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Review of Literature
29
he present endeavour was undertaken with an objective to find
the effect of Parasitism and Pollution on the native fish, which
made it mandatory to study the water quality of the selected
water bodies in order to find out the level of pollution and also to study
the parasitism in the fish under investigation. This would pave a way
for understanding the influence of the water quality and parasitism on
the fish. Thus the present study was multidimensional and accordingly
to have a clear understanding and background information about the
work done, the literature related to these different aspects was surveyed
and is reproduced briefly hereunder three subheadings covering three
different aspects. These include:
4.1. Physicochemical characteristics
4.2. Parasite Taxonomy in Kashmir
4.3. Fish, Parasitism and Pollution
T
Review of Literature
30
4.1. Physicochemical characteristics
Studies on the water quality have been conducted since long
and the studies have revealed the effect of deteriorating water quality on
the aquatic life. Studies on Kashmir waters have similarly been carried out
and while going through the literature it becomes clear that with
urbanization and development of Industry, the natural systems had to bear
the brunt and Kashmir waters form no exception. The ensuing account
gives a brief resume on the important limnological work carried out on the
water bodies, since it is beyond the scope of the present work to cover all
the work done so far.
Edmonson and Hutchinson (1934) gave an account of Limnology of
Dal, Manasbal and Wular lakes during the course of north India
Expedition. Mortimer (1942) attributed remarkable rise in phosphates in
nutrient rich lakes to reduced oxygen concentration. Welch (1952) carried
out extensive studies on limnology and made an important contribution by
giving various limnological methods. Hutchinson (1957) classified lakes on
the basis of thermal stratification into Monomictic, Dimictic and Polymictic
lakes. The author (1967) studied the physical condition of the lake due to
human activity in the catchment area in New York.
Qasim and Siddiqui (1960) gave a preliminary observation on the
pollution of river Kali caused by the effluents of industrial wastes. Winner
et al. (1962) investigated some physical and chemical characteristics of
Acton lake, Ohio. Mackereth (1964) gave useful methods for water analysis
for limnologists. Ebel and Koski (1969) studied the physical and chemical
limnology of Brownlee reservoir. Tim (1970) carried out limnological
studies of 103 reservoirs and lakes of New South Wales and found that
waters of coastal plains were dominated by sodium (Na) and Chloride (Cl)
Review of Literature
31
ions while those in the high lands were dominated by HCO3, Na, Mg and
Ca.
Zutshi (1968) in his doctoral programme worked on the ecology of
some Kashmir lakes. Zutshi et al. (1972) categorized the lakes of the
Kashmir on the basis of their origin, altitudinal situation and nature of biota
they contain. He (1973) studied the comparison of water quality of some
lakes of Kashmir and in 1977 worked on the limnological aspects of two sub
tropical lakes i.e., Manasbal and Dal lakes. The researchers (1978 a, b)
studied the topology of the lakes and in the same year worked on the
chemical features of Dal lake and (1980 a, b) observed comparative
limnological features of nine lakes of Jammu and Kashmir and in the same
year studied Sarban, man made lake in the north east of Srinagar. He along
with his associates (1984) studied nutrient status and plankton dynamics of
perennial pond. In 1988, he established a trophic gradient between the
inshore and offshore areas of Dal lake. He with Gopal (2000) assessed the
lake diversity based on various limnological parameters and suggested
special efforts for protection, conservation and sustainable management.
Vass (1973) investigated the primary productivity and hydrobiology
of some lakes in Kashmir. He along with his associates (1977 a) initiated the
limnological studies on the river Jhelum of Kashmir valley. He with other
researchers (1977 b) gave an account of pollution indicators of Dal lake,
Kashmir. The author along with Zutshi (1979) recorded that the four basins
of Dal lake differ markedly in regard to their area, volume, maximum
depth, mean depth and index of shore development. He (1980) developed
eutrophic typology of the lakes by using various physicochemical and
biological parameters of the lakes and suggested certain methods of
conservation.
Review of Literature
32
Frosyth et al. (1975) carried out limnological studies of lake
Naghawa. Young (1975) studied the seasonal and diurnal changes in the
water temperature of temperate pond (England) and a tropical pond
(Kenya). Jumppanen (1976) studied the effect of waste waters in two
oligotrophic lakes in Finland and found that the structure of bottom animal
community reflected the influence of waste waters even when
eutrophication and pollution were still slight. Larsen and Malueg (1976)
observed limnological parameters of lake Shagawa, that showed marked
differences from those observed in the less fertile system due to high
fertility and increased algal activity.
Kaul(1977) worked on the limnology of Kashmir lakes, with
reference to trophic status and conservation. Kaul et al. (1980) studied
physico-chemical characterization of Nilnag, a higher altitude forest lake of
Kashmir and its comparison with valley lake. In 1993, he along with
Handoo worked on the ecology and management of some typical wetlands
of Kashmir.
Davis and Zobrist (1978) by making an estimates of the relative
loading from natural and anthropogenic sources for various river systems
compared the results of three methods, linear correlations, factor analysis
and regression curve analysis based on a mathematical model. Goltterman
et al. (1978) described methods of physical and chemical analysis of fresh
water Blackwell.
Yousuf (1979) conducted studies on the limnology and fisheries of
lake Manasbal, Kashmir in his doctoral programme. Yousuf et al. (1992)
studied the various limnological features of lake Manasbal during 1976-
1978 and 1986-88 and made a comparison of the different characteristics
and concluded that the lake is gradually passing towards the eutrophic
state. Yousuf along with Shah (1988) gave comparative limnology of some
Review of Literature
33
freshwater Habitats of Kashmir. Yousuf and Parveen (1992) studied the
ecology of different basins of Dal lake.
Pant et al. (1980) observed that the Nainital lake is showing signs of
accelerated eutrophication as a result of human activities in the catchment
area. Ajayi and Osibanjo (1981) sampled twenty-six Nigerian rivers during
the dry season periods. Seventeen of the rivers examined were found to be
more or less unpolluted, six of them being of high quality. The remaining
nine were found to be polluted naturally. Dissanayake et al. (1982)
monitored the water pollution levels of Kandy Lake in Sri Lanka to probe
the impacts and influences of urban environment in a developing country.
Thomas and Vonderen (1984) noticed an increase in algal blooms and
heavy aquatic growth due to high concentrations of nutrients in water
pumped from agricultural lands into the upper St. Johns River in Florida.
Woodward (1984) reported depletion of oxygen around Trent falls in the
Humber Estuary which in the United Kingdom receives industrial and
sewage discharges.
Trisal (1985) evaluated and compared trophic status of three types of
lake systems of kashmir. He (1987) studied the ecology and conservation of
Dal lake. He (1993) conducted studies on the anthropogenic pressures and
management of Dal lake, Kashmir. Somashekar (1985) studied the
physicochemical and biological parameters of water of river Cauvery,
Karnataka. The need for protecting Cauvery water from pollution has been
stressed.
Khan (1986) studied hydrobiology and organic production in Marl
lake of Kashmir. He (2004) discussed some features of environmental
appraisal of depleting fish diversity of Kashmir Valley.
Satya Mohan (1987) classified Osman Sagar as 'mesotrophic' and Mir
Alam as 'eutrophic' lakes. A two year study of their physiographic,
Review of Literature
34
chemical and biological characteristics revealed deterioration of their water
quality. Henderson et al. (1987) investigated the origin and control of
cultural Eutrophication of the lakes. Osborne et al. (1987) studied the effect
of seasonal water level changes on the chemical and biological limnology of
lake Murray. Cowell et al. (1987) worked out the influence of whole lake
aeration on the limnology of a hyper eutrophic lake U.S.A. Usha and Unni
(1987) studied Bodri nallah an ephemeral stream receiving effluents from
the Chhindwara town. The Physico chemical parameters and distribution of
algae were investigated to understand the water quality. From their studies
it was clear that Bodri nallah receiving sewage was gradually getting
polluted.
Ouzounis et al. (1989) in Greece reported increase in the levels of
plant growth nutrients, PO43-, NO3- and K+ in the areas around the waste
ejection points of fertilizer plants. Samanidou et al. (1989) reported increases
in levels of NO3- and NH4+ near agricultural areas and sewage discharge
points in the Thermaikos Gulf in Greece. Nolen et al. (1989) studied the
limnology and trophic state of Tenkiller Ferry lake. Susanne et al. (1990)
reported that the southern Kattegat was susceptible to eutrophication due
to shallow mean depth and a strong halocline which reduces intrusion of
oxygen to bottom waters. Magdy (1990) studied the physical and chemical
environment of lake Manzala. The salinity and nutrients were observed to
be the important factors which affected the ecology of the lake. Taraby et al.
(1991) studied the limnological aspects of a high mountain lake in Mexico.
Sarwar et al. (1992) conducted limnological survey of Wular lake and
placed the lake in the moderate eutrophic category on the basis of specific
conductance values. Mathuthu et al. (1992) studied the influence of fertilizer
plant discharges on the quality of the receiving Mukuvisi River waters.
Kanth and Bhat (1993) while studying the environmental impact of tourism
Review of Literature
35
on Dal lake found lake seriously affected in term of its water quality,
macrophytic growth, siltation and encroachment. Logaswamy et al. (1993)
studied the physico-chemical parameters of two reservoirs, upper Aliyar
and Kadampari in Tamil Nadu. The upper reservoir was found having
higher amount of nutrients than the lower Kadampari reservoir.
Michael (1995) investigated the impact of point (domestic and
industrial effluents) and non-point (agricultural land runoff) pollution
sources on the quality of the receiving waters of the Evarotas river (Laconia,
Greece) and suggested the measures for its control. Jain et al. (1996) found
seasonal variations in physico-chemical parameters of Halali reservoir of
Vidisha district and indicated that any amount in excess of 0.5 ppm
phosphate is an indicator of pollution and suggested that concentration of
phosphorus in water should be less than 0.05 to control the algal growth.
Mientki et al. (1997) worked on the physical and chemical properties of
water of the Ukiel lake.
Singh et al. (1998) studied the middle stretch of about 110 km from
Moradabad to Bareilly for evaluating the pollution status of river
Ramganga. Investigation revealed that water was highly polluted especially
at out fall of different discharged channel at different centres. Swaranlatha
and Narsing (1998) carried out ecological studies of a lake Banjara with
reference to physico-chemical characteristics and water pollution.
Shrivastava et al., (2001) worked on the river pollution in India and
suggested the remedial measures to control river pollution.
Shrivastava and Patil (2002 a, b) assessed pollution in river Tapti by
investigating the physicochemical properties of water samples. Statistics of
all the parameters have been evaluated and parametric ratio of different
parameters calculated.
Review of Literature
36
Chinmoy and Raziuddin (2002) carried out limnological studies of a
degraded river, Nunia and calculated Water Quality Index (WQI) of the
river, to assess the impact of industries agriculture and human activities on
its water quality. Raghavendra and Hosmani (2002) assessed the water
quality of Mandakally lake polluted due to sewage. Sargaonkar and
Deshpande (2002) on the basis of scientific information developed a water
quality criteria about the effects of pollutants upon a specific use of water.
Shanthi et al. (2002) dealt with the ecological studies of lake Singanallur
with special reference to physico-chemical characteristics and water
pollution.
Gamze et al. (2003) carried out the analysis of water quality of
shallow lakes, Eymir and Mogan Lakes and interactions due to human
activities in and also discussed problems associated with human impacts in
protected areas. Guru Prasad (2003) calculated Water Quality Index (WQI)
of ground water in Adepalli mandal of Guntur and assessed the impact of
pollutants due to agriculture and human activities on its quality. Jayaraman
(2003) analyzed Physico-chemical characteristics of water of Karamana
river. Jyoti et al. (2003) studied two high altitude ponds (man made
Shalimar and Natural Sarkoot pond) for their physico-chemical conditions.
The probable chance of culture of this and some other fish in Sarkoot pond
under prevailing conditions (abiotic and biotic) has been discussed. Moti et
al. (2003) while monitoring the water quality of Hathali stream, revealed
that the water in the stream was heavily polluted. Sivakumar et al. (2003)
studied water quality of the river Ambarampalayam.
Koloanda and Oladimeji (2004) determined the physical and
chemical properties and nutrient levels of the surface water of Shiroro Lake
(Nigeria) and concluded from the nutrient levels, that Shiroro Lake was still
an oligotrophic lake. Kundangar and Adnan (2004) reviewed the ecological
Review of Literature
37
works carried out during the last three decades on Dal lake. Marchetto and
Rogora (2004) presented results of long-term ecological research on
mountain lakes throughout Europe. Rosario et al. (2004) briefly considered
the main factors influencing the water chemistry of Lake Bolsena, the
variations observed from the analyses of the 60s, and the main sources of
risk to water quality. Shahid and Pandit (2004) investigated the impacts of
urbanization by monitoring the hydrochemistry in relation to the presence
of dominant periphytic organisms at five different sampling stations of
river Jhelum. Tartari et al. (2004) studied the chemistry of 31 lakes in the
Khumbu and Imja Kola valleys and considered it in relation to atmospheric
loads, geo-lithological and morphometric characteristics of the watershed
and surface waters.
Koteswari and Ramanibai (2005) focused on water quality of
permanent and temporary water bodies along the urban and suburban
gradients of Chennai City, South India. The results indicated that the
response of water quality variables was different when compared to urban -
suburban locations. Prince et al., (2006) dealt with the general water quality
of Dal lake with emphasis on the impact of sewage water from human
settlements on the lake waters. Anjum and Pandit (2006) recorded
physicochemical characteristics of Brarinambal, one of the basins of Dal
lake. They considered basin eutrophic.
Review of Literature
38
4.2. Parasite Taxonomy in Kashmir
A lot of work has been done on the taxonomy of helminth parasites
from Kashmir valley as is evident from the review but very little work has
been done on the effect of parasites on their host, which makes the present
endeavor all the more important. The literature concerning helminth
taxonomy has been briefly reviewed to provide a background information
about the fish helminths.
The first report on fish parasites dates back to 1927 when Faust
recovered the metacercaria of Neodiplostomum kashmirensis and Strigea
annandales obtained by the survey party of Zoological survey of India from
Kashmir.
The contribution made by Kaw in the field of systematic study of
helminth fauna of Kashmir is unforgettable. He studied helminth fauna of
Kashmir in detail during 1941 to 1951. His work largely pertains to fish and
amphibian hosts. Kaw (1941) described new spp. of genus Pomphorhnchus
Monticelli, 1905 from the fish - Nemachilus kashmirensis and named it as P.
kashmiriensis and described some of its developmental stages. In 1943 the
author described two new trematodes of the family Pleurogenetinae Looss,
1896 with a review of the genus Pleurogenes. He reported a new papillose
allocreadiid, Crepidostomum indicum from Schizothorax niger from Dal lake,
Kashmir. In 1944, described a new Allocreadid Crepidistomum indicum from
Schizothorax niger from the Dal lake. In 1950, the author reported for the first
time infection of Diplozoon by describing D. kashmerensis from Schizothorax
spp. in Kashmir and also framed a key for identification of the four spp. of
Diplozoon reported till then viz., D. paradoxus, D. indicum, D nipponicum and
D. kashmirensis. In 1951 he reported a new species Echinorhynchus orientalis
Review of Literature
39
(Echinorhynchidae) from Schizothorax species from Dal lake which
represented the first record of the genus Echinorhynchus from India. In the
same year encysted forms of Pomphorhynchus spp. was reported from the
intestinal wall of a small Cyprinid fish Botio birdi.
Thaper (1950) described Rhabdochona kashmirensis sp. nov. from the
intestine of Schizothorax niger from Kashmir.
