approximatelyhalf of which is expected to be exported. The U.S. pro-vides about 12% of world rice trade.[73] The majority ofdomestic utilization of U.S. rice is direct food use (58%),while 16% is used in each of processed foods and beer.10% is found in pet food.[73]

6.7 Australia

Rice was one of the earliest crops planted in Australia byBritish settlers, who had experience with rice plantationsin the Americas and India.Although attempts to grow rice in the well-waterednorth of Australia have been made for many years, theyhave consistently failed because of inherent iron andmanganese toxicities in the soils and destruction by pests.In the 1920s, it was seen as a possible irrigation crop onsoils within theMurray-Darling Basin that were too heavyfor the cultivation of fruit and too infertile for wheat.[74]

Because irrigation water, despite the extremely low runoffof temperate Australia,[75] was (and remains) very cheap,the growing of rice was taken up by agricultural groupsover the following decades. Californian varieties of ricewere found suitable for the climate in the Riverina,[74] andthe first mill opened at Leeton in 1951.

0

5

10

15

20

25

1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Monthly value (A$ millions) of rice imports to Australia since1988

Even before this Australia’s rice production greatly ex-ceeded local needs,[74] and rice exports to Japan have be-come a major source of foreign currency. Above-averagerainfall from the 1950s to the middle 1990s[76] encour-aged the expansion of the Riverina rice industry, but itsprodigious water use in a practically waterless region be-gan to attract the attention of environmental scientists.These became severely concerned with declining flow inthe Snowy River and the lower Murray River.Although rice growing in Australia is highly profitabledue to the cheapness of land, several recent years of se-vere drought have led many to call for its elimination be-

7.1 Production 9

cause of its effects on extremely fragile aquatic ecosys-tems. The Australian rice industry is somewhat oppor-tunistic, with the area planted varying significantly fromseason to season depending on water allocations in theMurray and Murrumbidgee irrigation regions.

7 Production and commerce

7.1 Production

Worldwide rice production

Burning of rice residues after harvest, to quickly prepare the landfor wheat planting, around Sangrur, Punjab, India.

The world dedicated 162.3 million hectares in 2012 forrice cultivation and the total production was about 738.1million tonnes.[78] The average world farm yield for ricewas 4.5 tonnes per hectare, in 2012.[78]

Rice farms in Egypt were the most productive in 2012,with a nationwide average of 9.5 tonnes per hectare.[79]Second place: Australia – 8.9 tonnes per hectare.[79]Third place: USA – 8.3 tonnes per hectare.[79]

Rice is a major food staple and a mainstay for the ruralpopulation and their food security. It is mainly cultivatedby small farmers in holdings of less than 1 hectare. Riceis also a wage commodity for workers in the cash crop ornon-agricultural sectors. Rice is vital for the nutrition ofmuch of the population in Asia, as well as in Latin Amer-ica and the Caribbean and in Africa; it is central to the

food security of over half the world population. Devel-oping countries account for 95% of the total production,with China and India alone responsible for nearly half ofthe world output.[80]

World production of rice has risen steadily from about200 million tonnes of paddy rice in 1960 to over 678 mil-lion tonnes in 2009. The three largest producers of ricein 2009 were China (197 million tonnes), India (131 Mt),and Indonesia (64 Mt). Among the six largest rice pro-ducers, the most productive farms for rice, in 2009, werein China producing 6.59 tonnes per hectare.[81]

Many rice grain producing countries have significantlosses post-harvest at the farm and because of poor roads,inadequate storage technologies, inefficient supply chainsand farmer’s inability to bring the produce into retail mar-kets dominated by small shopkeepers. A World Bank –FAO study claims 8% to 26% of rice is lost in developingnations, on average, every year, because of post-harvestproblems and poor infrastructure. Some sources claimthe post-harvest losses to exceed 40%.[80][82] Not only dothese losses reduce food security in the world, the studyclaims that farmers in developing countries such as China,India and others lose approximately US$89 billion of in-come in preventable post-harvest farm losses, poor trans-port, the lack of proper storage and retail. One studyclaims that if these post-harvest grain losses could beeliminated with better infrastructure and retail network,in India alone enough food would be saved every year tofeed 70 to 100 million people over a year.[83] However,other writers have warned against dramatic assessmentsof post-harvest food losses, arguing that “worst-case sce-narios” tend to be used rather than realistic averages andthat in many cases the cost of avoiding losses exceeds thevalue of the food saved.[84]

The seeds of the rice plant are first milled using a ricehuller to remove the chaff (the outer husks of the grain).At this point in the process, the product is called brownrice. The milling may be continued, removing the bran,i.e., the rest of the husk and the germ, thereby creatingwhite rice. White rice, which keeps longer, lacks someimportant nutrients; moreover, in a limited diet whichdoes not supplement the rice, brown rice helps to preventthe disease beriberi.Either by hand or in a rice polisher, white rice may bebuffed with glucose or talc powder (often called polishedrice, though this term may also refer to white rice in gen-eral), parboiled, or processed into flour. White rice mayalso be enriched by adding nutrients, especially those lostduring the milling process. While the cheapest method ofenriching involves adding a powdered blend of nutrientsthat will easily wash off (in the United States, rice whichhas been so treated requires a label warning against rins-ing), more sophisticated methods apply nutrients directlyto the grain, coating the grain with a water-insoluble sub-stance which is resistant to washing.In some countries, a popular form, parboiled rice, is sub-

10 7 PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE

jected to a steaming or parboiling process while still abrown rice grain. This causes nutrients from the outerhusk, especially thiamine, to move into the grain itself.The parboil process causes a gelatinisation of the starchin the grains. The grains become less brittle, and the colorof themilled grain changes fromwhite to yellow. The riceis then dried, and can then be milled as usual or used asbrown rice. Milled parboiled rice is nutritionally superiorto standard milled rice. Parboiled rice has an additionalbenefit in that it does not stick to the pan during cooking,as happens when cooking regular white rice. This type ofrice is eaten in parts of India and countries ofWest Africaare also accustomed to consuming parboiled rice.Despite the hypothetical health risks of talc (such as stom-ach cancer),[85][86] talc-coated rice remains the norm insome countries due to its attractive shiny appearance, butit has been banned in some, and is no longer widely usedin others (such as the United States). Even where talc isnot used, glucose, starch, or other coatings may be usedto improve the appearance of the grains.Rice bran, called nuka in Japan, is a valuable commodityin Asia and is used for many daily needs. It is a moist, oilyinner layer which is heated to produce oil. It is also usedas a pickling bed in making rice bran pickles and takuan.Raw rice may be ground into flour for many uses, includ-ing making many kinds of beverages, such as amazake,horchata, rice milk, and rice wine. Rice flour does notcontain gluten, so is suitable for people on a gluten-freediet. Ricemay also bemade into various types of noodles.Raw, wild, or brown rice may also be consumed by raw-foodist or fruitarians if soaked and sprouted (usually aweek to 30 days – gaba rice).Processed rice seeds must be boiled or steamed beforeeating. Boiled rice may be further fried in cooking oil orbutter (known as fried rice), or beaten in a tub to makemochi.Rice is a good source of protein and a staple food in manyparts of the world, but it is not a complete protein: it doesnot contain all of the essential amino acids in sufficientamounts for good health, and should be combined withother sources of protein, such as nuts, seeds, beans, fish,or meat.[87]

