Nowadays, environmental pollution has become a very cri-tical and acute issue and in view of the increasing numberof industrial accidents both the public and ecologicalmovements have managed to increase the sensitivity ofgovernments of many countries toward these problems.Environmental awareness resulted in the recent promulga-tion of a new environmental standards, ISO 14000/EMS,aiming at universal acceptance to improve the environmental

performance of companies, to minimize liabilities and toenhance the image of the companies. Food companieshave just started to endorse this. In contrast, the chemicaland the automobile industries were the ®rst to adopt thesenew ISO 14000 standards. # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. Allrights reserved.

The emergence of global environmental awarenessThe advent of the Green revolution has driven con-

sumers toward demanding, environmentally friendlyproducts. Products must be manufactured by processesgenerating minimum waste, to be energy e�cient andhave a negligible impact on the environment. Further-more, in order to qualify a product as environmentallyfriendly, a detailed life cycle analysis, from cradle tograve, is required. The time has come that a product willno longer be considered a quality product in the broadsense unless it is in line with ecological requirements [1].

Strong public pressure in Europe and the UnitedStates has pushed companies toward awareness thatconsumers are strongly interested in the interactions ofbusiness operations with the environment. This trend, inconjunction with a steadily growing number of reg-ulatory requirements, has convinced companies todevelop their own environmental management systems.An Environmental Management System (EMS) con-siders a company's organization through a thoroughreview of operations, and analyses how the actions of acompany a�ect environmental issues [2]. Organizationscontemplating the implementation of ISO 14000 have toevaluate the impact an EMS is anticipated to have on itsinternal structure and its ability to meet external expec-tations. Over the last two decades the managementpro®le of environmental issues has undergone severechanges moving from regulation compliance to volun-tarily meeting environmental goals and objectives. Thisvision of proactive environmental management is thefocus behind ISO 14000 [3]. Some of the main eventsthat initiated the concept and development of the ISO14000 series are given in Table 1.

Therefore, the introduction of worldwide standardsaddressing environmental concerns is opportune. Thesenew international standards, known as ISO 14000, o�era means of providing a rational environmentalapproach to extremely complex and controversial issues[1]. The International Standards Organization (ISO)promulgates this new set of standards for environmental

0924-2244/99/$ - see front matter Copyright # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.PI I : S0924-2244 (99 )00008-4

Trends in Food Science & Technology 9 (1999) 395±408

Current state andadvances in the

implementation ofISO 14000 by the

food industry.Comparison of ISO14000 to ISO 9000

to otherenvironmental

programs

Ioannis D. Boudouropoulosand Ioannis S. Arvanitoyannis*

Food Chemistry & Biochemistry Laboratory,Food Science Department of Faculty of Agriculture,P.O. Box 265, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,

54006 Thessaloniki, Greece (Hellas)(fax: +30-31-998789; e-mail: nikiforo@ccf.auth.gr)

Review

*Corresponding author.

management aiming at its universal acceptance. TheISO has more than 120 member countries, and its func-tion has been to harmonize current national standards,primarily technical standards, across countries. Morethan 10 years ago, ISO put forward and implementedthe 9000 standards, in an attempt to establish a globalstandard of quality management. Primarily driven byEuropean companies, ISO 9000 stands for a voluntarystandard of compliance that requires most multi-national companies to be certi®ed with, should theywish to do business in Europe. It is expected thatsomething quite similar will happen with the environ-mental standard, 14000, and that most multi-nationalcompanies will require their suppliers to be certi®ed [4].

The awareness of companies to the signi®cance of thesustainable environment becomes obvious by thevoluntary adoption of codes and regulations related tosustainability from the part of the business community[5±7]. The ISO 14000 series emerged primarily as aresult of the Uruguay round of the GATT negotiationsand the Rio Summit on the Environment held in 1992.The two most important results coming out from theUnited Nations Conference on Environment andDevelopment, or Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro,Brazil, 1992, were Agenda 21 and ISO 14000. Agenda21 which is a comprehensive set of guidelines forachieving sustainability earned a universal acclaim sinceit was adopted by 172 nations at the conference. ISO14000 is a group of standards including ISO 14001which addresses environmental management and pollu-tion prevention in an e�ort to achieve sustainabledevelopment [8]. By late 1994, several European coun-tries had stated their intention to commit themselves tothe basic principles of sustainability formulated duringthe 1992 Rio Earth Summit. The United States mana-ged to lose the leading role they had in developing

national environmental legislation in the late 1960s andthe early 1970s, despite some e�orts by President Clin-ton to establish the Environmental Technology Initia-tive (ETI) in 1993 and other environmental programssuch as the President's Council on Sustainable Devel-opment (PCSD) [9].

Nowadays, new regulations requiring EMS imple-mentation gain ground continuously in most countries.It has been a challenge for environmental managementto decide which systems to design and how to imple-ment them in a cost-e�ective way. The ®rst two pub-lished standards, often considered as the pillars of ISO14000 are ISO 14001, Environmental management sys-temsÐSpeci®cation with guidance for use, and ISO14004, Environmental management systemsÐGeneralguidelines on principles, systems and supporting techni-ques [10]. These two documents are the pillars of theISO 14000 series since they specify the requirementsagainst which a company's environmental managementsystem (EMS) is to be judged. Four other documents onauditing principles and procedures, auditor quali®ca-tions and life cycle assessment principles have beenapproved and published since October 1996 [11].

Merging environmental management and standardi-zation has been an arduous task for the TechnicalCommittee 207 (TC 207) mainly because of the greatvariety of the already existing environmental organiza-tions and systems overlapping each other in this ®eld(Fig. 1) [11, 12].

