Chapter I1

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

CHAPTER - II REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Introductton

11 I Socral Welfare Programmes - A Macro Perspective

I1 1 1 Pol~trcal Economy of Social Welfare Programmes

11 1 2 Social Welfare Pollcy In Various countries

I1 1 3 Studies wth Regional Perspective

I1 2 Revtew of some Microlcase Studies of Welfare Programmes

I1 2.1 Impact Studtes Relating to Employment, Income and Educatron

I1 2 2 lmpact Studres on Income, Savtngs, Asset and Debt

11.2 3 Studres Based on Relevant Methods

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

Impact and evaluafive studles have emerged analyslng the vanous context-

spec~fic schemes implemented by the Government. The Influence of these studies on

pol~cy making and adm~mstrat~on 1s being felt (Madan et al, 1982). Hence, a revlew of

studes on welfare policy making and welfare programmes In terms of thelr methodology

and findings 1s made This would facilitate the identification of the gaps, ~f any, in the

earlier work and the present study may help to fill them, however modest the contnbution

may be In that direction

The review of literature is broadly classified into three sections (Flow Chart-I1 1)

1 Studies on Social Welfare Programmes wth Macro Perspecfive This sect~on is sub-

divided into

(a) Political Economy of Soclal Welfare Programmes and

(b) trend in Soclal Welfare Policy in vanous countries

(c) regional studies.

2 M~cro 1 case studies. These are classified as evaluafive and impact studles The

Impact studtes are fwther classified as

(a) those studles pertainmng to employment, ~ncome and education and

(b) other studtes on income, savmngs, assets and indebtedness.

FLOW CHART - U . I

I REVIEW OF L I T E R A T W I

Studies With Macro Perspect~ve Micro /Case Studes Revlew of L~terature on

Evaluative Household Studes Stalishcal Approach

in various B d e s Appmach

.' I

Impact on Income, employment, Income Savings, Assets and

and Education Indebtedness

3 S M e s on methodology They are classified Into studies on

(a) cost-benefit approach, r .

(b) economctnc and statishcal approach and "

(c) household approach.

U.1. SOCIAL WELFARE PROGRAMMES - A MACRO PERSPECTIVE

This semen contains a revlew of stud~es on the conceptual basis for government

Intervention, the direction of Soclal Welfare Policy In vanous countries and Welfare

Programmes wth regional focus

1 . 1 POLITICAL ECONOMY OF SOCIAL WELFARE PROGRAMMES

The following review of literature traces the conceptual basis of welfare Ideas

and hghllghts the macro perspective of pol~trcal economy of Soclal Welfare

Programmes in recent times The welfare of any social group is said to have Increased

whenever at least one or some move to a preferred state wthout pushlng anybody else to

a depressed state The Soclal Welfare IS maximlsed when all such opportunltles to

saosfy the preferences of some person, wthout adverse Impact on other members are

frilly utilised Any government intewentlon can be evaluated In terms of th~s type of

Pareto opttmallty m order to provlde normahve gudellnes to the government for further

course of action. The. essential part of the theoretical modem economics 1s normative

consisting of an attempt to evaluate the empirical behavlour of economlc phenomena and

to locate opporhuuties for Improvement (Gordon, 1980). Such an attempt to evaluate

the emp~ncal behav~our of economlc phenomena is taken up by Seaff and lngrsm

(1987) They provide a welfare economic perspecfive for government intervention wth 5

spec~al reference to publlc cho~ce and pollcy making They polnt out that within the

framework of publlc cho~ce, pol~hcs 1s comprehended as that actlvlty In which

aggregated utll~hes result In a choice concerning the provis~on of public goods Publlc

pollcy 1s conceived as emergng from the contnbut~on of indlv~dual preferences. Thls

type of analysis strengthens the pol~tlcal theory of welfare economics and provides a

theorehcal background for the Social Welfare Activ~tles of the Government Palumbo

(1987) critically analyses the nature of evaluative stud~es and states that these evaluative

stud~es frequently draw on knowledge in administrative and polrtlcal sclence to examine

the pollcy maklng process. He also highl~ghts the lndlspensab~llty of evaluahon studies

In the context of the need for expanding the role of the welfare state on the one hand and

shnnklng of welfare expenditure of the respective governments on the other He

observes that this is the wversal feature in the contemporary world

Glazer (1988) highlights the need for professionalisahon of welfare servlces In

order to Improve the quality of servlces The author points out that every piece of soc~al

pollcy that is substituted for some tmbtional arrangement thus weakens the posit~on of

traditional agents. The observation 1s relevant for the soc~al pollcy maklng in the Indian

context where the hold of tnstitution has been gradually weakened viz , Breakdown of

Joint Famlly System fo~~owea oy the emergence of nuclear family, woman headed family

and angle member family. Th~s change In social cohes~on has been endorsed as the

impact of the expansion of the welfare state

Aron (1995) detects the absence of hollac approach In Soc~al Welfare Policy C '

of the developing countnes dunng the post-second world war era. More spec~fically In

the Indian context, tt IS observed that the needs of the poor remcun largely evaded and

most of the benefits of welfare pollcles are d~sproporhonately captured by the powerful

sectlons m the society. The presentation of a three dimensional alternative model of

soctal welfare based upon sustalnabll~ty, partlc~patory approach and autonomy

strengthens the theoret~cal framework of Welfare Economics

n.1.2. SOCIAL WELFARE POLICY IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES

An analys~s of the trend In Soc~al Welfare Pollcy In lndustnally advanced

countnes In the post-second world war era provides the framework for further research

on the crystall~sation of those welfare Ideas Stud~es by Janowitz (1976), Dinitto and

Dye (1983) refer to the trend In soc~al welfare pol~cy In lndustnally advanced countnes

In the post-second world war era They, based upon the~r secondary data reference

covenng the period 1965-75, have drawn attention to the Increase m the number of

female headed famllles In the U.S A An Important findlng of the study IS that female

headed households are much more likely to be poor than male headed fam~l~es on

account of low level of literacy and skill format~on The author polnts out that thls trend

implies greater pressure om welfare progmmmes In the U.S.A In the ensuing decades.