Rice, like other cereal grains, can be puffed (or popped).This process takes advantage of the grains’ water contentand typically involves heating grains in a special chamber.Further puffing is sometimes accomplished by processingpuffed pellets in a low-pressure chamber. The ideal gaslawmeans either lowering the local pressure or raising thewater temperature results in an increase in volume priorto water evaporation, resulting in a puffy texture. Bulkraw rice density is about 0.9 g/cm³. It decreases to lessthan one-tenth that when puffed.

Rice combine harvester Katori-city, Japan

After the harvest, rice straw is gathered in the traditional wayfrom small paddy fields in Mae Wang District, Chiang MaiProvince, Thailand

7.2 Harvesting, drying and milling

Further information: Paddy field

Unmilled rice, known as “paddy” (Indonesia andMalaysia: padi; Philippines, palay), is usually harvestedwhen the grains have a moisture content of around 25%.In most Asian countries, where rice is almost entirely theproduct of smallholder agriculture, harvesting is carriedout manually, although there is a growing interest in me-chanical harvesting. Harvesting can be carried out by thefarmers themselves, but is also frequently done by sea-sonal labor groups. Harvesting is followed by threshing,either immediately or within a day or two. Again, muchthreshing is still carried out by hand but there is anincreasing use of mechanical threshers. Subsequently,paddy needs to be dried to bring down the moisture con-tent to no more than 20% for milling.A familiar sight in several Asian countries is paddy laidout to dry along roads. However, in most countries thebulk of drying of marketed paddy takes place in mills,with village-level drying being used for paddy to be con-sumed by farm families. Mills either sun dry or use me-chanical driers or both. Drying has to be carried outquickly to avoid the formation of molds. Mills range fromsimple hullers, with a throughput of a couple of tonnes aday, that simply remove the outer husk, to enormous op-

7.5 World’s most productive rice farms and farmers 11

erations that can process 4,000 tonnes a day and producehighly polished rice. A good mill can achieve a paddy-to-rice conversion rate of up to 72% but smaller, ineffi-cient mills often struggle to achieve 60%. These smallermills often do not buy paddy and sell rice but only ser-vice farmers who want to mill their paddy for their ownconsumption.

7.3 Distribution

Because of the importance of rice to human nutritionand food security in Asia, the domestic rice markets tendto be subject to considerable state involvement. Whilethe private sector plays a leading role in most countries,agencies such as BULOG in Indonesia, the NFA in thePhilippines, VINAFOOD in Vietnam and the Food Cor-poration of India are all heavily involved in purchasing ofpaddy from farmers or rice from mills and in distributingrice to poorer people. BULOG and NFAmonopolise riceimports into their countries while VINAFOOD controlsall exports from Vietnam.[88]

Drying rice in Peravoor, India

7.4 Trade

World trade figures are very different from those forproduction, as less than 8% of rice produced is tradedinternationally.[89] In economic terms, the global ricetrade was a small fraction of 1% of world mercantiletrade. Many countries consider rice as a strategic foodstaple, and various governments subject its trade to a widerange of controls and interventions.Developing countries are the main players in the worldrice trade, accounting for 83% of exports and 85% ofimports. While there are numerous importers of rice,the exporters of rice are limited. Just five countries– Thailand, Vietnam, China, the United States and In-dia – in decreasing order of exported quantities, ac-counted for about three-quarters of world rice exports in2002.[80] However, this ranking has been rapidly chang-ing in recent years. In 2010, the three largest exporters of

rice, in decreasing order of quantity exported were Thai-land, Vietnam and India. By 2012, India became thelargest exporter of rice with a 100% increase in its ex-ports on year-to-year basis, and Thailand slipped to thirdposition.[90][91] Together, Thailand, Vietnam and Indiaaccounted for nearly 70% of the world rice exports.The primary variety exported by Thailand and Vietnamwere Jasmine rice, while exports from India included aro-matic Basmati variety. China, an exporter of rice inearly 2000s, was a net importer of rice in 2010 and willbecome the largest net importer, surpassing Nigeria, in2013.[89][92] According to a USDA report, the world’slargest exporters of rice in 2012 were India (9.75 mil-lion tonnes), Vietnam (7 million tonnes), Thailand (6.5million tonnes), Pakistan (3.75 million tonnes) and theUnited States (3.5 million tonnes).[93]

Major importers usually include Nigeria, Indonesia,Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Malaysia, thePhilippines, Brazil and some African and Persian Gulfcountries. In common with other West African coun-tries, Nigeria is actively promoting domestic production.However, its very heavy import duties (110%) open it tosmuggling from neighboring countries.[94] Parboiled riceis particularly popular in Nigeria. Although China andIndia are the two largest producers of rice in the world,both countries consume the majority of the rice produceddomestically, leaving little to be traded internationally.