Technical committee 207 (TC 207)SAGE recommended that the ISO establish a new

technical committee to develop standards in the follow-ing areas:

. Environmental Management System (EMS)

. Environmental Auditing (EA)

. Environmental Performance Evaluation (EPE)

. Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)

. Environmental Labeling (EL)

. Terms and de®nitions (T&D)

. Environmental Aspects of Product Standards(EAPS)

The standards being developed by TC 207 can becategorized as those that are organizational and thosethat are product related [13, 14].

Environmental management systems (EMS)What is environmental management?

Published by ISO on September 1, 1996, ISO 14001,an environmental management system, is de®ned asfollows: ``The set of managerial activities which de®nesthe environmental policy, objectives and which implementsthese activities by means of planning for environmentalobjectives, measurement of results and the control of

Table 1. Most important milestones preceding the developmentof ISO 14000 series [4±7]

Year Event

1955 Princeton, New Jersey. International Symposium onEnvironment.

1972 Stockholm. United Nations' sponsored conference onHuman Environment.

1980 Washington. Carter administration published its Global2000 Report.

1987 World Trade Commission published its in¯uential OurCommon Future.

1988 Code of Management Practices by ChemicalManufacturer's Association (CMA)

1989 Costa Rica established National Biodiversity Institute.1989 Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economies

(CERES)1990 Responsible Care1994 European Union's Eco-Management and Audit

Scheme Regulation (EMAS)1996 ISO 14000 Series

396 I.D. Boudouropoulos, I.S. Arvanitoyannis / Trends in Food Science & Technology 9 (1999) 395±408

environmental e�ects'' [15]. Environmental Managementrepresents a multi-purpose tool for an organization towatch over the interactions that its products and activ-ities have with the environment and to continuouslyimprove the level of environmental performance [16].

What is environmental management system?That part of the overall management system which

includes organizational structure, planning activities,responsibilities, practices, procedures, processes andresources for developing, implementing, achieving,reviewing and maintaining the environmental policy.

What is environmental policy?Goals and general objectives set by the company

concerning the environment as formally expressed byexecutive management. The environmental policy is anelement of the general policy. It is understood that theenvironmental policy will respect relevant environ-mental legislation and regulations. A prerequisite forchoosing objectives and targets is an evaluation ofenvironmental e�ects [5]. A guiding principle in choos-

ing objectives and targets is that these should addresssigni®cant environmental e�ects, although ISO 14000does not require that all such e�ects are targeted simul-taneously [10].

The vision of ISO of an EMS includes establishing acompany environmental policy that expresses ``thecommitment of top management to comply withapplicable laws and continuous improvement'' [16].Although that policy forms the basis for setting objec-tives and targets and measuring and monitoring theprogress toward the targets, addressing problems, andanalysing and revising the management system speci®cperformance goal are not part of the EMS [2].

EMS requires the organization to de®ne its environ-mental policy: 1. The policy must be appropriate to thenature, scale, and environmental impacts of its activ-ities, products or services. 2. Moreover, a commitmentshould be stated with regard to continuous improve-ment, pollution prevention, compliance with relevantenvironmental legislation and regulations, or otherrequirements to which the organization subscribes. Itshould be clari®ed that an ISO 14001 audit will not be a

Fig. 1. Evolution of ISO 14000 standard [11, 12].

I.D. Boudouropoulos, I.S. Arvanitoyannis / Trends in Food Science & Technology 9 (1999) 395±408 397

legislation compliance audit but an audit related to ISO14001 conformance. Finally, the environmental policyof the organisation must be documented, implemented,maintained, and communicated to all employees andmade available to the public [5].

The main requirements and steps for establishing anEMS according to ISO 14001 standard are summarisedin Table 2.

Bene®ts by implementing ISO 14000Among the bene®ts of ISO 14000 certi®cation is

enhancement of a company's public image and it o�ersa degree of safeguards against lawsuits. Mismanage-ment of environmental regulations can result in sti�penalties and time-consuming lawsuits for not adheringto these regulations. The ISO 14000 standard providesthe ¯exibility to the organisation to modify, customizeand implement a system that meets its site speci®coperations and business model [3]. Although the fear ofa high investment of an EMS/ISO 14001 implementa-tion may dissuade organisations from its implementa-tion, managers should bear in mind that the estimatedexpenditure often proves to be lower because of theexistence of another system related to quality orenviromental assurance [20].

Companies who have implemented an EMS have seenimprovements in the following areas:

. Environmental Liability (ensure that environmentalissues are considered strategically, rather than as aone-o� special exercise).

. Reduced Operating Cost (prevention and wastereduction).

. Management of Change in Supply (checking if cer-tain supplies will be available in the near term andin the long term).

. Increased Productivity

. Improved Financial Performance (1995 Statisticsshow that lower production costs are related to``cleaner'' ®rms).

. Maintenance of consistent compliance with legisla-tive & regulatory requirements

. Declining paperwork

. Waste reduction

. Improved Community and Customer Relations(public image).

. Employee Motivation (``feelgood factor'', andincreased motivation suggesting improvementsand cost savings).

. Improved Environmental Performance (EMS withISO 14000).

. Potential Impact on world Trade (need for uniformstandards, WTO) [3, 6, 20, 21].

ISO 14000ÐEnvironmental management systemAlthough the reduction of pollution is the main goal

of ISO 14000, the amount of reduction is not clearlystated. Therefore, reduction results from voluntaryactions supported by the management system. Volun-tary programs such as ISO 14000 must justify theirexistence. A challenge facing supporters of ISO 14000 isconvincing companies to register to the standard. Thereis a perception in industry that the bene®ts of registra-tion may not outweigh the costs of the e�ort. Histori-cally, the US has used legislation and regulation toreduce pollution. Big companies are accustomed tocomplying with environmental regulation and recognizesuch e�orts as a cost of doing business. Registration toISO 14001 o�ers several bene®ts but companies can optfor an e�ective EMS and good environmental perfor-mance without registration [22].