After Kaw, Fotedar (1958-1987) did extensive work on the helminth
fauna of Kashmir. In 1958, proposed a new genus Adenoscolex to
accommodate a new species A. oreini (Cestoda) collected from the gut of
Oreinus sinuatus, fresh water fish in Kashmir. In 1959, he recovered a new
species of genus Ganeo and in 1968, he collected large number of
acanthocephalan worms belonging to the genus Neoechinorhynchus,
Hamann, 1892 from the intestine of Oreinus sinuatus. In 1969, gave
elaborated notes on some Gorgoderid Trematodes belonging to the genera
Gorgoderina and Phyllodistomum from Amphibians and fishes in Kashmir
and other parts of India. Fotedar et al. (1970) collected a new dactylogyrid
trematode Neodeidodiscus botiai from Botia birdi. Fotedar and Dhar (1970)
studied morphology of Filochona kashmerensis (Nematoda). Fotedar and
Dhar (1974) made an extensive helminthological survey of fishes of Jammu
and Kashmir state that revealed interesting records of the genus
Pomphorhynchus from Cyprinus, Oreinus and Tor in Kashmir. Fotedar and
Dhar (1974a) reported Gangesia jammuensis from fresh water fish in Jammu
and (1974b) described a Dactylogyrid trematode Neoallocreadium from
Schizothorax niger. They (1974c) described a new species of the trematode
genus Allocreadium from Schizothorax niger and (1977 a) recorded four
species of Neoechinorhynchus Hamann, 1892 from seven different fishes of
Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh areas of the State. Fotedar and Dhar (1977b)
Review of Literature
40
described four new species of the genus Pomphorhynchus Monticelli, 1905
from the freshwater fishes of Jammu and Kashmir, these were
Pomphorhynchus oriental, Pomphorhynchus jammuensis, Pomphorhynchus
megacanthus and Pomphorhynchus tori. They (1977c) described 5 new species
of the genus Pomphorhynchus from the fresh water fishes of Jammu and
Kashmir and (1977d) described the infection of Rhabdochona in the fishes of
Jammu and Kashmir. He (1979) reported Procamallanus (Monospiculus)
kashmirensis sp. nov. from freshwater fish, Wallago attu from Jammu Two
new spp. of Diplozoon Nordman, 1832 were described by Fotedar and
Parveen from the fishes of Kashmir in 1987.
Dhar (1975 -1992) worked on helminthological fauna of fresh water
fishes. The author in (1975) reported a new spp. Astiotrema fotedari
(Trematoda) from the intestine or Lobeo dero (Hemilton) and redescribed it
in 1978. The author in 1978 redescribed metacercarial form of Clinostomum
shizothoraxi Kaw, 1950. In 1979 (a, b) the author along with Fotedar reported
Procamallanus (Monspiculus) kashmirensis sp. nov. from Wallago attu, a fresh
water fish of Jammu., and some Proteocephalid cestodes from fresh water
fishes of Jammu and Kashmir state. India, which include Gangesia (Vermaia)
jammuensis Fotedar and Dhar 1974, Gangesia (Gangesia) lucknowi Singh 1948;
Gangesia (Gangesia) kashmirensis (n.sp); Proleocephalus torolosus Batsch 1786.
Dhar (1980) gave the redescription of Proteocephalus torulosus Batch, 1786
from Cyprinid fish of Kashmir. Dhar and Kharoo (1981) described a
trematode Allocreadidae from the intestine of fresh water fish Schizothorax
niger. Dhar and Kharoo (1984a) recorded Allocreadium fotedari sp. novo
(Allocrcadiidae Stossich, 1903) from the intestine of Schizothorax niger. In
1984b they recorded Neoechinorhynchus glyptosternumi sp. nov.
(Acanthocephala) from the intestine of a fresh water fish Glyptosternum. In
Review of Literature
41
1986, the authors studied the genus Clinostomum Leidy, 1956 and the
abundance of C. schizothoraxi, Kaw from some fresh water fishes of
Kashmir. Dhar and Anwari (1982) described Rhabdochona Railliet, 1916
(Nematoda) from a brown trout Salmo trutta fario which was a new host
record for this nematode. Dhar and Majidah (1983) described Gangesia
fotedari sp.nov. from a freshwater fish in Wular Lake. Dhar and Raina (1983)
obtained few specimens of Proteocephalus kashmerensis sp. nov. from the
intestine of a freshwater fish, Nemachilus kashmirensis (Hora) from Murran
(Pulwama) and Telbal streams. Dhar (1986) embodies a he1mintho1ogica1
report of Ptyohobarous rattanis, a freshwater fish recovered from various fast
moving mountainous rivers of Ladakh. Dhar and Kharoo (1986) studied
metacercarial forms of genus Clinostomum from gill, gill covers and body
surface of freshwater fishes of Kashmir and drafted an updated list of
species of Clinostomum described from Indian region. Dhar and Jayshree
(1986) investigated the entire course of the river Jhelum. Around 500 fish
hosts representing 3 families, three genera and six species were examined
and their parasites were described. Dhar and Majidah (1987) studied the
fish parasitization by helminths in Wular Lake. Dhar and Peerzada (1989)
studied the seasonal variations in helminth parasites infecting snow trout S.
niger. Dhar and Peerzada (1992) studied seasonal variation in the
occurrence and maturation of Adenoscolex oreini Fotedar, 1958 infecting
some Cyprinid fishes of Wular lake.
Chishti and Bakhshi (1989) reported a new spp. of genus
Pomphorhnchus Monticelli 1905; viz.; Pomphorhynchus fotedari from Cyprinus
carpio communis and in 1992 reported Rhabdochona gupti sp. nov. from the
intestine of fresh water fish Cyprinus carpio specularis of Kashmir. Chishti
and Peerzada (1995) worked out seasonal occurrence of Diplozoon spp. of
Review of Literature
42
Wular fishes. Chishti and Peerzada (1998) studied the seasonal occurrence
of Acanthocephala in fishes of Wular lake; in which they studied the
prevalence, recruitment of infection and the distribution of parasites.
Chishti et al. (2003) worked out the pathology of Adenoscolex Fotedar, 1958
infecting Schizothorax spp. and an obvious damage was recorded.
Fayaz and Chishti (1994) studied the trematode parasites of fishes of
Kashmir. Both authors (1996, 1998) made histological studies on a
Caryophyllidean cestode belonging to the Genus Adenoscolex infecting fresh
water fishes of Kashmir. They (1997) studied the Caryophyllidean cestode
parasites of fishes in Kashmir. Both (1999) recorded three species of
trematode parasites belonging to Diplozoon Nordmann, 1832 from
Schizothorax niger, S. esocinus and Carassius carassius from Anchar and Dal
lakes in Kashmir. The same researchers (2000) reported two species of
Clinostomum Leidy, 1856 from Carassius carrassius and Schizothorax niger
from Anchar and Manasbal lakes in Kashmir, one of which namely C. shafii
was new to science. He with his coassociates (2003) carried out the
microbial studies of the fishes belonging to the gems Schizothorax in four
seasons. He along with other workers (2004) carried out a thorough
helminthological study of the fishes of two freshwater lakes - Manasbal and
Anchar.
Jahan et al. (2000) reported for the first time the Pseudophyllidean
cestode Bothriocephalus (Rudolphi; 1808) from fishes of Kashmir valley. She
along with other researchers (2003) studied the histology of a fish helminth
parasite Diplozoon.
Review of Literature
43
4.3. Fish, Parasitism and Pollution
In view of the nature of the present study, it became imperative to
cover the aspects of the literature concerning fish, parasitism and pollution
and the interrelationships thereof. The stimulating work and investigations
on the problem of pollution and parasitism which forms the subject matter
of the present study is briefly reviewed. For keeping continuity of different
aspects the review is presented under four sub-headings viz.,
4.3.1. Fish Biology
4.3.2. Fish Parasitism
4.3.3. Fish and Pollution
4.3.4. Fish, Parasitism and Pollution
4.3.1. Fish Biology
This part of review incorporates the work done on the fish and its
biology. As Kashmir falls under temperate climatic zone, its fish fauna also
differs from the rest of the country, which necessitated reviewing the fish
biology.
Heckel (1838) identified 16 species of fishes from the Kashmir region
and found them entirely different from those in the plains of India. Day
(1878) listed 18 species from Kashmir.
Le Cren (1951) described mathematically the relationship between
length and weight, primarily as indicators of fatness, general wellbeing,
gonad development etc. Hora (1955) and Menon (1962) studied the
evolution of Schizothoracines and concluded that they appeared during the
first interglacial period, when turbulent streams formed in Central Asia,
necessitating the reduction of scales which is characteristic of
Schizothoracines. Menon (1971) gave taxonomy of fishes of the genus
Schizothorax Heckel with the description of a new species from Kumaon
Review of Literature
44
Himalayas. Menon et al. (2000) Presented eco status of coldwater fish and
fisheries.
Das and Subla (1963) provided a list of 36 species found in lakes,
rivers, wetlands and snow fed streams of Kashmir. Das and Subla (1963),
Fotedar and Qadri (1974) and Sunder et al. (l979) reported that the
introduction of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) during mid- fifties in
Kashmir predominated over the indigenous fish population
(Schizothoracids).
Malhotra (l966) worked out the probable factors influencing the
spawning of Schizothorax niger in Dal lake, Kashmir and found temperature
followed by light having no dependence on rainfall or flood. Jan and Das
(1970) categorised species of Schizothorax and Oreinus as herbivorous fishes,
as most of their food (65-70%) consisted of phytoplankton. Henry (1970)
gave data on the population size, rates of growth, standing stock,
production and yield for three years of all year classes of salmon and trout
within three sections of a stream in Scotland. Subla and Das (1970) reported
the lower percentage of animal food in the diet of Schizothorax and Oreinus.
Subla and Sunder (1981) found exponential value for 'b' equal to value of
2.784 of mirror carp in river Jhelum. In case of Cyprinus carpio communis the
regression coefficient was found to be equal to 3.045.
Tesch (1971) described that the length–weight relationship in fishes
is affected by a number of factors including season, habitat, gonad
maturity, sex, diet and stomach fullness, health and preservation
techniques. Sehgal (1974) started experimentation with collection and
artificial fertilization of eggs from Schizothorax planifrons, S. curvifrons and S.
plagiostomus. In 1988, he considered eight species of fish to be of commercial
importance in the northwestern Himalayas. In l990, the author illustrated
experimental fishing during 1985-87 in the river Beas. The average size of
Review of Literature
45
brown trout and S. richardsonii was 88.0 g and 256 g respectively.
Observations, however, did not confirm the suggested adverse impact of
brown trout on endemic species. Sehgal and Sar (1989) and Sehgal (1990)
while investigating the impact of the Beas-Sutlej Link on limnology and
fisheries of the river Beas, studied the food preferences of brown trout and
Schizothorax richardsonii.
Treasurer (1976) worked on age, growth and length weight of brown
trout Salmo trutta (L.). Ferro (1978) and Pradhan (1982) reported that some
high altitude lakes in Nepal are inhabited only by snow trout. Pradhan
(1982) analyzed that Schizothorax spp. is also present in lakes without a
connection to flowing rivers or streams. Pradhan and Swar (1988) found S.
richardsonii in Indrasarobar reservoir on the Kulekhani River in Central
Nepal. Jhingran and Sehgal (1978) gave an account of the spawning
grounds of various Schizothoracids which migrate from river Jhelum and
lakes Dal and Wular during May- July to various tributaries. Vass et al.
(1978) worked on the breeding behaviour of Schizothorax niger and gave a
brief account of the development and reported that S. niger does not show
any spawning migrations and breeds in the shallow areas of the lakes.
Sunder et al. (1979) believed that the endemic Schizothoracines are fast
losing their ground in Kashmir lakes due to the higher fecundity of
common carp and its habit of spawning in confined waters. Sunder and
Subla (1984) reported that in the Jhelum River in Kashmir, Schizothoracines
represented 78% of the total catch during 1980-82. They were of the opinion
that in the river Jhelum the presence of the common carp has had no impact
on Schizothoracines. Sunder (1992) gave review on the biological studies of
Schizothoracids in Jammu and Kashmir state and their cultural possibilities.
Shrestha (1981) reported Schizothorax spp. from rivers and lakes at an
altitude from 784 m to 3323 m in Nepal. Shrestha (1995) concluded that 34
Review of Literature
46
fish species (about 18 % of the total reported fish species) are threatened
(endangered -1, rare - 24 and vulnerable - 9).
Fernando (1984) worked on Parakrama Lake, Sri Lanka where an
exotic species tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus was introduced that had
positive effect on the indigenous fish community.
Raina et al. (1985) made a comprehensive survey of various lakes and
streams of Kashmir valley to assess the potentials of Schizothoracids seed.
Various water quality parameters at the spawn collection centres were in
the following ranges; water temperature 9.0-18.0 oC; pH 6.6-7.4; Dissolved
oxygen 8.2-10.6 mg/1; total alkalinity 26 - 100mg/1 and silicates 0.18-0.57
mg/1. ; He along with his coassocites (1986) made a preliminary work for
the culture of Schizothoracids at Srinagar. Different species of Schizothorax
were bred artificially by stripping method. The rate of fertilization varied
between 70-90%. He and Narain (1992) gave the key to the various species
belonging to the genus Schizothorax.
Nath (1986) prepared a check-list of fishes of Jammu and Kashmir
state and for the first time included as many as 42 species from Kashmir.
Lubinski et al. (1986) found high number of common carp in upper
Mississippi river and worked out its adverse effect on the native fish.
Swar and Gurung (1988) evaluated a 42% reduction of the native fish
Mystus spp. and Puntius spp. after introduction of Bighead carp
(Aristichthys nobilis), silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), and grass carp
(Ctenopharyngodon idella) in Lake Begnas in Pokhara Valley. Kumar (1988)
reported that common carp contributed 22-35% to the total catch between
1975 and 1984 Gobindsagar Reservoir but with the increase in silver carp
there was a decline in common carp.
Sharma (1989) found that Snow trout preferred rapids and pools of
large torrential streams fed by snow-melt with water temperature from 8oC
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47
to 22oC. He reported 28 species of snow trout in the himalayan and sub-
himalayan regions including Tibet, China and Pakistan.
Rai (1990) while working Indrasarobar reservoir of the Kulekhani
river in central Nepal analyzed that Schizothorax richardsonii has declined in
catches from 2% to 0.98%. In 2002 with other workers presented the status
of snow trout in Nepal. Misra et al. (1990) presented a model weighted
procedure for analysing fish condition.
Christopher and David (1991) evaluated seasonal variation in catch
rate (catch per unit effort, CPUE) and body condition (relative weight, Wr)
for northern pike Esox lucius, black crappie Pomoxis nigromaculatus, yellow
perch Perca flavescens and walleye Stizostcdion vitreum sampled with trap
(modified fyke) nets in Lake Madison, South Dakota. Pandit (1991) reported
Cyprinus carpio communis to be the fair fish type in Nowgam, Haigam,
Mirgund and Hokarsar, while Cyprinus carpio specularis was found limited
to Mirgund and Hokarsar.
Yousuf and Pandit (1992) investigated breeding biology of
Schizothorax niger. Same researcher with his coassociates (1992) conducted
studies on the length-weight relationship in some cyprinid fish in Manasbal
lake, Kashmir. He (1995) worked on the nutritional regime and is impact on
the fishes of Anchar lake, Kashmir. He (1996) presented compiled
information on fishery resources of Kashmir. He along with Pandit (1996)
worked on the embryonic and post embryonic developmental process of
the Schizothorax niger in the laboratory. He in association with Firdous
(1997) studied food spectrum of crucian carp, Carassius carassius in Anchar
lake, Kashmir. He (2000) investigated the impact of man on fish diversity in
Kashmir.
Pandit et al. (1992) presented morphology and morphometry of the
Schizothorax niger and redescribed the species in the light of additional
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48
information. Shrestha (1995) described 22 species as rare and 26 species as
pristine rare fish species. Shrestha and Khanna (1979) suggested that the
spawning season of Schizothorax richardsonii from Nepal waters depends
upon suitable extroceptive factors, e.g., photoperiod, temperature, pH flood
etc. In 1997 worked on population of snow trout and observed that snow
trouts are less affected by damming the rivers of nepal as they made a
small-scale migration to tributaries to breed in clear and cool water and
returned to the main stream during the low flow period.
Andrew (1995) reviewed selected software applications which are
either currently available, under development, or which may serve as
inspiration for future development of appropriate applications in the fields
of fish health. Deepak and Ramesh (1995) read scales from specimens of a
himalayan teleost Schizothorax richardsonii from the Alaknanda hillstream in
the Garhwal Himalayas for age determination and calculation of growth
parameters.
Martin (1996) described the length/weight relationships for 16
species of common freshwater fishes from the headwater streams of the
Segama river, East Malaysia. Common regression equations are given. Farr
et al. (1996) found that the Sunbleak which was deliberately introduced at
two lakes in southern England with other fish species from Europe, had
spread rapidly. This success they attributed partly to the result of Sunbleak
life history characteristics, including reproductive behaviour (batch
spawner, nest guarder), early sexual maturity and an unusually small adult
size for a cyprinid.
Rajbanshi (1996) endorses the general view of sharp depletion of fish
stocks in many water bodies around densely populated areas and
development projects in Nepal. Anderson and Neumann (1996) provided a
comprehensive review of body condition indices.
Review of Literature
49
Langeland and Pederson (2000) analysed the population dynamics of
brown trout in Lake Songsjoen using cohort-analysis. Ulugbek (2000)
provided brief data on the distribution, morphology, biology and way of
life of the fishes inhabiting rivers located in Chatkal Biosphere Reserve.