7.5 World’s most productive rice farmsand farmers

The average world yield for rice was 4.3 tonnes perhectare, in 2010.Australian rice farms were the most productive in 2010,with a nationwide average of 10.8 tonnes per hectare.[95]

Yuan Longping of China National Hybrid Rice Researchand Development Center, China, set a world record forrice yield in 2010 at 19 tonnes per hectare on a demon-stration plot. In 2011, this record was surpassed by an In-dian farmer, Sumant Kumar, with 22.4 tonnes per hectarein Bihar. Both these farmers claim to have employednewly developed rice breeds and System of Rice Inten-sification (SRI), a recent innovation in rice farming. SRIis claimed to have set new national records in rice yields,within the last 10 years, in many countries. The claimedChinese and Indian yields have yet to be demonstrated onseven-hectare lots and to be reproducible over two con-secutive years on the same farm.[96][97][98][99]

8 Price

In late 2007 to May 2008, the price of grains rose greatlydue to droughts in major producing countries (particu-larly Australia), increased use of grains for animal feed

12 9 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

and US subsidies for bio-fuel production. Although therewas no shortage of rice on world markets this general up-ward trend in grain prices led to panic buying by con-sumers, government rice export bans (in particular, byVietnam and India) and inflated import orders by thePhilippines marketing board, the National Food Author-ity. This caused significant rises in rice prices. In lateApril 2008, prices hit 24 US cents a pound, twice theprice of seven months earlier.[100] Over the period of2007 to 2013, the Chinese government has substantiallyincreased the price it pays domestic farmers for their rice,rising to US$500 per metric ton by 2013.[89] The 2013price of rice originating from other southeast Asian coun-tries was a comparably low US$350 per metric ton.[89]

On April 30, 2008, Thailand announced plans for thecreation of the Organisation of Rice Exporting Coun-tries (OREC) with the intention that this should developinto a price-fixing cartel for rice.[101][102] However, littleprogress had been made by mid-2011 to achieve this.

8.1 Worldwide consumption

As of 2009 world food consumption of rice was 531.6million metric tons of paddy equivalent (354,603 ofmilled equivalent), while the far largest consumers wereChina consuming 156.3 million metric tons of paddyequivalent (29.4% of the world consumption) and Indiaconsuming 123.5 million metric tons of paddy equivalent(23.3% of the world consumption).[103] Between 1961and 2002, per capita consumption of rice increased by40%.Rice is the most important crop in Asia. In Cambodia,for example, 90% of the total agricultural area is used forrice production.[104]

U.S. rice consumption has risen sharply over the past 25years, fueled in part by commercial applications such asbeer production.[105] Almost one in five adult Americansnow report eating at least half a serving of white or brownrice per day.[106]

9 Environmental impacts

Rice cultivation on wetland rice fields is thought tobe responsible for 11% of the anthropogenic methaneemissions.[107] Rice requires slightly more water to pro-duce than other grains.[108] Rice production uses almosta third of Earth’s fresh water.[109]

Long-term flooding of rice fields cuts the soil off fromatmospheric oxygen and causes anaerobic fermentationof organic matter in the soil.[110] Methane productionfrom rice cultivation contributes ~1.5% of anthropogenicgreenhouse gases.[111] Methane is twenty times more po-tent a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.[112]

A2010 study found that, as a result of rising temperatures

Work by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture tomeasure the greenhouse gas emissions of rice production.

and decreasing solar radiation during the later years ofthe 20th century, the rice yield growth rate has decreasedin many parts of Asia, compared to what would havebeen observed had the temperature and solar radiationtrends not occurred.[113][114] The yield growth rate hadfallen 10–20% at some locations. The study was basedon records from 227 farms in Thailand, Vietnam, Nepal,India, China, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. The mechanismof this falling yield was not clear, but might involve in-creased respiration during warm nights, which expendsenergy without being able to photosynthesize.

9.1 Rainfall

9.2 Temperature

Rice requires high temperature above 20 °C but not morethan 35 to 40 °C. Optimum temperature is around 30 °C(T ₐₓ) and 20 °C (T ᵢ ).[115]

9.3 Solar radiation

The amount of solar radiation received during 45 daysafter harvest determines final crop output.[115]

9.4 Atmospheric water vapor

High water vapor content (in humid tropics) subjects un-usual stress which favors the spread of fungal and bacte-rial diseases.[115]

9.5 Wind

Light wind transports CO2 to the leaf canopy but strongwind cause severe damage and may lead to sterility(due to pollen dehydration, spikelet sterility, and abortiveendosperms).[115]

10.4 Other pests 13

10 Pests and diseases

Rice pests are any organisms or microbes with the poten-tial to reduce the yield or value of the rice crop (or ofrice seeds).[116] Rice pests include weeds, pathogens, in-sects, nematode, rodents, and birds. A variety of factorscan contribute to pest outbreaks, including climatic fac-tors, improper irrigation, the overuse of insecticides andhigh rates of nitrogen fertilizer application.[117] Weatherconditions also contribute to pest outbreaks. For exam-ple, rice gall midge and army worm outbreaks tend to fol-low periods of high rainfall early in the wet season, whilethrips outbreaks are associated with drought.[118]

10.1 Insects

Chinese rice grasshopper(Oxya chinensis)Borneo, Malaysia

Major rice insect pests include: the brown planthopper(BPH),[119] several spp. of stemborers – including thosein the genera Scirpophaga and Chilo,[120] the rice gallmidge,[121] several spp. of rice bugs[122] – notably in thegenus Leptocorisa,[123] the rice leafroller, rice weevils andthe Chinese rice grasshopper.[124]

10.2 Diseases

Main article: List of rice diseases

Rice blast, caused by the fungusMagnaporthe grisea,[125]is the most significant disease affecting rice cultiva-tion. Other major rice diseases include: sheath blight,rice ragged stunt (vector: BPH), and tungro (vector:Nephotettix spp).[126] There is also an ascomycete fungus,Cochliobolus miyabeanus, that causes brown spot diseasein rice.[127][128]

10.3 Nematodes

Several nematode species infect rice crops, causing dis-eases such as Ufra (Ditylenchus dipsaci), White tip

disease (Aphelenchoide bessei), and root knot disease(Meloidogyne graminicola). Some nematode speciessuch as Pratylenchus spp. are most dangerous in up-land rice of all parts of the world. Rice root nema-tode (Hirschmanniella oryzae) is a migratory endopara-site which on higher inoculum levels will lead to completedestruction of a rice crop. Beyond being obligate para-sites, they also decrease the vigor of plants and increasethe plants’ susceptibility to other pests and diseases.