Mac Pberson and Midgley (1987) m e w the Soc~al Welfare Policies In the

developing countnes and point out that they are largely inappropriate to the local

condihons. Giovanni, Jolly and Stewart (1987) establlsh that Soclal Welfare Pollcy in r ,

the developing countries in future should accommodate the social cost of structural

adjustment in an increastng manner and relleve the add~bonal straln of structural

adjustment on the vulnerable sectlons In the soc~ety They further establlsh, on the bass

of secondary data, that only 14% of the benefits of general food subs~dles accrue to the

lowest income qulnble In Jamiuca, Algena and Sn Lanka dunng the 1970s and '80s

Accord~ng to the authors, this ~mplles that the Soclal Welfare Pollcy should be recast m

such a manner as to avold the 'Seepage Effect'

The study of Wilding (1990) refers to the reduction In soclal spendlng In the

elghtles, on account of 'Thatchansm' whlch asserts the supenority of pnvate market

provision of welfare services as against state provls~on The study IS based upon

secondary data pertalnmng to the welfare reforms introduced in England covenng the

penod 1979-1989 Martychen (1990) analyses poverty and employment stabstlcs

pertaining to the developing countnes during 1945-1987 Her Important findtng IS that

the need for employment of poor women has been created on account of the

dtsintegration of the institubon of famlly of the conventional type and the emergence of

female headed farnrlles as well as one member families Thls trend has necess~tated

greater welfare Intervention by the government and sizable government spendmg on the

poor women and childrens

The key findmg of the Report of the World Bank (World Bank Country Study,

Indin, 1989) IS that the complexion and context of Indian poverty have changed wth the

result that many of the factors mncludmg government programmes whlch have conmbuted 7

to poverty r edwon in the last IS years are unlikely to yleld a s~milar reduct~on In the

future. Hence, alternative options and instruments are suggested to deal wth a changng

poverty scenario.

lI.13. STUDIES WITH REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE

Leaby (1986) has made a comparative study of soclal welfare strategy on

women belongng to low Income groups In the U S A , Memo and Cuba dunng 1982-

85 The study based upon p n m q and secondary data h~ghllghts the fact that socletles

wthout extensrve welfare programme for woman headed familles promote child labour

Urrutia (1997) refers to the progressive fall In central government expend~ture

In soclal servlces during the period 1970-1984 In most of the Latln American countries

The author recommends that this trend should be reversed and Investment m social

programmes must be ~ncreased In order to assist the low Income groups and to reduce

inequalities in Latin American Counmes. Thls analys~s 1s based upon secondary data

collected from nabonal budgets in Lahn America for two decades slnce the year 1970

In the Aslan Context, the evaluat~on of Employment Programme undertaken by

the Intemahonal Labour Orgamsatron has been the earliest The I L.0 has evaluated

the Asian Employment Programmes, on the basls of secondary data, In Bangladesh,

Ind~a, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan and Srilanka. In Mia, the Employment Programmes

whlch are unplemented m Blhar, Punjab, Kerala and West Bengal are chosen for

evaluation. The period of analysts covers one and half decades slnce the commencement li

of the year 1%0 The Report attributes the increase In rural and urban poverty In the

study area to the lack of co-orhnation among the vanous employment generatton

schemes on the one hand and on the other, the lack of effectrve parttclpatton on the part

of the poor tn the carrying out of these programme

The South Aslan Commlsston on Poverty Allev~atton (1992) has been set up by

the South Aslan Assoctat~on for Regonal Co-operatton in order to have a regonal

approach to poverty allevratlon. It observes that the Grameen Bank of Bangladesh,

Worklng Women's Forum In Indla, Janasaviya In Snlanka, Atoll m Mald~ves, the Small

Farmers Project In Nepal, the Health Programme in Bhutan and Agakhan Rural Support

Programme tn Pakistan are able to benefit the poor and the objectrve of the Government

tntervention tn terms of economlc upllftment of the masses has been realtsed An

Important suggestion found in tlus report is that the tnstttut~onal finance should be made

avrulable to the poor for self employment 1 skill updat~on purposes It a also pointed out

that the avatlabillty of credit from the bank~ng sector would enable the poor to ltqu~date

debts with the moneylenders. Michael and Mu (1993) have come out wth a similar

review of poverty allev~ation programme tn South Asia, and the African countries In the

post second world war era The authors observe that while these programmes have a

significant Impact on the welfare of large secfions of low Income population, they fa11 to

reach the poorest groups.