Table 2. The ®ve basic EMS steps [5, 10, 17±19]

1. Commitment and policy An organization de®nes its environmental policy and ensures commitment to it. Top managementmust commit to continuous improvement of the EMS, thorough documentation, prevention ofpollution, and compliance with applicable law and communication to employees.

2. Planning An organization formulates a plan to ful®ll its environmental policy with a multidisciplinary team.After having assessed the impact of processed products on the environment, objectives and targetsare set.

3. Implementation The third step is to put the plan into action by providing resources and the necessary supportmechanism to achieve the environmental policy and the objectives and targets. In this step, theorganization de®nes the roles and responsibilities of all involved in the process, including seniormanagement representatives. It identi®es and provides necessary resources. The organizationestablishes and implements training procedures and internal and external communicationsprocedures.

4. Measurement and Evaluation The organization measures, monitors, and evaluates its environmental performance against itsobjectives and targets. It also generates speci®c procedures for conducting reliable performanceevaluations. The organization conducts audits of the EMS to identify areas that requireimprovement and non-conformances that must be corrected.

5. Review and Improvement The ®nal major step is to develop procedures to review in order to improve its overallenvironmental performance. This step also comprises comparison of actual performance with itsobjectives and targets and identi®cation of causes and de®ciencies.

398 I.D. Boudouropoulos, I.S. Arvanitoyannis / Trends in Food Science & Technology 9 (1999) 395±408

ISO 14000: a new approachRecent industrial accidents have proved that reg-

ulatory compliance is not enough to ensure againstenvironmental degradation. Since mere compliance didnot prove to be a complete prescription for environ-mental protection, awareness arose that a more proac-tive and comprehensive system like ISO 14001 wasneeded [23]. From a strategic viewpoint, many organi-zations are focusing on issues such as: quick response(to customer needs), customer relationships, core com-petence, and continuous improvement, in addition toconventional indicators including: cost control andtechnology in an e�ort to positively in¯uence customers'perceptions about companies [24]. ISO 14001 EMScould help organizations address these issues. Imple-menting an ISO-14001 EMS system could in the long-term remain the accustomed driven process [17].

EMS is the foundation upon which a company buildsits own ISO 14000 plan. This EMS can be documentedin an environmental manual, or maintained in sectionsof the company's quality or operation manual. SinceISO 14000 series embraces a broad range of activities,several standards had to be issued to describe them. Thedevelopment of ISO 14000 series in terms of its stan-dards is summarized in Table 3 [2, 6, 7, 25±27].

It is important to make all the involved parties in theimplementation of a standard like ISO 14001 to realisewhat expectations are valid within the frame of sustain-able development and which are not.

ISO 14001: What is and what is notISO 14001 requires that an organization develop an

environmental management program to address all ofits environmental objectives and targets and describe

how each will be achieved to a minimum extent regar-ded as acceptable by all countries [28]. One valuablefeature of the ISO 14001 standard is that it includes agood, informative annex [5]. One annex of specialimportance is Annex DÐa Special Guidance for Smalland Medium Enterprises (SME). A SME is de®ned asany organization up to 200 employees. The SME shouldprepare many of the ISO 14000 elements, such asobjectives, targets, resources, guiding principles and theenvironmental manual, however not in as great depth(US Sub Tag 1,1995) [12].

The purpose and scope of the ISO 14001 standard arestated within the sections: ``Introduction'' and ``Scope''.Not surprisingly, the scope of ISO 14001 is very broadand is intended for ``all types and sizes of organiza-tions''. After the scope of ISO 14001, the opening para-graphs emphasize the following general objectives:

. The overall aim of the standard is to supportenvironmental protection in balance with socio-economic needs.

. The environmental management system can beintegrated with other management requirements asfound in the ISO 9000 series, for example.

. In order to achieve environmental objectives, theenvironmental management system should encou-rage organizations to consider implementation ofbest available technology where appropriate andwhere economically viable (EVABAT).

What the standard is notThe standard is not intended to address, and does not

include requirements for, aspects of occupational healthand safety management; it does not seek to discourage

Table 3. The development of the ISO 14000 series [2, 6, 7, 25±27]

ISO 14000 Guide to Environmental Management Systems: General GuidelinesISO14001 Environmental Management Systems-Speci®cation with Guidance for Use.ISO14004 Environmental Management Systems-General Guidelines on Principle, Systems, and Supporting Techniques.ISO14010 Guidelines for Environmental Auditing-General Principles of Environmental Auditing.ISO14011/1 Guidelines for Environmental Auditing-Audit Procedures-Auditing of Environmental Management Systems.ISO14012 Guidelines for Environmental Auditing-Quali®cation criteria for auditors.ISO14013 Management of Environmental Audit programs.ISO14014 Initial Reviews.ISO14015 Environmental site Assessments.ISO14020 Environmental Labeling-General Principles.ISO14021 Terms and De®nitions for Self-Declaration Environmental Claims.ISO14022 Environmental Labeling-Symbols.ISO14023 Environmental Labeling-Testing and Veri®cation Methodologies.ISO14024 Environmental Labeling-Guiding Principles, Practices and criteria for Multiple Criteria-Based Practitioner Programs-Guide

for certi®cation.ISO14031 Evaluation of the Environmental Performance.ISO14040 Environmental Management-Life Cycle Assessment-Principles and Guidelines.ISO14041 Environmental Management-Life Cycle Assessment-Goal and De®nitions/Scope and Inventory Analysis.ISO14042 Environmental Management-Life Cycle Assessment-Life Cycle Impact Assessment.ISO14043 Environmental Management-Life Cycle Assessment-Interpretation.ISO14050 Terms and de®nitions Guide on the Principles for ISO/TC SC6 Terminology Work.ISO14060 Guide 64 for the inclusion of environmental actions in product standards.

