Review Article Phytochemical and Pharmacological ...downloads.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2014/830285.pdf · Review Article Phytochemical and Pharmacological Properties of Gymnema sylvestre

Review ArticlePhytochemical and Pharmacological Properties ofGymnema sylvestre An Important Medicinal Plant

Pragya Tiwari1 B N Mishra2 and Neelam S Sangwan1

1 Metabolic and Structural Biology Department Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CSIR-CIMAP)PO CIMAP Lucknow 226015 India

2Department of Biotechnology Gautam Buddh Technical University Lucknow Uttar Pradesh 226021 India

Correspondence should be addressed to Neelam S Sangwan nsangwan5gmailcom

Received 12 April 2013 Accepted 17 September 2013 Published 6 January 2014

Academic Editor John B Vincent

Copyright copy 2014 Pragya Tiwari et al This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution Licensewhich permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited

Gymnema sylvestre (Asclepiadaceae) popularly known as ldquogurmarrdquo for its distinct property as sugar destroyer is a reputed herb inthe Ayurvedic system of medicine The phytoconstituents responsible for sweet suppression activity includes triterpene saponinsknown as gymnemic acids gymnemasaponins and a polypeptide gurmarinThe herb exhibits a broad range of therapeutic effectsas an effective natural remedy for diabetes besides being used for arthritis diuretic anemia osteoporosis hypercholesterolemiacardiopathy asthma constipation microbial infections indigestion and anti-inflammatory G sylvestre has good prospects in thetreatment of diabetes as it shows positive effects on blood sugar homeostasis controls sugar cravings and promotes regeneration ofpancreas The herbal extract is used in dietary supplements since it reduces body weight blood cholesterol and triglyceride levelsand holds great prospects in dietary as well as pharmacological applications This review explores the transition of a traditionaltherapeutic to a modern contemporary medication with an overview of phytochemistry and pharmacological activities of the herband its phytoconstituents

1 Introduction

Thenaturopathic treatment for diseases has been explored ex-tensively since ancient times and gaining momentum in thepresent scenario Indian flora accounts for about 45000 plantspecies out of which several thousands have pharmacologicalsignificance [1] Diabetes mellitus is a major endocrine dis-order affecting nearly 10 of the population worldwide [2]and a key issue of concern The disease in its severe stateaffects major systems of the body leading tomultiorgan com-plications Oral hypoglycemic agents like sulphonylureas andbiguanides are the conventional drugs used for the treatmentbut the adverse side effect associated with these drugs is amajor limitationTheherbalmedicines are becoming populardue to better results and safe use as compared to marketeddrugs and more effective treatment of health problems [3]Plants possessing antidiabetic activities are of significant in-terest for ethnobotanical community as they are recognizedto contain valuable medicinal properties in different parts

and a number of them have shown varying degree of hypo-glycemic and antihyperglycemic activity [1] The bioactiveconstituents found in many plant species are isolated for dir-ect use as drugs lead compounds or pharmacological agentsThese traditional approaches might offer a natural key tounlock diabetic complications [4]The chemical structures ofa phytomolecule play a critical role in its antidiabetic activitySeveral plant species being a major source of terpenoids fla-vonoids phenolics coumarins and other bioactive constitu-ents have shown reduction in blood glucose levels [5 6] Var-ious antidiabetic plant extracts like aloe (Aloe vera L) bitterMelon (Momordica charantia) fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng CAMeyer) andAmerican ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L) gymnema (Gym-nema sylvestre) milk thistle (Silybum marianum) nopal(Opuntia streptacantha) salacia (Salacia oblonga SalaciaReticulate) and formulations like those of chromium havebeen used and clinically tested for their activity as well aspotential side effect [7]

Hindawi Publishing CorporationBioMed Research InternationalVolume 2014 Article ID 830285 18 pageshttpdxdoiorg1011552014830285

2 BioMed Research International

The present review is a research update on Gymnema syl-vestre a rare herb with significant medicinal attributes withan overview of its ethnobotanical uses phytochemistry deal-ing with an in-depth study of its phytochemicals and theirbioactivities It also explores the facts and prospects of itsdevelopment into a modern and efficient therapeutic con-temporary with the present trends of pharmacology and drugdevelopment Furthermore it holds significant prospects inmajor health problems like cardiovascular disorders obesityosteoporosis and asthma besides being a popularmedicationfor number of other health ailments The herb finds signifi-cant application in various food preparations for control ofobesity and blood cholesterol levels besides regulation ofsugar homeostasisThe herbal preparations ofG sylvestre arepresently used in tea bags health tablets and supplementsbeverages and confectioneries