Janica et al. (2000) presented a model to determine the effect of growth
conditions on the age and size-structure of fish populations. Tzeng et al.
(2000) studied the age and growth of Japanese eels collected during their
downstream spawning migration.
Harrison (2001) described and presented the length - weight
relationship of 83 fish species representing 31 families captured in South
African estuaries. Hoffmann and Fischer (2001) examined the seasonal
changes in the abundance and age structure of the stone loach and burbot
populations in the littoral of lake Constance, Germany. Same authors (2003)
studied impact of temperature on food intake and growth in juvenile
burbot.
Lizama and Ambrosio (2002) described the condition factor for nine
species of tropical freshwater fish of the Characidae family in the upper
Parana river floodplain. Moutopoulos and Stergiou (2002) presented the
relationships between total (TL), fork(FL) and standard (SL) length for 37
fish species and the relationships between TL and wet weight for 40 fish
species from the Aegean Sea (Cyclades; Greece). Lorenzo (2002) studied
age, growth, reproduction and mortality of Striped seabream, Lithognathus
mormyrus L. (n = 731) caught from the Canary Islands.
Gazala (2003) studied different biological aspects Schizothorax
curvifrons belonging to family Schizothoracidae and Cyprinus carpio
communis belonging to family Cyprinidae. The data regarding the catch
composition in the commercial catches, length -weight relationship,
condition factors, feeding biology and feeding competition of the two fish
Review of Literature
50
species was presented. Godo (2003) discussed major causes of variation in
stock and abundance of north-east Arctic cod. Rodolphe et al. (2003)
examined the length-weight relationships and age of the non-indigenous
cyprinid, Sunbleak (Leucaspius delineatus) to highlight the potential threat to
native 0+ cyprinids. Valle et al. (2003) presented Weight–length
relationships for 24 species of the western Mediterranean Sea (Spain).
Koutrakis and Tsikliras (2003) gave length–weight relationship values for
43 freshwater, estuarine and marine fish species collected from three
northern Aegean estuarine systems.
Sinovcic (2004) examined growth and length- weight relationships of
juvenile specimens of anchovy, Engraulis encrasicolus (Linnaeus, 1758) in the
Zrmanja river estuary. Sinovcic et al. (2004) described Length–weight and
length–length relationships for 10 small, middle-size and large pelagic fish
species from the Adriatic Sea. Gonzalez (2004) estimated the relation
between length (L) and weight (W) for 33 species representing 14 families
of fishes from El Conchalito mangrove swamp, Gulf of California (Mexico).
Mendes et al. (2004) estimated Weight–length (W–L) relationships for 46
species of fish captured of the western Portuguese coast. Bartulovic (2004)
investigated the age, growth, mortality and morphometry of the sand
smelt, Atherina boyeri, in the Mala Neretva River estuary (mid-eastern
Adriatic Sea). Filiz and Bilge (2004) presented Length–weight relationship
parameters of the form W = a Lb for 24 fish species from the North Aegean
Sea. King and Etim (2004) studied the biology and fisheries of Tilapia mariae,
the only Tilapiine cichlid fish in the Iba Oku (Uyo, Nigeria) wetland stream.
Moata et al. (2005) analyzed the growth of young common carp
(Cyprinus carpio) in the Deroua fisheries station (Morocco). Craig et al. (2005)
determined the length–weight relationship of lake sturgeon caught from
Review of Literature
51
the St Clair River (SCR) system. Analysis of covariance found no difference
in the length–weight relationship between sampling gear or sex.
Nilsson and Persson (2005) investigated the abundance of stone
loach (Barbatula barbatula, L.) and related it to the presence of brown trout
(Salmo trutta, L.) and in stream habitat variables. The results showed that
large trout tended to have negative effects on final stone loach biomass.
Oscoz et al. (2005) reported on weight–length relationships (WLR) for Salmo
trutta (Linnaeus, 1758), Phoxinus phoxinus (Linnaeus, 1758), Chondrostoma
Chondrostoma miegii (Steindachner, 1866), Barbus graellsii (Steindachner,
1866), Barbatula barbatula (Linnaeus, 1758) and Gobio gobio (Linnaeus, 1758).
Shaheena et al. (2005) reported on the catch composition of fishes of
Dal Lake. Eight species contributed to the catch out of which Cyprinus carpio
alone formed about 70% and Schizothoracine group formed about 14%.
Quist et al. (2005) approached hierarchical faunal filters and assessed effects
of habitat and non native species on native fishes, especially for those
species at the edge of their natural distribution. Wilde and Sawynok (2005)
studied growth and total mortality of Australian bass, Macquaria
novemaculeata Steindachner, in four freshwater impoundments using data
from a cooperative angler tagging programme.
Bhat et al. (2006) studied ecology of fish in Wanghat Nallah, a
tributary of Sindh stream. Water was found soft in the upstream of the
Wanghat barrage, while below it the water in the wanghat nallah as well as
the Sindh stream was hard. Nine fish species were recorded in the study
area. They reported that the distribution and dominance of the various fish
species varied from place to place in the stream.
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52
4.3.1. Fish Parasitism
This part of the review deals with the investigations done by various
scientists and workers on the parasites and their effect on the health of fish
fauna.
Cross (1935) showed that a reduction occurred in the weight and
length of perch parasitized with species of adult tapeworms, when
compared to normal unparasitized fish.
Miller (1945) showed that plerocercoids of Triaenophorus crassus
affected the growth of both whitefish and tullibe Leucichthys sp. in lesser
Slave Lake, Canada.
Dombroski (1955) reported that the infected smolts were smaller
than the uninfected fish, sockeye smolts from Babine Lake, British
Columbia.
Pitt and Grundmann (1957) studied the effects of parasitism on the
normal growth of yellow perch by the plerocercoid larvae of Ligula
intestinalis. The incidence of infection appeared to increase with age as 1.4%
of the one year old fish, 7.0% of the two year, 18.5% of the three year, 25.4%
of the four year; and 24.0 % of the five year age group were found infected.
Comparison of parasitized and unparasitized fish of the same age groups
indicated a marked stunting effect on growth following infection.
Chauhan and Ramakrishna (1958) reported fish mortality by Cestode
cysts in stocking tank at Nagpur, India.
Dobson (1961) showed that the ecological factors like the diet, sex
and age of the hosts play a definite role on the susceptibility of nematode
infection.
Bauer and Nikolskaya (1961) studied the parasitic fauna of Coregonus
lavaretus (L.) from Lake Ladoga and percentage infection of Echinorhynchus
Review of Literature
53
salmonis (Muller, 1780) in whitefish was noted. Fewer male E. clavula were
found than females.
Bullock (1963) studied the histopathology of Acanthocephalans and
Clinostomatic metacercaria infecting the fishes. He stated that
Acanthocephalus jacksoni can be highly pathogenic for brook trout and
rainbow trout in culture and found it responsible for causing necrotic
haemorrhagic ulcers.
Rai (1966) discussed the pathogenic significance of the
Proteocephalidan and Bothriocephalidan tapeworm parasites reported from
Siluroid freshwater fishes, representing four species viz, Proteocephalus
vitellaris, Vermaia pseudotropii, Gangesia bengalensis and Senga lucknawensis.
Williams and Richards (1968) observed cellular infiltration in Raja
radiata infected by Pseudanisakis rotundata. Williams et al. (1970) reviewed
the distribution of helminths in the digestive tracts of fishes inhabiting
different riverine and pond ecosystems.
Fischer and Freeman (1969) found that the pleurocercoids of
Proteocephalus ambloptis secrete a histolytic secretion which aids in
penetration, and change in shape and shifting of entrance of the nematode
and suggested that this was temporary and the adjacent cells would restore
their originality in due course.
Wilson (1971) showed a decline in the number of roach over a period
of study, and he linked this decline to a heavy infestation of Ligula
intestinalis (L.).
Pennycuick (1971a) observed poor body condition delayed ovarian
maturation in female three-spined stickleback due to parasitism. He (1971b)
quantified the effect of three species of parasites on a population of three-
spined sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus. He (1971c) observed seasonal
Review of Literature
54
variation in the parasite infections in a population of three-spined
sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus (L.).
Mackiewiez et al. (1972) studied the relationship of pathology to
scolex morphology of Caryophyllid cestodes from a cyprinoid fish of North
America.
Bauer et al. (1973) found that the heavily infected fish with swollen
abdomen, become sluggish, emaciated and cease to feed. Bauer and
Karimov (1990) studied patterns of parasitic infections of Schizorhorax
intermedius in two water bodies of North Tadjikistan (Central Asia), one
with constant temperature during the whole year; the other with normal
annual seasonal range of temperature fluctuations. Bauer et al. (2002)
provided a brief overview of the status of knowledge on parasites and
diseases in sturgeons in Russia, their occurrence and distribution.
Hine and Kennedy (1974 a,b) studied the distribution, specificity and
pathogenicity of the Acanthocephalan Pomphorhynchus laevis (Muller) in the
River Avon, Hampshire.
Kalman et al. (1974) examined fish for parasites. 84 species of
parasites (22 of Protozoa, 24 of Monogenea, 17 of Digenea, 11 of Cestoda, 4
of Nematoda, 1 of Hirudinea, 1 of glochidia, and 4 of Crustacea) were
collected and are listed and discussed. Kalman (2002) redescribed and
carried out histopathology of Myxobolus cyprinicola Reuss, 1906, an
Intestinal Parasite of the Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio L.).
Boyce (1974) studied the lifecycle of adult Eubothrium salvelini, a
parasite of juvenile sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) Babine Lake. He
along with Yamada (1977) carried laboratory experiments and found that
sockeye salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka, smolts with preexisting parasitization
by the intestinal pseudophyllidean cestode Eubothrium salvelini were more
susceptible to zinc poisoning than unparasitized siblings. He (1979) found
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55
that the Parasitism had a deleterious effect on the growth, survival, and
swimming performance of the fish. He in association with Clarke (1983)
found impaired seawater adaptation of migrant sockeye salmon yearlings
(Oncorhynchus nerka) infected with Eubothrium salvelini from Babine Lake,
British Columbia.
Eure (1976) worked out the seasonal abundance of Neoechinorhynchus
cy1indratus. Incidence of infection for this parasite was generally greater
than 95% regardless of location.
Ahmad and Sona Ullah (1979) found pathological effects on the
intestines on Clarias batrachus induced by Caryophyllid cestodes causing
lesions in them.
Bell et al. (1980) illustrated the prevalence and intensity of Capillaria
catostomi (Nematoda; Trichuroidea) infecting white suckers.
Borowiec et al. (1981) investigated three fish families: Clupeidae,
Cyprinidae and Percidae. The parasites found belong to the groups
Monogenea, Trematoda, Cestoda, Nematoda, Acanthocephala and
Crustacea. The fishes investigated were slightly infected, but suitable for
consumption.
Thatcher (1983) presented the mode of attachment of
Linguadactyloides brinkmanni gen. et sp. novo from the gills of fresh water
fish Collossoma macropomum (Cuvier) (Characidae), from Janauaca lake in
Brazil and associated pathology of the parasite.
Lemly and Esch (1984) monitored prevalence, intensity and effect of
Uvulifer ambloplitis (Trematoda) on population of juvenile Blue gill sunfish,
Lepomis macrochirus enlarged Mouth bass Macropterus salmoides.
Raina and Koul (1984) worked on the histopathology of
Neoechinorhynchus hutchinsoni infection in Nemachilus kashmirensis.
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56
Pool and Chubb (1985) presented Scanning Electron
Microphotographs of scolex of Bothriocephalus acheilognathi Yamaguti, 1934.
Zaman and Seng (1986) carried out studies on the histopathological
effects on the intestines of cat fish, Clarias batrachus and C. macrocephalus
infected by the Caryophyllid cestode Djombangia penetrans Bovien, 1926.
Smith and Cramer (1987) compared surface use and survival of
parasitized and nonparasitized ninespine sticklebacks (Pungitius pungitius)
at different levels of dissolved oxygen.
Szalai and Dick (1987) recorded intestinal pathology and site
specificity of Neocchinorhynchus carpiodi Dechtiar, 1968 in quillback,
Carpiodes Cyprinus (Lesuer).
Riggs and Esch (1987) studied the abundance, dispersion and
prevalence of Pseudophyllidean Cestode, Bothriocephalus acheilognathi in
mosquito fish.
Sinha (1987) studied the pathogenecity of Genarchopsis goppo (Ozaki)
(Trematode) on the stomach wall of fresh water fish Channa gachua (Ham.).
Kalantan et al. (1987) studied the seasonal incidence and
pathogenecity of metacercariae Clinostomum complanutum in Aphanuis
dispar.
Dobson (1988) reviewed the ability of parasites to change the
behavior of infected hosts.
Silan and Maillard (1989) classified several aspects of Serranicotyle
labracis, ectoparasite of Teleostei and observed the behaviour of the hosts,
maturity and sex as main factors determining the extent of infestation.
Rahkonen and Valtonen (1989) studied Crepidostomum spp. from
whitefish (Coregonus acronius Rapp, 1854), vendace (Coregonus albula L.) and
Brown trout (Salmo trutta m. lacustris (L.)) from Lake Yli-Kitka in
northeastern Finland during 1980-1983. 12.7% of the whitefish were
Review of Literature
57
infected with Crepidostomum with a mean intensity of 4.6 worms per
infected fish.
Chakravorty and Tandon (1989) studied the extent of damage to the
intestine caused by Caryophillid cestode Lytocestus indicus, Djombangia
penetrans and by multipe infections containing several species of
Caryophillid in the cat fish Clarias batrachus L.
Karimov (1989) studied the peculiarities of the infection of
Schizothorax intermedius with Paradiplozoon schizothoraxi in connection with
sexual maturity and egg production.
Wanstall et al. (1990) investigated the distribution of Pomphorhynchus
zaevis in the alimentary canal of naturally infected stone roach. Younger
fishes were less often and less heavily infected in terms of number of
parasites with the parasites being larger in older fish.
Dezfuli et al. (1990) studied the histopathology developed in the sand
smelt Atherina boyeri Risso, 1810 from Northern Italy as the result of a
natural infection by Telosentis exiguus Von Linstow 1901 (Acanthocephala).
In 1991, he studied and described the histopathology in Leuciscus cephalus
Risso, 1826 from the River Po, naturally infected with the acanthocephalan
Pomphorhynchus laevis Muller, 1776. He along with Rossi(1991) studied
infections by the acanthocephalan Telosentis exiguus (Von Linstow, 1901)
and another unknown acanthocephalan in the sand smelt Atherina boyeri
(Risso, 1810) from the Tirso River mouth in Sardinia. Same researcher in
1992 examined the sheatfish, Silurus glanis (L.), from the terminal part of
River Po for the presence of helminth parasites. He (1996) found Cypria
reptans (Crustacea: Ostracoda) as an intermediate host of Neoechinorhynchus
rutili (Acanthocephala: Eoacanthocephala) in Italy. He and his associates
(1997) studied histopathology of the alimentary canal of Anguilla anguilla L.
associated with digenetic trematodes with the help of light and Electron
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58
microscope. He and his coworkers (1998a) described rodlet cells from
alimentary canal of Anguilla anguilla and studied their relationship with
parasitic helminths. He along with his coassociates (2000) investigated
Immuno- histochemical detection of neuromodulators in the intestine of
Salmo trutta L. naturally infected with Cyathocephalus truncatus Pallas
(Cestoda). He along with his coresearchers (2001) studied species co-
occurrences and interspecific associations between intensity of infection in
helminth communities of three populations of brown trout, Salmo trutta,
from northern Italy. In 2002, carried out immunohistochemical and
pathological studies on the digestive tract of parasitized and uninfected
specimens of Salmo trutta (L.). The researchers (2004) conducted
immunohistochemical and histopathological studies on a population of 3-
spined sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus (L.) from Loch Airthrey (Stirling,
Scotland) naturally infected with the microsporean Glugea anomala.
Thoney and Hargis (1991) discussed different aspects of
monogenean infestation, associated pathology, and prevention or
treatments.
Albert and Curtis (1991) worked on prevalence and abundance of
helminth parasites in an intensive fish population of brook trout Salvelinus
fontinalis at a small subarctic lake. The seasonal population dynamics of
Paraquimperia tenerrina Linstow (Nematode) was studied.
Willer et al. (1991) worked on the histopathology of the swim
bladder of Cisco Coregoniia artedii, due to the presence of nematode
Cystidicola farionics.