I.D. Boudouropoulos, I.S. Arvanitoyannis / Trends in Food Science & Technology 9 (1999) 395±408 399

an organization from developing integration of suchmanagement system elements. The standard does notstate speci®c environmental performance criteria [5].

Similarity of ISO 14000 to other programs (respon-sible Care1, CERES, BS 7750, EMAS, ISO 9000, Kei-dahren Charter)Comparing ISO 14001 and Responsible Care1

The principles stated within the ISO 14001 environ-mental management system are de®nitely not new. Sincemost of them have already been stated by other pro-grams, often with greater clarity and more rigor. Onecould cite for example, the ten guiding principles of theProcess Safety Code of Management Practices speci®edby the Chemical Manufacturers Association's (CMA)which were formally released by Responsible Care1

initiatives. The main aims of this product were toimprove environmental performance and to improveindustry's relationship to the public [29].

There are strong similarities in both structure andpurpose between the ISO 14001 EMS standard and theResponsible Care Pollution Prevention Code. Bothrequire senior management commitment; a planningprocess, including prioritization and goal setting;implementation and continuous improvement; mea-surement of progress; periodic evaluation of practices;and control of critical operations, and while bothrequire input from interested parties, Responsible Careputs a great deal more emphasis on this aspect [6].

Comparing ISO 14001 and the CERES principlesFounded in 1989, the Coalition for Environmentally

Responsible Economies (CERES) is a nonpro®t mem-bership organization comprised of leading social invest-ment professionals, environmental groups, religiousorganizations, public pension trustees, and public inter-est groups. The CERES Principles, released in 1989 asthe Valdez Principles, aim at developing positive pro-grams to prevent environmental degradation, assistingcorporations in setting policy, and enabling investors tomake informed decisions regarding environmentalissues.

These Principles established an ethic with criteria bywhich investors and others can assess the environmentalperformance of companies. Companies that endorsethese principles pledge to go voluntarily beyond therequirements of the law.

Comparison of ISO 14001 standard with the CERESPrinciples shows some obvious di�erences in emphasis.Thus, whereas the CERES Principles emphasize theneed for corporations to protect the earth and actresponsibly toward the environment in order to allow``future generations to sustain themselves'', the ISO14001 standard is more business-friendly and speci®esonly that the organization ``shall consider'' the imple-mentation of a particular point. It is evident that ISO

14001 is a compromise document written so as not toalienate the business community.

Comparing ISO 14001 and eco-management andaudit scheme (EMAS)

ISO 14000 has been developed in the context of otherEMS initiatives, such as the BS 7750 EMS standard andthe European Union's Eco-Management and Auditscheme regulation (EMAS). The EMAS regulation alsorequires an organization to communicate its objectivesand targets to the public. Disclosure allows publicintervention at two levels. First the public can review acompany's objectives and targets and ascertain whichcompanies set the most (and least) aggressive goals forpollution prevention; second, the public can exert pres-sure on those companies which have less aggressivegoals or which do not meet their objectives and targets[30].

The most obvious di�erence is that EMAS is avoluntary regulation while ISO 14001 is an internationalstandard. Thus, whereas EMAS applies only to siteswithin the EU, ISO 14001 is applicable worldwide.Other key di�erences include the following:

. EMAS is site-speci®c and relates to industrialactivities, whereas ISO 14001 applies to activities,products and services across all sectors, includingnonindustrial activities.

. EMAS requires an extensive initial environmentalreview as part of the EMS which, though sug-gested, is not speci®cally required in ISO 14001.

. EMAS requires the publication of a validatedpublic environmental statement and an annualsimpli®ed statement in contrast to ISO 14001.

. EMAS calls for more extensive auditing than doesISO 14001 which only requires EMS auditing.

. The EMS requirements in EMAS require the pre-paration of an environmental e�ects register,which is not required in ISO 14001 [6, 30].

Comparing ISO 9000 and ISO 14000The ISO 14001 Environmental Management System

(EMS) standard and the companion guideline areregarded as having evolved as a natural adjunct to theISO 9000 series of quality management systems (QMS).While there was an attempt to model the EMS standardafter the QMS standard, international environmentalexperts saw a need to signi®cantly depart from thisstandard. There are some major di�erences betweenquality management and environmental managementthat impede total correspondence between the twostandards. For instance, whereas quality standardsa�ect an organization and its customers, environmentalstandards have a greater reach and a�ect an organiza-tion's relationship to its neighbors, nearby creatures andecologies, and ultimately, humankind. ISO 9000 regis-tration has been strongly leveraged by customer/sup-

400 I.D. Boudouropoulos, I.S. Arvanitoyannis / Trends in Food Science & Technology 9 (1999) 395±408

plier relationships. ISO 9000 is being market-driven asISO 9000 companies compellingly require their suppliersto become certi®ed and it is believed that there is su�-cient ISO 9000 momentum for a natural carry-throughinto ISO 14000 [31]. In Table 4 a synoptical comparisonof the two standards is shown [6, 23].

Some components of the ISO 14000 series have noparallel in the ISO 9000 standards such as environ-mental labeling and life cycle assessment, as well theenvironmental performance evaluation guideline docu-ment. While the numbering system has some parallels, aone-to-one correspondence between document numbersand content does not exist. Auditing is part of both theISO 9000 and the ISO 14000 standards. There are somesimilarities between the two corresponding documents(such as the consistent use of the verb should), but, ingeneral, the documents di�er markedly.