2 Traditional Perspective

G sylvestre is an indigenous herb belonging to the class dicot-yledonous of the family Asclepiadaceae The plant is a goodsource of a large number of bioactive substances [8] It hasdeep roots in history being one of the major botanicals usedin Ayurvedic system of medicine to treat conditions rangingfrom diabetes malaria to snakebites [9] The herb is cultiv-ated worldwide and also known as Chigengteng or AustralianCowplantWaldschlinge inGerman periploca of thewoods inEnglish and gurmar in Hindi [10]

3 Taxonomy

G sylvestre RBr is a perennial woody climber belonging tofamily Asclepiadaceae or the ldquomilk weedrdquo family [11] Thegenus is classified into 40 species some of which like G syl-vestre G montanum G yunnanense and G inodorum havemedicinal properties [12ndash14] The plant is found in tropicaland subtropical regions well distributed in parts of centraland southern India and in the southern part of China trop-ical Africa Malaysia and Sri Lanka [9] G sylvestre is slowgrowing herb found ideally in tropical and subtropical humidclimate and common in hills of evergreen forests It is a clim-ber and generally requires support for growth The seeds aresown in the months of November-December and harvestedfrom September to February The propagation through seedgermination is difficult due to low viability of the seeds there-fore the alternative has been root cuttingswhich are generallyplanted in themonths of June and July [15] Terminal cuttingswith three of four nodes have also been used as for vegetativepropagation and usually planted in the month of February-March [16] The leaves are opposite usually elliptic or ovate(125ndash20 inch times 05ndash125 inch) inflorescence is lateral umbelin cymes follicles are terete and lanceolate up to 3 inches inheight Corolla is pale yellow in colour valvate campanulatewith single corona with 5 fleshy scales The calyx-lobes arelong ovate obtuse and pubescent Carpels-2 unilocularovules locules may be present anther connective producedinto a membranous tip [17 18]

4 Phytochemical Profiling

The leaves of G sylvestre contain triterpene saponins belong-ing to oleanane and dammarane classes The major constitu-ents like gymnemic acids and gymnemasaponins are mem-bers of oleanane type of saponins while gymnemasides aredammarane saponins [19 20] Other phytoconstituents in-clude anthraquinones flavones hentriacontane pentatria-contane phytin resins tartaric acid formic acid butyric acidlupeol 120573-amyrin related glycosides stigmasterol and cal-ciumoxalate [21]Thepresence of alkaloids had been detectedin plant extracts Leaves of G sylvestre have acidic glycosidesand anthraquinones and their derivatives [22]Themajor sec-ondary metabolites in Gymnema includes a group of nineclosely related acidic glycosides the main are gymnemic acidAndashD and found in all parts of the plant (see SupplementaryTable 1 in supplementary materials available online at httpdxdoiorg1011552014830285) The maximum content ofgymnemic acid is found in shoot tips (5429mg-gminus1DW) andleast in seeds (131mg-gminus1DW) Antisaccharin property ofgymnemic acidA

1

was greatly reduced on conversion intoA2

while no activity was observed in case of A

3

suggesting thatthe ester group in the genin portion of gymnemic acid im-parts the antisweet property to the triterpene saponins thegymnemic acids Gymnemic acids A

2

and A3

possessed bothglucuronic acid and galactose in their molecular structureswhile glucuronic acid was found to be the only moiety ingymnemic acid A

1

[23] Further a series of gymnemic acids(gymnemic acid I II III IV V VI and VII) were isolated andcharacterized from the hot water extract of dry leaves of Gsylvestre [24 25] The Gymnemic acids comprise of severalmembers designated as gymnemic acids IndashVII gymnemo-sides AndashF and gymnemasaponins Table 1 The derivatives ofgymnemic acids are several acylated tigloyl methylbutyrylgroup substituted members derived from deacylgymnemicacid (DAGA) which is a 3-O-120573-glucuronide of gymnema-genin (3120573 16120573 21120573 22120572 23 28-hexahydroxy-olean-12-ene)Gymnemic acid A comprises of gymnemic acids A

