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Mechanical Conversions, Formulas & References
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RF Cafe - Mechanical Conversions, Formulas & References
◊◊ General Conversions, Formulas & References ◊◊These pages present a great deal of data in the form of conversions, formulas and references. I am confident that this is the most comprehensive and diverse presentation of topics on a single web site.
Click here for a link to NIST's Reference on Constants, Units and Uncertainty.
Area ASCII Characters Bolts, Nuts & Washers -
Metric Bolts, Nuts & Washers -
SAE Carnot Cycle Coefficient of
Expansion Density Conversions Drill Sizes - Lettered Drill Sizes - Numbered Electrochemical
Potentials Force Galvanic Series General Constants General Units Greek Alphabet
IC Heat Transfer IC Lifetime
Acceleration Laws of Motion Laws Of
Thermodynamics Length Conversions Mass Conversions Materials Properties Mechanical Constants Mechanical Units Periodic Table Phonetic Alphabet Pressure Conversions Psychometric Chart P-T Diagram Relativity
Solar System Sound Levels Sound Power Speed Conversions Tap & Drill - Metric Tap & Drill - SAE Temperature
Conversions Thermal Conductivity Time Conversions Torx Heads
Thermal Conductivity Ultrasonic Frequency
Chart Visible Light Volume Conversions Work-Energy-Heat
Conversions World Time Zone Map
Copyright, Acknowledgements,Disclaimer & Terms of Use
Visitors since May 2000
http://www.rfcafe.com/references/general.htm [4/1/02 12:29:47 AM]
RF Cafe - Electrical Conversions, Formulas & References
◊◊ Electrical Conversions, Formulas & References ◊◊These pages present a great deal of data in the form of conversions, formulas and references. I am confident that this is the most comprehensive and diverse presentation of topics on a single web site. Note: "#" indicates that an interactive calculator is on the Electrical Calculations page.
Click here for a link to NIST's Reference on Constants, Units and Uncertainty.
A/D Converter Parameters
ABCD, S, H, Y, Z Parameters
AC Voltage & Frequency Worldwide Standards
Amplitude Modulation Atmospheric Absorption Atmospheric Refraction Antenna Basics Antenna Radiation Patterns
Attenuators (Fixed)# Ball Grid Array (BGA) Counter Batteries Battery Outlines Bessel Function Plots Bit Error Rate Boolean Algebra Capacitance Capacitance Conversions
Cascade Budget Calculation# Charge Conversions Circulators Coaxial Cable Chart Coaxial Cable Equations Coaxial Connectors Coaxial Connector Torque Specs Color Codes Communications Standards Compression Point, 1 dB Conductors @ High Frequencies
Copper Facts Current Conversions Damped Responses Data Bus Specifications Delta-Wye Detectors Dielectric Constants & Strengths Diplexers Directional Couplers
Filters# Flip Flop Tables Fourier Series of
Periodic Signals Frequency Bands Frequency Modulation Fuse Specs Fuse Package Outline GPIB / HPIB / IEEE-
488 GSM Timeslot &
Frequency Specs History of
Communications History of 50 Ω Impedance Matching
Inductance# Inductance Conversions Intercept Points, 2-Tone 2nd-Order Intercept Points, 2-Tone 3rd-Order Isolators Karnaugh Maps Kirchhoff's Law Link Budget Lightning Magnetic Field Conversions Magnetic Flux Conversions Maxwell's Equations Microstrip MIL-STD-1553 & 1773 Bus Morse Code Noise Figure Noise Power Norton Equivalent Ohm's Law Op Amps
Radar Cross Section (RCS) Radar Equation Radar Horizon/Line of Sight Resistance Conversions Resistor Markings: MIL-PRF-55342 Resistor Markings: Std Resistor Values RLC Combinations RMS & Average Power & Voltage Serial Port Pinout S, H, Y, Z, ABCD Parameters Signal-to-Noise Ratio Skin Depth SMD Package Markings Smith Chart Solder Spectral Inversion Spurious-Free Dynamic Range Spurious Calculations TEMPEST Thévénin Equivalent Toroid Cores Transmission Lines Triboelectric Series USB Specifications WAP Waveguide Wire Wireless Communication Specs Wireless Coverage Maps Wireless Data Rate Standards WLAN Specs
VSWR Mismatch Error# VSWR Reduction By Attenuation# VSWR / Return Loss / Gamma#
http://www.rfcafe.com/references/electrical.htm (1 of 2) [4/1/02 3:53:57 AM]
RF Cafe - Electrical Conversions, Formulas & References
Dividers/Combiners Doppler Frequency Shift DTMF Tones EIRP Electrical Constants Electrical Units Electric Fields Electrocution of Human Body Field Intensity ESD
Op Noise Figure Package Outlines Parallel Port Pinout PCS Web Site PIM - Passive Intermodulation Path Loss Potential Power Density Power Factor Power & Voltage in 50 Ω System Propagation Time Pulse Definition
Copyright, Acknowledgements,Disclaimer & Terms of Use
Visitors since May 2000
http://www.rfcafe.com/references/electrical.htm (2 of 2) [4/1/02 3:53:57 AM]
RF Cafe - Calculator Spreadsheets
◊◊ Calculator Spreadsheets ◊◊Thanks to MS Office Web Components and the advent of XML, including these interactive spreadsheet components is possible, for about the same amount of work as generating an Excel spreadsheet. Click on the following links for access.
Electrical Calculations Attenuators ("T" and Pi) Cascaded Components Cavity Resonant Frequency Noise Conversions Voltage Divider VSWR - RL - Gamma(Γ)
Filters Lowpass Butterworth Lowpass Chebychev Highpass Butterworth Highpass Chebychev Bandpass Butterworth Bandpass Chebychev Bandstop Butterworth Bandstop Chebychev
NOTE: You must have either FrontPage 2002 or Excel 2002 installed (from MS Office XP) or these spreadsheets will be only static and not interactive. You can purchase an Excel 2002 upgrade for about $100 here.
Copyright, Acknowledgements,Disclaimer & Terms of Use
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http://www.rfcafe.com/references/_spreadsheets/calculator_list.htm [4/1/02 3:54:57 AM]
RF Cafe - Mathematical References
◊◊ Mathematical References ◊◊Here are some of the most often need mathematical entities, all in one convenient place.
Averages Bessel Functions Coordinate Systems Derivatives, Basic Deviations Differentiation Rules Exponents Fourier Series Fourier Transform Pairs Fourier Series
Properties Imaginary Numbers Integrals, Basic Integrals, Inverse Trig Integrals, Natural Log Integrals, Square Root Integrals,
Trigonometric
LaPlace Transform Pairs
LaPlace Transform Properties
Logarithms Matrix Algebra Matrix Definitions Numerical Prefixes Partial Fractions Permutations &
Combinations Phi (φ) - the Golden
Number Plane Angle Series Expansions Summations
Trig Identities Trig Identities, Inverse Trig Identities, Hyperbolic Trig Identities, Inv Hyperbolic
Trigonometry Laws Uncertainties Vector, Curl Vector, Divergence Vector, Gradient z-Transform Properties
Copyright, Acknowledgements,Disclaimer & Terms of Use
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http://www.rfcafe.com/references/mathematical.htm [4/1/02 3:59:00 AM]
RF Cafe - Area Conversion
◊◊ AREA CONVERSIONS ◊◊
Standard units = Square centimeter (cm2).
square in square ft square cm square m circular mil1 in2 = 1 6.944 · 10-3 6.452 6.452 · 10-4 1.273 · 106
1 ft2 = 144 1 929.0 9.290 · 10-2 1.833 · 108
1 cm2 = 0.1550 1.076 · 10-3 1 10-4 1.974 · 105
1 m2 = 1550 10.76 104 1 1.974 · 109
1 cir mil = 7.854 · 10-7 5.454 · 10-3 5.067 · 10-6 5.067 · 10-10 1
Copyright, Acknowledgements,Disclaimer & Terms of Use
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http://www.rfcafe.com/references/general/area.htm [4/1/02 12:30:31 AM]
RF Cafe - ASCII Character Set
◊◊ ASCII CHARACTER SET ◊◊
33 ! 34 " 35 # 36 $ 37 38 & 39 '
40 ( 41 ) 42 * 43 + 44 , 45 - 46 . 47 /
48 0 49 1 50 2 51 3 52 4 53 5 54 6 55 7
56 8 57 9 58 : 59 ; 60 < 61 = 62 > 63 ?
64 @ 65 A 66 B 67 C 68 D 69 E 70 F 71 G
72 H 73 I 74 J 75 K 76 L 77 M 78 N 79 O
80 P 81 Q 82 R 83 S 84 T 85 U 86 V 87 W
88 X 89 Y 90 Z 91 [ 92 93 ] 94 ^ 95 _
96 ` 97 a 98 b 99 c 100 d 101 e 102 f 103 g
104 h 105 i 106 j 107 k 108 l 109 m 110 n 111 o
112 p 113 q 114 r 115 s 116 t 117 u 118 v 119 w
120 x 121 y 122 z 123 124 | 125 126 ~ 127
128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135
136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143
144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151
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http://www.rfcafe.com/references/general/ascii.htm [4/1/02 12:37:35 AM]
RF Cafe - Metric Nuts & Bolts
◊◊ Metric Bolts, Nuts & Washers ◊◊
Size
TapDrill
(mm)
ClearanceDrill
(mm)
CounterBore(mm)
NutPoints(mm)
NutFlats(mm)
WasherI.D.