The ISO 9000 auditing documents are ISO 10011-1,which is the guideline for auditing quality systems; ISO10011-2, which includes the quali®cation criteria forquality system assessors; and ISO 10011-3, which is theprocedure for the management of assessment programs.The guidelines apply to internal quality system assess-ments that are required by the standard, as well as toexternal and extrinsic quality system assessments. Inaddition, ISO Guide 48 speci®es guidelines for third-party assessment and registration of a supplier's qualitysystem [23].

Like ISO 9000, ISO 14000 mandates auditing toensure that standard requirements are being met.

Guidelines for these audits and quali®cation guidelinesfor auditors are found in ISO 14010, 14011/1, and14012. Audits may be performed internally by indivi-duals within the company or by external auditors [30].

Applications of ISO 14000Applications to the food industry

As with the ISO 9000 standards, the food industryhas lagged behind other businesses in adopting the ISO14000 series. In contrast, chemical companies and theirtrade associations and the automobile industry havebeen the most active participants in program develop-ment. This development was rather unexpected becausethe food industry has perhaps the most to gain fromthese new standards.

The main environmental challenges for food compa-nies have been listed as follows: water availability, wastewater discharge, air emissions, by-product disposal orutilization, chemical residues, solid water disposal, andfood packaging materials. Further complicating solu-tions to the problems is the basic need to provide a safefood supply. Compromises, for example, between, theshelf life of a food product and the choice of packagingmaterial must be decided in favour of the quality of theproduct [1]. Another challenge facing many food pro-cessors is the need to separate and dewater solids fromwaste water.

In the ®eld of packaging materials food companieshave managed to put together a satisfactory environ-mental performance. The 1995 Annual Report for

Table 4. Comparison of ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 [6, 23]

ISO 90000 ISO 14000

Aims Provides suppliers organizations a means fordemonstrating to customer organizations theachievement of requirements for quality;enhances the achievement of a supplierorganization in providing overall performancein relation to objectives for quality.

Provides organizations with the elements of anenvironmental management; provides assistanceto organizations considering the implementationor improvement of an EMS, including advice onenhancing such a system to meet environmentalperformance expectations.

Structure Mixture of management activities, processrequirements, and veri®cation requirements;separate guidance.standard

Adheres to ``plan-do-check-act'' type of businessmodel; separate guidance standard.

Environmental aspects The supplier shall de®ne and document howthe requirements for quality will be met.Addresses the need to identify aspects of theproduct/service process that need to beaddressed in order to meet customer qualityspeci®cations.

Addresses the need to identify all environmentalaspects of activities, products, or services in orderto set environmental objectives that satisfystakeholder concerns.

Contents Both ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 include theelements of management commitment andresponsibility, management systemdocumentation, document control,operational control, training, monitoring andmeasurement, nonconformance andcorrective action, records and audits.

ISO 14001 includes discrete elements of environmentalaspects, legal requirements, objectives and targets,environmental management program, communications,and emergency preparedness and response.

ISO 9001 includes discrete elements ofquality planning, product identi®cation andtraceability, and statistical techniques.

I.D. Boudouropoulos, I.S. Arvanitoyannis / Trends in Food Science & Technology 9 (1999) 395±408 401

Anheuser-Busch discloses that within the frame of acompany-sponsored program, the volume of recycledaluminium beverage cans has tripled over the past 10years [32]. The Unilever Environment report of 1998includes the progress that has been made in all ®elds ofenvironmental preservation such as the integration ofwarehouse and transport arrangements in the frozenfood business to save noise, congestion, fuel, and emis-sions in the Netherlands, or the certi®cation to ISO14001 of three food industries in Turkey [32].

Kellogg, a cereal company, uses recycled material inits packaging. On the company's box of Mueslix break-fast cereal, the following statement is stamped next tothe recycle symbol with chasing arrows: ``Carton madefrom 100% recycled paper, minimum 35% post-con-sumer content''. These examples and others indicate theconcern of food processors for environmental issues. Allthat remains to be accomplished is to incorporate theseactivities in an EMS [1].

ISO 14000 standards are important to food compa-nies and will most likely be implemented much fasterthan ISO 9000 because they directly a�ect issues thatcan only become more important in the future [33].Various food industry management problems, such asprocessing wastewater and packaging issues can bee�ectively handled with ISO 14000 standards. ISO14000 also has major implications for food and envir-onmental laboratories which will most likely be stronglyencouraged to register to ISO 14000 standards. It isanticipated that there will also be business opportunitiesfor these laboratories in performing life-cycle assess-ments and other tests [30].

Applications to the chemical companiesThe decision to follow ISO 14000 standards ulti-

mately will come down to costs versus bene®ts. Inter-national consistency in environmental management,especially as multinational companies expand manu-facturing and marketing overseas, is a leading advan-tage mentioned by chemical industry environment, andsafety (ESH) managers. Uniform standards are expectedto reduce confusion and help prevent nontari� tradebarriers. Certi®cation of a company's EMS by an inter-national recognized register may help the transactionsof the company and improve its public image as well [34].

Although adoption of EMS provides by no means aguarantee that environmental performance willimprove, EMS can signi®cantly enhance the company'schance of achieving better performance [17]. The stan-dard seeks to balance socio-economic and businessneeds with support of environmental protection andpollution prevention by preferably making use of bestavailable technology. ISO 14000 certi®cation willrequire investment in software, manpower, possibleequipment installation and possible third-party auditing[34].

Applications to forestry and agricultureForestry sector delegates attending the International

Standards Organizations' Environmental Committee(TC 207) in Rio de Janeiro, supported the ISO 14000implementation by stating that ``The use of these ISOstandards and practices will encourage better forestrypractice world-wide. By working under the ISOumbrella we have the reassurance of its 50 years experi-ence as the authoritative body in setting internationalenvironmental standards. Forestry managementinvolves a most complex matrix of environmental, socialand economic issues. The ISO standards and processeswill add signi®cantly to consistent understanding ofthese complex global issues, and o�er a practical fra-mework for implementation at the local level'' [35].