10.4 Other pests

These include the apple snail Pomacea canaliculata,panicle rice mite, rats,[129] and the weed Echinochloacrusgali.[130]

10.5 Integrated Pest Management

Main article: Integrated Pest Management

Crop protection scientists are trying to develop rice pestmanagement techniques which are sustainable. In otherwords, to manage crop pests in such a manner that fu-ture crop production is not threatened.[131] Sustainablepest management is based on four principles: biodiver-sity, host plant resistance (HPR), landscape ecology, andhierarchies in a landscape – from biological to social.[132]At present, rice pest management includes cultural tech-niques, pest-resistant rice varieties, and pesticides (whichinclude insecticide). Increasingly, there is evidencethat farmers’ pesticide applications are often unneces-sary, and even facilitate pest outbreaks.[133][134][135][136]By reducing the populations of natural enemies of ricepests,[137] misuse of insecticides can actually lead topest outbreaks.[138] The International Rice Research In-stitute (IRRI) demonstrated in 1993 that an 87.5% re-duction in pesticide use can lead to an overall dropin pest numbers.[139] IRRI also conducted two cam-paigns in 1994 and 2003, respectively, which discour-aged insecticide misuse and smarter pest management inVietnam.[140][141]

Rice plants produce their own chemical defenses to pro-tect themselves from pest attacks. Some synthetic chem-icals, such as the herbicide 2,4-D, cause the plant to in-crease the production of certain defensive chemicals andthereby increase the plant’s resistance to some types ofpests.[142] Conversely, other chemicals, such as the insec-ticide imidacloprid, can induce changes in the gene ex-pression of the rice that cause the plant to become moresusceptible to attacks by certain types of pests.[143] 5-Alkylresorcinols are chemicals that can also be found inrice.[144]

Botanicals, so-called “natural pesticides”, are used bysome farmers in an attempt to control rice pests. Botani-cals include extracts of leaves, or a mulch of the leaves

14 11 ECOTYPES AND CULTIVARS

themselves. Some upland rice farmers in Cambodiaspread chopped leaves of the bitter bush (Chromolaenaodorata) over the surface of fields after planting. Thispractice probably helps the soil retain moisture andthereby facilitates seed germination. Farmers also claimthe leaves are a natural fertilizer and helps suppress weedand insect infestations.[145]

Chloroxylon is used for Pest Management in Organic Rice Culti-vation in Chhattisgarh, India

Among rice cultivars, there are differences in the re-sponses to, and recovery from, pest damage.[122][146]Many rice varieties have been selected for resistance toinsect pests.[147][148] Therefore, particular cultivars arerecommended for areas prone to certain pest problems.The genetically based ability of a rice variety to withstandpest attacks is called resistance. Threemain types of plantresistance to pests are recognized as nonpreference, an-tibiosis, and tolerance.[149] Nonpreference (or antixeno-sis) describes host plants which insects prefer to avoid;antibiosis is where insect survival is reduced after the in-gestion of host tissue; and tolerance is the capacity of aplant to produce high yield or retain high quality despiteinsect infestation.[150]

Over time, the use of pest-resistant rice varieties selectsfor pests that are able to overcome these mechanisms ofresistance. When a rice variety is no longer able to re-sist pest infestations, resistance is said to have brokendown. Rice varieties that can be widely grown for manyyears in the presence of pests and retain their ability towithstand the pests are said to have durable resistance.Mutants of popular rice varieties are regularly screenedby plant breeders to discover new sources of durableresistance.[149][151]

10.6 Parasitic weeds

Rice is parasitized by the weed eudicot Striga hermonth-ica,[152] which is of local importance for this crop.

11 Ecotypes and cultivars

Main article: List of rice varietiesWhile most rice is bred for crop quality and productiv-

Rice seed collection from IRRI

ity, there are varieties selected for characteristics such astexture, smell, and firmness. There are four major cate-gories of rice worldwide: indica, japonica, aromatic andglutinous. The different varieties of rice are not consid-ered interchangeable, either in food preparation or agri-culture, so as a result, each major variety is a completelyseparate market from other varieties. It is common forone variety of rice to rise in price while another one dropsin price.[153]

Rice cultivars also fall into groups according to environ-mental conditions, season of planting, and season of har-vest, called ecotypes. Some major groups are the Japan-type (grown in Japan), “buly” and “tjereh” types (Indone-sia); “aman” (main winter crop), “aus” (“aush”, summer),and “boro” (spring) (Bengal and Assam).[154][155] Culti-vars exist that are adapted to deep flooding, and these aregenerally called “floating rice”.[156]

The largest collection of rice cultivars is at theInternational Rice Research Institute[157] in the Philip-pines, with over 100,000 rice accessions[158] held in theInternational Rice Genebank.[159] Rice cultivars are oftenclassified by their grain shapes and texture. For example,Thai Jasmine rice is long-grain and relatively less sticky,

12.2 Future potential 15

as some long-grain rice contains less amylopectin thanshort-grain cultivars. Chinese restaurants often servelong-grain as plain unseasoned steamed rice though short-grain rice is common as well. Japanese mochi rice andChinese sticky rice are short-grain. Chinese people usesticky rice which is properly known as “glutinous rice”(note: glutinous refer to the glue-like characteristic ofrice; does not refer to “gluten”) to make zongzi. TheJapanese table rice is a sticky, short-grain rice. Japanesesake rice is another kind as well.Indian rice cultivars include long-grained and aromaticBasmati (ਬਾਸਮਤੀ) (grown in the North), long andmedium-grained Patna rice, and in South India (AndhraPradesh and Karnataka) short-grained Sona Masuri (alsocalled as Bangaru theegalu). In the state of Tamil Nadu,the most prized cultivar is ponni which is primarily grownin the delta regions of the Kaveri River. Kaveri is alsoreferred to as ponni in the South and the name reflectsthe geographic region where it is grown. In the WesternIndian state of Maharashtra, a short grain variety calledAmbemohar is very popular. This rice has a characteris-tic fragrance of Mango blossom.Aromatic rices have definite aromas and flavors; the mostnoted cultivars are Thai fragrant rice, Basmati, Patnarice, Vietnamese fragrant rice, and a hybrid cultivar fromAmerica, sold under the trade name Texmati. Both Bas-mati and Texmati have a mild popcorn-like aroma andflavor. In Indonesia, there are also red and black culti-vars.High-yield cultivars of rice suitable for cultivation inAfrica and other dry ecosystems, called the new rice forAfrica (NERICA) cultivars, have been developed. It ishoped that their cultivation will improve food security inWest Africa.Draft genomes for the two most common rice cultivars,indica and japonica, were published in April 2002. Ricewas chosen as a model organism for the biology of grassesbecause of its relatively small genome (~430 megabasepairs). Rice was the first crop with a complete genomesequence.[160]

On December 16, 2002, the UN General Assembly de-clared the year 2004 the International Year of Rice. Thedeclaration was sponsored by more than 40 countries.