It i s observed from the above review of literatun that the macro perspective of

Social Welfare hgrammes has norrnatlve basls ~n Welfare Economics Emergence of

women headed fam~l~es among the low Income group% have necessitated addit~onal

welfare spending m both developed and develop~ng countries The regonal stud~es

highlight the constraints and limltahons of welfare programmes and offer context - specific suggestions.

n.2. REVIEW OF SOME MICRO 1 CASE STUDIES OF WELFARE

PROGRAMMES

The case stud~es are broadly class~fied as evaluat~ve stud~es and Impact stud~es

The evaluatlve stud~es are based upon the rat~onal approach to allocatlve property In the

context of govemment spendlng on Welfare Schemes They seek to find out how well a

programme IS worklng and thus pnmanly serve the accountability purpose. The findlngs

of the evaluatlve studies are useful for both pollcy formulahon and execution purposes of

subsequent programmes The goal of impact stud~es IS soc~al achon They prov~de

lns~ght Into the soc~oeconomic problem associated with the vulnerable groups in the

soclety and analyse the welfare Impact of govemment endeavour to amellorate the

condihons of the poverty-stncken segments of the populat~on A revlew of l~terature on

these Microlcase studies assumes spec~al Importance In the background of the strategy of

combining redistribuhon wth growth whch has been ~mplernented In Indla slnce the

Fifth Five Year Plan Penod (m~d sevenbes)

When &scussmng the impact of welfare measures on the poor m India, Bardhan

(1974) argues that apart from the problem of developing an adequate admmistrative

dellvew infrastructure, finance has been a major constrai_nt and whenever the overall

financlal situation gets worse, the social welfare programmes have been the first to be

shelved. Moreover, accordng to him, the upper-lncome groups have been able to

p2-+P appmpnate k& themselves a d~sproport~onate,-of the expanding social services, viz ,

education, transport and low cost housmng. The author concludes that these factors

prevent the low Income groups from benefihng out of above said government

intervention to the fdlest extent.

Beckerman (1974) points out In h ~ s evaluation study that the extent to which

welfare spending reduces the level of depnvabon is determined by the total budgetary

expendture on the one hand and on the other, the effic~ency \nth whlch the programmes

are Implemented in Australia, Belgum, Norway and Bntaln HIS findings are based upon

national budget data and Government evaluahon stud~es In the respectlve countries

covenng the penod of one decade from 1963 to 1973 Ahuja (1978) evaluates the

benefits flowing from public outlays In terms of their impact on the standard of living of

the beneficiaries In th s context, the author takes into account the degree of progression

of the effects of Govenunent expenditure. HIS analysis is based upon secondary data

collected from distnct budgets of Kanpur, Thaqavur, and Gaya The study establishes

that as a dlstrict advances econom~cally, the share of outlay on soclal s m c e s tends to

k l m e and that on economic semces tends to increase. It is also found that share of

capital outlays tends to Increase, because m the course of development, more

~nfrashucture 1s created. Year of reference is 1974-75

The Study of National Commlsslon on Urban~sation (1988) evaluates the slum

clearing scheme of the Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance Board from 1983 to 1986 It IS

polnted out that the slum clearance scheme tnvolves the spending of ltmited public

resources on h~gh priced hous~ng and hence only a small segment of the slum dwellers is

covered under the scheme. A similar study is undertaken by Shinde (1990) in the slums

of Bombay According to Misra (1988), Social Welfare Schemes should try to

mlnimlse expend~ture on establishment and maximise physical benefit promoted through

the schemes Reddy and Sudhaknr (1989) analyse the per household benefits from

social secunty and welfare accruing to low income group vts-LVIS other lncome groups

They point out that dunng the penod 1975-76 to '84-'85 benefits of social secunty and

welfare are realwed by other income groups In Andhra Pradesh at the cost of low lncome

group

II.2.1. IMPACT STUDIES RELATING TO EMPLOYMENT, INCOME AND

EDUCATION.

In continuation with the review of studies of evaluahve nature of the prewous

section, MicrotCase Studies with focus on impact ~n terns of employment creation,

income generation, educational attrunment and other aspects are analysed as follows

Rrmr (1974) establishes the extent of awareness and utilisation of women's welfare

programme in Tamil Nadu based upon primary data A crucial finding of this attitudinal

survey is that there is a definite demand among the women for employment as means of

earning income and as a means of improving thelr own status by tmprovlng their positron

as an eco~mmic agent

The stud~es of Khan and Lee (1984) on the ~mpact of educat~on and health

pol~cles of the government and that of dlrect welfare measure on the qual~ty of 11fe of the

beneficlanes In Kenlla prove that the llnkages among these pollcy intervent~on have led

to an improvement m the qual~ty of 11fe since the 1970s Geetha Sen and Chiranjiv Sen

(1985) establish that no welfare scheme In Ind~a offers maternity benefits to poor

working women in the unorganised sector They point out that th~s has adversely

affected health, employment and lncome of these poor women.

Pandey (1990) analyses the impact of Soc~al Welfare schemes which prov~de

financ~al ass~stance to SC and ST In the Villages to make them entrepreneurs He

observes that given the social inequality in rural areas, there IS no expected lmpact on

their soc~al and economic status Instead he suggests that trainlng and skill updahon

scheme should be introduced to train the SCJST in order to enable them to take up

employment or trade in small or medium towns

The objective of the study by Shiva Reddy (1990) on Publlc Expenditure on

Educat~on in Andhra Radesh is to examine how different socio-economic groups have

benefited in the above context Soc~o-economic rnformation of the familles of 750

students at all levels of education across repons 1s collected by means of survey method

On the basis of social origin, students are classified into 4 groups viz, ST (Schedule