Sharp et al. (1992) made analyses on the development of the
inflammatory response of rainbow trout to experimental infections with
Diphyllobothrium dendriticum plerocercoids using light and electron
microscopy.
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59
Castro (1992) reported that the gut dwelling endoparasitic helminths
often induce changes in the morphology of host intestinal tissue and can
cause an internal stress that leads to modification of the structure and
function of local tissues.
Trejo (1992) studied some aspects of the host-parasite relationships
of Pomphorhynchus patagonicus (Acanthocephala) in 2 fish species from Lake
Rosario (Chubut, Argentina). Trejo (1994) analyzed the Prevalence,
intensity, size of the Acanthocephalan Pomphorhynchus patagonicus in 3
species of fish in the Alicura Reservoir (Patagonia, Argentina). He
attributed relatively low prevalence and intensity to the low consumption
of the intermediate host, Hyalella patagonica.
Hartvigsen and Kennedy (1993) studied patterns in the composition
and richness of helminth communities in brown trout, Salmo trutta, in 10
resevoirs of broadly similar age and characteristics situated close to each
other in a well defined region of south west England.
Garcia et al. (1993) studied prevalence of parasitic trematode and
their pathology in fishes from the lakes of Mexico.
Roubal (1993) studied the comparative histopathology of Longicollum
(Acanthocepha1a: Pomphorhynchidae) infecting the alimentary tract and
spleen of Acanthoparus australis (Pisces: Sparidae). He (1995) described
microhabitat, attachment of eggs and histopathology of Allomurraytrema
robustum (Monogenea) on Acanthopagrus australis (Pisces). In 1998 observed
that Acanthopagrus australis showed higher abundance with
Prototransversotrema steeri in winter and nine in summer while
Transversotrema licinum showed large abundance in A. austrailis in summer
and winter and lowest abundance in spring.
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60
Molnar et al. (1993) studied the histopathology of Nematode,
Anguillicola crassus (Nematoda) in the swim bladder of eels. The infected
bladder showed degeneration, inflammation and proliferation.
Ogawa et al. (1994) reported mortality among Amberjack Seriola
dumerili imported to Japan caused by a blood fluke Paradeontacylie.
Parasitological examination revealed the accumulation of parasitic eggs in
the afferent arteries of the gills of dead fish resulting in suffocation.
Belghyti et al. (1994) studied the effect of host age, size, sex,
reproduction, feeding upon the parasite population biology, focusing upon
the host diet. The relationships of length to weight (relative growth) in
unparasitized and parasitized (B. andersi) fish were compared by analysis of
covariance.
Hoole and Misan (1994) studied the pathology of B. acheilognathi
Yamaguti 1934 on the gut of an experimentally infected carp, C. campro.
There had been a loss of gut microvilli and separation and shedding of
enterocysts occurred against the sight of attachment when seen under light
and electron microscope.
Honma (1995) analyzed profileration of fibrous connective tissues
and concentration of melanocytes, acidophilic granulocytes and
macrophages in the infected portion of the intestine mucosa and the
intestinal epithelium was also destroyed in Stickleback pungitius pungitius
which was infected by Echigoensis Fajita 1920 (Acanthocephala).
Dorucu et al. (1995) examined Brown trout (Salmo trutta) and
rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), obtained from 21 locations in Central
Scotland found different endoparasitic helminth infections. The prevalences
and intensities of each helminth infection were recorded. Fish with the
highest worm burdens (e.g. 339 Plerocercoids of Diphyllobothrium spp.)
evidenced no morbidity. He (2000) investigated the relationship between
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61
helminth infections, nutrient reserves and gonadal status in Powan,
Coregonus lavaretus in relation to infection with Diphyllobothrium spp from
Loch Lomond, Scotland, UK. Powan infected with the Cestode has less
protein and lipids in the gonads, showing that infection has a deleterious
effect on reproduction. It was concluded that fish in good condition had
high protein content in their gonads.
Konovalov (1995) reviewed the applicability of parasites as
indicators of host biology, with special reference to Oncorhynchus nerka
under the headings: fish parasites as ecological indicators at the
subpopulation level; parasite indicators and extinct ichthyofauna; parasites
and their population dynamics in host populations.
Tierney et al. (1996) reported that S. solidus had a differential,
deleterious effect on the body condition of three-spined stickleback.
Barber (1997) described a morphometric technique used to predict
the infection status and parasite index of the fish, The technique is non-
invasive and employs photograph. He along with Ruxton (1998) studied
the foraging success of three-spined sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus,
infected with plerocercoids of a cestode, Schistocephalus solidus, in
competition with uninfected conspecifics. He (2001) identified the temporal
changes in the behaviour of experimentally infected sticklebacks, compared
with uninfected control fish, and related this to the developmental stage
and growth of the parasite. Researcher along with Svensson (2003) in one
laboratory experiment found that female three-spined stickleback infected
by Schistocephalus solidus had significantly lower perivisceral lipid stores
and significantly larger ovaries than the controls at the end of the
experiment.
Poulin (1997) examined the relationship between the host specificity
of parasite and the richness of the assemblages in which they occur among
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62
the parasite faunas of Canadian freshwater fishes. He (1999) studied the
biological and statistical causes of variation in the intra specific relationship
between fish length and intensity of parasitic infection. He (2000) provided
a clearer overall picture of size-dependent (or age-dependent) patterns of
parasitic infections in fish. Poulin and Valtonen (2001) investigated the pair
wise associations among larval helminth species in eight different fish
populations. He along with Valtonen (2002) tested the repeatability of
parasite community structure in space, and to a lesser extent time, with
data on helminth parasites of two fish species, perch Perca fluviatilis and
roach Rutilus rutilus, collected in different seasons from four adjacent lakes
in Central Finland. He and his associates (2003) investigated the effect of
four helminth species commonly found in trout, Salmo trutta, in northern
Italy. Results illustrated the importance of considering helminth
interactions and helminth growth in a natural setting.
Kedra (1997) provided a description of fish condition indices
together with the formula for calculating them, and examples of their
application in parasitological studies.
Janovy et al. (1997) reported population and community descriptor
values (parasites per host, prevalence per parasite species, variance/mean
ratios, species density, and diversity indices) for the 7-species parasite
community of 61 relatively homogeneous samples of Fundulus zebrinus
(Pisces: Cyprinodontidae) in the South Platte river of Nebraska, U.S.A.
Aloo and Dezfuli (1997) sampled and examined fish for helminth
parasites. The prevalence of infection due to cystacanths of an
Acanthocephalan, Polyacanthorhynchus kenyensis Schmidt et Canaris, 1967
among parasitized O. leucostictus ranged from 30.4 to 86.9%; among T. zillii
from 4.1 to 77.7%; in M. salmoides from 20 to 50%; and in B. amphigrama from
5.8 to 100%.
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Fairweather (1997) studied the anatomical changes induced by
enteric parasites and related them with biochemical and physiological
changes.
Robinson et al. (1998) assessed the relationship among fish health,
eukaryotic parasites, bacterial and viral infections of the reintroduced
endangered Xyrauchen Texanus and Ptychocheilus lucius into river Vedre,
Arizona, USA.
Zelmar and Aria (1998) examined the independent effects of host age
and size on parasite abundance in yellow perch. The abundance of
Diplostomum adamsi and Bothriocephaus spp.were both found to increase
with the host age. Their transmission was not found to be affected by host
size.
Nasira et al. (1998) studied the histopathological changes in the
stomach of fish Murainisox cinereus Forsk, 1775 infected with a trematode
Stomachicola muraenesocis Yamaguti, 1934. The investigations confirmed the
destruction or damage of mucosal layer and serosa of the stomach.
Krik and Lewis (1998) studied the histopathological response of the
Carp Cyprinus carpio to Sanguinicola inermis. It was seen that the juvenile
flukes and adult caused mechanical damage to tissue during invasion and
migration. Epithelial tissues also showed necrosis, hyperplasia,
haemorrhage and eosinophilia.
Dove (1998) studied the impact of exotic fresh water fishes on the
native fishes of Australia with reference to parasitism and particularly to B.
acheilognathi.
Barus et al. (1999) analysed muscle samples from European eel,
Anguilla anguilla infected or not infected with Anguillicola crassus
(Nematoda) for 5 macroelements and 5 microelements and concluded that
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64
mean values of these elements were significantly lower in infected eels than
in uninfected eels.
Radchenko (1999) reported Diphyllobothriasis disease of fishes,
infected with Diphylobothrium latum in the basins large lakes in the
European north of Russia.
Shankar and Ramesh (1999) reported the mortalities of common
Carp fry in Mangalore, which were infected with larval trematode.
Histopathological examination of moribund fish revealed the presence of
encysted metacercaria of Centrocestus spp. in the skin and gills.
Brouder (1999) studied relationship between length of roundtail
chub (Gila robusta) and infection intensity of Asian fish tapeworm
Bothriocepahalus achelognathi and concluded that infection of the parasite
may slow growth, increase sucesptibility to infestation and increase
predation on the host.
Afifi et al. (2000) carried out a histopathological assessement of
different parasites affecting thirty Oreochromis niloticus from fish farms in
Saudi Arabia.
Taraschewski (2000) found pathogenicity of Acanthocephalans due
to density of worms and depth of parasite penetration into the host tissues.
Emere (2000) examined Nile perch, Lates niloticus (L.) from the river
Kadona, Nigeria, for ecto and endoparasites. The prevalance and intensity
of infection were higher for Acanthocephalans and Cestodes in larger fish.
Perez (2000) studied helminth communities of native and introduced fishes
in lake Patzcuaro, Michoacan, Mexico. Lee and Khan (2000) studied the
length weight /age relationship, food and parasites of Atlantic cod (Gadus
morhus). The prevalence and abundance did not differed greatly between
locations either spatially or temporally. Okaka and Koura (2000) studied
the prevalence of helminth parasites infection in six fish species (Salmo
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65
gairdneri, Salmo trutta, Thymallus thymallus, Anguila anguila, Gasterosteus
aculeatus, and Cottus gobio) and showed a maximum 100% infection rate in
the salmon fishes and a minimum 25% infection rate in Gasterosteus
aculeatus.
Philip et al. (2001) examined experimentally the effect of an exotic
fluke from guppies on the endangered Gila Topminnow.
Mustafa and Yspir (2001) investigated seasonal variation and
intensity of Diplostomum sp. infection in Acanthobrama marmid Heckel, 1843
caught from Keban Dam Lake. There was a weak correlation between age
and parasite intensity (r=0.227) as well as weight and parasite intensity
(r=0.152).
Saksvik et al. (2001) kept Atlantic Salmon, Salmo salar L.,
experimentally infected with marine Eubothrium sp. together with
uninfected salmon in the laboratory for 11 months in two tanks. The
infected fish had a reduced growth rate compared with the uninfected fish.
Tammy and Beth (2001) reviewed the occurrence of Cymothoid
isopod parasitism in aquaculture, and reported the first case of infection by
a cymothoid isopod (Ceratothoa oestroides) in Turkish aquaculture, and
analysed its effects on sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax. Analyses revealed that
C. oestroides negatively affected the weights and lengths of sea bass hosts.
Martins et al. (2001) studied the prevalence and histopathology of
Neoechinorhynchus curemai Noronha, 1973 (Acanthocephala:
Neoechinorhynchidae) from curimbatá, Prochilodus lineatus Valenciennes,
1836.
Yakubu (2002) carried a comparative study of the gut helminths of
Tilapia zilli and Clarias gariepinus from river Uke in Plateau State, Nigeria.
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66
Rubio-Godoy and Tinsley (2002) conducted experimental infection of
rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum) with the monogenean
Discocotyle sagittata (Leuckart, 1842) that allowed comparison between
trickle and single exposure, two infection modes demonstrated to occur in
the wild. The results reproduce phenomena observed in the field, indicated
that the experimental infection system could be employed to study
infection dynamics and host-parasite interactions under controlled
conditions. Same authors (2004) experimentally infected Rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) by continuous or single exposure with the
monogenean Discocotyle sagittata to determine whether immunity follows
primary infection.
Barker et al. (2002) conducted study on Winter flounder,
Pseudopleuronectes americanus, in Passamaquoddy Bay, New Brunswick,
Canada and when held in captive under crowded conditions, developed
mixed infections of Trichodina murmanica, Polyanski, 1955 (Ciliophora) and
Gyrodactylus pleuronecti Cone, 1981 (Monogenea). The abundance of both
parasites correlated negatively with condition factor of the flounder
(rà¡0.354, P < 0.001 for Trichodina; rà= -0.205, P < 0.05 for Gyrodactylus). After
a significant decline in parasite infrapopulations (3 weeks postinfection),
infected fish resumed normal growth, indicating the observed effects were
somewhat reversible.
Opara and Okon (2002) determined the parasitic infection rates of
cultured Oreochromis niloticus in earthened pond in South Eastern Nigeria.
Most of the parasites were recovered from the intestine, body, gills, viscera
and skin of the fish.
Ward et al. (2002) investigated the influence of body length and
parasitism on the positioning behaviour of individuals in wild fish shoals
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67
by novel means of capturing entire shoals. Differences in the shoaling
behaviour of parasitized and unparasitized fish was discussed in the
context of the adaptive manipulation hypothesis.
Loot (2002) worked on the differential effect of the Pseudophyllidean
cestode, Ligula intestinalis on the growth rates of three fish populations of
the roach, Rutilus rutilus, under field conditions.
Bianca et al. (2003) described a new species of Myxosporea,
Henneguya chydadea, parasitizing the gills of Astyanax altiparanae collected
from a lake on Rio das Pedras farm near Campinas, state of Sao Paulo,
Brazil. Of the fish examined, 88.3% had gills parasitized by myxosporeans
and its histopathology was also worked out.
Vincent and Font (2003) examined population structure and host
specificity of Camallanus cotti and Bothriocephalus acheilognathi in exotic
poeciliids in terms of their potential disease threat to native stream fishes in
Hawaiian freshwaters.
Manera and Dezfuli (2003) examined twenty sea bass Dicentrarchus
labrax L. from a fish farm (floating cage) in Greece for the presence of
parasites. Parasitism by Lernanthropus kroyeri affected the host’s condition
factor (mean ± SE in uninfected vs parasitized; 1.88 ± 0.04 vs 1.66 ± 0.12; p <
0.05).
Al-Bassel (2003) investigated and examined fishes belonging to
seven genera and seven species for helminth parasites. Of these 48% fishes
were found to harbour Acanthocephala (14%), cestodes (16.22%), Digenea
(10.66%), Monogenea (1.77%), or nematodes (6.22%). The species richness
and intensity of infections are given.
Kadlec et al. (2003) investigated the parasite communities of the
freshwater fish species roach (Rutilus rutilus), bitterling (Rhodeus sericeus
amarus) and perch (Perca fluviatilis) during a major flood.
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68
Yasutake and Elliott (2003) studied epizootiology and
histopathology of the myxosporean Parvicapsula sp. during monthly health
surveys of 4 groups of coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch.
Leonardos and Trilles (2003) studied parasite-host relationship
between Mothocya epimerica, Costa 1851 (Isopoda: Flabellifera:
Cymothoidae) and sand smelt Atherina boyeri (Osteichthyes: Atherinidae)
fish populations in the Mesolongi and Etolikon Lagoons (W. Greece).
Infections showed no significant effect on the host's body condition, such as
length-weight relationship, gonadosomatic index, hepatosomatic index and
relative condition factor.
Ahangar et al. (2003) studied the histopathological aspect of
Pomphorhynchus species infecting Schizothorax species.
Bakshi et al. (2003) while working on the population dynamics of the
parasites in different seasons, reported that the parasite showed a seasonal
occurrence in prevalence and mean intensity of infection.
Whitfield and Guillen (2004) analysed and compared intestinal
helminth communities in flounder Platichthys flesus from two sites on the
River Thames.
Bagamian et al. (2004) analysed the effect of sex, season and parasite
index on the body condition of adult male and female three-spined
stickleback.
Holland et al. (2004) described the population biology of the fish
Acanthocephalan Acanthocephalus clavula from wild brown trout, and
discussed the possible explanations of very high abundance of A. clavula in
trout.
McCormick and Nickol (2004) determined the relationship of fish
age class to parasitism by Paulisentis missouriensis by sampling creek chubs,
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69
Semotilus atromaculatus, from Easly Creek, Richardson County, Nebraska. In
general, mean abundance and prevalence of the Acanthocephalans
increased with the age or length of chubs.
Oniye et al. (2004) studied Clarias gariepinus (Teugels) from Zaria.
The study highlighted the importance of changing feeding habit of C.
gariepinus with age on the prevalence and intensity of gastrointestinal
parasites, and parasitised male fish have lower condition factor than
unparasitised ones.