12 Biotechnology

12.1 High-yielding varieties

The high-yielding varieties are a group of crops cre-ated intentionally during the Green Revolution to increaseglobal food production. This project enabled labor mar-kets in Asia to shift away from agriculture, and into in-dustrial sectors. The first “Rice Car”, IR8 was producedin 1966 at the International Rice Research Institute which

is based in the Philippines at the University of the Philip-pines' Los Baños site. IR8 was created through a crossbetween an Indonesian variety named “Peta” and a Chi-nese variety named “Dee Geo Woo Gen.”[161]

Scientists have identified and cloned many genes involvedin the gibberellin signaling pathway, including GAI1(Gibberellin Insensitive) and SLR1 (Slender Rice).[162]Disruption of gibberellin signaling can lead to signifi-cantly reduced stem growth leading to a dwarf phenotype.Photosynthetic investment in the stem is reduced dramat-ically as the shorter plants are inherently more stable me-chanically. Assimilates become redirected to grain pro-duction, amplifying in particular the effect of chemicalfertilizers on commercial yield. In the presence of ni-trogen fertilizers, and intensive crop management, thesevarieties increase their yield two to three times.

12.2 Future potential

As the UN Millennium Development project seeks tospread global economic development to Africa, the“Green Revolution” is cited as the model for economicdevelopment. With the intent of replicating the success-ful Asian boom in agronomic productivity, groups likethe Earth Institute are doing research on African agricul-tural systems, hoping to increase productivity. An impor-tant way this can happen is the production of "New Ricesfor Africa" (NERICA). These rices, selected to toleratethe low input and harsh growing conditions of Africanagriculture, are produced by the African Rice Center,and billed as technology “from Africa, for Africa”. TheNERICA have appeared in The New York Times (Octo-ber 10, 2007) and International Herald Tribune (Octo-ber 9, 2007), trumpeted as miracle crops that will dra-matically increase rice yield in Africa and enable an eco-nomic resurgence. Ongoing research in China to developperennial rice could result in enhanced sustainability andfood security.

12.3 Golden rice

Main article: Golden rice

Rice kernels do not contain vitamin A, so people who ob-tain most of their calories from rice are at risk of vitaminA deficiency. German and Swiss researchers havegenetically engineered rice to produce beta-carotene, theprecursor to vitamin A, in the rice kernel. The beta-carotene turns the processed (white) rice a “gold” color,hence the name “golden rice.” The beta-carotene is con-verted to vitamin A in humans who consume the rice.[163]Although some rice strains produce beta-carotene in thehull, no non-genetically engineered strains have beenfound that produce beta-carotene in the kernel, despitethe testing of thousands of strains. Additional efforts arebeing made to improve the quantity and quality of other

16 12 BIOTECHNOLOGY

nutrients in golden rice.[164]

The International Rice Research Institute is currently fur-ther developing and evaluating Golden Rice as a potentialnew way to help address vitamin A deficiency.[165]

12.4 Expression of human proteins

Ventria Bioscience has genetically modified rice toexpress lactoferrin, lysozyme which are proteins usu-ally found in breast milk, and human serum albu-min, These proteins have antiviral, antibacterial, andantifungal effects.[166]

Rice containing these added proteins can be used as acomponent in oral rehydration solutions which are usedto treat diarrheal diseases, thereby shortening their dura-tion and reducing recurrence. Such supplements may alsohelp reverse anemia.[167]

12.5 Flood-tolerant rice

Due to the varying levels that water can reach in regionsof cultivation, flood tolerant varieties have long been de-veloped and used. Flooding is an issue that many ricegrowers face, especially in South and South East Asiawhere flooding annually affects 20 million hectares.[168]Standard rice varieties cannot withstand stagnant flood-ing of more than about a week,[169] mainly as it disallowsthe plant access to necessary requirements such as sun-light and essential gas exchanges, inevitably leading toplants being unable to recover.[168] In the past, this hasled to massive losses in yields, such as in the Philippines,where in 2006, rice crops worth $65 million were lostto flooding.[170] Recently developed cultivars seek to im-prove flood tolerance.

12.6 Drought-tolerant rice

Drought represents a significant environmental stress forrice production, with 19–23 million hectares of rainfedrice production in South and South East Asia often atrisk.[171][172] Under drought conditions, without sufficientwater to afford them the ability to obtain the requiredlevels of nutrients from the soil, conventional commer-cial rice varieties can be severely affected – for exam-ple, yield losses as high as 40% have affected some partsof India, with resulting losses of around US$800 millionannually.[173]

The International Rice Research Institute conducts re-search into developing drought-tolerant rice varieties, in-cluding the varieties 5411 and Sookha dhan, currentlybeing employed by farmers in the Philippines and Nepalrespectively.[172] In addition, in 2013 the Japanese Na-tional Institute for Agrobiological Sciences led a teamwhich successfully inserted the DEEPER ROOTING 1(DRO1) gene, from the Philippine upland rice variety

Kinandang Patong, into the popular commercial rice va-riety IR64, giving rise to a far deeper root system inthe resulting plants.[173] This facilitates an improved abil-ity for the rice plant to derive its required nutrients intimes of drought via accessing deeper layers of soil, afeature demonstrated by trials which saw the IR64 +DRO1 rice yields drop by 10% under moderate droughtconditions, compared to 60% for the unmodified IR64variety.[173][174]

12.7 Salt-tolerant rice

Soil salinity poses a major threat to rice crop productiv-ity, particularly along low-lying coastal areas during thedry season.[171] For example, roughly 1 million hectaresof the coastal areas of Bangladesh are affected by salinesoils.[175] These high concentrations of salt can severelyaffect rice plants’ normal physiology, especially duringearly stages of growth, and as such farmers are of-ten forced to abandon these otherwise potentially usableareas.[176][177]

Progress has been made, however, in developing rice va-rieties capable of tolerating such conditions; the hybridcreated from the cross between the commercial rice vari-ety IR56 and the wild rice species Oryza coarctata is oneexample.[178] O. coarctata is capable of successful growthin soils with double the limit of salinity of normal va-rieties, but lacks the ability to produce edible rice.[178]Developed by the International Rice Research Institute,the hybrid variety can utilise specialised leaf glands thatallow for the removal of salt into the atmosphere. Itwas initially produced from one successful embryo outof 34,000 crosses between the two species; this was thenbackcrossed to IR56 with the aim of preserving the genesresponsible for salt tolerance that were inherited from O.coarctata.[176] Extensive trials are planned prior to thenew variety being available to farmers by approximately2017–18.[176]