1

A2

A3

and A

4

and named gymnemagenin This constituent is a D-glucuronide of hexahydroxy-triterpene that esterifies withacids [26]Other five gymnemic acids namely VIII IX X XIand XII were isolated and characterized later [27] Gymne-masaponins III another antisweet compound isolated fromG sylvestre was found to consist of 23 hydroxylongispino-genin as the aglycone moiety glycosylated with either one ortwo glucose molecules at both the 23 or 28 hydroxyl groups[28] These compounds exhibited lesser antisweet effect thanthose of gymnemic acids [29]

Gurmarin an important 35 amino-acid peptide having amolecular weight of 4209 was isolated from G sylvestre [32]The sugar suppression activity of this compound was deter-mined electrophysiologically on the taste responses of rat[36]The antisweet effect of this polypeptide is very specific tosweet taste on tongue affected by the pH change It has beenreported that the polypeptide exhibitedmaximum antisweet-ner property near its isoelectric point [37] The hydrophobicrather than the ionic interaction plays a significant role inproper binding of gurmarin to the target molecules [32 38]The other important constituents isolated from leaves are

BioMed Research International 3

Table1Ph

ytocon

stituentsin

Gymnemasylve

stre

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Triterpenes

apon

ins

Gym

nemicacids-acylated

(tiglolyl

methylbutyroyl)deriv

atives

ofdeacylgymnemicacid

(DAG

A)w

hich

isa

3-O-120573-glucouron

ideo

fgym

nemagenin

(3120573

161205732112057322120572

23

28-hexahydroxy-olean-12-ene)

OH

OH

CH2O

HG

lcAndashO

OR 1

CH2O

R 2

[30]

Gym

nemicacid

types

R1R2

Gym

nemicacid

ITigloyl

AcGym

nemicacid

II2-methylbutyroyl

AcGym

nemicacid

III

2-methylbutyroyl

HGym

nemicacid

IVTigloyl

H

Oleananes

apon

ins

Gym

nemicacidsa

ndgymnemasapon

ins

O

H

OH

OH

OH

CH2O

H

HOO

H OH

OH

Gym

nem

asap

onin

s V

HO

HO

HO

HO

OO

OHO

HO

OOH

CH2O

HO

O

H

H

OH

[31]

4 BioMed Research InternationalTa

ble1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Dam

marenes

apon

ins

Gym

nemosides

abcdeandf

O

OH

OH

OH

COO

HO O

H

OAc

O

O

H

Gym

nem

osid

e A

OHCH2O

H

CH2O

H

O

OH

OH

OH

COO

HO O

H

OH

O

OAc

O

H

Gym

nem

osid

e B

CH2O

H

CH2O

H

O

OH

OH

OH

COO

H

O

O OH

OH

O

OH

O

CH2O

H

CH2O

Gym

nem

osid

e C

[31]


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

OH

OH

OH

COO

H

HOO O

HHO

O

H

Gym

nem

osid

e D

CH2O

H

CH2O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

O

HOH

OH

OO

HOH

OH

OH

OH

COO

H

OH

OH

OHHO

O

OH

OH

OH

HOO

HOH

OH

OH Gym

nem

osid

e E

CH2O

CH2OH

OH

2C

HO

O

HOH

OH

OO

HOH

O

HO

HO

H

OH

COO

H

OH

OH

OHHO

O

OH

OH

OH

HOO

HOH

OH

OH

Gym

nem

osid

e F

CH2OH

OH

2C

CH2O


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Gurmarin

Ano

vel35-am

ino-acid

peptidew

itha4

209

molecular

weight

lt1 Glu-G

ln-C

ys-V

al-5Lys-Lys-As

p-Glu-L

eu-1

0 Cys-Ile-

Pro-Ty

r-Ty

r-15Leu-

Asp-

Cys-Cy

s-Glu-2

0 Pro-L

eu-G

lu-C

ys-

Lys-

25Lys-Va

l-As

n-Trp-

Trp-

30As

p-His-

Lys-Cy

s-Ile

-35 G

lygt

(Glu=pyroglutam

ic-acidresid

ue)

[32]

