CHAPTER – 2

Review of Literature

35

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In this study on role stress and coping skills it is important to examine the

concepts related to stress, role stress and the coping skills. This is done by way of

reviewing the previous studies that throw light on issues of role stress and coping

skills. The fact is that knowledge of previous studies can clarify research and

provide the background and direction to the inquiry. The studies under review are

presented in a chronological and logical order.

2.1. Related studies on Role Stress

Surti and Sarupriya (1981) studied how the psychological factors affect

women Entrepreneurs. They took 40 women entrepreneurs for the study. The

study revealed that married women experienced more role stress such as self role

distance, resource inadequacy as well as overall stress as compared to unmarried

women. Intrapersistive style of coping was the dominant mode of coping with

various role stresses experienced by women entrepreneurs.1

Ahmad, Bhardwaj and Narula (1985) studied the Stress experienced by the

private and public male executives in their role. They conducted the study by the

Role Stress Questionnaire constructed by Udai Pareek. The study revealed that

public sector executives experience slightly more stress than private sectors and

36

the dimensions of stress as role isolation, role ambiguity and self role distance

were dominant among the ten dimensions of stress.2

Bhatnagar and Bose (1985) examined the Organizational role stress among

the branch managers of different private sectors. 140 branch managers of different

ages were included in the study. They used the leadership styles questionnaire

constructed by Hersey and Blanchard organizational role stress scale by Udai

Pareek. Managers around the age of 30 experience more stress compared to the

aged one. Three role stresses, namely, role erosion, inter role distance and role

isolation were found to be dominant and they scored lower on role ambiguity, self

role distance and role stagnation compared to other dimensions of stress.3

Khanna (1985) studied the Relationship between Organizational Climate

and Organizational Role Stress and their impact upon organizational effectiveness.

They took 392 executives at three managerial levels from five functional areas as

138 from manufacturing division, 106 from administration, 82 from technical

services, 42 from marketing and 24 from research and development as samples. Of

these 24 were senior executives, 76 middle executives and 292 junior executives.

The research found that age was negatively associated with role stress and role

erosion was found to be the major contributor of role stress. Executives belonging

to production and R & D departments’ executives experienced higher role stress

and junior level managers experienced higher stress. One of the major finding was

37

lower the degree of role stress, higher was the score on organizational

effectiveness and vice versa.4

Sharma (1987) studied the Differential Effects of Organizational Climates

on Job Satisfaction, Sense of Participation between managers and supervisors

from public and private organizations. He noted that respondents scored higher on

role expectation conflict, role ambiguity, role overload, role stagnation and

resource inadequacy, that role stress is negatively correlated with job satisfaction.5

Singh (1987) studied how the Organizational Climate acts as Moderator of

Role Stress-Job Satisfaction Relationship of Computer Professionals. Nearly 348

Computer professionals were participated in the study of various job categories as

managers, system personnel and operation personnel. Role overload, role

expectation conflict and inter role distance were dominant factors in overall stress

and job satisfaction variables correlated negatively with all the factors of role

stress. 6

Jagdish (1987) examined the relationship between the Occupational Stress

and Employees Attitude towards Job and their Management techniques among the

supervisors. The results indicate that role overload and role ambiguity was the

major cause for the stress. They experience stress because of the unclear roles and

large amount of work to be done by given time which results in negative attitude

towards job. The role overload is associated with a number of psychological

strains including job dissatisfaction, anxiety and depression.7

38

Srinivasan and Anantharaman (1988) examined the Organizational Role

Stress: Factor Structure: Examination and Comparison amongst Sectoral

Organizations. They collect data from 380 executives in management cadre from

public, private and joint sectors. Role stagnation, role expectation conflict, role

ambiguity and resource inadequacy were the four role stresses experienced by the

executives.8

Kumar (1989), observed the Role Stress, Role Satisfaction, and Role

Efficacy among Public Sector Executives. 252 executives of lower and middle

management from different functional areas in an oil company were taken for the

study. The study revealed that Unmarried executives experienced significantly

higher total stress as compared to married executives. Role stagnation, personnel

inadequacy and self role distance were found to be significantly higher among

lower level executives.9

Chaudhary (1990) studied the Relationship between Job Satisfaction and

Role Stress of Bank Officers. They took 100 bank officers of two age groups

(higher age group above 35 years of age and lower age group below 35 years of

age) for their study. They used Udai Pareek’s Organizational Role Stress scale and

Pestonjee’s Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction Employee’s Inventory for their study. Two

age groups did not differ much on role stress dimensions. Among bank officers

Role erosion causes maximum stress whereas role ambiguity is the cause of least

stress. In age groups, Role stress and job performance are negatively correlated.10

39

Dhadda (1990) studied the Relationship between the Role Stress, Job

Involvement and Personality Types in Aviation and Railway Officials. The sample

consists of 50 railway officials and 50 aviation officials. The scales used were

Udai Pareek’s Role Stress scale, Job involvement scale and Type A – Type B

personality scale. Among railway officials Role overload causes maximum stress

and Role ambiguity causes least, whereas among aviation officials role erosion

causes maximum stress and role overload is minimum. Among the Type-B

personality type officials’ role stress is positively related to job involvement.11