Dutch trade/industry delegates to international forumhave put forward concrete suggestions for implementingan ISO 14000 based system of certi®cation and areessentially supportive of Canadian e�orts in this area.Since the in¯uential ``Heart for Wood'' campaign isextended to cover all timber, not solely tropical product,it becomes increasingly important for temperate produ-cers to develop systems that certify sustainable produc-tion and are compatible with and acceptable to theDutch industry-led hallmarking system [36].

The Monsanto Corporation is one of the world'slargest producers of chemicals and pesticides for agri-cultural and home use. Monsanto has implementedseven sustainability teams to develop methods, pro-cesses, and systems that integrate sustainable develop-ment into the operations of the company. Three teamsare working internally to develop tools and methodolo-gies to assess, measure and provide direction for theinternal management. Three teams are looking exter-nally to identify sustainability needs that Monsantomight address. The seventh team is developing commu-nications materials and training programs for stake-holders.

ISO 14000 and banksThe ability to adjust banking credit and investment

practices to re¯ect environmental factors may dependon a bank's ability to obtain and use accurate and reli-able environmental information. However, access tosuch information may be a costly and lengthy proce-dure, not easily available and di�cult for interpretationfor the typical banker. An opportunity for expandingthe information base on the environmental performanceof industries may arise with the advent of ISO 14000.

The ISO 14000 initiative (speci®cally ISO 14001)could serve a meaningful role in helping issuers of debtevaluate environmental risk on a pre-commitment and,to a lesser extent, post-commitment monitoring basis.As to the exact role ISO 14000 might play, the bankerswill be in need of consistent and comparable data thatallow them to compare similar types of ®nancing trans-

402 I.D. Boudouropoulos, I.S. Arvanitoyannis / Trends in Food Science & Technology 9 (1999) 395±408

actions. With the introduction of ISO 14001 and thedevelopment of an information framework, credit o�-cers would be able to compare ®rms and plants on eachfacility's speci®c approaches to environmental manage-ment systems and their perception on how these di�er-ences in practices will a�ect relative risks.

Through compliance with the ISO standard, ®rms candemonstrate that they have a speci®c plan to reduceenvironmental impacts and are incorporating environ-mental management into the overall management of theorganization. The banking industry's interest willdepend on the extent to which a connection can beestablished between this certi®cation and actual reduc-tions in ®nancial risk assumed by bankers. This con-nection will clearly depend on the quality of externalinformation that emanates from the ISO 14001 process,which is still in preparation [37].

ISO 14000 and governmentsMany countries have already declared the ISO 14000

their own national standards. Since the introduction ofthese standards many companies from many countrieshave already been certi®ed. In Fig. 2, the current situa-tion of certi®ed companies per country, as of September1998, is shown [38]. Ten states in the U.S.A. agreed on

forming an informal consortium to determine how ben-e®cial EMSs are for the environment and the economy.Several Universities and National Institutes are alsoinvolved in this project, the ®rst results of which seem tobe positive [39, 40]. Indonesia plans to adopt ISO 14001as its national environmental management system stan-dard, as have a number of other countries. The ISO14001/EMS and environmental auditing standards wereadopted as Indonesian standards in the ®rst quarter of1997 [41].

ISO 14001 implementationIntroduction

All components of the environmental managementsystem should be co-ordinated with other importantfunctions of the organization, especially at the policylevel. For example, the policies, objectives and targets ofthe ®nance, operations and safety departments must beconsidered and, if possible, be compatible with those ofthe environmental department [12]. If an organization isalready ISO 9000 certi®ed or at least close to it, con-siderable time can be saved. For example, the followingmaterials already prepared for ISO 9000 certi®cationcan be used for ISO 14000 with only minor change:organization and personnel procedures, records and

Fig. 2. The number of ISO 14001/EMAS certi®ed companies all over the world by September 1998 [38].

I.D. Boudouropoulos, I.S. Arvanitoyannis / Trends in Food Science & Technology 9 (1999) 395±408 403

controls of documents, audits and reviews. Many othersections from ISO 9000 documents can be used as astarting point; however, considerable modi®cationwould need to be done, for example on the procure-ment section, to bring them up to ISO 14000 standards[42].

Initial assessment and de®nition of purposeBefore an organization begins massive design and

implementation e�orts, an initial assessment is neces-sary in order to review the current status of the com-pany and the purpose could be to better protect theenvironment, to become ISO 14000 certi®ed, to becomemore cost e�ective, to improve community relations, toimprove market appeal and numerous other purposes[12].

Policy preparationThe policy must re¯ect the organization's commit-

ment to comply with applicable laws and regulations.ISO 14001 registration is not a substitute for com-pliance; it complements compliance with national lawsand regulations [6].

Objectives and targetsObjectives and targets should the next to be be pre-

pared in order to achieve the policy statement. Theobjectives would include statements such as establish-ment of a waste minimization program. Targets wouldbe speci®ed for each objective and present numericalgoals, such as 10 tons of acetone waste recycled in 1999.

EMS documentation and utilization of existingdocuments and resources

Many companies reported that the EMS had led toimproved procedures and documentation. One expla-nation for this seeming discrepancy is that organizationssee a value in documentation and written procedures,but they do not want a standard to require what shouldor should not be documented [43]. Within the frame ofEMS/ISO 14000 it is essential to prepare and maintainthe following functions; description of the core elementsof the management system and their interaction anddirection to related documentation.