(mm)
WasherO.D.
(mm)
M1 0.75 1.10 0.30 2.08 1.8 1.0 2.0
M1.6 1.25 1.85 0.35 3.70 3.2 1.7 3.4
M2 1.60 2.40 0.40 4.62 4.0 2.2 4.5
M2.5 2.05 3.10 0.45 5.77 5.0 2.7 5.5
M3 2.50 3.75 0.50 6.35 5.5 3.2 6.0
M3.5 2.90 4.30 0.60 6.93 6.0 4.0 7.8
M4 3.30 4.90 0.70 8.08 7.0 4.3 8.0
M5 4.20 6.30 0.80 9.24 8.0 5.3 10
M6 5.00 7.50 1.0 11.5 10 6.4 11
M8 6.75 10.0 1.25 15.0 13 8.4 15
M10 8.50 12.5 1.50 17.3 15 11.5 21
1) See Drill Sizes page for cross reference.2) Nut Points is the distance between opposite corners of hex nuts.3) Nut Flats is the distance between opposite sides of hex nuts.
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http://www.rfcafe.com/references/general/bolts_nuts_washers_metric.htm [4/1/02 12:39:34 AM]
RF Cafe - SAE Bolts
◊◊ SAE Bolts, Nuts & Washers ◊◊
Size & Threads/lnch SeriesDesignation
TapDrill
ClearanceDrill
CounterBore
NutPoints
NutFlats
WasherI.D.
WasherO.D.
0-80 UNF 0.046 0.070 1/8 0.180 0.156 0.078 0.187
1-64 UNC 0.059 0.089 5/32 0.180 0.156 0.099 0.250
1-72 UNF
2-56 UNC 0.070 0.104 3/16 0.217 0.187 0.099 0.250
2-64 UNF
3-48 UNC 0.078 0.120 3/16 0.217 0.187 0.105 0.250
3-56 UNF
4-40 UNC 0.089 0.136 7/32 0.289 0.250 0.125 0.312
4-48 UNF
5-40 UNC
5-44 UNF
6-32 UNC 0.106 0.161 9/32 0.361 0.312 0.149 0.375
6-40 UNF
8-32 UNC 0.136 0.189 5/16 0.397 0.343 0.174 0.375
8-36 UNF
10-24 UNC 0.149 0.213 11/32 0.433 0.375 0.203 0.437
10-32 UNF
12-24 UNC
12-28 UNF
1/4-20 UNC 0.201 0.281 7/16 0.505 0.437 0.265 0.500
1/4-28 UNF
5/16-18 UNC
5/16-24 UNF
3/8-16 UNC
3/8-24 UNF
7/16-14 UNC
7/16-20 UNF
1/2-13 UNC
1/2-20 UNF
9/16-12 UNC
9/16-185/8-115/8-183/4-103/4-16
UNFUNCUNFUNCUNF
http://www.rfcafe.com/references/general/bolts_nuts_washers_sae.htm (1 of 2) [4/1/02 12:40:15 AM]
RF Cafe - SAE Bolts
7/8-97/8-14
1-81-121-14
UNCUNFUNCUNFUN
11/8-711/8-811/8-1211/4-71114-8
UNCUNUNFUNCUN
11/4-121 3/8-61 3/8-81 3/8-1211/2-6
UNFUNCUNUNFUNC
1 1/2-81 1/2-121 5/8-81 3/4-51 3/4-8
UNUNCUNUNCUN
1 7/8-82-4 1/2
2-82 1/4-4.52 1/4-8
UNUNCUNUNCUN
2 1/2-42 1/2-82 3/4-42 3/4-8
3-4
UNCUNUNCUNUNC
3-83 1/4-43 1/4-83 1/2-43 1/2-8
UNUNCUNUNCUN
3 3/4-43 3/4-8
4-44-8
UNCUNUNCUN
1) See Drill Sizes page for cross reference.2) Nut Points is the distance between opposite corners of hex nuts.3) Nut Flats is the distance between opposite sides of hex nuts.
Copyright, Acknowledgements,Disclaimer & Terms of Use
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http://www.rfcafe.com/references/general/bolts_nuts_washers_sae.htm (2 of 2) [4/1/02 12:40:15 AM]
RF Cafe - Carnot Cycle
◊◊ Carnot Cycle ◊◊
An ideal cycle would be performed by a perfectly efficient heat engine—that is, all the heat would be converted to mechanical work. A 19th-century French scientist named Nicolas Carnot conceived a thermodynamic cycle that is the basic cycle of all heat engines. He showed that such an ideal engine cannot exist. Any heat engine must expend some fraction of its heat input as exhaust. The second law of thermodynamics places an upper limit on the efficiency of engines; that upper limit is less than 100 percent. The limiting case is now known as a Carnot cycle.
The Carnot Cycle
(1) Isothermal expansion of gas in cylinder as heat is added from source. Piston moves from V1 to V2, doing work on the system.
(2) Heat source is removed and isolated. Adiabatic expansion continues until volume V3 is reached, performing additional work, at temperature T2.
http://www.rfcafe.com/references/general/carnot_cycle.htm (1 of 2) [4/1/02 12:43:55 AM]
RF Cafe - Carnot Cycle
(4) Heat source is removed and isolated. Adiabatic compression continues until volume V4 is reached, performing additional work, at temperature T2.
(3) Isothermal compression of gas in cylinder as work is done by the system on the piston. Heat is be transferred to T2.
Isothermal: Process in which no temperature change occurs in a closed system.
Adiabatic: Process in which no heat is transferred into or out of a closed system.
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http://www.rfcafe.com/references/general/carnot_cycle.htm (2 of 2) [4/1/02 12:43:55 AM]
RF Cafe - Properties of Materials
◊◊ Materials Properties ◊◊
MatWeb
Substance
MeltingTemperature
(ºC)Density(g/cm3)
ThermalConductivity
(W/m·K)
ThermalExpansion(10-6 K)
Resistivity(µΩ·cm)
Alanx CG8963.32 3.32
Alcohol, Ethyl
Alumina, Al2O3 2040 3.9 32.2 6.5 1020
Alumina, 85% 3.41
Alumina, 90% 3.6
Alumina, 94% 3.7
Alumina, 96% 3.75
Alumina, 99% 3.9
Alumina, 99.5% 3.89
Alumina, 99.9% 3.96
Aluminosilicate 2.6
Aluminum, Pure 11 5056
660.1
2.643
238
23.5
2.67
Aluminum, 2024-T3 2.77
Aluminum, 6061-T6 2.7
Aluminum, 7079-T6 2.74
Aluminum bronze 7.702
Aluminum Nitride 3.25
Benzene 0.737
Beryllium, QMV 1.85
Beryllia, BeO 2550 2.85 215 7.5 1020
Beryllium 1.8477
Birch 0.705
Boron Carbide 2.5
Borosilicate Glass 2.3
Brass 8.553
Bronze, ~11% Tin 8.1
Bronze, aluminum 7.702
Bronze, phosphor 8.8
Carbon Steel 7.84
Carbon Tool Steel 7.82
Carbon-Carbon Composite 1.65
Cherry 0.433
http://www.rfcafe.com/references/general/materials_properties.htm (1 of 4) [4/1/02 12:51:17 AM]
RF Cafe - Properties of Materials
Coal, Anthracite 1.554
Coal, Bituminous 1.346
Coal, Coke 1.201
Coal, Lignite 1.25
Cobalt 8.8
Concrete
Copper 1083.4 8.96 17.0 1.694
Copper Ore, pyrites 4.197
Copper, cast-rolled 8.906
Copper, Pure 8.9
Corundum-Crystal Form 3.99
Delrin (acetyl resin) 175 8.96 3.6 1020
Ethyl Alcohol 0.802
Gasoline 0.721
German Silver 8.586
Glass 2.6
Glass, Pyrex
Gold, 99.99% 1063 19.3 315.5 14.1 2.20
Gold Coin (US) 17.19
Gold, cast-hammered 19.3
Graphite 2.163
Hafnium Carbide 12.76
HDPE 0.955
High Speed Tool Steel 8.75
Ice 0.897
Iridium 22.16
Iron
Iron, Cast, Pig 7.207
Iron, Ferrosilicon 6.984
Iron, gray cast 7.079
Iron Ore, Hematite 5.206
Iron Ore, Limonite 3.796
Iron Ore, Magnetite 5.046
Iron Slag 2.755
Iron, Spiegeleisen 7.496
Iron, wrought 7.658
Kevlar
Kevlar 149 1.47
Kevlar 29 1.44
Kevlar 49 1.44
Lead 11.37
Lead Glass 2.8
Lead Ore, Galena 7.449
Leather, common 0.945
Magnesium, Pure 1.7
Mahogany 0.705
http://www.rfcafe.com/references/general/materials_properties.htm (2 of 4) [4/1/02 12:51:17 AM]
RF Cafe - Properties of Materials
Manganese 7.608
Manganese Ore 4.149
Mercury 13.57
Methyl Alcohol 0.809
Mg-PSZ 5.75
Mineral Oil 0.914
Molybdenum, wrought 10.3
Monel Metal, rolled 8.688
Mullite 2.82
Nickel 1455 8.602 88 13.3 6.9
Nickel, Pure 8.9
Nitride-Bonded SiC 2.54
Paper 0.929
Paraffin 0.898
Petroleum, Crude
Pig Iron 7.207
Platinum 21.3
Plutonium, alpha phase 19.35
Polyurethane 1
PSZ 5.75
Pure Iron 7.86
Pyrolusite, Mn Ore 4.149
Quartz Glass 2.2
RB-SiC 3.09
Red Oak 0.673
Refrax 2.54
RT/Duriod 5880
Rubber 1.506
Sapphire 3.99
SiAlON 3.3
Silica, SiO2
Silicon 1412 2.34 138 7.6 105
Silicon carbide 3.2
Silicon Nitride 3.28
Silver, Cast-hammered 10.51
Silver, Pure 10.5
Sintered SiC 3.1
SNBSN / Refrax 2.54
Soft Steel (0.06% C) 7.87
Southern Pine 0.65
Stainless 18Cr-8Ni 8.03
Stainless 27Cr 7.47
Stainless Steel, 304 8.03
Steel, C1020, HR 7.85
Steel, cold-drawn 7.83
Steel, tool 7.715
http://www.rfcafe.com/references/general/materials_properties.htm (3 of 4) [4/1/02 12:51:17 AM]
RF Cafe - Properties of Materials
Sugar Maple 0.689
Tantalum 16.6
Thorium, Ind. melted 11.6
TiC 4.94
Tin Ore, cassiterite 6.695
Tin, cast-hammered 7.352
Titanium 4.5
Titanium, B 120VCA 4.85
Tungsten 3400 19.3 159 4.5 5.5
Tungsten 18.82
Tungsten Carbide 15.7
Uranium 18.74
Uranium D38 18.97
Vanadium Carbide 5.71
Vegetable Oil 0.93
Walnut 0.593
Water
Water, 100 °C 0.9581
Water, 4 °C 0.99997
Water, Ice 0.897
Water, Seawater 1.025
WC / Tungsten Carbide 15.7
Wood, Oak
Zinc Ore, blende 4.052
Zinc, Cast 7.049
Zirconia 5.75
Zirconium 6.3798
Zirconium Carbide 6.56
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http://www.rfcafe.com/references/general/materials_properties.htm (4 of 4) [4/1/02 12:51:17 AM]
RF Cafe - Density Conversion
◊◊ Density Conversions ◊◊
Standard units = Kilograms per square meter (kg/m2).