Sahgal (1990) noted the Organizational Role Stress among 222 executives

belonging to junior, middle and senior level in an organization. The findings

indicated that role erosion and role inadequacy are predominant role stressors

experienced by them. Due to role stagnation middle level executives experience

most stress.12

Luhadia (1991) studied the Relationship between Role Stress and Job

Satisfaction of Geological Officers at Three Different Levels. Totally 100 officers

were taken for study out of which 20 high level officers, 30 middle level officers

and 50 junior level officers. The study found that Role inadequacy causes

maximum stress in higher level officers whereas role erosion causes maximum

stress in middle and junior level officers. Stress due to role stagnation influences

minimum to higher level officers. Finally Job satisfaction and role stress are

highly negatively correlated to the officers. 13

40

Mittal and Uma (1992) examined how Coping Styles are related to Role

Stress, Locus of Control and Personality Type among the doctors. They took 147

doctors from private and government hospitals for their research. Role erosion was

the major stresses experienced by doctors followed by inter role distance. Male

doctors experienced more role erosion and self role distance than female doctors.

Role stagnation was significantly negatively related to total approach style of

coping. Role overload was found to be significantly positively related to avoidance

style of coping and negatively related to total approach style of coping.14

Singh and Bharati Singh (1992) studied the Stress and Strain among 400

Indian Middle Managers working in different departments of Bokaro Steel Plant.

The major finding was that managers with high role stress experienced more

environmental frustration, anger reactions and job anxiety whereas the managers

who felt lower role stress experienced lower environmental frustration, anger

reactions and job anxiety.15

Neera Pant and Gopi Bhardwaj (1992) studied the Executives Stress and its

Correlates among 90 male public sector managers from various levels. The results

indicate that chronic work-related stress is experienced by managers at all level

but comparatively high in top level managers. The top level managers find

difficult to manage the stress compared to the others. One major finding was that

when the managers are highly committed to their organizations they are

experiencing less chronic work-related stress.16

41

Tripti Desai (1993) attempts to examine the relation between Stress and

Mental Workload in Industrial Organizations. 150 managers of different

management level were taken for the study. The results indicated that higher and

middle management had higher and similar levels of stress and mental workload

followed by lower management and the Perceived Effort factor of mental

workload was the main contributor for the prediction of stress.17

Sharda, Nandram, and Bert Klandermans (1993) studied the Stress

experienced by active members of trade unions. The study identifies role conflict,

role ambiguity and role overload as psychological stressors and emotional

exhaustion was most strongly associated with intra-sender conflict and qualitative

role overload.18

Siegall and Cummings (1995) conducted a study on Stress and

organizational role conflict. In this study the research on role conflict and coping

is integrated with more traditional lines of stress research. It is argued that,

because role stress is generated by certain characteristics of a person's

environment, coping with role stress is likely to be directed toward those

environmental characteristics. The following conclusions are theorized: (a) The

relation between role conflict and role stress is moderated by the strain existing

within a person's social network; (b) this strain is produced by two factors, the

perceived power of the role sender and the importance of the sender's expectations

to the focal person; (c) the relation between role stress and role distress (felt

42

emotional discomfort) is moderated by several personality characteristics; (d) the

relation between role distress and coping (actual behavior aimed at reducing

distress) is moderated by both individual-level and situational-level factors; (e) the

relation between coping and strain can be reciprocal.19

Micheal Glissmeyer, James W. Bishop and David Fass (1997) tried to

examine the degree to which Law Enforcement Officers are affected by Role

Conflict and Role Ambiguity, and how those variables affect officers’ intention to

quit the Organization. The attitudes affecting intention to quit the organization

may be either internal or external. Here the researcher considered two internal

attitudes, role conflict and role ambiguity, that indirectly affect intention to quit

the organization. The study was conducted in two law enforcement organizations

and total number 112 police officers took part in the study. Separate regression

analyses were used to test the relationship between the demographic variables and

intention to quit the organization. The major findings of this study reveal that role

ambiguity is a significant predictor of intention to quit the organization and Role

conflict is a weaker predictor of intention to quite the organization.20

Dutta Roy and Deb (1999) studied the Role Stress Profiles of Scientists and

Defence Personnel in Fifteenth Antarctic Expedition and they much paid attention

to assess the psychiatric disturbances, depression, personality traits, and state

anxiety levels of the expeditioners. They conduct the study among 10 scientists

and 9 defence personnel during their stay in Antarctica. The focus of the research

was to investigate the significant difference in role stress levels between scientists

43

and defence personnel. According to the study, Role Stress occurs when one

perceives difficulty to integrate the different roles made upon him. To determine

the significant mean difference on each variable between the two groups t-test was

used. When analyzing the data it is evident that both scientists and defence

personnel experienced almost similar role stresses except role conflict. The study

reveals that role conflict is the main reason for the role stress.21

Mohan and Chauhan (1999) examined the organizational role stress

amongst managers of government, public and private sectors. The present study

was conducted on 174 middle level managers from Government (50), public (76)

and Private (48) sectors. The results showed that there were only two significant

F-ratios-for Role Erosion and Self-Role Conflict. The managers of Public Sector

experienced the maximum Role Erosion and Self Role Conflict, followed by

Government and the private sector. The private sector seems to have a better work

climate which is giving enough forward orientation in one's job role and also less

amount of intra-personal conflictual situations. This can have implications for

improvement of work climate in Government and Public Sector.22

Lakshmi Narayanan, Shanker Menon and Paul E. Spector (1999) observed

the workplace Stress by comparing the gender and occupations. The researchers

compare stress level of the people in different occupations as clerical workers,

university professors and sales associates. Interpersonal conflict and work

overload appears to be prevalent and a major source of stress for all occupations.