Preparation of new operation procedures and actionplans

After the completion of the above steps it is time toprepare the new procedures that are missing. Manyenvironmental management systems were found tocompose of unwritten procedures and standards. Thisusually leads to confusion and negative environmentalimpacts. Even if an individual plan to do an environ-mental control action only one time, it is still good toput in writing so that questions can be answered whenthey come up about what was done. The compilation of

an environmental management manual(s) is essentialand should be set up if one does not already exist tocontain all the di�erent procedures and standards. Itshould also contain a copy of the company policy.

Implementation of programsEnvironmental management systems need to be

implemented to actually help the environment. In reallife administrative delays and inadequate personnel andtraining can prevent environmental protection andimprovement from happening. A good top managementpolicy, energetically pursued will assure success. Know-ing that continued operation depends upon innovativeenvironmental protection, good management will createthe necessary authority and funding for an e�ectiveprogram. The ®nal part consists of registration whichcomprises the following steps: Application/Contract,Pre-Audit Option, Documentation Review, Certi®ca-tion Assessment, Certi®cation and Certi®cation Main-tenance (surveillance). Annual surveillance visits arerecommended to maintain the integrity of the EMS [44].A good average for companies to prepare for a ®rstregistration assessment is around a year [11].

Ongoing auditing, management reviews, correction andfollow-up

By continuously auditing or reviewing the progress anorganization is making in environmental management, itis possible to suggest meaningful correction and follow-up.

Certi®cationTC 207 is promoting integration and certi®cation of

ISO 14000 with ISO 9000 via a co-ordinating committee(TC 176/TC 207).

Continuous improvementBy internal audits and monitoring, it will gradually

become evident that the policy, objectives, targets andplans will have to be modi®ed. Frequently upgradingthe entire system will keep it cost-e�ective and impactswill be reduced to the maximum extent possible.

ISO 14010Ðenvironmental auditingObjectives or purposes of an environmental auditGeneral

An environmental audit is a systematic process toobtain, evaluate and report facts concerning con-formance with criteria. It will hopefully allow an orga-nization to make meaningful improvements that willminimize negative impacts to the environment andemployee safety [45].

Meet ISO 14001 certi®cation criteriaDetermination of conformance of the environmental

management systems of an organization in terms of ISO14001 certi®cation is one major objective of environmental

404 I.D. Boudouropoulos, I.S. Arvanitoyannis / Trends in Food Science & Technology 9 (1999) 395±408

audits. As the other components of the ISO 14000 seriesare more fully developed, they will probably becomeelements that the auditors will assess as well [45].

Improve regulatory complianceAnother top priority of auditing is to help an organi-

zation comply with applicable regulations. Audits willidentify areas that need improvement to meet theregulations. Once these corrections are made, the orga-nization can demonstrate regulatory compliance. Dis-covery of problems and possible violations will occurfaster if audits are done which help to shorten the periodof non-compliance, assuming the problem is corrected.

Meet policies and objectivesThe ®rst step in the EMS audit is determining the

audit scope, objectives, and purpose. The lead auditor,in conjunction with the client, should de®ne why theaudit is being performed and what it will accomplish.

Save moneyAuditing will help the organization save money

because monetary ®nes can be minimized throughaudits. Audits can also identify ways to reduce disposaland cleanup costs.

Continuous environmental improvementContinuous environmental improvement is essential

for minimizing impacts to the ecosystem and for build-ing and maintaining a sound organization. Audits willhelp the organization continuously improve its environ-mental and safety control systems. Audits will verifythat environmental management systems are e�ectiveand, if they are not, will suggest ways to make themso.

Detecting potential problemsEnvironmental audits are valuable for spotting

potential problems before they become too importantissues. Early identi®cation will usually allow correctionin a more cost-e�ective manner.

Determining whether EMS have been implemented andare properly maintained

Lack of problems and ®nes could also temporarilyindicate that an environmental management system is inplace; however, audits would be more reliable andproactive. The audits must concentrate on system-typeissues, not the traditional presence or absence of thingslike hazardous waste labels.

Determine whether to transact with a supplierAssessment of the environmental consciousness of a

potential supplier is made through an environmentalaudit. The entire chain of suppliers in terms of a pro-duct and its components, all the way back to the raw

materials coming out of earth is important in terms ofthe environment, and most customers realize this fact.

Quality control of the sampling and measurementprocess

Auditing is a way to assess whether a monitoringprogram is meaningful or not. Monitoring frequency,method, equipment used, sample size personnel usedand variation in results are examples of aspects that canbe audited. The audit may suggest that sampling bedone in a di�erent way or that di�erent variables needbe assessed. Consulting with the auditee is very essentialregarding practical matters such as availability of audi-tee personnel, records and data and work place health[46].

Meeting contractual requirementsSome contracts contain environmental or safety con-

ditions. Audits can help verify whether the terms andconditions are being met in a diligent manner or thecontract has been breached.

Improving public perceptionAuditing and correcting de®ciencies will help mini-

mize negative feelings about an organization that thepublic might have. Some organizations, especially inEurope, are planning on releasing audit results to thepublic.

Improvement of management and employee awarenessProblems identi®ed must be promptly corrected,

especially if the audit results are to be shared with manyemployees. Implemented corrective actions will changea potentially negative message or communication into apositive one.

ISO 14040: life cycle assessment (LCA)Ðprinciples &guidelinesThe concept of LCA

LCA considers the environmental aspects and thepotential impacts of a product or a service systemthroughout its lifeÐfrom raw material acquisitionthrough production, use, and disposal (from cradle tograve) [47]. Society for Environmental Toxicology andChemistry (SETAC) de®nes LCA as the ``process toevaluate the environmental burdens associated with aproduct, process, or activity by identifying and quantify-ing energy and materials used and wastes released to theenvironment; to assess the impact of those energy andmaterial uses and releases to the environment; and toidentify and evaluate opportunities to a�ect environ-mental improvements. The assessment includes the entirelife-cycle of the product, process, or activity, encompass-ing extracting and processing raw materials; manufactur-ing; transportation and distribution; use, re-use,maintenance; recycling; and ®nal disposal'' [48].