Triterpenoidsapo

nins

Gym

nemasinsA

3-O[120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl

(1-3)-120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl]-22-O

-tiglyol

gymnemanol

mdash

Gym

nemasinsB

3-O-[120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl-(1-3

)-120573-D

-glucuro-

nopyrano

syl]-gymnemanol

mdash[33]

Gym

nemasinsC

3-O-120573-D

-glucurono

pyrano

syl-2

2-O-tigloyl-

gymnemanol

mdash

Gym

nemasinsD

3-O-120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl-g

ymnemanol

mdash

Gym

nemanol(aglycon

e)3120573-16120573-22

120572-23-28-pentahydroxyolean-12-ene

OH

OH

OH O

H

OH

[33]

Gym

mestro

genin

Pentahydroxytriterpene

CH2O

H

CH2O

HO

H

OH

HO

[31]

Flavon

olglycoside

Kaem

pferol3-O-120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl-(1-4

)-120572-

L-rham

nopyrano

syl-(1-6

)-120573-D

-galactopyrano

side

OO

H

OH

O

RO

H

OR 1

[34]


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Sterols

Stigmasterol

CH2CH

3

CH3

H3C

CH3

CH3

HO

[18]

d-Quercito

lmdash

O O

O O

OH

H

H

H

HQ

uerc

itol

[18]

Lupeol

mdash

OH

Lupe

ol

CH3

H3C

H3C

CH3

CH3

CH3

H3C

CH2

[21]

Parabin

mdash

OO

R

Para

ben

HO

[21]


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Con

duritolA

OH

OH

OH

OH

Con

durit

ol A

[35]

Quercito

l

O

OH

O

OH

OH

Que

rcito

l120573-Amyrin

related

glycosides

mdashmdash

[22]

Anthraquino

nes

mdashmdash

[22]


gymnemasins A B C and D and alkaloids [39] A num-ber of saponins such as gymnemic acid deacyl gymnemicacid gymnemagenin [40] 23-hydroxylnogispinogenin andgymnestrogenin have been purified [33 41 42] from Gsylvestre The phytochemicals in leaf extract were also ana-lyzed through gas chromatography coupled to mass spectro-metry and identified for the presence of terpenoids glyco-sides saturated and unsaturated fatty acids and alkaloids inthree different leaves extract namely petroleum ether chlo-roform and methanol as solvents used for extraction [43]The bioactive constituents present in the plant were found tobe mixture of diverse phytomolecules such as gymnemicacids gymnemosides gymnemasaponins gurmarin gymne-manol stigmasterol d-quercitol120573-amyrin related glycosidesanthraquinones lupeol hydroxycinnamic acids and coum-arols group

5 Biosynthesis and Genomics

Saponins natural products widespread in plant kingdom areglycosides composed of triterpenoids or steroidal aglyconesmoieties [44] and the aglycones are known as sapogeninsMany plant-derived saponins namely ginsenosides soyasap-onins and saikosaponins have been found to exhibit signifi-cant anticancer activity Besides some saponins display phar-macological properties namely anticholesterolemic adju-vant hemolytic and anticancer [45ndash47] It was also found thatthe foods originating from plants having an increased level oftriterpenes are thought to have a cholesterol lowering effectTransgenics with altered levels of triterpenes may be resistantto pests and increased saponin content will confer enhancednutritional value to the plant

Triterpenoid saponins are a class of plant secondarymeta-bolites originated via the isoprenoid pathway by cyclization of23-oxidosqualene precursor in which one or more sugarresidues are added [48] and leading to the formation of thetriterpenoid skeleton of b-amyrin and related glycosidesThepresence of polar nucleus linked to one or more sugarresidues is responsible for the characteristic activities of thesecompounds [44] Majority of the significant steps at molecu-lar level in triterpene saponin biosynthesis remain uncharact-erizedThe steps involving the biosynthesis of b-amyrin by b-amyrin synthase an oxidocyclase have been well character-ized in several plant species including Arabidopsis thaliana[49] oat [50] but steps involving the modification of thetriterpenoid backbone by the cytochrome P450-dependentmonooxygenases and uridine diphosphate glycosyltrans-ferases remain less understood