Interpersonal conflict was the major source of stress for women than men. Seeking

44

social support by sharing and talking to others were the most frequently coping

strategy for both men and women in different occupations.23

Prabhat Kumar Mishra and Pestonjee (1999) conducted a study with the

intention of examining the nature of role stress and job satisfaction among doctors,

and to explore the relationship between these variables. A group of 35 junior

doctors working at primary health centres (PHC) and another group of 35 senior

doctors attached to various district level hospitals served as sample for the study.

The data were analyzed in terms of the t-test and coefficients of correlation. The

results of the study revealed no significant differences between the two groups,

except in the management area of job satisfaction and the inter-role distance

dimension of role stress. Further, job satisfaction variables correlated negatively

with all the dimensions of role stress in the case of both groups.24

Jeffrey Dorman (2003) tried to find out the predictor for the teachers

burnout. The aims of the present study were to validate scales to assess possible

predictors of teacher burnout such as school and classroom environment, work

pressure, role overload, role conflict, role ambiguity, teaching efficiency, locus of

control, self-esteem and Maslach Burnout Inventory scales to assess emotional

exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment and to investigate

whether relationship exists between the predictors and Maslach Burnout Inventory

scales. The sample employed in the study consisted of 246 teachers who teach in

private schools in Queensland. Role overload was a potent variable that impacted

45

on teacher burnout. It influenced work pressure and subsequently emotional

exhaustion. Role conflict was also a potent negative predictor of school

environment which, in turn predicted negatively depersonalization. 25

Mohsin Aziz (2004) studied the Role stress among women working in the

Indian information technology sector. Organizational stress originates in

organizational demands that are experienced by the individual. Stress is built up in

the concept of role which is conceived as the position a person occupies in a

system. This paper investigates the intensity of organizational role stress among

women informational technology professionals in the Indian private sector.

Organizational role stress scale is used on a sample of 264 to explore the level of

role stress. Resource inadequacy has emerged as the most potent role stressor,

followed by role overload and personal inadequacy. The research finds differences

in the level of stress between married and unmarried employees on several role

stressors. However, level of education does not emerge as a significant

differentiator of stressors.26

Aujla, Harshpinder, Gill and Sandhu (2004) studied the Sociological and

Environmental Factors that Causes Stress among Women and Fighting Techniques

Used by working and non working women. The total sample of 150 respondents

was stratified into two categories namely working and nonworking homemakers

having 75 respondents in each category. Results showed that working women

were significantly more stressed. Majority of respondents in both the categories

were using various stress management techniques viz. relaxation, music, prayers,

46

recreation with family, Planning etc Working women gave first, second and third

rank to ‘talking to some one’, ‘working in group’ and ‘social gatherings’

respectively. They also used planning as a technique to fight the stress and gave

first rank to method of ‘setting priority’ followed by use of time and labour saving

devices.27

Ekta Sharma (2005) studied Role Stress among doctors working in private

and government hospitals. The researcher took 50 doctors for the study. Both of

them experience moderate level of stress and role overload is the main cause for

their stress. 28

Tahira Mubashir and Saima Ghazal (2005) conducted a study on

Occupational Stress and Job Performance of employees in various departments of

ice cream factory. They employees were managers, assistant managers, junior

managers, supervisors etc and totally 65 took part in the study. They vary in their

age, educational level and designation. There is moderate level of stress with no

significant difference in different departments and no relationship found between

level of stress and performance of employees. Workload and repetitive work are

identified as the major factors causing stress.29

Sunita Malhotra and Sapna Sachdeva (2005) studied how Role Conflict

arises due to various Social Roles among Women working as doctors, lecturers

and nurses. 270 working women were taken for the study. The major finding was

47

that role conflict increases with the increase in number of roles and the married

women experience more stress compare the unmarried women.30

Kristina Gyllensten and Stephen Palmer (2005) examined the role of gender

in workplace stress. The aim of this study was to evaluate research relating to the

role of gender in the level of workplace stress. A further aim was to review

literature relating to stressors of particular relevance to working women. These

stressors included, multiple roles, lack of career progress and discrimination and

stereotyping. Much of the research indicated that women reported higher levels of

stress compared to men. However, several studies reported no difference between

the genders. Furthermore, the evidence for the adverse effects of multiple roles,

lack of career progress and discrimination and stereotyping was inconsistent.31

Geetika Tankha (2006) examined the Role Stress among Government and

Private Hospital Nurses. Stress has become the most important factor influencing

individual efficacy and satisfaction in modern day occupational settings. In this

context, the nursing profession is increasingly characterized by occupational

stress. This study was conducted with the aim of investigating the effect of role

stress in a sample of 120 nursing professionals of government and private

hospitals. The obtained results revealed that male nurses experienced significantly

higher stress level as compared to females. Second, male nurses from private

hospitals showed significantly higher level of stress levels than the government

nurses on eight out of the ten dimensions of Organizational Role Stress Scale.32

48

Panchanatham, Kumarasamy and Vanitha (2006) studied the Stress Management

for Problem Solving Executives with Coercive Leadership style. The researchers

have consistently found that individuals who possess high levels of social support

are in better physical and mental health. According to the moderating hypothesis,

individuals who have supportive social relationships are able to rely on others to

aid them in dealing with stressful situations.33

Kaila (2007) studied the Women Managers in various Indian Organizations.