lb per in3 lb per ft3 slug per ft3 g per cm3 kg per m3
1 lb/in3 1 1728 53.71 27.68 2.768 * 104
1 lb/ft3 5.787 * 10-4 1 3.108 * 10-2 1.602 * 10-2 16.02
1 slug/ft3 1.862 * 10-2 32.17 1 0.5154 515.4
1 g/cm3 3.613 * 10-2 62.43 1.940 1 1000
1 kg/m3 3.613 * 10-5 6.243 * 10-2 1.940 * 10-3 0.001 1
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http://www.rfcafe.com/references/general/density.htm [4/1/02 12:53:17 AM]
RF Cafe - Lettered Drill Sizes
◊◊ DRILL SIZES: LETTERED ◊◊
LetterDiameter
(in)
LetterDiameter
(in)
A 0.234 N 0.302
B 0.238 O 0.316
C 0.242 P 0.323
D 0.246 Q 0.332
E 0.250 R 0.339
F 0.257 S 0.348
G 0.261 T 0.358
H 0.266 U 0.368
I 0.272 V 0.377
J 0.277 W 0.386
K 0.281 X 0.397
L 0.290 Y 0.404
M 0.295 Z 0.413
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http://www.rfcafe.com/references/general/drill_sizes_lettered.htm [4/1/02 1:00:04 AM]
RF Cafe - Numbered Drill Sizes
◊◊ DRILL SIZES: NUMBERED ◊◊
NumberDiameter
(in)
NumberDiameter
(in)
NumberDiameter
(in)
NumberDiameter
(in)
1 0.2280 21 0.1590 41 0.0960 61 0.0380
2 0.2210 22 0.1570 42 0.0935 62 0.0370
3 0.2130 23 0.1540 43 0.0890 63 0.0360
4 0.2090 24 0.1520 44 0.0869 64 0.0350
5 0.2055 25 0.1495 45 0.0820 65 0.0330
6 0.2040 26 0.1470 46 0.0810 66 0.0320
7 0.2010 27 0.1440 47 0.0785 67 0.0310
8 0.1990 28 0.1405 48 0.0760 68 0.0300
9 0.1960 29 0.1360 49 0.0730 69 0.0290
10 0.1935 30 0.1285 50 0.0700 70 0.0270
11 0.1910 31 0.1200 51 0.0670 71 0.0260
12 0.1890 32 0.1160 52 0.0635 72 0.0240
13 0.1850 33 0.1130 53 0.0595 73 0.0230
14 0.1820 34 0.1110 54 0.0550 74 0.0220
15 0.1800 35 0.1100 55 0.0520 75 0.0200
16 0.1770 36 0.1065 56 0.0465 76 0.0180
17 0.1730 37 0.1040 57 0.0430 77 0.0160
18 0.1695 38 0.1015 58 0.0420 78 0.0150
19 0.1660 39 0.0995 59 0.0410 79 0.0140
20 0.1610 40 0.0980 60 0.0400 80 0.0130
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RF Cafe - Electrochemical Potentials
◊◊ Electrochemical Potentials ◊◊
This table presents the electrochemical potential difference (in mV) for pairs of common metal alloys, when in the presence of water with 2% salt content.
the "X" metal is attacked the contact is practically neutral the "Y" metal is attacked
\ \ \ X \ \ Y \
Platinum 0 130 250 340 350 430 450 570 600 685 700 770 800 840 940 1000 1090 1100 1200 1400 1470 1950
Gold/Carbon 130 0 110 210 220 300 320 440 470 535 570 640 670 710 810 870 960 970 1070 1270 1340 1620
Stainless Steel 250 110 0 90 100 160 200 320 350 415 450 520 550 590 690 750 840 850 950 1150 1220 1700
Titanium 340 210 90 0 10 90 110 230 260 325 360 430 460 500 600 680 750 760 860 1060 1150 1610
Silver-Mercury 350 220 100 10 0 80 100 220 250 315 350 420 450 490 590 650 740 750 850 1050 1120 1600
Nickel 430 300 180 90 80 0 20 140 170 235 270 340 370 410 510 570 650 670 770 970 1040 1520
Copper Alloy 450 320 200 110 100 20 0 120 150 215 250 320 350 390 490 530 640 650 750 950 1020 1500
Copper 570 440 320 230 220 140 120 0 30 95 130 200 230 270 370 430 520 530 630 830 900 1380
Aluminum-Bronze
Brass 30% Zinc
600 470 350 260 250 170 150 30 0 65 100 170 200 240 340 400 490 500 600 800 870 1350
Silicon 665 535 415 325 315 235 215 95 65 0 35 105 135 175 275 335 425 435 535 735 805 1285
Brass 50% Zinc 700 520 520 360 350 270 250 130 100 35 0 70 100 140 240 300 390 400 500 700 770 1250
Bronze 770 640 550 430 420 340 320 200 170 105 70 0 30 70 170 230 320 330 435 630 700 1180
Tin 800 670 590 460 450 370 350 230 200 135 100 30 0 40 140 200 290 300 400 600 670 1150
Lead 840 710 680 500 490 410 390 270 240 175 140 70 40 0 100 160 250 260 300 560 630 1110
http://www.rfcafe.com/references/general/electrochemical_potential.htm (1 of 2) [4/1/02 1:10:03 AM]
RF Cafe - Electrochemical Potentials
Light alloy NSA 3001 940 810 690 600 590 510 490 370 340 275 240 170 140 100 0 60 150 160 260 460 530 1010
Steels 1000 870 750 660 650 570 550 430 400 335 300 230 200 160 60 0 90 150 200 400 470 950
Aluminum A5 1090 960 840 750 740 650 640 520 490 425 390 320 290 250 150 90 0 100 110 310 380 860
Cadmium 1100 970 850 760 750 670 650 530 500 435 400 330 300 260 160 150 100 0 100 300 370 850
Chromium 1200 1070 950 860 850 770 750 630 600 535 500 430 400 360 260 200 110 100 0 200 270 750
Zinc 1400 1270 1150 1050 1050 970 950 830 800 735 700 630 600 560 460 400 310 300 200 0 70 550
Manganese 1470 1340 1220 1150 1120 1040 1020 900 870 805 770 700 670 630 530 470 380 370 270 70 0 480
Magnesium 1950 1620 1700 1610 1600 1520 1500 1380 1350 1285 1250 1180 1150 1110 1010 950 860 850 750 550 480 0Values obtained from 1997 Huber+Suhner "RF Connector Guide"
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RF Cafe - Force Conversion
◊◊ FORCE CONVERSIONS ◊◊
Standard units = Newton (N).
dyne newton pound poundal gram force kg force1 dyn = 1 10-5 2.248 * 10-6 7.233 * 10-5 1.020 * 10-3 1.020 * 10-6
1 N = 105 1 0.2248 7.233 102.0 0.10201 lb = 4.448 * 105 4.448 1 32.17 453.6 0.4536
1 pdl = 1.383 * 104 0.1383 3.108 * 10-2 1 14.10 1.410 * 10-2
1 gf = 980.7 9.807 * 10-3 2.205 * 10-3 7.093 * 10-2 1 0.0011 kgf = 9.807 * 105 9.807 2.205 70.93 1000 1
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RF Cafe - Galvanic Series
◊◊ GALVANIC SERIES ◊◊A galvanic series table lists metals in the order of their relative activity in a specific environment. The list begins with the more active (anodic) metal and proceeds down the to the least active (cathodic) metal of the galvanic series. A "galvanic series" applies to a particular electrolyte solution, so for each specific solution which is expected to be encountered for actual use, a different order or series will ensue. In a galvanic couple, the metal higher in the series (or the smaller) represents the anode, and will corrode preferentially in the environment. This is the "dissimilar metals" corrosion that is spoken of.