12.8 Environment-friendly rice

Producing rice in paddies is harmful for the environmentdue to the release of methane by methanogenic bacte-ria. These bacteria live in the anaerobic waterlogged soil,and live off nutrients released by rice roots. Researchershave recently reported in Nature that putting the barleygene SUSIBA2 into rice creates a shift in biomass pro-duction from root to shoot (above ground tissue becomeslarger, while below ground tissue is reduced), decreasingthe methanogen population, and resulting in a reductionof methane emissions of up to 97%. Apart from this en-vironmental benefit, the modification also increases theamount of rice grains by 43%, which makes it useful toolin feeding a growing world population.[179][180]

17

13 Meiosis and DNA repair

Rice is used as a model organism for investigating themolecular mechanisms of meiosis and DNA repair inhigher plants. Meiosis is a key stage of the sexual cycle inwhich diploid cells in the ovule (female structure) and theanther (male structure) produce haploid cells that developfurther into gametophytes and gametes. So far, 28 mei-otic genes of rice have been characterized.[181] Studies ofrice gene OsRAD51C showed that this gene is necessaryfor homologous recombinational repair of DNA, partic-ularly the accurate repair of DNA double-strand breaksduring meiosis.[182] Rice gene OsDMC1 was found to beessential for pairing of homologous chromosomes dur-ing meiosis,[183] and rice gene OsMRE11 was found to berequired for both synapsis of homologous chromosomesand repair of double-strand breaks during meiosis.[184]

14 Cultural roles of rice

Ancient statue of Dewi Sri from Java (c. 9th century)

Rice plays an important role in certain religions and pop-ular beliefs. In many cultures relatives will scatter riceduring or towards the end of a wedding ceremony in frontof the bride and groom.[185]

The pounded rice ritual is conducted during weddings inNepal. The bride gives a leafplate full of pounded rice tothe groom after he requests it politely from her.[186]

In the Philippines rice wine, popularly known as tapuy,

is used for important occasions such as weddings, riceharvesting ceremonies and other celebrations.[187]

Dewi Sri is the traditional rice goddess of the Javanese,Sundanese, and Balinese people in Indonesia. Most rit-uals involving Dewi Sri are associated with the myth-ical origin attributed to the rice plant, the staple foodof the region.[188][189] In Thailand a similar rice deity isknown as Phosop; she is a deity more related to ancientlocal folklore than a goddess of a structured, mainstreamreligion.[190] The same female rice deity is known as PoIno Nogar in Cambodia and asNang Khosop in Laos. Rit-ual offerings are made during the different stages of riceproduction to propitiate the Rice Goddess in the corre-sponding cultures.

15 See also

• Artificial rice

• Rice production

• Indonesian rice table

• List of dried foods

• List of rice dishes

• List of rice varieties

• Maratelli rice

• Post-harvest losses

• Protein per unit area

• Puffed rice

• Rice Belt

• Rice bran oil

• Rice bread

• Rice wine

• Risotto

• Straw

• System of Rice Intensification

• Wild rice

• Upland rice

18 16 REFERENCES

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[166] Marris, Emma (May 18, 2007). “Rice with hu-man proteins to take root in Kansas”. Nature.doi:10.1038/news070514-17.

[167] Bethell DR, Huang J; Huang (2004). “Recombinant hu-man lactoferrin treatment for global health issues: irondeficiency and acute diarrhea”. Biometals 17 (3): 337–42. doi:10.1023/B:BIOM.0000027714.56331.b8. PMID15222487.

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[170] "Climate change-ready rice" International Rice ResearchInstitute (IRRI). Retrieved October 31, 2013. ArchivedJanuary 1, 1970, at the Wayback Machine.

[171] "Drought, submergence and salinity management" In-ternational Rice Research Institute (IRRI). RetrievedSeptember 29, 2013. Archived November 1, 2013, at theWayback Machine.

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17 Further reading• Calpe, Concepción. “International trade in rice:recent developments and prospects.” Rice is Life:scientific perspectives for the 21st century (2005).online

• De Datta, Surajit K. Principles and practices of riceproduction (International Rice Research Institute,1981). online

• Latham, Anthony John Heaton. “From competi-tion to constraint: The international rice trade in thenineteenth and twentieth centuries.” Business andeconomic history (1988): 91-102. in JSTOR

• Watson, Andrew (1983). Agricultural innovationin the early Islamic world. Cambridge UniversityPress. ISBN 0-521-06883-5.

24 18 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Vespada, Yaowanuch (1998). The genetic wonder ofThai rice. Plan Motif Publisher.

• Songkran Chitrakon and Boriboon Somrith (2003).Science and technology with Thai rice, National cen-ter for genetic engineering. The public informationdepartment. p. 30.

17.1 United States• Coclanis, Peter A. “The poetics of American agri-culture: the United States rice industry in in-ternational perspective.” Agricultural History 69.2(1995): 140-162. in JSTOR

• Cole, Arthur H. “The American rice-growing indus-try: A study of comparative advantage.” QuarterlyJournal of Economics (1927): 595-643. in JSTOR

• Dethloff, Henry C. “Rice Revolution in the South-west, 1880-1910.” Arkansas Historical Quarterly29.1 (1970): 66-75. in JSTOR

• Lee, Christopher M. “The American Rice Industry’sOrganization for a Domestic Market: The Associ-ated Rice Millers of America.” Louisiana History37.2 (1996): 187-199. in JSTOR

• Phillips, Edward Hake. “The Gulf Coast Rice In-dustry.” Agricultural History 25.2 (1951): 91-96. inJSTOR

18 External links• Rice at DMOZ• Agritrade articles on rice trading• RiceWiki• International Rice Research Institute• Rice latest trade data on ITC Trade Map• Calories in rice at the Wayback Machine (archivedOctober 21, 2010)

• A Brief History of Rice (p. 9 – p. 12)• A Cuban Skirmish for Rice by Isbel Diaz Torres,

Havana Times, June 16, 2010• National Food Authority.• Safe Storage of Cooked Rice• Rice Research and Practice• Pazuki, Arman & Sohani, Mehdi (2013).“Phenotypic evaluation of scutellum-derivedcalluses in ‘Indica’ rice cultivars” (PDF). ActaAgriculturae Slovenica 101 (2): 239–247.doi:10.2478/acas-2013-0020. Retrieved February2, 2014.