The greatest problem they faced is time constraints to meet deadlines as they were

assigned with a lot of responsibilities, difficult to cope with multiple activities and

the expectation on the superiors is also high. They cope up the problem by prayer,

talking and sharing with the family members and friends, as well as seeking advice

from the superiors. 34

Soleiman Ahmady, Tahereh Changiz, Italo Masiello and Mats Brommels

(2007) studied the Organizational Role Stress with reference to role conflict

among medical school faculty members in Iran. The findings show that role stress

was experienced in high level among almost all faculty members. The major role

related stress and forms of conflict were role overload, role expectation conflict

and inter role distance.35

Sunetra Bhattacharya and Jayanthi Basu (2007) attempt to study the

Distress, Wellness and Organizational Role Stress among IT Professionals: Role

of Life Events and Coping Resources. 101 professionals (60 men and 41 women)

49

were administered for the study. Results of the study reveal that women

experienced greater wellness and older personnel experienced more distress.

Distress could not be predicted from the life events and coping resources taken

together. Wellness and Organizational role stress could be predicted from these

two variables.36

Chang, Te-Yi, Chang and Yu-Lien (2007) investigated the relationship

between role stress, service capability, and job performance in 318 salespeople

employed by travel agents in Taiwan. The study was conducted with the help of

Role stress and job performance questionnaire. There major finding was a negative

relationship between role ambiguity and job performance, and a positive

relationship between role conflict and performance outcomes. Moreover, the

relation between role stress and job performance varied with the service capability

of the salesperson. Service capability moderated the relationship between role

ambiguity, performance behavior, and performance outcomes. From this they

understand that the resources should be directed at improving the service skills of

salespeople. The results of this study constitute useful reference information for

optimizing the application of organizational management and human resources.37

Ritu Lehal (2007) studied the Organizational Role Stress and Job

Satisfaction among Executives in Punjab. The study includes the whole state of

Punjab 200 executives of men and women from both public and private sector

units. The study reveals that the results of public sector are less stressful than

50

private sectors and female executives are more stressful than male executives.

Organizational Role Stress and job satisfaction are negatively related such that if

stress level is high, job satisfaction level will be low or vice-versa.38

Quinn M. Pearson (2008) investigated the Role Overload, Job Satisfaction,

Leisure Satisfaction and Psychological Health among Employed Women. Role

overload was the major cause for stress and it was the strongest predictor of

psychological health. When they are less overloaded with their roles, they are

more satisfied with their jobs.39

Craig Wallace, Todd Arnold, Bryan D. Edwards, Lance Frazier and David

M. Finch (2009) studied the Work Stressors, Role-Based Performance, and the

Moderating Influence of Organizational Support. The present study proposed

differential relationships between challenge stressors and hindrance stressors and

role-based performance, which were expected to be moderated by organizational

support. In a sample of 215 employees across 61 officers of a state agency, the

author obtained a positive relationship between challenge stressors and role-based

performance and negative relationship between hindrance stressors and role-based

performance. In addition, organizational support moderated the relationship

between challenge stressors and role-based performance but did not moderate the

relationship between hindrance stressors and role-based performance. This

suggests that organizations would benefit from increasing challenges in the

workplace as long as they are supportive of employees and removing hindrances.40

51

Mohr, Gisela, Wolfram and Hans-Joachim (2010) studied the Stress among

managers and examined the importance of dynamic tasks as stressors faced by

managers. Predictability of a task and social support by mangers’ supervisors were

considered as potential moderators of the interrelation between stressors and stress

effects. A group of 64 women, 78 men and a total of 142 managers from 46

German companies were taken as the sample for study. From the study, the

researcher comes to know that Dynamic tasks and predictability were unrelated

features of the work task. Predictability of a task had a moderating effect in that

the interrelation between dynamic tasks and irritation was stronger when

predictability was low. When managers perceived low support from their

supervisors, the interrelation between dynamic tasks and irritation was stronger as

well. Our results demonstrated that dynamic tasks do not necessarily lead to

impaired health. Managers’ supervisors can play an important role by reflecting on

how to impose change for the managers.41

Pia Muriel Cardoso and Christo F. V. Fernandes (2011) studied how

married people was affected by role stress and Social Support was the main factor

in reducing Role Stress among Doctors. They took a sample of 147 doctors from

Goa Medical College, Goa. Organizational Role Stress Scale constructed by Udai

Pareek was used for the study. The doctors who were not married experience high

level of stress compared to married. The study revealed that social support helped

in reducing organizational role stress among doctors. Social Support has been well

52

accepted and recognized as a mechanism to cope with stress effectively. Junior

level doctors experience more stress than the middle and senior level doctors.42

2.2. Related studies on Coping Skills

Naveen Kumar Gupta (1986) examined the various dimensions of Role

Stress of Public Sector Executives and the coping style used by them to overcome

the stress. 200 executives of BHEL Haridwar selected on the basis of service

lengths – classified into 3 categories, executives with 5 or less than 5 years

service, with 5 to 10 years service, and with more than 10 years service. There is a

linear increase in the extent of ORS as a function of service lengths. Executives

with service length up to 5 years experience more self role distance than others.