Listed below is the latest galvanic table from MIL-STD-889 where the materials have been numbered according to how they interact in a galvanic couple in a seawater environment. The table is the galvanic series of metals in sea water from Army Missile Command Report RS-TR-67-11, "Practical Galvanic Series."
Most Anodic (#1) Most Cathodic (#92)1. Magnesium2. Mg alloy AZ-31B3. Mg alloy HK-31A4. Zinc (hot-dip, die cast,
or plated)5. Beryllium (hot pressed)6. Al 7072 clad on 70757. Al 2014-T38. Al 1160-H149. Al 7079-T6
10. Cadmium (plated)11. Uranium12. Al 218 (die cast)13. Al 5052-014. Al 5052-H1215. Al 5456-0, H35316. Al 5052-H3217. Al 1100-018. Al 3003-H2519. Al 6061-T620. Al A360 (die cast)21. Al 7075-T622. Al 6061-023. Indium24. Al 2014-025. Al 2024-T4
26. Al 5052-H1627. Tin (plated)28. Stainless steel 430
(active)29. Lead30. Steel 101031. Iron (cast)32. Stainless steel 410
(active)33. Copper (plated, cast, or
wrought)34. Nickel (plated)35. Chromium (Plated)36. Tantalum37. AM350 (active)38. Stainless steel 310
(active)39. Stainless steel 301
(active)40. Stainless steel 304
(active)41. Stainless steel 430
(active)42. Stainless steel 410
(active)43. Stainless steel 17-7PH
(active)44. Tungsten45. Niobium (columbium)
1% Zr46. Brass, Yellow, 26847. Uranium 8% Mo48. Brass, Naval, 46449. Yellow Brass50. Muntz Metal 280
51. Brass (plated)52. Nickel-silver (18% Ni)53. Stainless steel 316L
(active)54. Bronze 22055. Copper 11056. Red Brass57. Stainless steel 347
(active)58. Molybdenum,
Commercial pure59. Copper-nickel 71560. Admiralty brass61. Stainless steel 202
(active)62. Bronze, Phosphor 534
(B-1)63. Monel 40064. Stainless steel 201
(active)65. Carpenter 20 (active)66. Stainless steel 321
(active)67. Stainless steel 316
(active)68. Stainless steel 309
(active)69. Stainless steel 17-7PH
(passive)70. Silicone Bronze 65571. Stainless steel 304
(passive)72. Stainless steel 301
(passive)73. Stainless steel 321
(passive)74. Stainless steel 201
(passive)75. Stainless steel 286
(passive)
76. Stainless steel 316L (passive)
77. AM355 (active)78. Stainless steel 202
(passive)79. Carpenter 20 (passive)80. AM355 (passive)81. A286 (passive)82. Titanium 5A1, 2.5 Sn83. Titanium 13V, 11Cr, 3Al
(annealed)84. Titanium 6Al, 4V
(solution treated and aged)
85. Titanium 6Al, 4V (anneal)
86. Titanium 8Mn87. Titanium 13V, 11Cr 3Al
(solution heat treated and aged)
88. Titanium 75A89. AM350 (passive)90. Silver91. Gold92. Graphite
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RF Cafe - Galvanic Series
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RF Cafe - General Constants
◊◊ GENERAL CONSTANTS ◊◊
* : Reduced Planck constant, = h/2πName Symbol Value
Speed of light (in vacuum) c 2.9979 * 108 m/s
Mass-energy ratio c2 8.9876 * 1016 J/kg
Gravitational constant G 6.6720 * 10-11 N*m2/kg2
" G 3.4490 * 10-8 lb * ft2/slug2
Universal gas constant R 8.3144 J/(mol * K)
Avogadro constant N0 6.0220 * 1023 molecules/mol
Boltzmann constant k 1.3807 * 10-23 J/K
Planck constant* h 6.6262 * 10-34 J * s
Electron rest mass me 9.1095 * 10-31 kg
Proton rest mass mp 1.6726 * 10-27 kg
Bohr radius aB 0.52918 Å
Volume of ideal gas (@STP) V 2.2414 * 10-2 m3/mol
Stefan Boltzmann constant s 5.6703 * 10-8 W/(m2 * K4)
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RF Cafe - General Units
◊◊ GENERAL UNITS ◊◊
Name Base Unit Symbol
Enthalpy joule H
Entropy joule/Kelvin S
Heat capacity joule/Kelvin C
Internal energy joule U
Luminous intensity candela I
Quantity of heat joule Q
Radiant energy joule W
Radiant intensity watt/steradian I
Radiant power (flux) watt P
Sound intensity watt/meter I
Sound energy flux watt W
Specific heat capacity joule/(kilogram * Kelvin) c
Speed of sound meter/second n
Thermal conductivity watt/(meter * Kelvin) l
Time Constant s τ
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RF Cafe - Greek Alphabet
◊◊ GREEK ALPHABET ◊◊
Alpha Α α
Beta Β β
Gamma Γ γ
Delta ∆ δ
Epsilon Ε ε
Zeta Ζ ζ
Eta Η ε
Theta Θ θ
Iota Ι ι
Kappa Κ κ
Lambda Λ λ
Mu Μ µ
Nu Ν ν
Xi Ξ ξ
Omicron Ο ο
Pi Π π
Rho Ρ ρ
Sigma Σ σ
Tau Τ τ
Upislon Υ υ
Phi Φ φ
Chi Χ χ
Psi Ψ ψ
Omega Ω ω
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RF Cafe - Heat Transfer of an Integrated Circuit
◊◊ HEAT TRANSFER OF AN INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ◊◊
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RF Cafe - Lifetime Acceleration of Integrated Circuit
◊◊ LIFETIME ACCELERATION OF AN INTEGRATED CIRCUIT ◊◊
Arrhenius Model for Integrated Circuits
F = x1x2 = eα Lifetime Acceleration Factor
Where:
x1 = Failure rate at junction temperature T1x2 = Failure rate at junction temperature T2T = Junction temperature in degrees KE = Thermal activation energy in eVk = Boltzmann's constant
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RF Cafe - Laws of Motion
LAWS OF MOTION
Translational motion with constant acceleration in the x-plane.
Rotational motion with constant acceleration in the θ-plane.
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RF Cafe - Laws of Thermodynamics
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is the field of physics that describes and correlates the physical properties of macroscopic systems of matter and energy by relating such qualities temperature, pressure, and volume. It also takes in energy, heat, and work. When a physical system moves from one state of equilibrium to another, a thermodynamic process is said to take place. The laws of thermodynamics were discovered in the 19th century through painstaking experimentation.
Zeroth Law
When each of two systems is in equilibrium with a third, the first two systems must be in equilibrium with each other. This shared property of equilibrium is the temperature.
The concept of temperature is based on this Zeroth Law.
First Law
Because energy cannot be created or destroyed (with the special exception of nuclear reactions) the amount of heat transferred into a system plus the amount of work done on the system must result in a corresponding increase of internal energy in the system. Heat and work are mechanisms by which systems exchange energy with one another.
This First Law of thermodynamics identifies caloric, or heat, as a form of energy.
Second Law
Entropy—that is, the disorder—of an isolated system can never decrease. Therefore, when an isolated system achieves a configuration of maximum entropy, it can no longer undergo change (it has reached equilibrium).
Additionally, it is not enough to conserve energy and thus obey the First Law. A machine that would deliver work while violating the second law is called a "perpetual-motion machine of the second kind." In such a system, energy could then be continually drawn from a cold environment to do work in a hot environment at no cost.
Third Law
The Third Law of thermodynamics states that absolute zero cannot be attained by any procedure in a finite number of steps. Absolute zero can be approached arbitrarily closely, but it can never be reached.