Tnbcs), SC (Schedule Caste), L B C. (Llsted Backward Community) and OC (Other

Community) Secondary data regarhng PEE (Public Expenhture on Educatlon) are

taken from budget reports of Andhra Pradesh It 1s ta-$e noted that only revenue

expend~ture on educabon of the Government of Andhra Pradesh 1s taken Into account as

the expenditure on capital account 1s negllgble The data on percentage of students of

different lncome brackets wth m a soclal group are obtarned from the survey

REE (Revenue Expend~ture on Educatlon ) on elementary educatlon 1s more In

favour of SCsISTs and LBCs when compared to the expend~ture on secondary and h~gher

educatlon accorhng to the study Further, it 1s found that the maln beneficlanes of REE

on secondary education belong to the low lncome groups only In the case of ST

Moreover, the upper lncome groups among all soclal groups are the beneficlanes of REE

on hlgher educatlon

It 1s further analysed that all familles wth an annual Income below Rs 30001-

account for 50% of state population and their percentage In PEE on all levels of

educanon IS only 40%. Thus, the conclusion emerges that publlc financing of educat~on

at all levels In the state 1s megalitanan wth reference to ~ t s impact on low lncome

grC"'ps.

The objectives of the study of Sinha (1992) on the impact of TRYSEM

(National Scheme of Trainlng for Rural Youth for self employment) are to examlne the

soc~o economic status of women beneficlanes, to find out the extent to which

beneficiaries represent their depressed and down trodden sections of the soctety and to

ascertain the role of TRYSEM as a mechanism of socmeamomlc development of the

beneficlanes The study 1s based upon primary data wth reference to the year 1989-90 In

SIX drstncts of the state of Bihar The important findlng offihe study IS that three fourths

of the women beneficlanes are In the age group of 20-30 years. Thls has favourable

impact on the utihsabon of the selfemployment scheme A study of the prevlous

employment status of the beneficlanes reveals that 78% of them were housewves

Hence, the Impact of TRYSEM In terms of creatlon of opportunrty for self-employment

1s keenly felt

It 1s found that around 82% of beneficlanes belong to the soc~ally depressed

classes conslstrng of SCiST and BC 75% of them have annual Income around Rs 50001-.

It 1s evldent that around 70% of the benefic~arles have Improved thelr vocational sklll

after undergoing TRYSEM tralnlng But TRYSEM as the tool of Improvement m

economlc condlhon 1s not equally effectlve It 1s estimated that only 25% of the total

beneficlanes are able to Improve thcrr economic condltlon, that too, by semng up their

own d n g centres.

Ghuhan (1992) reviews the worklng of different types of welfare scheme, 1 e ,

old age pension, maternity benefit and mamage grant Implemented by Tarn11 Nadu

Government wth reference to the year 1987-88 The revlew is based upon secondary

data Thls study reveals the complementary relatlonshlp between protectwe and

promo~onal measures in the areas of soctal security and social welfare in Tam11 Nadu

He observes that Tamil Nadu's experience points persuasively to the desrrability and

achevability of at least a mlnlmum soclal security package at the nanonal level

Richard and Chasin (1992) analyx government intervention in Kerala In

different areas of pollcy (1985-90) vlz , food, health and educat~on The Important

findlng IS that the success of female literacy programme has led to the reallzat~on of the

targets in health care and fam~ly welfare

Saxena (1992) evaluates the Total Literacy Program In Naraslmgapur Qstr~ct In

Madhya Pradesh dunng 1990-91 He observes that the prevalence of ngld caste system

lnhrblts the progress of Total Literacy Program In the study area and suggests that there

should be sc~entlfic evaluation of the soclo-economlc condlt~on of a dlsmct before

lmplementlng any welfare program

Patnaik (1994) points out that employment onented welfare schemes not only

help to bnng women Into the economic mainstream but also broaden the~r attitudes

towards pnmary health care and family plannlng The penod of reference corresponds to

three years commencing from the year 1990 The findmgs are based upon pnmary data

collected from the women beneficlanes of employment onented welfare schemes In the

Panchayats of Pun Distnct tn Orissa The study relies upon the survey of a few Panchyats

of Pun hstricts in whch employment generating schemes are successfully implemented

and the poor women are the major beneficiaries

The author a of the opinion that the impact of the above srud scheme 1s

favourable only ~n those cases where a poslhve attitudes towards the scheme has been

created at the outset. Women beneficlanes who are P-anchayat members and school

teachers and worklng women other than agricultural labours have posltlve att~tude

towards the health care and famlly welfare servlces Any welfare program leadlng to

gainful employment for women has posltlve linkages wth famlly welfare Thus,

favourable att~tude 1s the motlvatlng force behlnd effectlve canylng out of the number of

welfare schemes wth bmlt-~n llnkages

The Zabbaleens, settled on the outskirts of Curo were ongnally p ~ g breeders

who m~grated from Upper Egypt. They made llvlng by sellrng pigs rased on organlc

waste and selling the sorted secondary matenals such as paper, tln, rags, glass, plast~c and

bones to matenals m~ddle men, known as wah~s In order to asslst upgrading the worklng

and llvlng cond~t~on of the Zabbaleens, and to help restructure Ca~ro's sohd waste

management system Env~ronmental Qual~ty International (EQI) together with the

Assoclatlon for the care of garbage collectors (Al Gameya) lnlt~ated a senes of projects

Gvenena (1994) assesses the ~n pact of the Zabbaleen Environment and

Development programme on the beneficiaries According to h ~ m the Zabbaleen

environmental and developmental programme is a component of the Flrst Egypt Urban

Development Project The programme is bu~lt upon malung use of the resources of the