Executives with service length of 10 or more than 10 years have more inter role

distance, Role expectation conflict, personal inadequacy, and role inadequacy.

The role stagnation, role erosion was found to be maximum in the group of

executives with the service length of 5 to 10 years. Avoidance style is used by

most of the executives to cope with the stress.43

Gupta (1988) studied the Organizational role stress and coping strategies of

public sector executives. The samples were 50 executives of Irrigation Design

Organization, Roorkee. Organizational Role Stress scale and Coping strategies

(Role PICS) scale constructed by Udai Pareek was used for the research. The

researcher found that Role erosion was experienced by a higher number of

53

executives followed by role inadequacy, role stagnation, self role distance,

personal inadequacy, role isolation and role expectation conflict.

Gupta (1989) examined the Role Stress, Locus of Control, Coping Style

and Role Efficacy among the First Generation Entrepreneurs. They took 60 first

generation entrepreneurs for their study. Maximum role stress was experienced in

the dimension of resource inadequacy. Trained entrepreneurs experienced

maximum stress in inter role distance and non-trained in resource inadequacy.

Married entrepreneurs and entrepreneurs in nuclear family experienced more role

stress compared to unmarried and entrepreneurs in joint family. Age did not have

significant effect on the role stress of entrepreneurs. 44

Srivastav and Avinash (1993) studied the Organizational Climate, Role

Stress and Coping Strategy amongst Public Sector Executives. They took 453

executives for their study. Role erosion was the dominant stressor, followed by

role isolation, resource inadequacy and personal inadequacy. Role Stress was

positively correlated with avoidance coping strategy. Role expectation conflict and

personal inadequacy were positively correlated with age.45

Akinnusi (1994) investigated the relationship between organizational and

job Stressors and Stress Reactions and Coping Styles of managers of different

sectors of bank. It was found that women show behavioural stress then men.

Educational attainment and level in the organization are positively related to

organizational stress while marital status is negatively related to stress. The use of

54

the coping styles depends on personal characteristics as women tend to relieve

stress by talking while men mostly take exercise, smoking or drinking.46

Pandey (1994) studied the Role Stress, Coping Strategies and Psycho-social

Correlates among the executives. 450 executives of 150 middle, 150 lower

management executives and 150 supervisors are included in the study. The three

levels of executives differ significantly in terms of role stagnation and role

overload stresses. Role erosion was found as dominant role stress in all the job

hierarchy levels. 47

Akinnusi (1994) observed the Relationship between Personal Attributes,

Stressors, Stress Reactions and Coping Styles of managers working in banking

sector. The researcher noted that Psychological stress reactions and behavioural

reactions are significantly related to intention to leave the organization, to relax,

talk with someone, consuming alcohol, temporary withdrawal from the stressful

situation and smoking. Also the study implies that females more than males tend

to talk with their friends when under stress. On the other hand, men rather than

women managers are likely to use exercise as a way of coping with stress.

Rajagopalan and Khandelwal (1998) studied the Role Stress and Coping

Styles of Public Sector Managers. The sample was 120 Engineering executives.

The major finding was Total role stress had positive correlation with avoidance

and negative correlation with approach coping style. 48

55

Karve and Nair (2010) examined the relationship between Role Stress and

Coping with Role Stress among Indian Women Executives. The sample consists of

200 women executives employed in public sector, government and private sector

enterprises and the age group ranges from 25-60 years. The instrument used in the

study was Organizational Role Stress Scale and Role Pics (O) constructed by Udai

Pareek. The results shows that the correlation is negative between Inter Role

Distance and Defensive avoidance mode of Role Stress and positive correlation

between Self role distance, Role Space stress and Inter-persistive approach mode

of Role Stress. 49

2.3. Related Studies on Panchayat Presidents

Mishra (1992) revealed that rural leadership is crucial to the effective

functioning of community development programmes. He focused on leaders’

personal characteristics and defined their interactive relationship with strategies

adopted by them under different situations. Mass orientation, which means strong

belief in the power of the people, emerged as a dominant characteristic of effective

leaders. Leaders are mobilizers and/or dedicators. As mobilizers they try to

involve the people in order to strengthen their own position and as dedicators try

to nurture the people and orient them to participate in development processes.