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RF Cafe - Length Conversion
◊◊ LENGTH CONVERSIONS ◊◊
Standard units = Meter (m).
inch foot mile centimeter meter kilometer
1 in = 1 8.333 * 10-2 1.578 * 10-5 2.540 2.540 * 10-2 2.540 * 10-5
1 ft = 12 1 1.894 * 10-4 30.48 0.304 8 3.048 * 10-4
1 mi = 6.336 * 104 5 280 1 1.609 * 105 160 9 1.609
1 cm = 0.393 7 3.281 * 10-2 6.214 * 10-6 1 10-2 10-5
1 m = 39.37 3.281 6.214 * 10-4 100 1 10-3
1 km = 3.93 7 * 104 3 281 0.621 4 105 1 000 1
Non-Standard Length Units Conversions
1 cable = 720 ft = 219.456 m
1 cable (U.K.) = 608 ft = 185.318 m
1 chain (engineers') = 100 ft = 30.48 m
1 chain (surveyors') = 66 ft = 20.117 m
1 fathom = 6 ft = 1.829 m
1 fermi = 10-15 m
1 furlong = 660 ft = 201.168 m
1 hand = 4 in = 0.101 6 m
1 league (nautical) = 3 nmi = 5 556 m
1 league (statute) = 3 stat mi
1 light year = 9.460 895 2 * 1015 m
1 link (engineers') = 1 ft = 0.304 8 m
1 link (surveyors') = 7.92 in = 0.201168 m
1 myriameter = 10 000 m
1 nautical mile (nmi) = 1 853.184 m
1 pale = 1 perch (linear) = 1 rod = 5.029 2 m
1 pica = 1/6 in (approx.) = 4.217 518 * 10-3 m
1 point = 1/72 in (approx.) = 3.514 598 * 10-4 m
1 span = 9 in = 0.228 6 m
1 astronomical unit (au) = 92 957 130.3 mi = 1.496 * 108 km
1 parsec = 1.917 378 44 * 1013 mi = 3.085 721 50 *1013 km
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RF Cafe - Mass Conversion
MASS CONVERSIONS
Standard units = Kilogram (kg). * = atomic mass unit.
ounce pound ton gram kilogram slug u*1 oz = 1 6.250 * 10-2 3.125 * 10-5 28.35 2.835 * 10-2 1.942 * 10-3 1.708 * 1025
1 lb = 16 1 0.0005 453.6 0.4536 3.108 * 10-2 2.732 * 1026
1 ton = 3.200 * 104 2000 1 9.072x105 907.2 62.16 5.465 * 1029
1 g = 3.527 * 10-2 2.205 * 10-3 1.102 * 10-6 1 0.001 6.852 * 10-5 6.024 * 1023
1 kg = 35.27 2.205 1.102 * 10-3 1000 1 6.852 * 10-2 6.024 * 1026
1 slug = 514.8 32.17 1.609 * 10-2 1.459 * 104 14.59 1 8.789 * 1027
1 u = 5.855 * 10-26 3.660 * 10-27 1.829 * 10-30 1.660 * 10-24 1.660 * 10-27 1.137 * 10-28 1
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RF Cafe - Mechanical Constants
MECHANICAL CONSTANTS
Name Symbol Value
Horsepower HP 745.7 W
Atmosphere Atm 14.70 lb/in2
Pi P 3.141 592 653 589 793 238 46
Natural log base e 2.718 281 828 459 045 235 36
Square root of 2 √2 1.414 213 562 372 095 048 80
Euler's constant g 0.577 215 664 901 532 860 61
Golden Ratio f 1.618 033 988 749 894 848 20
1º of latitude at 40º latitude 69 mi
Acceleration of gravity g 32.1726 ft/s2
Knot kt 1.1508 mi/hr
Speed of sound @ 0ºC 1087.1 ft/s
Water heat of fusion @ 0ºC ∆Hfus 79.71 cal/g
Water heat of vaporization @ 0ºC ∆Hvap 539.55 cal/g
Acre 43 560 ft2
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RF Cafe - Mechanical Units
MECHANICAL UNITS
Name Base Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Area square meter m2
Volume cubic mete m3
Mass kilogram kg
Density kilogram/cubic meter kg/m3
Time second s
Speed kilometer/second km/s
Force newton N
Pressure pascal P
Plane Angle radian rad
Solid Angle steradian ster
Momentum kilogram*meter/second ρ
Torque newton/meter t
Young's modulus pascal E
Kinetic energy joule K
Potential energy joule U
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RF Cafe - Periodic Table of the Elements
◊◊ Periodic Table of the Elements ◊◊
Legend
Alkali metals
Actinide series Alkali earth metals Other metals Transition metals Nonmetals Lanthanide series Noble gases
WebElements - a great online source.
1Ia 18
0
H 2IIa 13
IIIa14IVa
15Va
16VIa
17VIIa He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg 3IIIb
4IVb
5Vb
6VIb
7VIIb
8VIIIb
9VIIIb
10VIIIb
11Ib
12IIb Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba * Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra ** Unq Unp Unh Uns Uno Une Uun Uuu
* La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
** Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Name Sym # Wt
actinium Ac 89 (227)
aluminum Al 13 26.98
americium Am 95 (243)
antimony Sb 51 121.7
argon Ar 18 39.94
arsenic As 33 74.92
astatine At 85 (210)
barium Ba 56 137.3
berkelium Bk 97 (247)
beryllium Be 4 9.012
bismuth Bi 83 209.0
boron B 5 10.81
Name Sym # Wt
gold Au 79 197.0
hafnium Hf 72 178.4
helium He 2 400.3
holmium Ho 67 164.9
hydrogen H 1 1.008
indium In 49 114.8
iodine I 53 126.9
iridium Ir 77 192.2
iron Fe 26 55.84
krypton Kr 36 83.80
lanthanum La 56 138.9
lawrencium Lr 103 (257)
Name Sym # Wt
potassium K 19 39.10
praseodymium Pr 59 140.9
promethium Pm 61 (147)
protactinium Pa 91 231.0
radium Ra 88 226.0
radon Rn 86 (222)
rhenium Re 75 186.2
rhodium Rh 45 102.9
rubidium Rb 37 85.47
ruthenium Ru 44 101.0
samarium Sm 62 150.4
scandium Sc 21 44.96
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RF Cafe - Periodic Table of the Elements
bromine Br 35 79.90
cadmium Cd 48 112.4
calcium Ca 20 40.08
californium Cf 98 (249)
carbon C 6 12.01
cerium Ce 58 140.1
cesium Cs 55 132.9
chlorine Cl 17 35.45
chromium Cr 24 52.00
cobalt Co 27 58.93
copper Cu 29 63.54
curium Cm 96 (245)
dysprosium Dy 66 162.5
einsteinium Es 99 (254)
erbium Er 68 167.2
europium Eu 63 152.0
fermium Fm 100 (255)
fluorine F 9 19.00
francium Fr 87 (223)
gadolinium Gd 64 157.2
gallium Ga 31 69.72
germanium Ge 32 72.5
lead Pb 82 207.2
lithium Li 3 6.940
lutetium Lu 71 175.0
magnesium Mg 12 24.31
manganese Mn 25 54.94
mendelevium Md 101 (256)
mercury Hg 80 200.5
molybdenum Mo 42 95.90
neodymium Nd 60 144.2
neon Ne 10 20.17
neptunium Np 93 237.0
nickel Ni 28 58.70
niobium Nb 41 92.91
nitrogen N 7 14.01
nobelium No 102 (254)
osmium Os 76 190.2
oxygen O 8 16.00
palladium Pd 46 106.4
phosphorus P 15 30.97
platinum Pt 78 195.0
plutonium Pu 94 (244)
polonium Po 84 (210)
selenium Se 34 78.90
silicon Si 14 28.08
silver Ag 47 107.9
sodium Na 11 23.00
strontium Sr 38 87.62
sulfur S 16 32.06
tantalum Ta 73 180.9
technetium Tc 43 98.91
tellurium Te 52 127.6
terbium Tb 65 158.9
thallium Tl 81 204.3
thorium Th 90 232.0
thulium Tm 69 168.9
tin Sn 50 118.6
titanium Ti 22 47.90
tungsten W 74 183.8
uranium U 92 238.0
vanadium V 23 50.94
xenon Xe 54 131.3
ytterbium Yb 70 173.0
yttrium Y 39 88.91
zinc Zn 30 65.38
Man-Made Elements rutherfordium Unq 104 261
dubnium Unp 105 262
seaborgium Unh 106 263
bohrium Uns 107 264
hassium Uno 108 265
meitnerium Une 109 266
ununnilium Uun 110 269
unununium Uuu 111 272
kirtium Ukb 999 999
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RF Cafe - International Phonetic Alphabet
◊◊ PHONETIC ALPHABET ◊◊
International (ITU) PoliceA Alfa (Al Fah') Adam
B Bravo (Brah' Voh) Baker
C Charlie (Char' Lee) Charlie
D Delta (Dell' Tah) David
E Echo (Eck' Oh) Edward
F Foxtrot (Foks' Trot) Frank
G Gulf (Golf) George
H Hotel (Hoh' Tell) Henry
I India (In' Dee Ah) Ida
J Juilette (Jew' Lee Ett) John
K Kilo (Key' Loh) King
L Lima (Lee' Mah) LincolnM Mike (Mike) Mary
International ITU) PoliceN November (No Vem' Ber) Nancy
O Oscar (Oss Cah') Otto
P Papa (Pah' Pah) Peter
Q Quebec (Keh' Beck) Queen
R Romeo (Row' Me Oh) Robert
S Sierra (See Air' Rah) Susan
T Tango (Tang' Go) Thomas
U Uniform (You Nee' Form) Union
V Victor (Vik Tah') Victor
W Whiskey (Wiss' Key) William
X X-ray (Ecks' Ray) X-Ray
Y Yankee (Yang' Key) Young
Z Zulu (Zoo' Loo) Zebra
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RF Cafe - Pressure Conversion
◊◊ Pressure Conversions ◊◊
Standard units = Pascal (P).