Zabbaleens, to be grunfullp employed ~n the actrvities assoc~ated wth the maintenance

of clean environment. The des~gn of thls programme focuses on llnlang environment

improvement with enterprise promotion. The programme is based upon a through

analysis of the market condit~ons and opportunities for Zabbaleen servlces

The small idu&ial project and an income genelat~ng project for women

headed households are also established in the late 80's with the aim of increasing the

Income of garbage collectors and of women, the later representing the most vulnerable

group wthm the settlement The mechanisatlon project has provided the settlement with

the vehicles that replace the donkey drawn carts used to collect the garbage The impact

of thls complement of projects has enabled them to engage m other productive act~vltles

to enhance their income and has allowed the~r children to spend more tlme In school and

has reduced the nsk of transm~sslon of Zoonotic Diseases

Prasad (1995) analyses the work~ng of soc~al secunty of Tarn11 Nadu. The

objecttves of the study are to find out the accesslbillty of the scheme to the needy

destitute wdows and to detect any distortron In the ~mplementatlon of the scheme The

study IS based upon pnmary and secondaq data wth reference to the functioning of the

relevant scheme ~n Dindugal and Palani Talukas from 1988 to 1992 It is observed that

the eligibility criterion is umeallstic. For example, if a widow has a son or a grandson,

her application is summarily rejected wthout venfylng whether the male relative 1s

supportwe to the applicant The findings of t h~s research study would help policy makers

to rectify the defects m the des~gning of the ehgbdlty critena of the scheme Moreover,

slmilar research U e s may be undertaken to find out whether sim~lar lacuna exlsts wth

reference to other social welfare schemes

IL2.2. IMPACT STUDIES ON MCOME, SAVINGS, ASSET AND DEBT

The Memorandum by the Family Allowance Campaign (1973) throws light on

the favourable lmpact of family allowance on the poor women in the Unlted Klngdom in

terms of reduction in the level of indebtedness The Memorandum IS based upon a

cntical rewew of the wntten wldence of women beneficlanes of famlly allowance

dunng the year 1971-72. Kumari, et al (1988) analyse the activltres of Panvarthan - the Action Wtng of Centre for Soclal Research, New Delhl wth reference to the ongoing

~ncome generahng schemes for the female headed households and women from poor

famllles In Uttar Pradesh An examlnat~on of pnmary data collected dunng 1986-87

reveals that the major 0bjectlve of Pmvarthan I e , breaklng the VICIOUS circle of poverty

m terms of low Income, Indebtedness and low Investment In sklll updatlon has been

achieved The schemes have contnbuted to Income generation and reduct~on In

~ndebtedness among the beneficiaries' households

The study of Vaidyanathaa md Bhat (1989) with regard to distnbution of

assets (Bckshaw and Sewing matching) under the bank loan scheme and its Impact In

terms of Increase In Income and reduct~on In debt of the beneficlanes confirms that there

is an Increase in the average monthly earnings. They have also found that a porhon of

the income gmn is dlverted to fulfill the repayment obl~gtion.

According to Shrrmshrkti (1989), women headed households are a result of

widowhood, mlgrafion, desertion or the illness/ unemployment or d c t i v e habits of

their husbands The delivery structures of welfare schemes do not recognise women as

heads of households In the absence of soc~al security, they suffer a hlgher lncldence of

poverty. Moreover, the Indebtedness of women headed households 1s on the Increase as

these women are unaware of the cred~t schemes applicable to them and the concerned

authont~es do not comprehend the cred~t requirements of these poor households

The World Bank Country Study India (1989) reveals that the Impact of

Public Rstnbut~on System on increasing the real lncome of the poor 1s great In Kerala,

as PDS commod~tles are made available throughout the State and seepage IS prevented by

means of strict ellgib~l~ty cnteria In Karnataka, the use of a system of colour - coded

cards lnd~cates the quantlty of ratlons for different Income groups. Ths ensures that

there 1s an apprec~able Increase In the real lncome of the poorest

The programme of lntenslve Development of Handicraft of the Government of

Karnataka has establ~shed the Craft Complex wth a vlew to offer a revolving credtt of

Rs 10001- every month for the member artisans. According to Aziz (1989) t h~s provlslon

has reduced the debts of the art~sans In the unorgamsed market for loans i e , the money

lenders who charge exorbitant rate of ~ntwest. It 1s also observed that the beneficlanes of

the Craft Complex save around 5% to 10% their average monthly Income Thus, the

Impact of the program on the economlc status of the beneficlanes 1s revealed in terms of

reduct~on In debt and increase in savlngs.

When revlemng the development programmes for the urban poor Mbrn and

Narain (1989) subscribe to the idea of lntegratlng all the development programmes,

ensunng the convergence of amel~oratrve services appl~cable to the social (caste-set) and

environmental ( livlng area) depnvahons In order to achleve a sustamable Increase in the

level of lncome of the benefic~aries.

Dillan and Eansra (1991) evaluate the findings ofreview studles of the scheme

for Development of Women and Children In Rural Areas In India from 1985 to 1990.

They 0 b S e ~ e that these review studies attribute the non-fulfillment of the targets of the

scheme tn terms of achieving a minimum level of Income galn and savings of the

pmclpants to the irrelevant nature of "group actlvlties" selected under the scheme,

which have been not In tune with local condlhons and slulls.