They are usually quite righteous in their outlook and approach.50

Devaki Jain (1992) found that usually these are young women of 25-45

years of age. 20% of the women had previous political experience. The pattern

56

caste representation was the same as before the constitutional change, 60% of the

elected representative whether men or women were from dominant caste. Most of

the women elected were illiterate and above all the majority of women declared

themselves as homemakers. She found that women's experience of Panchayat Raj

institution has transformed many of them. The elements of this transformation

include empowerment, self-confidence, political awareness and affirmation of

information. She argued that women have gained a sense of empowerment by

asserting control over resources, officials and most of all by challenging men

further, women's empowerment challenged traditional ideas of male authority and

supremacy.51

Snehalata Panda1 (1996) in her study of village Panchayat in Orissa found

that women entered into politics due to mandatory provision of reservation. Most

of the women are from non-political background and entered into politics due to

persuasion by their family members or pressure from the village community. The

important aspect of her study is that the women who reluctantly entered into

politics showed great maturity in outlook, enthusiasm, increasing political

consciousness and increasing perception of their role and responsibility.52

Govinda Gowda and others (1996) in their study of Karnataka women

elected Panchayat leader found that the women members of developed taluks were

found to play a better developmental role that their counterparts in the backward

taluks. The study reveals that among the socio-economic attributes such as age,

education, caste, annual household income and land holding of women leaders,

57

only education and annual household income had a highly significant and positive

relationship with their developmental role performance. The findings of the study

state that women members of the Panchayat Raj institution could play an effective

developmental role if they are given adequate recognition and encouragement.53

Vidya (1997) observed the fact that women had poor representation at the

parliament and state legislature level. Since independence the women

representation at both the levels has been fluctuating around five per cent. This

low representation of women indicates the low participation of women in political

decision-making. But, at the level of Panchayat Raj Institutions also, hardly any

progress could be noticed. This is mainly because of the uninterrupted and

undisturbed dominance of rural elites mainly male ones over the rural power

structure. It has been observed that women had an unimpressive role to play in

these institutions since their voice was almost unheard and unnoticed.54

Bhola Nath Ghosh (1999) conducted the study in the district of Birbhum

and Midnapore. The leading question was about the constraints faced by the

women members and their prospects. This study portrayed that the women

members were very active in identification of problems in their locality and

capable enough to pursue any programme . Women were very much conscious

about their legal rights and also making aware the village women regarding this.

Women members identified constraints like, their financial dependence on

other and lack of attitude towards life.55

58

G. Palanthurai (2001) in his study of Tamilnadu observed that women have

come to positions in the local bodies as provisions have been made in the

constitution. The outlook of the society towards the women has started changing.

Author from his experience suggests that women need orientation, sensitization,

capacity building, and information and counseling continuously through

organizations. The ongoing experiments and experiences suggest that periodical

training; orientation and sensitization can help the women leaders to perform the

assigned role in a better way. He argues that the Govt. will respond to the needs of

these women leaders only when social organization and groups support them.56

The National Commission on Women (2001) conducted a study in

covering 100 women from each of the six states , namely ,Haryana ,

Madhyapradesh ,Orissa , Rajasthan ,Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh . This study

also caught the voice of few male members of gram panchayats. The main

research question was about the Men’s reaction to the Women participation

in politics and in decision making . This report showed that women

participation in politics had elevated the status of women inside and outside the

family. Elected women representatives got weightage in the community.57

Tyagi et al. (2002) showed that government officials play important role in

influencing the leadership in Panchayat Raj. They were lacking in motivating

leadership and more oriented towards manipulating and directing people according

to their desire. The negative tendencies, lack of initiatives for modification of

59

development programmes are reflected in the role performance of leaders, which

may prove to be a major hindrance in achieving the true objectives of the

development programmes. Meticulously planned and well organized training

programme with the support of peoples participation can help in the smooth role

performed by leaders.58

Mankar (2003) revealed that the major occupation of the respondents was

farming, followed by business and service. Further, analysis reveals that faming

was the major occupation of male respondents and female respondents, followed

by business in case of male respondents and service in case of female

respondents.59

Chaudhary et al. (2004) concluded from the study that majority of the

women members of gram panchayat lacked the role performance in some sectors

which are of vital importance for the welfare and development of the village. It

was interesting to note that groupism among the members acted as prominent

hurdle in the role performance of leaders followed by lack of cooperation from

villagers and others.60

60

2.4. The outcome of the review

The survey of the related literature of the previous studies reveals that in

organizations employees at all levels, experience a certain amount of role stress

and the different dimensions of roles. Among the ten dimensions of role stress,

role overload is the main cause for the role stress. Due to the role stress their

performance level is reduced and there is negative relation between role stress and

role based performance, job satisfaction, and organizational effectiveness. In such

situations the organizations implement coping strategies to the employees to

overcome stress and provide social support as an effective way of coping with

stress. The previous studies related to Panchayat Presidents were mainly focused

on leadership, role performance, participation, etc. The researcher is interested in

studying the role stress and their coping pattern.

The present study takes into account the various factors revealed in the

review of literature and proceeds to study the realm of stress, role stress,

leadership abilities, and coping patterns with reference to Panchayat Presidents in

the chosen area

61

1 Surti, K. and Sarupriya, D. (1981), “Psychological Factors Affecting women

Entrepreneurs: Some feelings,” Paper presented at Second International Conference of

Women Entrepreneurs, New Delhi.

2 Ahmad, S., Bhardwaj, A. and Narula, S. (1985), “A Study of Stress Among

Executives,” Journal of Personality and Clinical Studies, 1 (2): 47-50.

3 Bhatnagar, D. and Bose, K. (1985),”Organizational Role Stress and Branch Managers,”

Prajnan, 14 (4): 349-60.

4 Khanna, B. B. (1985), “Relationship between Organizational Climate and

Organizational Role Stress and Their Impact upon Organizational Effectiveness: A Case

Study”, Ph. D. thesis, Banaras Hindu University, Banaras.