atmosphere inch of water lb per sq in lb per sq ft cm of Hg dyn/cm2 pascal1 atm = 1 406.8 14.70 2116 75.99 1.013 * 106 1.013 * 105
1 in water = 2.458 * 10-3 1 3.613 * 10-2 5.202 0.1868 2491 249.1
1 lb/in2 = 6.805 * 10-2 27.68 1 144 5.171 6.895 * 104 6.895 * 103
1 lb/ft2 = 4.725 * 10-4 0.1922 6.944 * 10-3 1 3.591x10-2 478.8 47.881 cm Hg = 1.316 * 10-2 5.353 0.1934 27.85 1 1.333 * 104 1333
1 dyn/cm2 = 9.869 * 10-7 4.015 * 10-4 1.450 * 10-5 2.089 * 10-3 7.501 * 10-5 1 0.11 Pa = 9.869 * 10-6 4.015 * 10-3 1.450 * 10-4 2.089 * 10-2 7.501 * 10-4 10 1
in of water @ 4º C1 bar = 106 dyn/cm2
cm of Hg @ 0º C 1 atm = 29.92 in of Hg
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RF Cafe - Psychometric Chart
Psychometric Chart
This slide set is accessed directly from the Techtrol Psychometrics web site. It is an excellent primer on the use of the psychometric chart. Here is a link for free ET_AEE software that performs calculations for you.Your browser does not support inline frames or is currently configured not to display inline frames.
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RF Cafe - P-T Diagram
◊◊ Pressure-Temperature (P-T) Diagram ◊◊
P-T Diagram for a Substance That Expands On Freezing
From To Phase Changes
Liquid Solid Fusion
Liquid Vapor Vaporization
Solid Vapor Sublimation
Solid Liquid Melting
Vapor Liquid Condensation
Vapor Solid Deposition
. Critical Point:Pure vapor phase has same properties as pure liquid phase at same temperature and pressure.
* Triple Point: Possible to maintain equilibrium mixture of all three phases.
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RF Cafe - Relativity
RELATIVITY
c = speed of light. Primed quantities are moving at speed "v".
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RF Cafe - Solar System
◊◊ SOLAR SYSTEM ◊◊
PlanetMax Radius(106 km)
Min Radius(106 km) Revolution Rotation
Speed(km/s)
Axis/Orbit(*)
Mass(**)
Mercury 69.7 45.9 88 d 59 d 47.9 28º/7º 0.055
Venus 109 107.4 224.7 d (-)243 d 35 3.0º/3.4º 0.815
Earth 152.1 147.1 365.26 d 23h,56m,4s 29.8 23º 27'/0º 1
Mars 249.1 206.7 687 d 24h,37m,23s 24.1 23º 59'/1.9º 0.108
Jupiter 815.7 740.9 11.86 y 9h,50m,30s 13.1 3º 5'/1.3º 317.9
Saturn 1507 1347 29.46 y 10h,14m 9.6 26º 44'/2.5º 95.2
Uranus 3004 2735 84.01 y (-)11 h 6.8 82º 5'/0.8º 14.6
Neptune 4537 4456 164.8 y 16 h 5.4 28º 48'/1.8º 17.2
Pluto 7375 4425 247.7 y 6d,9h 4.7 ---º/17.2º 0.1
* : inclination to ecliptic (Earth's orbital plane)** : Mass relative to earth(-) : retrograde motion
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RF Cafe - Sound Level Chart
◊◊ Sound Level Chart ◊◊
LocationMin Max
(dBA)
Inside Home 25 45
Inside Office 35 50
Inside Airplane Cabin 75 85
Inside Factory 65 100
Talking @ 3 ft 55 65
Shouting @ 3 ft 75 85
Clothes Dryer @ 3 ft 55 65
Vacuum @ 3 ft 65 80
Chain Saw @ 3 ft 100 120
Clothes Washer @ 3 ft 55 75
Car @ 25 ft @ 65 mph 70 80
Airplane @ 1000 ft 95 110
Traffic @ 300 ft 40 60
Rural Ambient 25 35
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RF Cafe - Sound Power
◊◊ Sound Power ◊◊
Sound powers in dBA units are referenced to a picowatt.
Where: W1, W2 = sound power in similar watt units
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RF Cafe - Speed Conversion
◊◊ Speed Conversions ◊◊
Standard units = Meters per second (m/s).
foot per s mile per h cm per s meter per s km per h knot1 ft/s = 1 0.6818 30.48 0.3048 1.097 0.59251 mi/h = 1.467 1 44.70 0.4470 1.609 0.86891 cm/s = 3.281 * 10-2 2.237 * 10-2 1 0.01 3.600 * 10-2 1.944 * 10-2
1 m/s = 3.281 2.237 100 1 3.600 1.9441 km/h = 0.9113 0.6214 27.78 0.2778 1 0.54001 knot = 1.688 1.151 51.44 0.5144 1.852 1
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RF Cafe - SAE Tap & Drill Chart
◊◊ SAE Tap & Drill Chart ◊◊
ThreadSize
DrillDiameter
(in)Tap Drill
Size
ThreadSize
DrillDiameter
(in)Tap Drill
Size
Coarse Thread Fine Thread
1-64 .0595 No. 53 0-80 .0469 3/64
2-56 .0700 No. 50 1-72 .0595 No. 53
3-48 .0785 No. 47 2-64 .0700 No. 50
4-40 .0890 No. 43 3-56 .0820 No. 45
5-40 .1015 No. 38 4-48 .0935 No. 42
6-32 .1065 No. 36 5-44 .1040 No. 37
8-32 .1360 No. 29 6-40 .1130 No. 33
10-24 .1495 No. 25 8-36 .1360 No. 29
12-24 .1770 No. 16 10-32 .1590 No. 21
1/4-20 .2010 No. 7 12-28 .1820 No. 14
5/16-18 .2570 'F' 1/4-28 .2130 No. 3
3/8-16 .3125 5/16 5/16-24 .2720 'I'
7/16-14 .3680 'U' 3/8-24 .3320 'Q'
1/2-13 .4219 27/64 7/16-20 .3906 25/64
9/16-12 .4844 31/64 1/2-20 .4531 29/64
5/8-11 .5312 17/32 9/16-18 .5156 33/64
3/4-10 .6562 21/32 5/8-18 .5781 37/64
7/8-9 .7656 49/64 3/4-16 .6875 11/16
1"-8 .8750 7/8 7/8-14 .8125 13/16
1"-14 .9375 59/64
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RF Cafe - Temperature Conversion
◊◊ Temperature Conversions ◊◊
Celsius to Fahrenheit Fahrenheit to Celsius
ºC = ºF - 32 1.8 ºF = (1.8 ºC) + 32
Fahrenheit to Rankine Celsius to KelvinºR = ºF + 459.67 K = ºC + 273.15
-40ºC = -40ºF
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RF Cafe - Thermal Conductivity
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
SubstanceThermal Conductivity
(J/s·m·°C)
Aluminum 238
Copper 397
Gold 316
Iron 78.2
Nickel 88.5
Silver 425
Steel, carbon 43
Air 0.024
Glass, Pyrex 0.78
Ice 1.70
Wood, oak 0.17
Water 0.556
Brass 110
Solder, 63Sn/37Pb 50
Silicon 138
Kevlar 0.12
Alumina 17
Beryllium oxide 250
RT/Duriod 5880 0.26
Epoxy glass 0.16
Approximate values from0 °C to 100 °C.
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RF Cafe - Time Conversion
◊◊ Time Conversions ◊◊
Standard units = Second (s).
second minute hour day year
1 s = 1 1.667 · 10-2 2.778 · 10-4 1.157 · 10-5 3.169 · 10-8
1 min = 60 1 1.667 * 10-2 6.944 · 10-4 1.901 · 10-6
1 h = 3600 60 1 4.167 · 10-2 1.141 · 10-4
1 d = 8.640 · 104 1440 24 1 2.738 · 10-3
1 yr = 3.156 · 107 5.259 · 105 8.766 · 103 365.2 1
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RF Cafe - Torx Bits
TORX® BITS
DriverSize
"A"Dimension
AcrossPoints(in.)
T-5 .055
T-6 .065
T-7 .077
T-8 .090
T-9 .097
T-10 .107
T-15 .128
T-20 .151
T-25 .173
T-27 .195
T-30 .216
T-40 .260
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RF Cafe - Visible Light
VISIBLE LIGHT
Since a lot of work these days involves light properties (displays, LEDs, Emitter/detectors, etc.), this visible light spectrum chart should be useful. Information on light addition and subtraction is included.