Michael and Craig (2004) used field and experimental data to find
the effect of white grub parasites (Diplostomatidae) to White Sands pupfish
(Cyprinodon tularosa), a threatened species.
Cisse and Belghyti (2005) reported the helminth parasites of Chub
Mackerel Scomber japonicus (Houttuyn 1782) from the harbour of Mehdia in
Morocco. Nematodes were the majority of the parasites specimens collected
(53.40%), Anisakis sp. was the dominant species with highest prevalence
(86.67%) and abundance (10.57%).
Silva-Souza and Ludwig (2005) studied the infection, known as
yellow spot disease, produced by metacercariae of Clinostomum spp. in
fishes of the Taquari river, Brazil. Using relative condition factor (Kn)
analysis, it was determined that both infected and non-infected specimens
had a total weight equal to the theoretically expected value for each total
length (Kn = 1.0).
Borucinska and Caira (2006) described lesions associated with two
species of tapeworms within the digestive tract of wild-caught specimens of
the bull shark, Carcharhinus leucas, and the sicklefin weasel shark,
Hemigaleus microstoma, from Malaysian Borneo. The severity and character
of pathology was linked to the intensity of infection, the attachment mode
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70
of the parasites, and to the anatomophysiological relationships within the
gut of the host shark.
Santos and Brasil-Sato (2006) investigated parasite fauna of one
hundred and thirteen specimens of Franciscodoras marmoratus (Reinhardt,
1874) collected in the upper Sao Francisco River. From this total, 45
(339.88%) were afflicted by at least one parasite species.
Mladineo (2006) revealed high numbers of different Digenean
trematodes, belonging to family Didymozoidae in the first parasitological
examinations of Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus thynnus) reared in
the Adriatic Sea Five species were the most frequently isolated:
Coeliodidymocystis, abdominalis, Didymocystis wedli, Koellikerioides in-
ternogastricus, K. intestinalis and K. apicalis. The most notable changes were
observed in the intestine under provocation by K. intestinalis, while the
most potentially pathogenic didymozoid under fish rearing conditions was
D. wedli, which when present in high abundance was found to induce
secondary bacterial infections.
4.3.3. Fish and Pollution
Increasing pollution of rivers and other water bodies has become a
matter of great concern in recent years. This part of the review deals with
the several aspects of water pollution including rapidly increasing use of
fertilizers, pesticides and chemicals that pose a serious threat to aquatic life,
particularly fish.
Alm (1946) discussed in detail the reasons for the stunted growth of
perch in some Swedish waters. Deelder (1951) investigated the stunted
growth of perch in some waters in the Netherlands. Jones and Sujansingani
(1954) estimated the biology of the fishes their distribution in the different
zones of the Chilka lake and the production capacity of the lake as a whole
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71
in terms of yield per acre. They listed the fish fauna of the lake, described
its important fisheries and gave an account of the fishing industry of the
lake.
Motwani et al. (1956) found changes in water quality and bottom
condition of the river Sone due to pollution in which the Rohtas Industries,
comprising a number of factories all discharged their that adversely affect
the environmental condition of both the fish and fish food organisms.
Distribution of fish fauna, bottom biota and plankton organisms in these
zones, in relation to physico-chemical condition, has been discussed. Le
Cren (1958) found differences in the growth of year-classes of perch, and
attributed it to the temperature differences. George et al. (1966) made
studies on limnological survey of the river Kali with special reference to
fish mortality.
Screenivasan et al. (1967) studied the effect of certain wastes on the
water quality and fisheries of river Cauvery and Bhavani. Fry (1969)
reviewed the physiological stress on fishes caused by eutrophication and
concluded that reduction of the oxygen content of water is the most
pressing source of stress for fishes in eutrophic lake and that almost all
other stresses are incidental or aggravated by that primary one.
Sehgal (1970) reported trout kill due to the sharp rise of temperature
in the Vishav River, a tributary of the Jhelum during drought conditions in
Kashmir. He along with Sar (1989) studied the interaction between brown
trout and Schizothoracines in the Beas River. They did not find any
evidence of the negative impact of the trout on the endemic. Same
researcher (1992) carried out investigations on the limnology and fisheries
of river Beas consequent to the completion of Beas-Sutlej Link Project.
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Banerjee and Roychoudhry (1971) described certain physico-
chemical features of the Chilka Lake. An attempt to correlate salinity with
annual fish production has been made. Jensen and Snekvik (1972) noted
declines of salmon and trout populations in southernmost Norway and
related it to the acidification. Svardson and Molin (1973) worked on six
Swedish lakes and found pikeperch yield highest in lakes with highest total
phosphorus content and lowest in lakes with highest water transparency.
The growth of pikeperch was better in turbid and eutrophic waters.
Richard (1976) reported fallout of sulfur oxides to be responsible for
damage to vegetation, lakes and fishes in the Sudbury region or Ontario,
Canada. A high concentration of acid was considered to be the principal
factor stressing the fish populations. Schofield (1976) while working on the
acid precipitation and its effect on fish, reported fish extinction to the
failure of recruitment of new age classes into the population. Egg and fry
mortality was considered the major cause of declining fish population. He
along with Driscoll (1987) related fish species distribution to water quality
gradients in the north branch of the Moose basin.
Davis (1977) worked on the age, length, weight and condition factor
of freshwater catfish, Tandanus tandanus Mitchell. No differences in growth
rates were detected between males and females. The variation in growth
from season to season was not great. The von Bertalanffy and Gompertz
growth equations were used to describe growth in length and weight
respectively.
Solbe (1978) described the formation of the United Kingdoms water
research centre and the role of the centre’s fish section work on the effect of
pollution on freshwater. They have utilized field studies to identify
problems and assessed the relevance of the laboratory derived data. Bhagat
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et al. (1978) reported fish mortality due to high water temperature, free CO2,
alkalinity and low DO. The author with Sunder (1984) found feeding
activity of the Schizothorax spp. a seasonal phenomena, with maximum
feeding activity in the pre and post spawning period.
Malhotra et al. (1979) attributed size and sex restricted kill of Puntius
conchonius fish mortality to rise in free CO2 in a subtropical lake in Jammu.
He along with his coassociates (1987) embodied the results of the abiotic
parameters of a snowfed torrential stream(Neeru nullah, Bhadarwah).
From the overall study they found water suitable for coldwater fish culture.
Ghosh et al. (1979) reported depletion of the fish in the Hoogly
estuary of West Bengal due to environmental degradation. Coad (1980)
described factors affecting the distribution and abundance of freshwater
fishes in Iran. Conservation schemes are outlined and commented on and a
list of threatened fishes is given. Sculion and Edwards (1980) studied the
effect of pollutants from the coal industry on the fish fauna of a small river
in the South Wales coalfield. Stream was found to receive spatially
separated pollution by acid drainage from coal stock-piles, suspended
solids from a drift mine and ferruginous drainage at neutral pH from an
abandoned mine.
Rosseland et al. (1980). estimated the effect of acidification on
reproduction, population structure, growth and food selection on fresh
water Fish Populations. He and Henriksen (1990) reported a serious decline
or extinction of natural fish populations in the past decades in the northern
temperate regions (Canada, Scandinavian countries, and elsewhere) as a
major consequence of atmospheric acid deposition.
Jana and Das (1980a) found non significant correlation of plankton
and temperature of water with the growth of Clarias batrachus in
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74
experimental tanks. Both authors(1980b) found non significant correlation
of phosphate concentration with the fish growth although an inverse
relationship was observed in treated and untreated waters.
Colt et al. (1981) found metabolites of nitrogen fertilizers such as
ammonia, nitrite and nitrate toxic to fish and suppressed its growth.
Turnpenny and Williams (1981) investigated the river Ebbw Fawr, an
industrial river of south-east Wales, over a three-year period to follow the
re-establishment of fish populations as a result of pollution control
measures at coal washeries and a steelworks on the river. Brown (1982)
considered the combined effects of pH and major ions, in particular Ca, on
fish and fisheries for both laboratory and field studies. They have seen that
at concentrations less than 100 μeql-1, calcium can exert a significant
influence on survival times of fish, and similarly in the field, the number of
fishless lakes and the number of fish species found in lakes are less
dependent on H+ concentrations of Ca than at high Ca levels. Scott (1982)
related water temperature, salinity, bottom type and depth to the
distribution of many species of commercial fish and also different age
groups of the same species that was found to respond differently to
environmental conditions.
Petr (1983) suggested that increased velocity of water current
affected the fish due to transportation and scouring of a larger proportion
of the substratum, dislodged a large number of fish eggs and benthic
organisms. Same researcher in the year (1999) analyzed the distribution of
the indigenous Asla (Schizothorax progastus) and the circumstantial evidence
about its decline in catches. He also concluded that the deterioration of the
Asla and trout stocks in the river Thimphu could have resulted from a
combination of overfishing and an increase in pollution. Same author along
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75
with his coworkers (2003) examined fish species distribution relative to
abiotic variables in seven vegetation strata on Marchantaria Island,
Solimoes river. Both environmental variables and species distributions
were influenced by a river channel to floodplain- interior gradient. Fish
assemblages were related to water chemistry, but species richness was not.
Lehtonen et al. (1984) assessed the natural occurrence of pike-perch
(Stizostedion lucioperca (L.)) and success of introductions in relation to water
quality and lake area in Finland. They found Pikeperch introductions most
successful in lakes with small area than in large ones with high phosphorus
concentrations. The author with his co researchers in 1996 studied biology
and exploitation of pikeperch, Stizostedion lucioperca (L.), in the Baltic Sea
area. Khalaf et al. (1984) determined the age, growth and condition of
Barbus grypus in a polluted river. The length and weight of the fish in each
age group was much lower in comparison with length and weight of the
species for the similar age groups in other Iraqi waters. They attributed
poor growth of fishes to the water pollution. Krohe (1984) revealed water
quality, not agricultural productivity, suffers most from soil elusion. He
found Bhagirathi river with an unprecedented silt load during the year
1978, as a result of blockade formation in the river Bhagirathi. As a result of
this ecodisaster a sharp decline in fish population of Bhagirathi river was
observed.
Muniz et al. (1984) studied the change in fish status due to change in
water chemistry. Fish status in terms of 'good', 'sparse', 'lost', 'never had
fish', has been used for several thousands of lakes in southern most
Norway. The data has been used to establish a relationship between pH
and fish status (brown trout). Sridhar and Bammeke (1985) made an
investigation of the sources and degree of pollution of Ogunpa lake,
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76
situated in Ibadan, Nigeria. It was shown that the lake receives a variety of
waste effluents from domestic and industrial sources. These waste effluents
have caused an odour nuisance in the lake with little or no dissolved
oxygen present. The discharge of nutrients (N and P) to the lake has
resulted in excessive growth of aquatic weeds. All these impacts on the lake
have resulted in a reduced fish production. They also presented some
suggestions for the prevention of pollution and the recovery of the lake.
Tremblay and Sinclair (1985) studied the age specific distributions of
Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) in the Gulf of St. Lawrence during Autumn,
and noted that older fish occurred at increasing depth and salinity and
decreasing temperature. They were unable to identify any single dominant
parameter controlling the distribution, in part due to the strong correlation
between depth, temperature and salinity. Mukhopadhyay et al. (1987)
assessed clinical condition of Rita rita, a Siluroid fresh water residential fish
available in Calcutta in context of pollution in the Hooghly estuary. They
observed clinical condition of Rita rita much better in unpolluted upper
zone as compared to industrial zone of the Hooghly estuary. Good health of
the species was attributed to the cleanliness and congenial environment
providing better ecological conditions for normal growth.
Somalingam et al. (1987) attributed fish mortality to oxygen
depletion in Shivpur Talab (Madhya Pradesh). Harriman et al. (1987)
documented a long term changes in fish populations in Galloway and
discussed the possible causal factors. The available evidence for long-term
acidification of Galloway lochs and streams was discussed and concluded
that acid depositions caused a major changes in the status of fisheries in this
region.
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77
Davies et al. (1988) while working on the North Esk-St Patricks river
system, northern Tasmania, worked out the effects of changes in river
hydrology on the trout population. He (1989) described habitat
relationships for Salmo trutta L. and Gadopsis marmoratus rich in Tasmanian
streams. Interrelationships between habitat attributes were described in
relation to hydrological variability and bank erosion.
Gilles lacroix (1989) evaluated ecological and toxicological data from
field studies on acidic rivers of Nova Scotia and reviewed the effects of low
pH on Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) populations in waters rich in organic
acids where non exchangeable forms of Aluminium dominated at all times.
Same researcher (1992) evaluated the application of crushed limestone in a
short section of an acidified brook used to mitigate low pH effects and the
potential benefits for Salmonids.
Suns and Hitchin (1990) associated water quality and Mercury (Hg)
accumulations to fish condition in yearling yellow perch from sixteen
Muskoka-Haliburton lakes in Ontario, in addition to temporal changes of
Hg residues in fish over a 9 yr interval (1978-1987). Rao et al. (1990)
attributed fish kill in Hussain Sagar lake to acute temperature, oxygen
depletion, cumulative effect of sewage and industrial effluents containing
various toxic substances which were choking of gills through fine
deposition of pollutants.
Sture and Lars (1990) studied several indications about the
eutrophication of the Baltic Sea and outlined the effect of this
eutrophication on fish community. Sarkar (1991) determined the
relationship between fish growth and aquatic ecosystem treated with
ammonium sulphate. The growth of Tilapia mossambica exhibited significant
positive correlation with plankton and alkalinity and inverse correlation
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78
with ammonia of water (P < 0.05). Fish growth exhibited non significant
correlation with bottom fauna (p < 0.05). Fish growth was found dependent
upon the daily feeding rather than bottom fauna.
Gipson and Hubert (1991) while assessing for 13 small (< 170 surface
hectares) reservoirs in Wyoming studied the possible relations between the
body condition of rainbow trout (Qnchorynchus mykiss) and the density of
salmonid fishes, the abundance of non-salmonid fishes, and two measures
of biological productivity-total dissolved solids and elevation above mean
sea level. The mean condition of rainbow trout was positively related to
total dissolved solids and negatively related to the abundance of non-
salmonid fishes. Carline (1992) documented the response of fish
communities to magnitude, duration and frequency of episodic chemical
changes that occured during runoff events in Pennsylvania.
Sharma (1992) encompasses an in-depth impact assessment of fast
ecological changes caused by technological expansion, excessive
deforestation and occurrence of frequent natural eco-disasters, on the
coldwater fisheries of the upland Ganga basin in the ecologically sensitive
and fragile ecosystem of Garhwal Himalaya. Szegletes and Nemcsok (1992)
studied the mass death of eels in lake Balaton and attributed it to ecological
factors.
Wanganeo et al. (1992) worked out various reasons of the catchment
deterioration of the fishery resources in various water bodies of Jammu and
Kashmir. He along with his coassociates (2003) revealed that lotic systems
under temperate climatic conditions support less fish diversity in
comparison to tropical conditions. Trembly and Richard (1993) conducted
surveys of fish population on 74 lakes of the Outaouais hydrographic
region to assess the potential impact of acidity on ichthyologic fauna.
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79
Results showed that species diversity declined with the increasing acidity.
They estimated that the anthropogenic acidification was responsible for the
loss of more than 10000 fish populations in the Outaouais area.
Zivkov and Petrova (1993) found great diversity in the correlation
between absolute fecundity (F) and the length (L) and age (t) of pikeperch,
Stizosledion lucioperca (L.) in 10 water bodies that differed in their
geography, morphology, and ecology. Norrgren and Degerman (1993)
investigated early developmental stages of Atlantic salmon and Brown
trout that were exposed in situ to different water quality in a river affected
by acidification and wetland liming. Mortality, hatching frequency,
histopathology and whole-body electrolytes were studied in detail.
Leino et al. (1993) studied the effect of different pH and aluminum
levels on gill morphology, electrolyte balance, scale calcium, liver glycogen,
and depot fat of juvenile largemouth bass. They showed that only a
moderate elevation of the irritant can be critical for fish in cold water. Elvira
(1995) related extinction of Lebias ibera, a brackish water cyprinodontid
endemic to the Iberian Peninsula, Spain to the destruction of its habitats by
man, and the introduction of exotic species such as Gambusia holbrooki and
Fundulus heteroclitus.
Carlson (1995, 2000) reported dramatic decline of lake sturgeon,
Acipenser fulvescens, that was once common in the Great Lakes-St Lawrence
drainage basin of New York State, and attributed this decline to over
harvesting and habitat degradation during the early 1900s. Chambertain
and Hubert (1996) assessed the effect of environmental and fish
community features on population statistics of brook trout Salvelinus
fontinalis in lakes and reservoirs in the central Rocky Mountains. They
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found mean length positively related to chemical indices of biological
productivity and size of the water body.