5 Sharma, T. (1987), “Differential Effects of Organizational Climates on Job Satisfaction,

Sense of Participation, Alienation and Role Stress, Ph. D thesis, University of Gujarat,

Ahmadabad.

6 Singh, G. P. (1987), “Organizational Climate as Moderator of Role Stress-Job

Satisfaction Relationship in Case of Different Job Categories of Computer

Professionals”, Ph. D. thesis, University of Gujarat, Ahmadabad.

7 Jagdish (1987), “Perceived Occupational Stress and Employees Attitude towards Job

and Management”, Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, Vol. 23, No. 1.

8 Srinivasan, P. T. and R. N. Anantharaman (1988), “Organizational Role Stress-Factor

Structure Examination and Comparison amongst Sectoral Organizations” Journal of

Psychometry, 11 (4): 20-21.

9 Kumar, S. (1989), “A Study of Role Stress, Role Satisfaction, Role Efficacy among

Public Sector Executives”, Ph. D. thesis, Maharshi Dayanand Unuversity, Rohtak.

10 Chaudhary, A. (1990), “A Study of the Relationship between Job Satisfaction and Role

Stress of Bank Officers”, M. A. dissertation, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur.

11 Dhadda, N. (1990), “A Study of the Relationship of Role Stress, Job Involvement and

Personality Types in Aviation and Railway Officials”, M. Phil. Dissertation, University

of Rajasthan, Jaipur.

12 Sahgal, P. (1990), “A Study on Organizational Role Stress”, Ph. D thesis, University of

Delhi, Delhi.

13 Luhadia, V. (1991), “A Study of the Relationship between Role Stress and Job

Satisgaction of Geological Officers at Three Different Levels”, Masters Dissertation,

University of Rajasthan, Jaipur.

62

14 Mittal, Uma (1992), “Coping Styles as Related to Role Stress, Locus of Control and

Personality Type”, Ph. D. thesis, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur.

15 Singh, A. P., Bharati Singh (1992), “Stress and Strain among Indian Middle

Managers”, Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, Vol. 28, No. 1.

16 Neera Pant, Gopi Bhardwaj (1992), “Executives Stress and its Correlates”, Indian

Journal of Industrial Relations, Vol. 27, No. 4.

17 Tripti, P. Desai (1993), “Stress and Mental Workload: A study in an Industrial

Organization”, Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, Vol. 28, No. 3.

18 Sharda, S. Nandram, Bert Klandermans (1993), “Stress experienced by active members

of trade unions”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 14: 415-431

19 Siegall, M., Cummings, LL. (1995), “Stress and organizational role conflict”. Genetic,

Social and General Psychology Monographs Feb; 121(1):65-95. Department of

Management, California State University, Chico 95929-0031, USA.

20 Micheal Glissmeyer, James W. Bishop, David Fass, R., “Role Conflict, Role

Ambiguity, and Intention to quit the Organization: The Case of Law Enforcement

Officers”, Academy of Management Journal, 40(1): 82-111.

21 Dutta Roy, D., Deb, N. C. (1999), “Role Stress Profiles of Scientists and Defence

Personnel in Fifteenth Antarctic Expedition”, Fifteenth Indian Expedition to Antarctica,

Scientific Report, Department of Ocean Development, Technical Publication No.13: 371-

375.

22 Mohan V, Chauhan D. (1999), “A Comparative study of organizational role stress

amongst managers of government, public and private sectors”, Journal of the Indian

Academy of Applied Psychology. 1999 Jan-Jul; 25(1-2): 45-50.

23 Lakshmi Narayanan, Shanker Menon & Paul E. Spector (1999), “Stress in the

workplace: a comparison of gender and occupations” Journal of Organizational

Behaviour, 20: 63-73.

24 Prabhat Kumar Mishra and Pestonjee, D.M.(1999), “Role Stress and Job Satisfaction

amongst Doctors”, Journal of Health Management,1 (1): 117-131.

25 Jeffrey Dorman. (2003), “Testing a Model for Teacher Burnout”, Australian Journal of

Educational & Developmental Psychology, Vol 3: 35-47.

26 Mohsin Aziz. (2004), “Role stress among women in the Indian information technology

sector”, Women In Management Review, Vol. 19 (7): 356 – 363.

63

27 Aujla, P., Harshpinder, R., Gill and Sandhu, P. (2004), “Sociological and

Environmental Factors Causing Stress Among Women and Fighting Techniques Used”,

J. Hum. Ecol., 15(3): 207-213.

28 Ekta Sharma. (2005), “Role Stress among Doctors”, Journal of Health Management,

7, 1.

29 Tahira Mubashir & Saima Ghazal (2005), “Occupational Stress and Job Performance”,

Department of Psychology & Applied Psychology, University of the Punjab, Lahore.

30 Sunita Malhotra, Sapna Sachdeva (2005), “Social Roles and Role Conflict: An

Interprofessional Study among Women”, Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied

Psychology, 31: 1-2.

31 Kristina Gyllensten, Stephen Palmer. (2005), “The role of gender in workplace stress”,

Health Education Journal, 64 (3): 271-288.

32 Geetika Tankha. (2006), “A Comparative Study of Role Stress in Government and

Private Hospital Nurses”, Journal of Health Management, 8 (1): 11-22.