GammaRays X-Rays Ultra
Violet Infrared TV Radio
Wavelength (nanometers)
Additive Color System(adding colors to ultimately make white)
Subtractive Color System(subtracting colors to ultimately make black)
Primary additive colors for light areRed, Green and Blue
Primary subtractive colors for light are Magenta, Yellow and Cyan
Color Wheel
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RF Cafe - Visible Light
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RF Cafe - Volume Conversion
◊◊ Volume Conversions ◊◊
Standard units = Cubic meters (m3).
cubic in cubic ft cubic cm cubic m liter1 in3 1 5.787 * 10-4 16.39 1.639 * 10-5 1.639 * 10-2
1 ft3 = 1728 1 2.832 * 104 2.832 * 10-2 28.32
1 cm3 = 6.102 * 10-2 3.531 * 10-5 1 10-6 10-3
1 m3 = 6.102 * 104 35.31 106 1 10001 li = 61.02 3.531 * 10-2 1000 10-3 1
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RF Cafe - Work-Energy-Heat Conversion
◊◊ Work-Energy-Heat Conversions ◊◊
Standard units = Joule (J).
electron V kW*hour calorie joule ft*pounds ergs Btu
1 eV = 1 4.450 * 10-26 3.827 * 10-20 1.602 * 10-19 1.182 * 10-19 1.602 * 10-12 1.519 * 10-22
1 kWh = 2.247 * 1025 1 8.601 * 105 3.6 * 106 2.655 * 106 3.6 * 1013 34131 cal = 2.613 * 1019 1.163 * 10-6 1 4.186 3.087 4.186 * 107 3.968 * 10-3
1 J = 6.242 * 1018 2.778 * 10-7 0.2389 1 0.7376 107 9.481 * 10-4
1 ft*lb = 8.464 * 1018 3.776 * 10-7 0.3239 1.356 1 1.356 * 107 1.285 * 10-3
1 erg = 6.242 * 1011 2.778 * 10-14 2.389 * 10-8 10-7 7.376 * 10-8 1 9.481 * 10-11
1 Btu = 6.585 * 1021 2.930 * 10-4 252.0 1055 777.9 1.055 * 1010 1
1 hp * hr = 2545 Btu1 MeV = 106 eV
1 kg = 8.987 * 1016 J(from e=mc2)
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RF Cafe - World Time Zone Map
◊◊ World Time Zone Map ◊◊
This page is retrieved directly from the U.S. Navy's web site.
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USB.org - Welcome
Do you know how to identify products that have passed USB-IF Compliance Testing?
Look for the USB logo
Check the usb.org product search
Both of the above
View Results
USB Remains King of PC and Peripheral InterfacesThe Universal Serial Bus (USB) will continue its reign as the most successful interface in the history of PCs, with USB 2.0 completely penetrating the PC market over the next two to three years and PC peripherals and consumer electronics following closely behind, according to In-Stat/MDR(pdf, 152k)
Hi-Speed USB 2.0 Has Strong Presence at Intel Developer ForumAvailability of USB 2.0 drivers for Microsoft Windows XP, first-time demonstrations, certified packaging and other displays of broad industry support of Hi-Speed USB 2.0 highlighted at IDF(pdf, 16k)
'Year of USB 2.0' Starts Out Strong With Key Milestones ReachedWindows XP Support, Gateway PC, Intel Desktop Boards Launched on Cusp of Broad Deployment(pdf, 96k)
PC Magazine Award
Winner: Hi-Speed USB 2.0 for Technical ExcellencePC Magazine has bestowed the Eighteenth
Annual Award for Technical Excellence to Hi-Speed USB 2.0 in the Specifications category. This award is given to innovators who have found new solutions to old problems. USB 2.0 was selected for this honor because of the common interface it provides and the high data transfer rate.
CNET's 'Best Emerging Technology' award goes to USB 2.0 at PC ExpoIn the area of Best Emerging Technology,
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USB.org - Welcome
CNET's award goes to USB 2.0. This award does not go to any one company but to all of the industry pioneers that recognize the value of this new standard. The factors that make USB 2.0 so promising are its speed, its backward compatibility with USB 1.1, and its broad industry support.
About USBUniversal Serial Bus (USB) connects more than computers and peripherals. It has the power to connect you with a whole new world of PC experiences.
USB is your instant connection to the fun of digital photography or the limitless creative possibilities of digital imaging. You can use USB to connect with other people through the power of PC-telephony and video conferencing. Once you've tried USB, we think you'll grow quite attached to it!
Having trouble downloading or printing the pdfs on this page? Download the latest version of the free Acrobat Reader.
Site sponsored by USB Implementers Forum, Inc., creators of USB technology.Learn more about USB-IF Read the Privacy Statement
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RF Cafe - Noise Figure
◊◊ Noise Figure ◊◊
Noise figure is the increase in noise power of a device from the input to the output that is greater that the signal gain. In effect, it is the amount of decrease of the signal-to-noise ratio. Like gain, noise figure can be expressed either as a ratio or in decibels.
Cascade noise figure calculation is carried out by dealing with gain and noise figure as a ratio rather than decibels, and then converting back to decibels at the end. As the following equation shows, cascaded noise figure is effected most profoundly by the noise figure of components closest to the input of the system as long as some positive gain exists in the cascade. If only loss exists in the cascade, then the cascaded noise figure equals the magnitude of the total loss. The following equation is used to calculate cascaded noise figure as a ratio based on ratio values for gain and noise figure (do not use decibel values)
nfcascade = , where N = number of
stages Click here to view anexample cascaded system.
Conversion to decibels: NF (dB) = 10 * log10 (nf)
Noise Temperature (K) = 290 *
Noise Figure (dB) = 10 * log10
Click here to see Agilent's online App Note 1303 on using a spectrum analyzer to measure noise figure.
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RF Cafe - Noise Figure
The following table lists a few conversion. See the "Noise Conversions" tab of the online calculator for calculating other values.
NF(dB) Tn (°K) NF(dB) Tn (°K)0.1 7 2.1 1800.2 14 2.2 1910.3 21 2.3 2020.4 28 2.4 2140.5 35 2.5 2260.6 43 2.6 2380.7 51 2.7 2500.8 59 2.8 2630.9 67 2.9 2751.0 75 3.0 2891.1 84 3.1 3021.2 92 3.2 3161.3 101 3.3 3301.4 110 3.4 3441.5 120 3.5 3591.6 129 3.6 3741.7 139 3.7 3901.8 149 3.8 4061.9 159 3.9 4222.0 170 4.0 438
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RF Cafe - Example system cascade
◊◊ EXAMPLE SYSTEM CASCADE ◊◊
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RF Cafe - 2-Tone, 2nd-Order Compression Point (IP2)
2-TONE, 2ND-ORDER COMPRESSION POINT (IP2)
When two or more tones are present in a nonlinear device, intermodulation products are created as a result. A power series describes all of the possible combinations of generated frequencies. 2nd-order products lie near in frequency to the two input tones and are therefore not very likely to fall inband at the output in a narrow band system. As a device is driven farther into its nonlinear region, the amplitudes of the third order products increase while the powers of the input tones decrease. If the device was not limited in output power, then the powers of the intermodulation products would increase in power until they were eventually equal in power with the input tones at the output.
Assuming a gain of 1 (0 dB) the slope of the fundamental gain line would be 1:1; the slope of the 2nd-order gain line would be 2:1. The slope of the 2nd-order product line is 1:1 relative to the fundamental gain line. Accordingly, the 2nd-order products increase in power at the same rate as the input tones and are always twice times farther away from the IP2 than the input tones when not near saturation.
The power of the 2nd-order products can be predicted when the IP2 is known, or the IP2 can be predicted when the relative amplitudes of the 2nd-order tones and the input tones are known.
P2nd-order products = 2 · Pinput tones@output - IP2 dBm
IP2 =2 · Pinput tones@output - P2nd-order products dBm
Calculating the cascaded values for IP2 requires the following operation based upon ratios for gain and IP2 (do not use decibel values):
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RF Cafe - 2-Tone, 2nd-Order Compression Point (IP2)
Click here to view anexample cascaded system.
Finally, convert to decibels
IP2 = 10· log10 [ip2] dB
Conversion of the IP3 and IP2 reference may be accomplished with the following equations:
or
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RF Cafe - 2-Tone, 3rd-Order Compression Point (IP3)
2-TONE, 3RD-ORDER COMPRESSION POINT (IP3)
Here's a great link to a paper on intermod frequency prediction for any number of tones.
When two or more tones are present in a nonlinear device, intermodulation products are created as a result. A power series describes all of the possible combinations of generated frequencies. 3rd-order products lie near in frequency to the two input tones and are therefore very likely to fall inband at the output. As a device is driven farther into its nonlinear region, the amplitudes of the third order products increase while the powers of the input tones decrease. If the device was not limited in output power, then the powers of the intermodulation products would increase in power until they were eventually equal in power with the input tones at the output.
Assuming a gain of 1 (0 dB) the slope of the fundamental gain line would be 1:1; the slope of the 3rd-order gain line would be 3:1. The slope of the 3rd-order product line is 2:1 relative to the fundamental gain line. Accordingly, the 3rd-order products increase in power at twice the rate of the input tones and are always three times farther away from the IP3 than the input tones when not near saturation.
The power of the 3rd-order products can be predicted when the IP3 is known, or the IP3 can be predicted when the relative amplitudes of the 3rd-order tones and the input tones are known.