Jeney et al. (1996) compared the physiological and biochemical
changes in roach caused by bleached kraft pulp and paper mill effluent by
exposing the fish in raw effluent for 72 h and caging them in the polluted
and unpolluted lakes for three weeks. Witters (1996) performed detailed
analyses of the chemical speciation of aluminium (Al) in relation to the
biological response of brown trout and identified the mechanism of
unexpected high fish mortality in the mixing zones with pH levels above
6.0.
Anitha and kumari (1997) assessed the histological damage caused to
the fish Channa punctatus by various aquatic pollutants present in polluted
waters of Hussainsagar. The significance of results was discussed in
relation to physiological stress leading to the development of anaerobic
conditions at the tissue level in pollutant stressed fish. Same authors(2003)
studied the effect of water pollution on Channa punctatus (Bloch) from
Hussian sagar lake. Chitra and Ramkumar (1997) dealt with the effect of
water pollution on peroxidase activity of various tissues, especially the
kidney in Channa gachua inhabiting the lake Hussain sagar.
Dutta et al. (1997) reported an incidence of a large scale fish kill
observed on 29th October, 1993, in Behlol Nullah, a tributary of river Tawi
Jammu. The study of water quality during the time of episode indicated
that the fish mortality occurred due to sudden discharge of deoxygenated
industrial effluents showing hydrogen sulphide and very high free CO2 and
BOD. Dockray et al. (1997) revealed the effect of elevated summer
temperature and reduced pH on metabolism and growth of juvenile
rainbow trout (Onchorhyncus mykiss) on unlimited ration.
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Hesthagen and Jonsson (1998) assessed the influence of the water
quality of tributary streams on the relative abundance in benthic gillnet
catches of Allopatric brown trout Salmo trutta in associated acidic and soft
water lakes. Raitaniemi et al. (1999) clarified factors that affected whitefish
growth by examining growth in environments with different water
characteristics and fish species composition.
Duke et al. (1999) reported Kootenai river stock of white sturgeon
(Acipenser transmontanus) federally listed as an endangered species. They
described factors that contributed to low recruitment and a declining
population. Eklov (1999) studied the influence of water quality, physical
habitat and species richness on the occurrence, density and size of brown
trout at 216 stream sites in southern Sweden. Leach and Houde (1999)
tested the combined effects of temperature, prey levels, and pH on survival
and growth of American shad larvae in laboratory experiments.
Erkinaro et al. (1999) used radio-telemetric methods to assess the
effects of environmental conditions: tide, river flow and temperature, on
river entry and upstream migration of multi-sea-winter (MSW) Atlantic
salmon Salmo salar L. in the large subarctic river Tana. Biswas and Boruah
(2000) highlighted the hydrobiological features and the Ichthyofauna of
certain selected water bodies of the northeastern himalayas with special
reference to the Brahmaputra river.
Quist and Guy (2001) determined age structure, growth rates and
mortality (i.e., total annual mortality and age specific mortality) of central
stonerollers Campostoma anomalum, creek chubs Semotilus atromaculatus, red
shiners Cyprinella lutrensis and green sunfish Lepomis cyanellus from 13
streams on Fort Riley Military reservation, Kansas, using incremental
growth analysis. They (2002) studied the seasonal variation in condition,
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82
growth and feeding habits of Walleys in a great plains reservoir. The results
of this study indicated lower condition, reduced consumption and slow
growth as a generalized response of Walleye to extreme temperatures.
Sinha and Khan (2001) discussed the impact of environmental
aberrations on the fisheries of the Ganga river. Pegg and Pierce (2001)
estimated growth rate coefficients for different species of fishes from nine
river sections of the Missouri and lower Yellowstone rivers. The results
indicate that growth rates of fishes along the Missouri river system were
complex and could be of significance in the management and conservation
of fish communities in this altered system.
Sinha et al. (2002) analyzed gills, liver, kidney, intestine and muscle
of some of the common edible fishes captured from Kharkai river for their
iron, zinc, nickel, lead, copper, manganese, chromium and cobalt contents.
The data generated underline the extent of this pollution and call for
immediate redressal. Krzysztof (2002) assessed the adverse impact on the
ichthyofauna of small impoundment on the Wisloka river and changes in
stream beds caused by gravel exploitation, regulation and forestry
management works.
Haxton (2002) conducted studies on lake sturgeons and reported its
decline in the Ottawa river due to anthropogenic stresses and exploitation.
He concluded that water quality, commercial harvest and waterpower
management as the main stressors on lake sturgeon populations and gave
suggestions for further assessment. Tilak et al. (2002) determined the acute
toxicity of unionized ammonia, nitrite and nitrate to the Indian major carp
Catla catla (Hamilton) using static and continuous flow through systems for
24 hours.
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Karma Gyeltshen (2002) evaluated the impact of human intervention
on aquatic ecosystems of Bhutan and eventually on the native cold water
fish community. He found over-fishing and introduction of exotic fish
species having direct impact on indigenous fish. Olin and Rask (2002)
evaluated thirty six South Finnish lakes, and found number of species, as
well as the Cyprinids percids ratio, dependent, not only on total
phosphorus (TP), but also on lake size.
Barbara and Sarnowski (2002) measured the oxygen consumption of
common carp and rainbow trout larvae exposed to mercury, cadmium and
copper. The results showed that copper was most toxic to both fish species.
The mixtures were more toxic than single metals and caused a greater
reduction in oxygen consumption. Rai et al. (2002) presented the status of
snow trout in Nepal and reported the decline in fish populations due to
heavy fishing pressure, natural calamities, as well as human disturbances
such as construction of dams and roads.
Dhital and Jha (2002) reported the decline of fish fauna in the
Narayani river due to unregulated fishing and use of destructive methods
such as dynamiting, poisoning and fishing for brood stock during the
spawning season and deforestation, resulting in erosion and silting of
streams and rivers and also water pollution due to the discharges of
industrial waste and the illegal use of insecticides, pesticides and piscicides.
Gubhaju (2002) reported the decline of once abundant indigenous fish
stocks in cold water fish of Nepal due to over fishing, harmful fishing
practices (electro-fishing, dynamiting, use of chemicals), pollution and
developmental works of number of hydropower projects.
Arndt (2002) revealed a significant decline in the endemic European
Sturgeon (Acipenser sturio Linnaeus, 1758) in German, Polish and Dutch
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coastal waters and tributaries. A drastic increase in total catches of non-
indigenous sturgeon species was also noted. Kruse and Scarnecchia (2002)
studied potential physiological effects of bioaccumulated metal and
organochlorine compounds on juvenile and adult white sturgeon (Acipenser
transmontanus) of Kootenai river.
Kaur and Saxena (2002) studied the impact of grossly polluted
waters of Budha Nallah (BN) brook on the ovarian maturation of some
fresh water teleosts (Crossocheilus latius, Heteropneustes fossilis and Mystus
cavasius) dwelling in river Satluj. Ranjit (2002) surveyed the capture fishery
status of the upper Sunkoshi river from Tatopani to Dollal ghat. In the
region hill stream fish were common and Schizothorax was the dominant
fish.
Copp (2003) found no correlations between fish condition (K) and
water conductivity in 14 species of a 0+ year fishes in the river Great Ouse,
U.K. catchment. Keskinen and Marjomaki (2003) studied the growth of
pikeperch in 41 lakes in central Finland. The back calculated average total
length of 3 year-old pikeperch was used as an indicator of growth. The
growth was positively correlated with total phosphorus and water colour
and negatively with lake area and depth.
Aguigwo (2003) tested fingerlings of Clarias gariepinus for growth
and survival in acute concentration of ammonia. Results showed that
mortality was 10% at 1.5 mg l-1, 20% at 2 mg l-1, 30% at 3 mg l-1, 50% at 4 mg
l-1 and 60% at 6 mg l-1. The fish fed vigorously at the initial introduction of
food but the anxiety to feed declined as concentration and exposure time
increased. Kallio (2004) examined the survival of Atlantic salmon Salmo
salar in the Baltic Sea in relation to smolt traits (length and origin) and
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annual environmental factors [sea surface temperature (SST) and seasonal
North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) index], and prey fish abundance (Herring
Clupea harengus and sprat Sprattus sprattus). The results demonstrated a
combined influence of smolt traits and environmental factors on survival.
Penczak et al. (2004) investigated differences in fish assemblages between
habitats in Oxbow lakes. Only velocity, water temperature and
conductivity showed significant correlation with canonical correspondence
analysis (CCA) axes. Species previously subdominant were found to
become rare.
Mohammed and Omoregie (2004) investigated the fisheries
potentials of Doma lake in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Values of physico-
chemical parameters did not vary significantly (P > 0.05) between the
sampling months. A total of 8 families made up of 11 genera and 16 species
of fish were recorded in the lake. The condition factor (K) showed that the
smaller sized fishes thrived better in the lake. Marchetto et al. (2004)
monitored two small high mountain lakes in the Alps and followed their
response to changes in human impact, such as deposition of atmospheric
pollutants, fish stocking and climatic change.
Chouinard et al. (2004) related the decline of southern Gulf of St.
Lawrence cod stock to high exploitation rates in the early nineties. Graham
and Katherine (2004) studied the effects of contaminants on fish behaviour
and assessed the effect of aquatic pollutants on fish.
Dawn et al. (2005) described laboratory and field physiological
measurements together with radio-tracking and investigated the potential
impacts of alkaline pH on the physiology and behaviour of fish from
Slapton Ley (freshwater hyper-eutrophic lake). Sahoo et al. (2005) worked
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on the non-specific immune parameters to determine the health status of
fish and evaluated the immuno modulatory substances for fish farming as
markers of pollution and disease resistance.
Casatti et al. (2006) conducted a fish survey in 35 stream reaches with
physicochemical and habitat assessment in the Sao Jose dos Dourados
system, southeastern Brazil. They considered 10 stream reaches fair, 22
poor, and 3 very poor. Fifty species were collected and their abundances
showed strong correlation with habitat descriptors. Lindah et al. (2006)
examined possible causes of death of Oreochromis niloticus in lake Chivero
in relation to changes in limnological conditions monitored over a 25-
month period. The fish deaths coincided with the collapse of an algal
bloom. Murat et al. (2006) worked on the Karakaya Dam Lake (KDL), one
of the most important water sources, both for irrigation and fishery, located
in eastern part of Turkey. This study was concerned with the pollution of
the lake contributed by urban, industrial and agricultural activities. The
parameters selected for this aim were the enzymes commonly used as
biomarkers of environmental pollution. Chemical analysis showed that
Karakaya Dam Lake was polluted by various heavy metals as it was
apparent from water, sediment and gill tissue. The activity of brain AChE
was significantly lower in all localities than Tecimli area where there was
no agricultural and industrial activities in the immediate periphery.
4.3.4. Fish, Parasitism and Pollution
This part of the review gives brief resume on the surroundings of the
fish i.e., water quality and the parasites and incorporates the overall view of
the study conducted on several of the bio ecological factors including the
host-parasite relationship.
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Chub (1963-2004) did extensive and unforgettable work on different
aspects of helminth fauna of fishes. He (1963) characterized the parasite
fauna of the fish of Llyn Tegid (Bala lake). In 1964 examined the grayling
Thymallus thymallus, Pike Esox lucius, Roach Rutilus rutilus, and Eel Anguilla
anguilla of Llyn Tegid for the occurrence of Echinorhynchus clavula; the total
infection of these species of fish was 46.0%, 11.5%, 16.1%, and 27.7%,
respectively. Temperature was found to play a significant role in the
seasonal periodicity of some Acanthocephala of fishes. He (1965)reported
mass occurrence of Pomphorhynchus laevis (Muller, 1776) Monticelli, 1905
(Acanthocephala) in the chub Squalius cephalus from the river Avon. He
(1967 a) reviewed seasonal occurrence and maturation of tapeworms in
British freshwater fish. He (1967b) analyzed host specificity of some
Acanthocephala of freshwater fishes. In 1970, performed a detailed
investigation on the parasite fauna of British freshwater fish. In 1973
assessed the influence of parasites on freshwater fishes in Britain and stated
that the assessment of the effects of parasites on individual fish from a
natural environment is extremely difficult, and extrapolating from the
individual to the population provides even greater problems. He (1977,
1979) worked on the seasonal occurrence of helminths in fresh water fishes
dealing with trematodes. In 1980, he dealt with the seasonal occurrence of
larval cestoda and nematode helminths in freshwater fishes. He (1981)
woked on the chinese tapeworm Bothriocephalus acheilognathi Yamaguti,
1934 (Synonym Bothriocephalus gowkongensis Yeh,1955). In (1982) followed
the seasonal occurrence of adult Cestoda, Nematoda and Acanthocephala
in freshwater fishes. He along with other workers (1987) illustrated a key to
the species of Cestodes (tapeworms) parasitic in British and Irish freshwater
fishes. He (1988) made a comparison of the seasonal biology of the life cycle
of helminths of freshwater fishes from mid latitude and tropical conditions.
Chubb and his associates (1995) examined and characterised the external
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features of Schistocephalus solidus (Muller, 1776) (cestoda) from different
geographical regions. He (1997a) focused on Fish parasites as indicator of
environmental quality. Chubb et al. (1997) examined eight species of fishes
from rivers of Northern Portugal for cestodes but only one, Barbus barbus
bocagei (Steindachner), was infected. Chubb (2004) reidentified the museum
specimens of Echinorhynchus salmonis from Britain and Ireland deposited in
the Natural History Museum, London.
Awachie (1965) found greater abundance of of Eubothrum truttae
upstream in North Wales due to the greater number of Gamarus pulex and
the related the narrowness of the stream promoting greater contact between
intermediate and definitive hosts.
Kennedy (1969) studied the seasonal incidence and development of
the Cestode Caryophyllaeus laticeps (Pallas) in the river Avon. Kennedy et al.
(1969) worked on the evidence for an immune response by dace Leuciscus
leuciscus, to infection by the cestode Caryophyllaeus laticeps. The author and
Hine (1969) evaluated the population biology of the cestode Proteocephalus
torulosus (Batsch) in dace Leuciscus leuciscus (L.) of the River Avon. He
(1969) noted seasonal incidence and development of the Cestode
Caryophyllaeus laticeps (Pallas) in the river Avon. The author (1971 and
1972a,b) analysed the effect of temperature upon the establishment and
survival of the cestode Caryophyllaeus laticeps in Orfe, Leuciscs idus and
Pomphorhynchus laevis (Acanthocephala) in gold fish Carassius suratus. He
with his coworkers (1976) analysed the distribution of the Acanthocephalan
Pomphorhynchus laevis along the alimentary tract of several species of
freshwaster fish in both natural and experimental infections. The Author
with his associates (1986) examined the parasite faunas of 12 species of
freshwater fish from 17 localities on the island of Jersey. He and with his
coworkers (1989) described and showed the current distributions of the
freshwater fish acanthocephalans Pomphorhynchus laevis and
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Acanthocephalus anguillae to be discontinuous and mutually exclusive, both
regionally and locally, in the British Isles. He (1993) studied the dynamics
of intestinal helminth communities in eels Anguilla anguilla in a small
stream. In 1996, He studied population dynamics, site selection, growth and
maturation of the Cestode Eubothrium crassum in a natural population of
Salmo trutta. The author with Pojmanska (1996) found Bothriocephalus
acheilognathi and Khawia sinensis in helminth communities of carp in a fish
farm in China, whilst the vast majority of fish harboured one species or no
helminth at all. He (1997) gave an overview on freshwater fish parasites
and environmental quality.
Collins (1970) investigated the effect of eutrophication on the type,
incidence of bacterial disease, in the organs of healthy and diseased fishes.
In an oligotrophic lake the number of bacteria were smaller and their
distribution was more uniform than in an eutrophic one.
Lowe et al. (1971) in addition to field observations demonstrated
some experimental evidence for a causal relationship between specific
pollutant chemicals and fungus parasitization of fish and shellfish. Esch
(1971) worked out the impact of ecological succession on the parasite fauna
in Centrarchids from oligotrophic and eutrophic ecosystems. He with
Huffines (1973) evaluated histopathological changes in the small mouth
bass Micropterus dolomieui induced by endoparasitic helminths.
Colby et al. (1972) found link between Cultural eutrophication and
increased parasitism of Alpine lake fishes. Snieszko (1973) dealt with some
recent advances of scientific knowledge and developments related to
disease of fishes and (1974) reviewed literature on the coincidence of
infectious diseases with stress caused by temperature, eutrophication,
sewage, metabolic products of fishes, industrial pollution, and pesticides.