Tbakur (1991) examlnes the Impact of poverty allevlatton programmes on the

economic status of the beneficlanes In the e~ghtles taklng Into account thelr socro-

economlc factors The study IS with reference to the beneficlanes In the urban areas In

the low-hill zone of Hlmachal Pradesh The caste-wre analysls of the value of

household assets of the beneficlanes reveals that the value of household assets lnhented

and the assets recelved under the Government scheme 1s hlgher among the non-scheduled

caste households as compared to the scheduled caste households. An Important lacuna

identified in the Poverty Alleviabon Programmes IS that Income generating assets such as

sewng machines and knitting machines have not been gven to the beneficlanes Credrt

b& are provided under the Poverty Allevlatlon Programmes to enable the

beneficiaries to pursue pretty trade or self employment. This has not been availed to the

fullest extent as the weaker sections lack nsk bearing capacity. The beneficiaries,

especially those belonging to SC are further disadvantaged on account of socioeconomic

factors like high dependency rat~o, low level of Ilteracy, low Income and high ~nc~dence

of indebtedness. The author concludes that thelr debt burden is conbnuously mcreasmng

inspite of the pamcipabon In the Poverty Allevlat~on P r o q m e s ,

Martin Ravallion (1991 ) assesses the role played by Employment Guarantee

Schemes implemented in India dunng the eighties According to him the schemes have

been deslgned as piecemeal pollcy instruments for smoothening the odd edges of the

growth process He suggests that ~n order to have favourable impact on the level of

lnwme of the beneficianes, these schemes should be recast in such a manner as to be

able to efficiently transfer resources to the poorest on a continuous basts He also

comments that the favourable impact of the schemes on the low Income groups would

depend upon the extent to which the polltical and economlc wnstralnts faclng the pollcy

makers are tackled. He explalns the economic constraints in terms of the work

requirement of the schemes whlch impose the cost of forgone income on the participants.

With reference to the polit~cal constraint, he draws attention to the fact that the

intervening agents like local administrators have some discretion m the selechon to the

beneficianes. In t h ~ s context, political and personal factors may worsen the targeting

p e r f o m c e . Hence, he recommends that the selechon of beneficiaries should be made

only on the basis of an ideal means test.

Jain et al(1996) evaluate the progress of Nehrn Rojgar Yojana (NRY) in a

medium sized city in Rajasthan commissioned by the Instrtute of Police study An

important observabon of the study points towards the slowness of service delivery by the

banks as the major hurdle for obtaining loan for the bcncfic~aries of self employment

component of NRY. It IS evident that the scheme has favourable impact on the economlc

status of the benefic~aries. 70% of the particqmts have Income gain varylng between 3

Rs 100 - Rs 500 per month A cruclal observation of this study 1s that the prospect of

susmnable income improvement depends on how addltlonal Incomes are used. It is

found that approximately 1/3 of the beneficlanes use the addltlonal lncome for meetlng

household expenditure In the first round 20% of the household Invest the addlhonal

Income m busmess In the first round and 40% do so in the second round Around 4% of

the beneficlanes alone save the d t l o n a l income for meetlng contlngencles

As madequate access to financlal loan 1s a major problem for the poor

households in the slum, the Baroda Cltlzens' Council has set up a commwty savings and

Loan Association (CSLA) Small loans of short duration are supplled to about 1600

households In the slums Chetan Vaidya (1995) evaluates the impact of the loan

program on the economic status of the benef~lanes The association is mainly operative

on the savings made by the slum dwellers. Recently the Housing Development and

Finance Corporation (HDFC) has provlded financlal assistance to CSLA and the author

points out that for the first time finance fmm the organised sector IS used for the

developmental acbnties of the low Income groups In the slum. A unlque aspect 1s that

66% CSLA members are women who an helped to take income generating actwtles

through training, finance and marketing support CSLA prondes credit assistance

between Rs. 500 to 5000 for house repairs, hospitalisation and income generating

achvities. The author suggests that small loans up to Rs 500 should be provided for

emergency requirement without golng through the process of appllcahon and guarantee

W'ihwrLrma and RaW Gapta (1995) exryline the Urban Basic Services

programme in the slums of Delhi wth reference to provision of family welfare and

health services, public distribution system, enmonmental sanitation and sklll

upgradauon programme for Income generation The authors polnt out that there IS no

sultable administrative structure for the convergence of the services They also observe

that the programmes do not reach the needy poor as the benefits are C W A ~ ~ ? . ~ by the

non-poor in the slum community.

The evaluatrve studies are concerned wrth the implementation of welfue

schemes m a cost-efectrve manner. Some offhe rmpuct studies have brought ubout the

linkages between employment, rncome und educatron. Some other sfudres deul wrth

Impact on mcome, savmng.7, asset and mndebtedness. Some studies portray the context -

specrfic problems of women headed fumrlies, low rncome groups lrke artmsans. Some

other pertarn b m-kind t r d e r s and group welfom acfivrtres.