Equal Input Powers(see below for unequal powers)
P3rd-order products = Pinput tones@output - 2 · (IP3 - Pinput tones@output) dBm
P3rd-order products = 3 · Pinput tones@output - 2 · IP3 dBm
IP3 =3/2 · Pinput tones@output - 1/2 P3rd-order products dBm
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RF Cafe - 2-Tone, 3rd-Order Compression Point (IP3)
Calculating the cascaded values for IP3 requires the following operation based upon ratios for gain and IP3 (do not use decibel values):
Click here to view anexample cascaded system.
Finally, convert to decibels
IP3 = 10 · log10 [ip3] dB
The following equation is a series expansion of the mixing (multiplying) of two pure tones:
Conversion of the IP3 and IP2 reference may be accomplished with the following equations:
IP3/IP2OUTPUT = (IP3/IP2INPUT + Gain) dBm
or
IP3/IP2INPUT = (IP3/IP2OUTPUT - Gain) dBm
Unequal Input Powers
PL = P2 - 2*(IP3 - P1)
PU = P1 - 2*(IP3 - P2)
Where power units are kept constant in dBm or dBW
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RF Cafe - 2-Tone, 3rd-Order Compression Point (IP3)
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RF Cafe - Frequency Modulation
◊◊ BESSEL FUNCTIONS ◊◊
Bessel functions of the first kind are shown in the graph below. In frequency modulation, the carrier and sideband frequencies disappear when the modulation index (β) is equal to a zero crossing of the function for the nth sideband. For example, the carrier (0th sideband) disappears when the Jn(0,β) plot equals zero. The 1st sideband disappears when the Jn(1,β) plot equals zero. See FM.
Sample of Bessel Function Zero Crossings
J0(β) J1(β) J2(β) J3(β) J4(β) J5(β) J6(β)
β = 2.40β = 5.49β = 8.65β = 11.8
β = 3.83β = 7.05β = 10.2
β = 5.14β = 8.42β = 11.6
β = 6.38β = 8.42β = 11.6
β = 7.59β = 11.1β = 14.4
β = 8.77β = 12.3β = 15.7
β = 9.94β = 13.6β = 17.0
Note: Graph generated using Mathcad 4.0.
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RF Cafe - VSWR to Return Loss Conversion
◊◊ VSWR - Return Loss - Γ Conversions ◊◊
See the VSWR Calculator page.
Return Loss Voltage StandingWave Ratio Reflection Coefficient
RL = -20*log|Γ| dB VSWR = Γ =
RL(dB) VSWR Γ RL(dB) VSWR Γ RL(dB) VSWR Γ RL(dB) VSWR Γ
46.0 1.01 0.00498 26.0 1.11 0.0521 17.7 1.30 0.130 8.0 2.32 0.398
40.0 1.02 0.00990 25.0 1.12 0.0566 17.0 1.33 0.141 7.0 2.61 0.445
37.0 1.03 0.0148 24.0 1.13 0.0610 16.0 1.38 0.158 6.02 3.01 0.500
34.0 1.04 0.0196 23.5 1.14 0.0654 15.0 1.43 0.178 5.0 3.56 0.562
32.0 1.05 0.0244 23.0 1.15 0.0698 14.0 1.50 0.200 4.0 4.42 0.631
30.4 1.06 0.0291 22.0 1.17 0.0783 13.0 1.58 0.224 3.01 5.85 0.707
29.0 1.07 0.0338 21.5 1.18 0.0826 12.0 1.67 0.250 2.0 8.72 0.794
28.0 1.08 0.0385 20.7 1.20 0.0909 11.0 1.78 0.282 1.0 17.39 0.891
27.0 1.09 0.0431 20.0 1.22 0.100 10.0 1.92 0.316 0.5 34.75 0.944
26.4 1.10 0.0476 19.0 1.25 0.112 9.0 2.10 0.355 0.0 Infinity 1.00
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RF Cafe - Spurious-Free Dynamic Range
SPURIOUS-FREE DYNAMIC RANGE
Spurious-free dynamic range (SFDR) is two-thirds the difference between the 2-tone, third-order intercept point (IP3) and the minimum discernible signal (MDS). Referring back to Figure 1, it can be seen that the 3rd-order product line has a 3:1 slope while the fundamental output line has a 1:1 slope. Therefore, the 3rd-order products are always twice as far from the IP3 as the fundamental output. If you use the SFDR as the power of the output tones (dBm) and plug it into the equation for IP3 calculation from the Intercept Points (IP3 & IP2) section of the RF Cafe web site, the power of the 3rd-order products will be right at the MDS power level.
Figure 1
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RF Cafe - Noise Power
◊◊ Noise Power ◊◊
Noise power is based on the thermal noise power at the input of the system, along with system gain and noise figure:
PThermalNoise = k * T * B (Watts), where
Multiply by 1000 to obtain milliwatts and then convert to dBm units or convert to dBW units and add 30 dB:
PThermalNoise (dBm) = 10 * log10 (1000 * k * T * B)or
PThermalNoise (dBm) = 10 * log10 (k * T * B) + 30
Now that we have the thermal noise at the input, add the system gain and the additional noise added by the system (the NF) to get the noise power at the output:
PNoise@Output (dBm) = PNoise@Input + GainSystem + NFSystem
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RF Cafe - Toroids - Powdered Iron
TOROIDS - POWDERED IRON
Use the table below to calculate inductance and number of turns per the following formulas.
where: L = inductance in µHAL = µH per 100 turnsN = number of full turns
AL Values
Mix Type
Size 26 3 15 1 2 7 6 10 12 17 0
T-12 n/a 60 50 48 20 18 17 12 7.5 7.5 3.0
T-16 145 61 55 44 22 n/a 19 13 8.0 8.0 3.0
T-20 180 76 55 52 27 24 22 16 10 10 3.5
T-25 235 100 85 70 34 29 27 19 12 12 4.5
T-30 325 140 93 85 43 37 36 25 16 16 6.0
T-37 275 120 90 80 40 32 30 25 15 15 4.9
T-44 360 180 160 105 52 46 42 33 18.5 18.5 6.5
T-50 320 175 135 100 49 43 40 31 18 18 6.4
T-68 420 195 180 115 57 52 47 32 21 21 7.5
T-80 450 180 170 115 55 50 45 32 22 22 8.5
T-94 590 248 200 160 84 n/a 70 58 32 n/a 10.6
T-106 900 450 345 325 135 133 116 n/a n/a n/a 19
T-130 785 3350 250 200 110 103 96 n/a n/a n/a 15
T-157 870 420 360 320 140 n/a 115 n/a n/a n/a n/a
T-184 1640 720 n/a 500 240 n/a 195 n/a n/a n/a n/a
T-200 895 425 n/a 250 120 105 100 n/a n/a n/a n/a
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RF Cafe - Toroids - Powdered Iron
Iron Powder Magnetic Core Properties
Mix Color Material µTemp
Stability(ppm/°C)
f(MHz) Uses
26 Yellow/White Hydrogen Reduced 75 825 DC -1 EMI filters, DC chokes
3 Gray Carbonyl HP 35 370 0.05 - 0.50 Exc. stability, good Q at low freq.
15 Red/White Carbonyl GS6 25 190 0.10 - 2 Exc. stability, good Q1 Blue Carbonyl C 20 280 0.50 - 5 Exc. stability, good Q at low freq.2 Red Carbonyl E 10 95 2 -30 High Q7 White Carbonyl TH 9 30 3 - 35 Similar to mix 2 and mix 6, exc. temp stability6 Yellow Carbonyl SF 8 35 10 -50 Very good Q and temp. stability for 20-50 MHz10 Black Powdered Iron W 6 150 30 - 100 Good Q and stability for 40-100 MHz12 Green/White Synthetic Oxide 4 170 50 - 200 Good Q, moderate temp. stability
17 Blue/Yellow Carbonyl 4 50 40 - 180 Similar to mix 12, better temp. stability, Q drops about 10% above 50 MHz, 20% above 100 MHz
0 Tan Phenolic 1 0 100 - 300 L varies greatly with winding technique
Iron Powder Magnetic Core Dimensions
Size ColorDimensions (in)
O.D. I.D. HeightT-200-2 Red 2.00 1.25 0.55T-94-2 Red 0.94 0.56 0.31T-80-2 Red 0.80 0.50 0.25T-68-2 Red 0.68 0.37 0.19T-50-2 Red 0.50 0.30 0.19T-37-2 Red 0.37 0.21 0.12T-25-2 Red 0.25 0.12 0.09T-12-2 Red 0.125 0.06 0.05T-50-10 Black 0.50 0.30 0.19T-37-10 Black 0.37 0.21 0.12T-25-10 Black 0.25 0.12 0.09T-12-10 Black 0.125 0.06 0.05T-94-9 Yellow 0.94 0.56 0.31T-80-6 Yellow 0.80 0.50 0.25T-68-6 Yellow 0.68 0.37 0.19T-50-6 Yellow 0.50 0.30 0.19T-26-6 Yellow 0.25 0.12 0.09T-12-6 Yellow 0.125 0.06 0.05
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RF Cafe - Detectors
DETECTORS §
This page is retrieved directly from the Electronic Warfare and Radar Systems Engineering Handbook web site.
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