25

19 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

19.1 Text• Rice Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice?oldid=719143336 Contributors: Dreamyshade, Derek Ross, Vicki Rosenzweig, Bryan

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Sirsquishy, Eyesnore, Vandenbergmarco, Jesusismymainholmes, Drbarr54!, Social integration, Daniel Steinman, DavidLeighEllis, ,1counting2counting3, Ugog Nizdast, Glaisher, Dr.sjoy2017, Zenibus, StandUnitedLoL, Sefrewtrwetwer, XivXav1, My name is not dave,Nickolaskehler, Maddielynnwerty, Kelseyyylee, Kind Tennis Fan, Olivia emirates, Nnyfan2, Linuxjava, Surrealhd, Hpercival12, Rose-bud92107, Taurus686, 0lympic, Caasha123, Goosenecj1234, Okoloma, Chaya5260, Estwordenn, Aashay Thakur, Kerozung, DMHTG,175CalebSanchez175, IceFreeze99, Monkbot, Notchrealm, Hellowhatrudoing, Why should I have a User Name?, Mr Scoodles, Eurovi-sionNim, Χρυσάνθη Λυκούση, Nearwater, Ascii002, Learnerktm, Asum991, Cleancutkid, Riversid, Julietdeltalima, KasparBot, এম আবুসাঈদ, MB298, Caftaric, CamTuckerLSD and Anonymous: 1857

19.2 Images• File:3836_-_Amaranthus_caudatus_(Zieramaranth).JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/3836_-_

Amaranthus_caudatus_%28Zieramaranth%29.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tubifex• File:ABS-5439.0-InternationalMerchandiseImportsAustralia-StandardInternationalTradeClassificationCustomsValue-042Rice-A1828736L.

svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/ABS-5439.0-InternationalMerchandiseImportsAustralia-StandardInternationalTradeClassificationCustomsValue-042Rice-A1828736L.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 au Contributors: This image is based on Australian Bureau of Statistics data.Original artist: Toby Hudson

• File:Amaranthkorn.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Amaranthkorn.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Niedereschbach

• File:Amaranthus_cruentus1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Amaranthus_cruentus1.jpg License:CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: caliban.mpiz-koeln.mpg.de/mavica/index.html part of www.biolib.de Original artist: Kurt Stüber [1]

• File:Amaranthus_hypochondriacus_Prague_2011_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Amaranthus_hypochondriacus_Prague_2011_1.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Karelj

• File:Ambositra_04.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Ambositra_04.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con-tributors: Own work Original artist: Bernard Gagnon

• File:Assorted_grains.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Assorted_grains.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fir0002

• File:Avena-sativa.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Avena-sativa.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Con-tributors: Own work Original artist: Andreas Trepte

• File:BeFunky_Chromatic_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/BeFunky_Chromatic_1.jpg License:CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vaisakhkrishnan

• File:Brown_rice_cooked.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Brown_rice_cooked.JPG License: CCBY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Estwordenn

• File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Beeld_van_Dewi_Sri_de_rijstgodin_TMnr_60016918.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Beeld_van_Dewi_Sri_de_rijstgodin_TMnr_60016918.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Tropenmuseum Original artist: G.F.J. (Georg Friedrich Johannes) Bley (Fo-tograaf/photographer).

• File:Cambodian_farmers_planting_rice.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Cambodian_farmers_planting_rice.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Cambodian farmers planting rice. 2004. Photo: Brad Collis Original artist: BradCollis

• File:Canihua_(Chenopodium_pallidicaule)_at_Atuncolla_near_Sillustani_Juliaca.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Canihua_%28Chenopodium_pallidicaule%29_at_Atuncolla_near_Sillustani_Juliaca.jpg License: CC BY-SA3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Crops for the Future

• File:Celosia_spicata.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Celosia_spicata.jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Con-tributors: self-ade Original artist: Muhammad Mahdi Karim (www.micro2macro.net) Facebook Youtube

• File:Chenopodium_berlandieri_NPS-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Chenopodium_berlandieri_NPS-1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nps.gov/wica/photosmultimedia/photo%2Dgallery%2Dwildflowers%2Ehtm?eid=133105&aId=167&root_aid=167&sort=title&startRow=82#e_133105 Original artist: Jim Pisarowicz

• File:Chinese_rice_grasshopper_(Oxya_chinensis).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Chinese_rice_grasshopper_%28Oxya_chinensis%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work, from Sharp Photography, sharpphotographyOriginal artist: Charlesjsharp

• File:Chloroxylon_from_India.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Chloroxylon_from_India.JPG Li-cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pankaj Oudhia

• File:Coix_lacryma-jobi_Blanco1.188.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Coix_lacryma-jobi_Blanco1.188.png License: Public domain Contributors: Flora de Filipinas [...] Gran edicion [...] [Atlas I].[1] Original artist: FranciscoManuel Blanco (O.S.A.)

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-tors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Dili_Reisfelder.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Dili_Reisfelder.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/navalsurfaceforces/5840759012/in/photostream Original artist: Surface Forces

• File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: TheTango! Desktop Project. Original artist:The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (althoughminimally).”

28 19 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Fagopyrum_esculentum_seed_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Fagopyrum_esculentum_seed_001.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyrightclaims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. K.G.Kirailla assumed (based on copyright claims).

• File:Fagopyrum_tataricum_-_Kops.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Fagopyrum_tataricum_-_Kops.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Flora batava by Jan Kops, Herman Christiaan van Hall and others. Amsterdam, J.C. Sepp,1844, volume 8 (plate 598). http://www.meemelink.com/prints%20pages/19888.Polygonaceae%20-%20Fagopyrum%20tataricum.htmOriginal artist: Jan Kops, Herman Christiaan van Hall and others

• File:Fagopyrum_гречка.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Fagopyrum_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: This photography was createdby Mariluna. Other photos see here.

• File:Farro2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Farro2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Nomachine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author pro-vided. Pciarl assumed (based on copyright claims).

• File:Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: http://www.dcaa.com.bd/Modules/CountryProfile/BangladeshFlag.aspx Original artist: User:SKopp

• File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-nal artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Flag_of_Cambodia.svg License: CC0 Con-tributors: File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg Original artist: Draw new flag by User: _

• File:Flag_of_Egypt.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg License: CC0 Contributors:From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: Open Clip Art

• File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Law: s:id:Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 (http://badanbahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/lamanbahasa/sites/default/files/UU_2009_24.pdf) Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe

• File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-nal artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Laos.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Madagascar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Flag_of_Madagascar.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: Create based on the Malaysian Government Website (archive version)Original artist: SKopp, Zscout370 and Ranking Update

• File:Flag_of_Myanmar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg License:CC0 Contributors: Open Clip Art Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a>

• File:Flag_of_Nepal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg License: Public domainCon-tributors: Constitution of The Kingdom of Nepal, Article 5, Schedule 1 [1] Original artist: Drawn by User:Pumbaa80, User:Achim1999