I.D. Boudouropoulos, I.S. Arvanitoyannis / Trends in Food Science & Technology 9 (1999) 395±408 405

ISO 14041 is entitled ``Life Cycle AssessmentÐGoalsand De®nition/Scope and Inventory Analysis'', and isintended to describe special requirements and guidelinesfor the preparation, conduct, and critical review of thelife cycle inventory analysis. Inventory analysis is thephase of LCA that involves the compilation and quan-ti®cation of environmentally relevant inputs and out-puts of a product system. ISO 14042, entitled ``LifeCycle AssessmentÐImpact Assessment'', proposes toprovide guidance on the impact assessment phase ofLCA. This phase of LCA is aimed at evaluating thesigni®cance of potential environmental impacts usingthe results of the life cycle inventory analysis [23].

The structure of LCAThe LCA structure suggested by SETAC is described

in Table 5. The term ``life cycle analysis'' is often usedfor the analysis stage of a life cycle assessment. Goalde®nition is perhaps the most important component ofan LCA. The inventory is a qualitative and quantitativeanalysis of the resources used and the emissions gener-ated in the life-cycle. The impacts, normally assessed,fall into three broad categories: human health, ecologi-cal health and resource use [6]. Characterization is theaggregation of inventory data within the impact cate-gories by the use of, for instance equivalency factors[49]. Valuation can be done either qualitatively orquantitatively by expert panels.

Examples of LCA studies on food production systemsLCA studies performed so far have focused on com-

paring di�erent packaging materials and packagingsystems in the case of milk, as example, a large numberof studies have been carried out comparing single-usecartons with disposable and re®llable bottles of bothglass and polycarbonate. An ecologically sound recy-cling and recovery of the packaging material strategycombines mechanical recycling with e�cient feedstockrecycling and energy techniques. The analysis clearlyshows that mechanical recycling of the high-grade ®lmand bottle fractions, which only account for about 30%of the plastic packaging of households, is reaching itslimits. The LCA studies on foods refer primarily to theproduction, either with sustainable (ecological) or tra-ditional agriculture, of raw materials such as cereals,

fruits and vegetables and processed foods (dairy pro-ducts and alcoholic drinks) [49±61]. In some cases i.e.pop corn the performance of packaging materials wasassessed [62].

In the feedstock recycling and energy recovery sec-tors, the blast furnace process, thermolysis using theBASF process, monocombustion, for which pilot plantsare only available abroad at present, and hydrogenationat the Kohle-Ol-Anlage are in the top group. Conse-quently, classi®cation into mechanical recycling, feed-stock recycling and energy recovery techniques is merelyprocess-orientated and does not constitute an ecologicalevaluation [50]. Reports on life cycle assessmentsincluding other parts of the food production system arestill rare [49].

LCA in the futureIn today's society, there is an increasing awareness

that the lifestyle has to be oriented toward more sus-tainable production systems, with limited use renewableresources and minimal environmental impact on land ,water, and air [49]. The approach to reconvergence ofhuman progress and health of the environment, makesall processes and products/by-products to be literallyvisualised as potential resources within the frame of acontinuous regenerative loop [6].

Should companies get started with ISO 14000 now?An e�ective EMS/ ISO 14000 in place represents a

valuable tool for companies because they can betteraddress growing environmental protection pressures,help minimize legal/®nancial liabilities, reduce com-pliance costs, enhance stakeholder image and gaincompetitive advantage. ISO 14000 also provides theframework for designing more environmentally benignprocesses and products [41].

Numerous proactive companies have already realizedthe competitive bene®ts of superior environmental per-formance. In the waste minimization/pollution preven-tion arena, reduced operating costs and cost avoidanceopportunities have resulted in lower cost structuresrelative to competitors and corresponding market sharegains and bottom line improvement. Design-for-envir-onment strategies applying life-cycle concepts are emer-ging, and new products are selectively achieving marketsuccesses so long as the market pricing structure iscarefully considered. Overall, ISO 14000 implementa-tion will provide a framework for improving regulatorycompliance and for supporting environmental protec-tion decisions in balance with other socioeconomicneeds. ISO 14000 will provide the building blocks forimproving the environmental performance of an enter-prise's activities and products consistent with sustain-able development and natural economics principles.

Although the ISO 14001 standard does not adopt astrict ecological approach to addressing issues as pro-

Table 5. Structure of LCA suggested by the Society of Environ-mental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) [6, 49]

Analysis: 1. Goal de®nition and scope2. Inventory Analysis

Assessment: 3. Impact assessment, which is divided into:� 3a. Classi®cation� 3b. Characterization� 3c. Valuation (qualitative, quantitative)4. Improvement analysis

406 I.D. Boudouropoulos, I.S. Arvanitoyannis / Trends in Food Science & Technology 9 (1999) 395±408

posed by the exreme ecology movement, it provides thefundamental principles for reducing the environmentalrisks and remains within the reach of all companies.

According to some predictions ISO 14001's impact onbusiness will be revolutionary. ISO 14001 requires ®rmsto assess environmental impacts, train workers abouttheir environmental responsibilities, audit environ-mental management systems to ensure they comply with®rm environmental policies, and document audit ®nd-ings. ISO 14001 will not necessarily steer ®rms in thedirection of environmentally sustainable practices,however. It is not at all unrealistic to expect that com-pliance with ISO 14000 will be a requirement of doingbusiness in the future. And the bene®ts of such will befar-reaching, including increased operations e�ciency;assistance with ensuring regulatory compliance by pro-viding an overall system incorporating those that areapplicable; and facilitating business relationships [62].

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