She suggested that infectious diseases of fishes occur when susceptible
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90
fishes are exposed to virulent pathogens under certain environmental stress
conditions.
Eure and Esch (1974) examined the effects of thermal effluents on
parasitism of large mouth bass, Micropterus salmonids by the
Acanthocephalan Neoechinorhynchus cylindratus. Parasite densities were
significantly higher in fish from heated water during the winter months, a
possible reflection of greater densities of larval parasites and intermediate
host populations in the effluent. Perevozchenko and Davydov (1974) found
that juvenile carp parasitized by the intestinal cestode Bothriocephalus
gowkongensis were more susceptible to DDT poisoning than non parasitized
individuals. Dabrowska (1974) related river pollution from domestic and
industrial sources to increased parasitic burdens found in fish from areas of
heaviest pollution in Poland.
Amin (1975) analyzed ecological data pertaining to host and seasonal
association of Acanthocephalus parksidei Amin, 1974 and discussed factors
influencing the parasitic load in its various fish hosts as well as its
distributional pattern in the gut of the host. Parasitic load was found to be
related to host species, size (age), sex, concurrent infection, collection site
and seasons. He along with Janet (1977) worked on the host and seasonal
association of Echinorhynchus sa1monis in lake Michigan fishes. In 1981, He
studied the seasonal distribution of Echinorynchus salmonis, among rainbow
smelt Osmeros mordax, Mitchell, in lake Michigan. In 1985, observed varying
results in the parasite abundance in different length groups of fish, which
he attributed to the changes in the feeding habits at different ages of the
host. The author in 1986 reported Isoglaridacris multivitellaria sp. n.
(Caryophyllidea: Cestoda) from the same host and studied host and
seasonal distribution of Neoechinorhynchus spp. He (1987) worked on
Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli Linkins and found it more common in fishes of
the river-connected Tichigan Lake than of the landlocked Silver Lake,
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southeastern Wisconsin. Infection patterns were influenced by fish species,
feeding behavior, temperature, availability of intermediate host, type of
water body, fish movement, and changes in fish host community.
Continuing his studies, the author in 1990 studied the ecology and
pathology of Proteocepha1us amb1op1itis and Hap1obothrium globu1iforms in
base and bow fin from lake Wisconsin. The same author in 1992 studied the
ecology and intraspecific relationships of Bothriocephalid cestodes in
Walleys Stizostedion vitereum lake fishes in Wisconsin. He and
Heckmann(1992) described Neoechinorhynchus idahoensis n. sp.
(Acanthocephala: Neoechinorhynchidae) in Catostomus columbianus from
Idaho and and its pathological implications.
Aho et al. (1976) examined the relationship between thermal loading
and parasitism in mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis. There was higher infection
percentages of brain parasites in fish from thermally altered areas of Par
Pond than in those from other parts of the Par Pond system. Grundmann et
al. (1976) found that helminth populations in a natural environment are
well regulated to a point of host comfort. Alvarez (1976) while studying the
infestation of trout by trematodes, considered the ecological factors as well
and temperature was found most important ecological factor influencing
maturation directly or indirectly affecting the life cycle through its effect on
host diet and host ecology.
Pascoe and Cram (1977) found that survival times of the three spine
stickleback, Gasteruteus aculeatus exposed to various concentrations of
cadmium, were much shortened when fish was found to be parasitized by
the larval cestode Schistocephalus solidus. Pascoe and Mattey (1977) reported
that among three spined stickle back, Gasterosteus aculeatus, placed on
restricted diets, those infected with the cestode Schistocephalus solidus died
earlier than did the nonparasitized individuals.
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Overstreet and Howse (1977) in search for finding the association of
parasites with environmental pollution examined several parasites of
estuarine fishes from the Gulf of Mexico. Large variations in prevalence of
helminth parasites occurred, but clear associations with pollutants and
changes in pollutant levels was not established. Same researchers (1991)
worked out the influence of pollution and parasites on aquatic animals. In
1993, he investigated the relationship between parasitic disease of fishes
with toxicants and other environmental factors. Same author (1997) gave an
overview of the usefulness of fish parasites as monitors of environmental
quality and contamination.
Moller (1977) made an extensive survey of external parasites and
disease conditions in North Sea fish but did not disclose clear-cut
relationships between parasitism and Pollution, although the higher
prevalence of vibriosis and lymphocystis in southern sectors which were
most polluted indicated a possible influence of pollution. Ashurova (1978)
conducted investigations on the ecology of parasitic fauna of Schizothorax
intermedius, Schizopygopsis stoliczkai and Nemachilus stoliczkai and the factors
affecting its distribution in different parts of the basin and in different
species of hosts were established. The data were obtained on the
peculiarities of parasitological processes in water bodies investigated.
Hanek and Fernando (1978) made studies on the role of season,
habitat, host age and sex on the gill parasites of Urocleidus ferox (Muller,
1934), Cleidodiscus Stentor (Muller, 1937) and Ergasilus centrerchidarum
(Wright, 1882) Lepomis gibbosus (L.) and Ambloplites lepestris respectively.
Muzzall and Wilbur (1978) made studies on the seasonal occurence,
population dynamics and host parasite relationships of Neo echinorhynchus
saginatus infecting fall fish. The same authors (1980 a) studied the ecology
and seasonal abundance of three Acanthocephalan species infecting white
suckers. They (1980 b) studied the population biology and host parasite
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93
relationship of Trigonodistomum attenuatum (Trematoda; Lissorchiidae)
infecting white suckers. In (1980 c) the authors studied the seasonal
distribution and ecology of three Caryophyllid cestode species infecting
white suckers. Muzzall (1984) examined fishes of 30 species collected from
the St. Mary river, Michigan for helminthes. 32 species (8 Digenea, 11
Cestoda, 8 Nematoda, 5 acanthocephala) were recovered from the digestive
tracts. The prevalence and host distribution of these helminthes and
information on larval helminthes was presented. Muzzall (1989) collected
and examined adult Salmonids for helminths. Echinorhynchus salmonis and
Eubothrium salvelini were the most common helminths found. The intensity
of E. salmonis significantly increased as Chinook salmon became older and
longer. He with his coassocites(1992) evaluated the host-parasite
relationships of longnose dace, Rhinichthys cataractae, from the Ford River,
Michigan. He and Whelan (1995) examined mottled sculpins, Cottus bairdi
Girard (Cottidae), for Rhabdochona cotti from 3 localities (up-river, middle,
down-river) in the Ford River in Michigan's Upper Peninsula. The
prevalence and mean intensity of R. cotti were highest in sculpins from the
middle (37%) and up-river localities (2.0), respectively. Muzzall and Bowen
(2000) examined stocked lake trout Salvelinus namaycush for parasites.
Echinorhynchus salmonis infected all lake trout with a mean intensity of
163.9. He and Gillilland (2004) evaluated the occurrence of
acanthocephalans in largemouth bass and smallmouth bass (Centrarchidae)
from Gull Lake, Michigan.
Sindermann (1979) while making review evaluated existing
information about associations of diseases and marine environmental
degradation. He placed Emphasis on: diseases caused by contaminant
stress and related facultative pathogens; stress-provoked latent infections;
environmentally induced abnormalities; genetic abnormalities associated
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94
with mutagenic and other properties of contaminants; experimentally
induced lesions; contaminant effects on resistance and immune responses;
and pollutant-parasite interactions. Sindermann (1987) illustrated effects of
parasites on fish populations.
Malhotra and Chauhan (1980) carried out statistical analysis of
cestode and nematode infection in relation to some ecological aspects of hill
stream fishes in Garhwal, Himalayas, India. Malhotra (1985) investigated
the systems approach to identify the changes in the rate of flow of parasites
through a host-parasite system and the specific points where the various
influencing factors act. Same researcher and Banerjee (1990) brought to light
an important aspect of the depletion in Total Eryhthrocyte Count and
Haemoglobin percent and augmentation in Total Leucoctyte Count levels
of snow trout which possibly co-occurred under the influence of pollutants
besides the effect of single and poly parasitic infections.
Miller (1980) evaluated the survival of the Digenean fish trematode
T. versotrema that was found reduced by any deviation from an optimum
temperature of approximately 23oC and with increasing temperature the
rate of egg production was found to rise progressively faster to a higher
peak up to 29°C but falls to zero by 35oC. Skinner (1982) found that the
pollutants in the water acted as an irritant stressing the fish and producing
physical and physiological changes which reduced resistance to infestation
by Monogenea.
Font (1983) studied a seasonal population dynamics of five species of
intestinal helminths of brook stickleback Culaea inconstans in Wisconsin.
Granath et al. (1983) while working on the seasonal dynamics based on
thermally altered and ambient temperature locations on the mosquito fish
Gambusia by Bothriocephalus spp. revealed that the cestodes were observed
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95
during summer months. Densities rose sharply in the fall peaked by early
winter.
Chopra et al. (1984) dealt with the seasonal variation in the incidence
of Spirurid nematode infection in coldwater fishes like Schizothorax
richardsonii, Scizothorax plagiostomus, Garra gotylu and Crossocheilus latius
from Garhwal Himalaya. The correlation coefficient (r) was calculated to
find out the relationship of nematode infection to the ecological parameters.
They concluded that the ecological parameters like water. He with same
researchers (1985) investigated the influence of abiotic variables on the
seasonal incidence of Black spot disease in Schizothorax spp. of Garhwal
region.
Pojmanska (1984) analyzed seasonality of incidence and maturation
of some fish parasites with regard to thermal factors. Pojmanaka (1995)
described seasonal dynamics of two cestode species, Khawia senensis and
Bothriocephalus acheilognathi with regard to larval recruitment, maturation
and subsequent elimination. Narsimhamurti (1984) while working on the
seasonal variation of the Myxosporidean parasite in the gills of fresh water
fish Channa punctatus observed that the fishes collected from the polluted
tanks had no infection due to the presence of high alkalinity, low oxygen
and increased turbidity. On the other hand the fishes collected from the
unpolluted tank possessed the infection.
Rand and Michael (1985) described seasonal occurrence, recruitment
and maturation of Allocreadium lobatum Wallin, 1909 in the fallfish, Semotilus
corporalis Mitchell in Canada lake system. Khan (1987) did not find any
decrease in haematocrit or haemoglobin in oil treated and parasitised cods.
He and Kiceniuk (1988) studied the effect of petroleum aromatic
hydrocarbons on monogeneids parasitizing Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua (L.).
He (1990) determined parasitism in marine fish after chronic exposure to
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petroleum hydrocarbons in the laboratory and to the Exxon Valdez oil spill.
He and Thulin (1991) while working on the influence of pollution on
parasites of aquatic animals found that the pollutants promote parasitism
by impairing the host's immune response or favouring survival and
reproduction of intermediate hosts. The author suggested that the future
research on the interaction of pollution on parasites of animals should focus
on a combination of field and laboratory studies, especially exposing fish in
cages to polluted water. In 1999, he studied the effect of polychlorinated
biphenyls on the health of winter flounder, using length weight
relationship, haematological values, histopathology and parasitism as
bioindicators of stress. Anomalies were more prevalent in samples collected
nearest to the contaminated sites than in those collected from the source of
contamination.
Valtonen et al. (1987) investigated the relationship between parasites
of fishes and environmental stress in central Finland. Valtonen and
Koskivaara (1997) studied the effect of pollution, eutrophication and
isolation of habitat on the parasite communities of roach and perch in four
lakes in central Finland, which suffered from these conditions to varying
degrees. Valtonen et al. (2003) evaluated the usefulness of data on parasite
communities in fresh water fishs as a cheaper, but informative monitoring
system. They compared parasite communities in fish taken from a polluted
lake (L. Vatia) and two control lakes before (1986) and after (1995) nine
years of markedly reduced chemical and nutrient loading from a pulpmill
in central Finland.
Forbes et al. (1989) described briefly the seasonal maturation of four
species of helminths, Acanthocephalus clavula, A. lucii, Camallanus lacustris
and Bunodera luciopercae, from the perch Perca fluviatilis. Sanmartin et al.
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(1989) illustrated the prevalence on Nematode parasites of commercially
important fishes in northwest Spain.
Sanmartin et al. (2000) characterize helminth parasites of the conger
eel Conger conger from the estuaries of Muros and Arousa. The results
indicated species composition and abundance of the nematode, cestode and
acanthocephalan fauna of Conger conger on the north-west Spanish coast
depend more on population isolation and variations in trophic chains
between the sites studied than on the particular environmental conditions
of the sites.
Lasee (1989) investigated seasonal population dynamics and
maturation of the Acanthocephalan Neoechinorhynchus pungitius from brook
stickleback (Culae inconstans). Fontaine and Labelle (1989) observed the
effect of temperature on the larval development of swim bladder nematode
of eels.
Dhar and Peerzada (1989) recorded positive correlation between
Cestode infection and temperature in fishes of kashmir valley. Jellyman
(1989) studied the occurrence of nematode infection in freshwater eels and
correlated the infection with eel size, occurrence of amphipod host and
dietary change. The decline in incidence of infection with increasing eel size
was said due to similar decline in occurrence of amphipod host in the diet.
Camp and Joseph (1989) studied the population biology of
Allocreadium lobatium (Trematoda) in Semotilus atromaculatus and observed
the peak levels of prevalence and mean Intensity during winter and
summer. Saoud et al. (1990) compared the helminth parasites of fishes from
two inland lakes with contrasting hydrobiological features in Egypt.
Oleinik and Ieshko (1990) elucidated the dependence of
immunological reactions of fishes infected with Ichthyophthirius multifiliis
infusoria on temperature. Changes of the immunological values were most
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dynamic at high temperature (>20 0C) and they were slower at < 10 0C.
Khidr (1990) studied the population dynamics of Enterogyrus cichzidarium
(Monogenea) and observed the highest prevalence and Mean Intensity in
spring. He also observed that the prevalence and intensity of the infection
rose significantly with increasing size of the host.
Marcogliese and cone (1991) assessed the importance of lake
characteristics in structuring parasite communities of salmonids from
insular Newfoundland. Same authors (1996) studied metazoan
macroparasite communities in American eels with relation to effect of
fluctuations in pH on parasite distribution. The result supported the
hypothesis that parasite communities are good indicators of environmental
stress and biodiversity. Same authors (1997) conducted studies on parasite
communities as indicators of ecosystem stress.
Koskwaara et al. (1991) found positive correlation of monogenean
parasites of gills (Dactylogyrids) of Rutilus rutilus with eutrophication.
Same researcher in collaboration with Valtonen (1992) found that the
abundance and prevalence of monogenean species on roach were increased
due to impaired immunological response of the roach in a polluted lake.
Khan et al. (1991) worked on the seasonality of Pallisentis ophiocephali
(Thapar, 1930) and Acanthosentis betwai (Tripathis 1959) in Channa striatus
and Labeo rohita respectively C. striatus showed higher infection with P.
ophiocephali in March-May while L. rohita showed higher infection with A.
betwai in June and July. Muzzal et al. (1992) evaluated the host-parasite
relationships of longnose dace, Rhinichthys cataractae, from the Ford River,
Michigan. He found environmental factors as the major factors that
influenced parasite intensity, that occurred when and where a fish began its
life, the sequence of events that occurred in each habitat the fish
encountered during its life, and the length of exposure. Muzzal (1993)
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correlated the changes in parasitic fauna with the age at different times and
localities from the Pere Marquette river and lake Michigam (USA). They
found a correlation between helminth fauna and diet while the diet itself
showed a correlation with the depth of host habitat.
Kuperman (1992) studied the effect of wastes of the Cherepovets
iron-and-steel works containing phenol, naphthaline and oil products on
fish parasites of the Sheksna part of the Rybinsk water reservoir (the Volga
river system). It has been shown that the number of highly sensitive
ectoparasites of Abramis brama (Protozoa, Dactylogyrus monogeneans,
Ergasilus sieboldi crustaceans and Caspiobdella fadejewi leeches)
considerably decreases in the zone of pollution. Same researcher with
Matey (2000) made detailed investigation of the damage caused by the
parasites on the fish present in water bodies with poor environmental
conditions and found that parasites exerted a strong regulatory effect on
populations.