11.3. STUDIES BASED ON RELEVANT METHODS

Evaluation and impact studies are scmtlnlsed from the methodological polnt of

view not only to analyse the vmous methods handled in those studies but also to consider

the logic behind the m v e methods used in the context of the research study The

foundabon of systematic research process IS the understanding of the assumpUons

underlying vanous tezhniqucs and the criteria by whrch certain technlques are chosen In

the context of a speclfic research Issue In the light of the above considerahons, the

following s ~ e s are classified as those subscribing to cost-benefit approach, those

based upon econometric and stanst~cal approach and 9 s e whlch follow household

approach

Some selected works on the appllcat~on of cost-benefit analysis as tool of

evaluation are examlned In the followng sectlon

The basrc Idea of cost-benefit analysls IS to find out the extent to whrch the

benefit of a parbcular strategy outweighs ~ t s real cost In cost-effectlve analysis, either a

comparison 1s made between the costs of d~fferent altematrves hanng the same

measure of effectlveness or a companson is made between the effectlveness of different

alternahve whlch can be obtained wth the same cost Yasodha (1975) applies cost-

effectlve analysls to evaluate the free educat~on poltcy of Government of Tarn11 Nadu

wth reference to pre-unlverslty course dunng the 1960's Paul (1976) makes use of

cost-benefit analysis in h s study of rental houslng programme of Gujarat State Housing

Board in India. The reference period 1s 1974-75 Based upon secondary data, he has

evaluated the benefit to low Income groups In terms of the difference between the

economic rent and the subsidised rent per tenant Wlshwakarma et r l (1985) have

applied cost-benefit analysis to study the ~mpact of the centrally sponsored Integrated

Development of Small and M d u m Towns m Ra~asthm and Kerala makrng use of

primary and secondary data from the year 1979 to 1984 The authors also apply

Hirshman's strategy of unbalancid economic growth to evaluate the IDSMT project In

the World Bank Publication on the Role of Publ i Policy (1995) there is a reference to

benefit Incidence analysls wh~ch determines ulttrnately who 1s benefited from publlc

spendings

The followmg works have established the usefulness of econometric and

stabst~cal approaches In evaluatton studles. They throw llght on the manner In whlch

these methods have been handled in evaluating government programme

Harrell (1978) hlghllghts the llm~tatlon of uslng forecasting methods In

Impact stud~es as they run the nsk that reactlon between forecasted events mlght not be

fully considered Hence, he suggests the appl~catlon of cross-lmpact analys~s In Impact

stud~es

Nancy (Thesis -1981) has evaluated the houslng board actlvrtles In the clty of

Madras dunng the seventies baslng her obsewatlons upon secondary data She has made

use of the Hicksian welfare analysis and has evaluated the benefit of low-cost housing to

low Income groups In terms of equivalent vanatlon and compensatory varlatlon She has

calculated the consumers' surplus with reference to the provision of subs~dised housing

under the low-income rental housing programme Osmani (1982) develops the welfare

theory of poverty based upor! Sen's 'Named Goods Approach' for the purpose of

nonnative companson of inequality. In thls frame work, the same commodity recelved

by different ~ndiwduals is treated as two d~fferent goods He has evaluated the impact of

Social Welfan Schemes on low Income groups m Bangladesh between the years 1963-64

and 1973-74 based upon household income and expenditure survey He makes use of a

new methodology to construct the poverty llne known as 'Maxlmln Approach' It is

defined as the minimum income required to satisfy a set of nutrihonal norms

Airway (1984) makes use of multiple regrcmron analys~s to examlne the

difference in the average gross Income and expenditure between the beneficianes of

Integrated Rural Development programme and non-beneficlanes in rural Gujarat during

the eighhes By means of 't' test lt is concluded that there IS no sign~ficant difference in

the average gross income and expend~ture between the two groups and hence there is the

absence of favourable Impact of IRDP on the economic status of the beneficiaries

According to Sumathi S. Rno, (1991: 3-12) soclal factors viz , other caste and

level of education have a posltlve Impact on adophon of famlly plannlng and the level of

llteracy Increases knowledge about the relatlonshlp between economlc status and slze of

the family The above observation is made In her study about slum households in Madras

clty In order to understand the Influence of different Independent vanables, mulh-

variate stepwse regression technique is used to arrive at the above conclusion

Sarveswara Rno, Rnmachandrudu and A p p Rno (1994) assess the relahve

Importance of economlc status and household physlcal environment in expla~nlng the

vanation In the health status of 612 households In 9 selected slums of Visakapatnam

dunng the year 1991-92 Multl vanate Linear Regreswon equahons are estimated where

health status is the dependent vanable The physical envlronrnent and per caplta Income

are the explanatory vanables The result of the regression equations prove that

environment plays an Important mle 1n dettrmlning the health status of the slum dwellers

in general Economrc status explruns the vanahon in health status only ln the relatively

developed slum with better housing and environment

Context-spec~fic quanhtahve techntques arc-msenhal ~n the field of

development economics For example, Gangopadyaya and Subramnnian (1992)

prove that the level of benefit of any poverty allev~at~on programme 1s determined

differently depending upon different ways of measunng poverty The authors observe

that the Head-Count Ratio approach to poverty erad~catron ~mpl~es the poverty-

mlnimlzlng strategy of 'Sk~mrnlng off the surface' Many of the anti-poverty programmes

~n Ind~a take a wholly "Head-Count" vlew of poverty lgnonng the Impact on the poorest

sechons On the other hand, the authors establ~sh that the Rawls~an approach endeavours

to ralse the income of the poorest unlt to that of the next poorest umt. They recommend

thls approach wh~le lmplement~ng and evaluahng the welfare programmes

The household approach involves four mportant aspects, I e , whom the

programmes seek to address, the appropriateness of the social welfare servlces for the

target groups, the manner of dellvery of the programme and the nature of the feedback

mechan~sm Th~s approach has embedded the concern for human beings, the~r well-

being and fulfilment of the bas~c needs It 1s the very nature of appropriateness of the

basic untt of study in this approach that has facil~tated the ~dent~ficat~on of the causal

links between programme actlon and programme effects

Beebout(l980) has presented a review of micro economlc simulation models.