• File:Flag_of_Nigeria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg License: Public domainContributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_North_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg License:Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370

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• File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License:Public domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and colorguidelines (Russian/English) ← This site is not exist now.(2012.06.05) Original artist: Various

• File:Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: SLS 693 - National flag of Sri Lanka Original artist: Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/law/vi/1951_to_1960/1955/195511/195511300001 http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/Lists/Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=820 Original artist: Lưu Ly vẽ lại theo nguồn trên

• File:Flag_of_the_People’{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370

19.2 Images 29

• File:Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: The design was taken from [1] and the colors were also taken from a Government website Originalartist: User:Achim1999

• File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License:PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Foodlogo2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-tors: Original Original artist: Seahen

• File:Goblet_Glass_(Banquet).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svgLicense: CC0Contributors: OwnworkOriginal artist: This image is an original work by "WillMurray (Willscrlt)". Attribution is requested,but not required. It should include the author’s name, his username in parentheses as shown, and a link to either his Website at http://willmurray.name or his online gallery at http://willmurraymedia.com. The author also appreciates notification if you use his work outsideWikimedia.

• File:Illustration_Hordeum_vulgare0B.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Illustration_Hordeum_vulgare0B.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Source: www.biolib.de Original artist: CSvBibra

• File:Illustration_Secale_cereale0.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Illustration_Secale_cereale0.jpgLicense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Koeh-232.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Oryza_sativa_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-232.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: List of Koehler Images Original artist: Franz Eugen Köhler, Köhler’sMedizinal-Pflanzen

• File:Kome.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Kome.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:MansfieldWinnowingBarn.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/MansfieldWinnowingBarn.jpg Li-cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Thomas Namey, [www.nameydesign.com Namey Design Studios], akaNamey Design Studios at en.wikipedia

• File:NP_India_burning_48_(6315309342).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/NP_India_burning_48_%286315309342%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: NP India burning 48 Original artist: CIAT

• File:NP_Rice_Emissions18_(5687953086).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/NP_Rice_Emissions18_%285687953086%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: NP_Rice Emissions18 Original artist: CIAT

• File:Nellu.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Nellu.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Ownwork Original artist: Rajeshodayanchal

• File:Nihonbashi_bridge_in_Edo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Nihonbashi_bridge_in_Edo.jpgLicense: Public domain Contributors: Source: http://visipix.com/index.htm Original artist: Katsushika Hokusai ( )

• File:Oryza_sativa_-_Köhler–s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-232.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Oryza_sativa_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-232.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: List of Koehler Images Orig-inal artist: Franz Eugen Köhler, Köhler’s Medizinal-Pflanzen

• File:Oryza_sativa_of_Kadavoor.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Oryza_sativa_of_Kadavoor.jpgLicense: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jeevan Jose, Kerala, India

• File:Panicum_miliaceum1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Panicum_miliaceum1.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: caliban.mpiz-koeln.mpg.de/mavica/index.html part of www.biolib.de Original artist: Kurt Stüber [1]

• File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open-Clipart Original artist: OpenClipart

• File:Quinoa.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Quinoa.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:Rice-combine-harvester,katori-city,japan.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Rice-combine-harvester%2Ckatori-city%2Cjapan.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: katorisi

• File:RiceYield.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/RiceYield.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:Own work Original artist: AndrewMT

• File:Rice_Animation.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Rice_Animation.gif License: Public domainContributors: Self drawing Original artist: Namazu-tron

• File:Rice_diversity.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Rice_diversity.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contrib-utors: originally posted to Flickr as IMG_1926-6 Original artist: IRRI Images

• File:Rice_farmers_Mae_Wang_Chiang_Mai_Province.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Rice_farmers_Mae_Wang_Chiang_Mai_Province.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Takeaway

• File:Rice_grains_(IRRI).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Rice_grains_%28IRRI%29.jpg License:CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as IMG_2039-77 Original artist: IRRI Images

• File:Rice_p1160004.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Rice_p1160004.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: David Monniaux

• File:SEN_Village_Chief_Theodore.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/SEN_Village_Chief_Theodore.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://gemini.info.usaid.gov/photos/displayimage.php?album=858&pos=10 Originalartist: Richard Nyberg, USAID

30 19 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:SMB_Ricefields.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/12/SMB_Ricefields.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Sacramento_rice_fields.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Sacramento_rice_fields.jpg License:CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Amadscientist

• File:Semillas_de_Chía.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Semillas_de_Ch%C3%ADa.jpg License:CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Magister Mathematicae

• File:Sorghum_bicolor02.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Sorghum_bicolor02.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Pethan assumed (based on copyright claims).

• File:Spelt.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Spelt.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Teff_pluim_Eragrostis_tef.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Teff_pluim_Eragrostis_tef.jpgLicense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Origi-nal artist: No machine-readable author provided. Rasbak assumed (based on copyright claims).

• File:Text-x-generic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Text-x-generic.svg License: Public domainContributors: The Tango! Desktop Project Original artist: The people from the Tango! project

• File:Triticale.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Triticale.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:Triticum_aestivum_-_Köhler–s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-274.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Triticum_aestivum_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-274.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: List of KoehlerImages Original artist: Franz Eugen Köhler, Köhler’s Medizinal-Pflanzen

• File:Triticum_durum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Triticum_durum.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Triticum_monococcum0.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Triticum_monococcum0.jpg Li-cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Triticum_turanicum_Jakubz._-_Oriental_wheat_-_TRTU3_-_Tracey_Slotta_@_USDA-NRCS_PLANTS_Database.jpgSource: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Triticum_turanicum_Jakubz._-_Oriental_wheat_-_TRTU3_-_Tracey_Slotta_%40_USDA-NRCS_PLANTS_Database.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://plants.usda.gov/java/largeImage?imageID=tror10_001_ahp.tif Original artist: Tracey Slotta

• File:Usdaemmer1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Usdaemmer1.jpg License: Public domain Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Veranotrigo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Veranotrigo.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:http://www.flickr.com/photos/soilscience/2513807337/ Original artist: Soil-Science.info

• File:Wheat_close-up.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Wheat_close-up.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bluemoose

• File:White,_Brown,_Red_&_Wild_rice.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/White%2C_Brown%2C_Red_%26_Wild_rice.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Earth100

• File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.

• File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky

• File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs),based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

• File:Wildricecooked.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Wildricecooked.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readableauthor provided. ElinorD assumed (based on copyright claims).

• File:Zea_mays.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Zea_mays.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:? Original artist: ?

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