Nie and Kennedy (1993) analyzed infection dynamics of larval
Bothriocephalus claviceps in Cyclops vicinus. Nie (1996) observed poor
helminth communities in carp and related it to the poor fauna of these
highland lakes. He also showed that the communities were poor in carp
sampled from isolated highland lakes in Yunnan province of south-west
China where carp is introduced in some lakes. Nie et al. (1999) investigated
the intestinal helminth communities of carp in lakes in the flood plain to
provide comparative information of helminth communities of the fish in its
native habitats. Nie et al. (2000) reported the first record of Bothriocephalus
acheilognathi from the Cyprinid fishes of three lakes food plain of the Yangtz
river, China.
Cone et al. (1993) compared metazoan parasite communities of
yellow eels (Anguilla rostrata) inhabiting acidic (pH 4.5 - 5.0) and deacidified
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(limed to a pH of 6.0- 7.0) portions of a watershed in southwest Nova
Scotia.
Siddall et al. (1993) found Parasites of Buccinum undatum (Mollusca:
Prosobranchia) as biological indicators of sewage-sludge dispersal. Siddall
et al. (1997) examined the effect of exposure to a relatively high
concentration of pulp and paper mill effluent on the prevalence, abundance
and distribution of Dactylogyrus spp. on the gills of roach. Same researcher
and Sures (1998) analyzed and examined the uptake of lead by cystacanths
of the acanthocephalan Pomphorhynchus laevis in naturally infected
amphipods, Gammarus pulex, and by immature parasites in experimentally
infected fish, Leuciscus cephalus.
Sures et al. (1994) collected Adults of Pomphorhynchus laevis from the
intestines of Chubs (Leuciscus cephalus) from the river Ruhr near Bochum,
Germany. The Acanthocephalans and various tissues of the fish (muscle,
liver, and intestine) were analyzed for lead. Same authors in the same year
(1994) conducted a comparative study of lead accumulated in different
organs of perch (Perca fluviatilis)and its intestinal parasite Acanthocephalus
lucii. He and Taraschewski (1995) analyzed adults of Pomphorhynchus laevis
and Acanthocephalus lucii. Their cadmium concentrations were compared
with those found in different tissues (muscle, liver, and intestine) of their
final hosts the chub and perch. Cadmium and lead were predominantly
accumulated by the adult acanthocephalans. Same author with other
coworkers (1997) analyzed intestinal helminths of fish caught from
freshwater and brackish water biotopes throughout Europe for their heavy
metal (Pb and Cd) levels. The metal concentrations of the parasites were
compared to those of different organs (muscle, liver, intestine) of the fish
hosts and to those detected in the whole bodies of the respective
intermediate hosts. He with researchers (1997) analyzed intestinal fish
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parasites for heavy metal bioindicators and made a comparison between
Acanthocephalus lucii (Palaeacanthocephala) and the zebra mussel, Dreissena
polymorpha. Same author in association with Siddall (1999) worked on
aqueous lead exposure of Chub (Leuciscus cephalus) experimentally infected
with the parasite Pomphorhynchus laevis resulted in a rapid accumulation of
this metal in the intestinal acanthocephalans, reaching concentrations
which were significantly greater than in the host muscle, liver, and intestine
and approximately 1000 times higher than the exposure concentration.
Same researcher and its coworkers (1999) found Parasites as accumulation
indicators of heavy metal pollution. Same authors in the year (2001)
reviewed on the use of fish parasites as bioindicators of heavy metals in
aquatic ecosystems. Same author individually in the year (2003)
summarised the present knowledge about parasites as bioindicators and
compared the accumulation properties of parasites and established free
living indicators and stated how parasites could be advantageous and even
more sensitive indicators for environmental monitoring purposes. They
also suggested how environmental science and parasitology might profit
from each other in the near future
Gelnar et al. (1994) presented preliminary report of helminths
parasitizing fishes of the river Morava and gave remarks on the effect of
water pollution. He and with his associates(1997) studied biodiversity of
parasites in freshwater environment in relation to pollution. Parasite
species diversity was higher at the unpolluted site, and the dominant
species were found different at two different sites. Ectoparasites were
common at the unpolluted site and endoparasites at the polluted one.
Sebelova et al. (1995) studied the effect of water pollution on the
occurence and distribution of metazoan parasites of chub, Leuciscus
cephalus. She along with her associates (2002) made a comparative study of
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the haptoral morphology of four species of Diplozoon (Monogenea:
Diplozoidae) from the gills of fish exposed to different levels of water
pollution in two river systems in eastern Europe. The abnormalities have
been recorded and their morphology compared in the light of conditions of
environmental stress. Chishti and Peerzada (1995,1998) carried out
comprehensive study to understand the influence of environmental factors
on the helminth parasitic infections in the fishes of Wular lake, and
observed the dynamics of Acanthocephalan and trematode infections in
different months and their correlation with some environmental factors.
Bagge and Valtonen (1996) examined experimentally the influence of
paper and pulp mill effluent on gill parasite communities of roach (Rutilus
rutilus). Same author with other researchers (2004) worked on diversity and
abundance of parasites that vary widely among populations of the same
host species. The infection parameters was determined by characteristics of
the host population or of its habitat.
Hoole (1997) assessed the effect of pollution on the immune response
of fish and found it important in the dynamics of host/parasite interactions.
The same author with other coworkers in 2003 assessed the effect of
pollution and parasitic infection in combination on the fish inflammatory
response and evaluated in particular, the role of apoptosis and the acute
phase protein, C reactive protein. Haaparanta et al. (1997) compared gill
changes over five seasons in perch and roach among the four lakes differing
in parasite species composition and water quality to determine factors viz.,
parasites, pollution or a combination of these two factors caused the most
severe damage which presented the greatest problem within the system.
Mo, Tor Atle (1997) studied the seasonal occurrence of Gyrodactylus
(Monogenea) in brown trout (Salmo trutta) and Atlantic salmon in the
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Sandvikselva river, Norway. It was noticed that both prevalence and
intensity of parasitism increased and decreased correspondingly with the
rise and fall in water temperature. D'Amelio and Gerasi (1997) while
analysing the degree of biological diversity as an indicator of the well-
being of ecological systems suggested an approach for monitoring the
health of an ecosystem by analysing the ratio between monoxenous and
heteroxenous parasite species infecting model hosts. By this methodology it
was possible to confirm pollution effect as highlighted by other quantitative
methods.
Zampella and Bunnell (1998) compared the Digenetic trematode,
Phyllodistomum in banded sunfish (n=72) from 4 streams, the 2 most
disturbed and 2 least disturbed (pristine) habitat. In the disturbed streams,
Phyllodistomum occured in 12.12% of the fish (n=33) but in 7.7% of the fish
(n=39) in pristine streams. Brotheridge et al. (1998) correlated the presence
of encapsulated parasitic larvae found in the population of brown trout
with the concentrations of two metals, Nickel and Copper in fish.
Le Morvan et al. (1998) discussed the effects of temperature on
nonspecific defences, such as phagocytosis and cytotoxicity, total immune
competence in teleosts at low environmental temperature. Dusek et al.
(1998) found that monogeneans differed in their responses with respect to
their systematics (genera Dactylogyrus, Gyrodactylus, Paradiplozoon),
microhabitat distribution (location on gills or fins versus body surface of
host fish) and evolutionary strategy (specialists versus generalists) to
different pollutants and concluded that more precise approach is needed to
clarify associations between parasites and different environmental impacts.
Galli et al. (1998) measured Lead (Pb) and Chromium (Cr)
concentrations in the Acanthocephalan Acanthocephalus anguillae and found
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higher concentrations of Pb and Cr in the parasites, respectively
approximately 200 times and approximately 60 times higher than that of the
host liver. He with his coassociates (2001)worked on the populations of
Lamproglena pulchella von Nordmann 1832 (Copepoda: Eudactylinidae) in
Cyprinid fish in rivers with different pollution levels. Again in 2001 b with
his coworkers characterized water quality as a determinant of the
composition of fish parasite communities.
Zander (1998) reviewed the ecology of helminth parasites in the
Baltic Sea under headings: characteristic abiotic conditions of the Baltic Sea
and the composition of its parasitic fauna; the parasite fauna of ecological
equivalents or guild community; effects of eutrophication etc. same
researcher and Kesting (1998) compared parasites of gobiid fishes from two
sites in the western Baltic Sea to get information on the quality of the
respective environments.
Majidah and Khan (1998) studied the population dynamics of nine
species of helminths from fishes in Wular lake. Positive correlation was
observed between parasite population and temperature. Landsberg et al.
(1998) while investigating the feasibility of using parasites of fish as
response indicators divided environmental parameters that can affect
parasite abundance, richness, prevalence and diversity into three
categories: 1) the physical and chemical characteristics of the water and
sediment including contaminants) external to the fish; 2) the internal
environment defined by the physical condition (physiological) of
individual fish; and 3) the presence and relative abundance of benthic
macroinvertebrates, many of which survive as intermediate hosts. Parasites
appeared to be useful biomarkers and more sensitive to environmental
stressors than the fish themselves.
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Landry (1999) investigated the influence of physico-chemical factors
on prevalence and intensity of nine parasite taxa and related parasite
abundance to the habitat effects on intermediate host and parasite life cycle
dynamics. Roberts and Barnhart (1999) while studying the effect of
temperature, pH, and CO2 on transformation of the glochidia of Anodonta
suborbicllata, on fish host and in vitro found low temperature facilitating
successful encystment and transformation of the parasitic glochidia larvae
of mussels on fish hosts. They found that the % transformation success of
attached glochidia in laboratory infection on fish hosts was significantly
higher at 10 oC than at 21 oC.
Carney and Dick (2000) recorded twenty-eight parasite species from
yellow perch (Perca flavescens) collected from Dauphin Lake and Beaufort
Lake, Manitoba; Lake Winnebago, Green Bay and Lake Michigan,
Wisconsin. The trophic status of the aquatic system was found indirectly
affecting the parasite communities by limiting the variety of potential
intermediate hosts. Halmetoja et al. (2000) studied parasite communities of
perch in a natural lake (Vetamajarvi) and two reservoirs (the Kyrkosjarvi
and Liikapuro reservoirs) located in Western Finland. The protozoan ciliate
Capriniana piscium benefiting acidic water and Acanthocephalus lucii, due to
the abundance of its intermediate host, were most prevalent in the reservoir
conditions.
Schmidt-Posthaus et al. (2001) discussed poor water quality as a
major factor causing a decline of brown trout populations in Swiss rivers.
Several infectious agents were diagnosed in fish exposed to river water. The
most important findings were furunculosis and proliferative kidney
disease. Onusiriuka (2001) investigated helminth infestation of the electric
fish, Malapterurus electricus, in river Kaduna, Nigeria. 32.11% were infected
with helminth parasites. The intestine and the stomach recorded the highest
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106
number of parasites (58.40% and 34.51% respectively). Onusiriuka (2002)
investigated the effect of parasitism on the protein and free fatty acid of the
Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus and African catfish, Clarias gariepinus from
swimming pool end of river Kaduna. Water quality parameters showed
variation but these were regarded as affecting the parasitized and
unparasitized fish samples equally.
Hamilton and Poulin (2001) used inter-population comparisons to
investigate the effects of parasitism and variability in water temperature on
life history traits in New Zealand freshwater fish, Gobiomorphus breviceps the
upland bully. Thomas (2002) conducted ecological studies of Welsh rivers
by studying the feeding behavior of Salmonid fish, their helminth parasites
and intermediate hosts. Statistical analyses confirm that the genome, age
and sex of salmonid fish hosts, the station and seasonal change in radiation
levels as the significant factors in predicting the number of parasites.
Zsigmond et al. (2002) investigated the susceptibility of the fish to the
Rhipidocotyle fennica cercariae from Lake Vatia, contaminated with BKME,
and compared with the fish from uncontaminated lake. Matbouli and
Hoffmann (2002) presented data from field studies and exposure
experiments and the possible association of limno and physicochemical
parameters with outbreaks of Proliferative Kidney Disease (PKD) in
rainbow and brown trout. Pietrock and Marcogliese (2003) examined the
effects of natural variables and pollutants on two specific properties
(survival and infectivity) of free-living stages of endohelminths, mainly
trematodes, and recognized that other parasitic life history stages in
addition to the hosts are also affected.
Vidal-Martinez et al. (2003) investigated the effect of pollutants on
the intensity of infection of metazoan parasites in the Mayan catfish,
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Ariopsis assimilis from five localities in Chetumal Bay. Dusan et al. (2003)
investigated the parasite communities of the freshwater fish species roach
(Rutilus rutilus), bitterling (Rhodeus sericeus amarus) and perch (Perca
fluviatilis) during a major flood. They concluded that the parasite
communities of the three fish species responded in different ways to the
flood. Manfredi et al. (2003) investigated the structure of parasite infra
communities of Chubs (Leuciscus cephalus) from various locations along the
river Adda and from lake of Como (Lombardy, Northern Italy) with respect
to different habitat typologies.
Schludermann et al. (2003) stated that in order to validate the role of
parasite community patterns related to heavy metal pollution, more
investigations on food web dynamics, interrelationships between parasites
and the presence/absence of intermediate hosts is essential. Joanne (2003)
studied four native fishes in the Grand Canyon. Among them one species,
humpback chub Gila cypha, was federally listed as endangered. They found
that introduced parasites and diseases further threaten native fishes.
Poleo et al. (2004) demonstrated that aqueous Almunium and Zinc
have a stronger effect on the ectoparasite Gyrodactylus salaris than on the
salmonid host, Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and suggested that the metals
can also be used as a pesticide to control ecto parasites such as G. salaris.
Fellis and Esch (2004) examined the community structure and seasonal
dynamics of 16 helminth species infecting green (Lepomis cyanellus) and
bluegill (L. Macrochirus) sunfishes in Charlie's Pond, North Carolina.
Rumiantsev (2004) investigated succession of fish parasite fauna in
lakes (with example of Baltic shield). At the middle oligotrophic stage, the
fauna of parasites and fishes maintained a relative stability for a long
period and was characterized by maximum species diversity. Yousuf and
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Humaira (2004) studied Parasite community of Carassius carassius in three
lakes of Kashmir depicting different eutrophication level Dal lake
(eutrophic), Manasbal lake (meso-eutrophic) and Khushalsar lake (hyper-
eutrophic). They concluded that the water quality influenced the parasite
community directly in case of ectoparasites and indirectly in case of
endoparasites by affecting the population dynamics of the intermediate
hosts. Ondrackova et al. (2004) studied the seasonal dynamics of
Posthodiplostomum cuticola metacercariae in 0+ juvenile fish, Rutilus rutilus,
Scardinius erythrophthalmus and Abramis bjoerkna, on the floodplain of the
Dyje River, Czech Republic.
Sara et al. (2005) necropsied Sixty-two specimens of Iheringichthys
labrosus, captured in Rosana, Taquarucu, Salto Grande and Canoas
reservoirs, located in the Parana River basin,. Fifty specimens were
parasited by at least one species (80.65%). Comparison of parasite infra
communities from the fishes of both sites presented a similarity of 54.54%.
Shirakashi et al. (2006) worked on recent epidemic of the invasive
monogenean Neoheterobothrium hirame of olive flounder, Paralichthys
olivaceus, in Japan. To clarify the causal link between parasite invasion and
host depletion, they monitored the infections of N. hirame on juvenile
flounder for 2 years at two widely separate bays, Obama Bay. Fishes
captured at Obama Bay harboured three times more worms than those at
Miyako Bay and had a significantly higher overall prevalence of infection.
In addition, there was a negative correlation between parasite intensity and
host condition factor at Obama Bay, suggesting a causal link between the N.
hirame epidemic and the reduction of local flounder populations.
The above mentioned review illustrates the complete picture of the
of the work done on environmental, morphological, and biological studies
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of fish parasite system and indicated that the fishes of Kashmir are
invariably infected by all the four helminth groups viz. Diplozoon,
Clinostomum and Allocreadium from Trematoda; Adenoscolex and
Bothriocephalus from Cestoda; Pomphorhynchus and Neoechinorhynchus from
Acanthocephala and Rhabdochona and Procamallanus from Nematoda. It is
also clear that tremendous literature is available on the morphological
aspects of helminth parasites but little attention has been paid towards the
effect of this large assemblage of parasites on fish health in general and that
of the indigenous fish – Schizothorax in particular. It was felt necessary to
carry out the detailed study in this direction.
Although a lot of work has been carried out on the water bodies of
Kashmir but studies of comparative nature and those revealing the factors
influencing the fish of Kashmir valley are wanting as is evident from the
non- availability of the references on this important aspect.
In addition to that, a lot of work has been done on finding the
association of parasites with environmental pollution with respect to fish
health. but in Kashmir valley, scant efforts have been put on finding the
relationships between degradation of environmental quality, higher
prevalence of helminth parasitic infections in the native fish of Kashmir,
which necessitated the present endeavour.