He has simulated the costs and effects and welfare transfers to low Income groups He

has also brought out the importance of one type of stmulation modcls i.e., MATH (Mlcro

Analps of Transfer to Households) the mathematics poky research vcrslon, which is

used as a general tool for simulation of transfer programme in USA m s has been used

for evaluating Food Stamp Programme m the USA slnce 1950's Time senes based on

econometric techniques could not be used to evaluate the impact of every detalled

el~gibil~ty change In programme On the other hand, mlcro economlc slmulat~on models

wh~ch would operate on ~nformation available at the level of indlvtdual households

estimate the Impact of alternative programme change m an accurate manner Stat~c

simulation models concentrate on behamour response to pnce and Income changes

caused by policy changes based upon imputed mlcro data observations Dynam~c models

have tlme spec~fic mlcro data as the bass for s~mulat~on The appllcatlon of dynamic

models provldes extenslve lnfonnat~on on the est~mated Impact of varlous welfare

programmes Thus, the author has established that s~mulat~on models are helpful In

finding out the extent to which the programme cost depend upon the response of the chi

beneficiary houscholds Intudlve effects of the welfare programme h

Moreover, this study highl~ghts the dependence of micro economlc simulation

modelling on the ava~lability of a compos~te upto-date mlcro data base and the

lnd~spensablllty of a general purpose household mtcro data set, spec~fically designed for

mlcro slmulat~on modelling Yet another obdrvatlon of th~s study IS that no change

could be made in welfare programmes w~thout annlyslng the~r Impact on current

recipients by means of slmulat~on However, an Important l~mrtat~on IS that glven a

mlcro s~mulat~on model ~t becomes necessary to change the data bases as and when more

current data become available Thus, the cost and Impact estimates change from tlme to

Tewari (1980) establ~shm that to the extent that evaluation is geared to the task

of assessing the Impact of the programme on the human factor and In ~dent~fy~ng the

people's reactions, preferences and reststances to Improve programme implementatton,

the household would serve best as sarnpl~ng umt for the l-st stage. Muthayya and

Prasrd (1983) polnt out that the favourable amtude of the people towards different

welfare programmes of self sufficrency scheme that has been Implemented by the

Government of Tamil Nadu has been helpful tn reallsing the intended Impact of the

scheme. The study IS based upon pnmary data Household IS the bas~c un~t of sampltng

Calanter (1984) polnts out the Welfare Pol~cy appl~cable to the benefrc~ary

households In the tnbal area IS based upon the Ralws~an Theory of Just~ce Accordtng to

the author, the lnd~an expenence d~splays a pnnc~pled eclect~c~sm that avo~ds

suppressing the altru~shc fraternal ~mpulse that anlmates compensatory pol~c~es

Iyengar and Suryanarayana (1986) evaluate that net tmpact of government - 71)

lntervenhon to ach~eve growth \nth equal~ty in Ind~a ( 1 961 f The analys~s IS based upon

secondary data The authors apply the Ralwslan cnterion of Jushce to find out the

Impact of offic~al schemes on the poorest of the poor dunng the sa~d penod

Accordingly, the authors have ~dent~fied changes In the hvmg levels of the poorest

households in terms of the per caplta consumptlon levels at 1961-62 prices They have

measured the distance between the average household's and the poorest household's

consumption level as the ratio of the poverty gap of the former to the latter Accordtng to

them, th~s rat10 mnd~cates the movements In per capita consumptlon levels of the poorest

households m relation to the nomd household's per caplta mnsumpt~on. The authors'

Important find~ng is that the poorest household's consumphon level deteriorated up to

mld-shes and recovered margnally in the late-s~xtles In both rural and urban areas

According to Subbarao (1988) the Impact of theant~-poverty programme on

the very poor households trapped In poverty for centuries can be analysed only wth an

Income mobllity Index. He suggests that this index could be used to find out whether the

assisted households progressively have climbed to the next higher lncome bracket from

the pre-programme income bracket. He recommends the followng methodology for

evaluahon To judge whether or not a part~cular household crosses the poverty line

lncome level, the m~aal mcome level of the household should be calculated and

compared wth the Incremental lncome reached by the household as the programme IS

being implemented. At the completion of the programme, the impact should be

evaluated In terms of susta~ned flow of lncome to the beneficiary households

A review of these studles based upon cost-benefit analysis, forecasting methods,

s~multation model, named-@ approach and household approach throw llght on the

choice of appropriate methodology wth reference to the context of the evaluative

research.

Studres on Socral Welfare Programmes wrth macro perspectrve provide the

conceptual framework for evaluatrng the Welfare Schemes. The mrcro case studres

throw lrght on the manner m whrch the rmpact on employment educatron, Income,

savrngs, assets and debt IS analysed. ('ost-benejit analysis, cost-efectrve amlysrs,

Hichian Welfoe unaiysis, maximm qpwach, the Rawlsian uppri~ch, the stepwise

regression technique and the income mobility analysis are applied in some of the studies.

The Rawistan appnwtch. and the rncome mobility approach, and stepwrse regression

technique are found to be relevant m the context ofthe p r y n t study.

A review of relevant impact studies is mude and it is found that they e m i n e the

impact of welfare schemes on the beneficiaries rn terms of income and debt or income

debt and suvings or income, deht and uvset ucri~.vs caste-set or type c$fumrly or living

environment. Hence, this study is undertaken to assess the impact of asset and training

scheme m terms of income, savmng.7, asset und debt across type of beneficiary, caste-seh

type of family and living environment.

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