33 Panchanatham, N, Kumarasamy, N, Vanitha. (2006), “Stress Management for Problem

Solving Executives with Coercive Leadership style,” Journal of the Indian Academy of

Applied Psychology, Vol.32 (1): 33-36.

34 Kaila, H. L. (2007), “Women Managers in Indian Organizations”, Journal of the

Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, Vol. 33(1): 93-102.

35 Soleiman Ahmady, Tahereh Changiz, Italo Masiello and Mats Brommels (2007),

“Organizational Role Stress among medical school faculty members in Iran: dealing with

role conflict”, BMC Medical Education.

36 Sunetra Bhattacharya, Jayanthi Basu. (2007), “Distress, Wellness and Organizational

Role Stress among IT Professionals: Role of Life Events and Coping Resources”, Journal

of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, Vol. 33 (2): 169-178.

37 Chang, Te-Yi, Chang & Yu-Lien. (2007), “Relationship between role stress and job

performance in salespeople employed by travel agents in Taiwan”, International Journal

of Stress Management, Vol 14(2): 211-223.

38 Ritu Lehal. (2007), “A Study of Organizational Role Stress and Job Satisfaction among

Executives in Punjab”, Indian Management Studies Journal, 11, 57-80.

64

39 Quinn M. Pearson. (2008), “Role Overload, Job Satisfaction, Leisure Satisfaction and

Psychological Health among Employed Women”, Journal of Counseling & Development,

Vol. 86.

40 Craig Wallace, J., Todd Arnold, Bryan D. Edwards, Lance Frazier, M. & David M.

Finch. (2009), “Work Stressors, Role-Based Performance, and the Moderating Influence

of Organizational Support”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol.94 (1): 254-262.

41 Mohr, Gisela, Wolfram & Hans-Joachim. (2010), “Stress among managers: The

importance of dynamic tasks, predictability, and social support in unpredictable times”,

Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, Vol 15(2): 167-179.

42 Pia Muriel Cardoso, Christo Fernandes, F. V. (2011) , “Marital Status, Management

Level and Social Support Differential in Organizational Role Stress among Doctors”,

European Journal of Social Sciences, Vol 20 (3).

43 Naveen Kumar Gupta. (1986), “Organizational Role Stress and Coping strategies of

Public Sector Executives”, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of

Roorkee, Roorkee.

44 Gupta (1989), Role Stress, Locus of Control, Coping Styles and Role Efficacy: A

Study of First Generation Entrepreneurs, M. Phil Dissertation, Delhi University, Delhi

45 Srivastav, Avinash (1993), “A Study of Organizational Climate, Role Stress and

Coping Strategy amongst Public Sector Executives”, Ph. D. thesis, University of

Bangalore, Bangalore.

46 Akinnusi, D. M. (1994), “Relationship between Personal Attibutes, Stressors, Stress

Reactions and Coping Styles”, Management & Labour studies, Vol. 19 (4).

47 Pandey, S. (1994), “Role Stress, Coping Strategies and Psycho-social Correlates”, Ph.

D thesis, Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidhyalaya, Haridwar.

48 Rajagopalan, M., and Khandelwal, P. (1998), “A Study of Role Stress and Coping

Styles of Public Sector Managers”, Psychological Studies, 33 (3): 200-204.

49 Karve, S., Nair, S. K. (2010), “Role Stress and Coping with Role Stress among Indian

Women Executives”, International Journal of Arts and Sciences, 3 (12): 57-85

50 Mishra, R., (1992), Personal Characteristics and Strategies as Factors of Rural

Leadership Effectiveness. Journal of Rural Development, Hyderabad, 1992, 11(1): 59-68. 51 Jain, Devaki,. (1992), Women: New Vision of Leadership: A presentation at Global

forum, Dublin, July 9-12. 52 Panda Snehalata (1996), “Emerging Partern of Leadership among Rural Women in Orissa,

65

Indian Journal of Public Administration, Vol. 42, No. 3-4. 53 Gowada,S and Others, (1996), “Developmental Role of Women members of Panchayati

Raj institutions :A study in Karnataka”, Journal of Rural Development,Vol.15(2),pp,249-

259,NIRD,Hyd. 54 Vidya, K. C., (1997), Political Empowerment of Women at the Grassroots, Kanishka

Publishers, New Delhi 55 Bhola Nath Ghosh (1999) ,”Women Leadership in Gram Panchayats : Prospects and

Constraints” , Socialist Perspective , June-September 1999 56 Palanithurai, G., (2001), “ The New Panchayat Raj System in Tamilnadu”, Rajiv

Gandhi Chair for Panchayatraj Studies, Gandhigram University. 57 The National Commission on Women (2001)

58 Tyagi, L. K., Sinha, B. P. and Singh, R., (2002), “Leadership styles and development

functioning of panchayat bureaucracy”. Rajasthan J. Extn. Edun., pp. 17-22. 59 Mankar.D.M. (2003), “Knowledge of Grampanchayat members about agricultural

technologies and their role performance in konkan region of Maharastra”, Ph. D. Thesis,

Univ, Agric, Sci., Dharwad, Karnataka India 60 Chaudhary, R. R., Mokale, Mamta, Shinde, P. S. and Bhopale, R. S., (2004),

“Role performance by women members in gram panchayat). Rural India. pp. 3-5.