Extensive research has gone into the metabolic profilingof G sylvestre but there are very few reports pertaining tometabolomics and genomics The structural elucidation ofgymnemic acid revealed the presence of triterpene aglyconemoiety known as sapogenin attached to a sugar chain Theoccurrence of significant percentage of triterpene glycosidesin plant indicates that glycosylation is a critical process in themodificationgeneration of triterpene saponins Studies in-cluding the metabolomics and functional genomics withemphasis on the gene identification cloning and their

functional characterization will be an important tool in deci-phering the functional role of these genes in the biochemicalpathway leading to medicinal properties of the phytocon-stituents in the plant

Further in an attempt to understand themolecularmech-anism of genes responsible for medicinal properties of Gsylvestre two partial cds (accession nos GU191124GU181368) were submitted toNCBI database [51 52] Furtherstudies into the identification and characterization of genesinvolved in the biosynthesis of triterpene glycosides gym-nemic acids will provide valuable information in decipheringthe biosynthetic pathway of gymnemic acids and the mech-anism of their pharmacological activities in the plant Sincethe transcriptome data of Gymnema sylvestre is unavailableand various proteins and enzymes at the biochemical levelremain uncharacterized so the exact mechanism of Gym-nemic acid biosynthesis is not reported in the literatureHow-ever extensive research is ongoing in our lab to decode thefunctional role of glycosyltransferases in biosynthesis ofGymnemic acids owing to its significant pharmacologicalimportance (unpublished data) The biosynthesis pathway ofgymnemic acid remains unknown however putatively path-way for triterpene glycosides is derived from the isoprenoidpathway with glycosylation of the triterpene aglycone at theterminal transformation of gymnemagenin A general dia-grammatic sketch has been drawn to represent a putativepathway with a focus on terminal pathway steps in bio-synthesis of saponins from Gymnema sylvestre (Figure 1)

6 Mechanism of Action of Gymnemic Acids

The mode of action of the drug is through stimulation ininsulin secretion from pancreas [53] It also exerts a similareffect by delaying the glucose absorption in the blood Theatomic arrangements of gymnemic acids to the taste buds aresimilar to sugar molecules which fill the receptors in the tastebuds preventing its activation by the sugar molecule in thefood Similarly in the intestine it attaches to the receptor pre-sent in external layer of intestine thereby preventing theabsorption of sugar molecules by intestine leading to reduc-tion in blood sugar levels [33] Gurmarin acts in a similarmanner by interfering with the ability of taste buds on thetongue to differentiate between sweet and bitter Hypoglyce-mic effect of gymnemic acids includes a cascade of eventsstarting from modulation of incretin activity which triggersinsulin secretion and release It also increases regeneration ofpancreatic islet cells to enhanced enzyme mediated uptake ofglucose This process decreased glucose and fatty acid assim-ilation in the small intestine and interferes in the ability ofreceptors in mouth and intestine to sensation of sweetness Ithas been previously reported in the literature that the actionof gymnemic acid is similar to that of incretin-mimeticmech-anism of action [54] Gymnemic acid has been found tointeract with glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase(GAPDH) a key enzyme in glycolysis pathway [55]The find-ings also indicated that the acylmoieties present in gymnemicacids play important role for the GA-induced smearing ofGAPDH and G3PDH and play an integral role in the anti-hyperglycemic activity of GA derivatives [56]


Mevalonate pathway (cytoplasm)

Mevalonate-5-pyrophosphate

Phosphomevalonate kinase

Mevalonate-5-phosphate

Mevalonic acid

HMG-CoA reductase

3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA)

Acetoacetyl-CoA

Acetyl-CoAThiolase

HMG-CoA synthase

Mevalonate kinaseATP

ATP

23 Oxidosqualene

Triterpenoids saponins(gymnemic acids gymnemasinsgymnemasaponins)

SqualeneP450sGTsSqualene

epoxidase

Farnesyl-PP

FPPS

Squalene synthase

Geranyl-PP

IPP

Geranyl phosphatesynthase

DMAPP

Dimethylallyl PP

Isopentenyl-5-pyrophosphate

Mevalonate-5-Pdecarboxylase

Isopentenyl-PP isomerase

CO2

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

Pyruvate DXS

1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate DXR

Methyl erythritol phosphate


Dimethylallyl PP

DOXP pathway(plastid)

Figure 1 Hypothetical pathway of Gymnemic acid biosynthesis The general sketch represents the formation of triterpenoids throughMevalonate pathway Further it was assumed that gymnemagenin (sapogenin) gave rise to gymnemic acids and derivatives throughglycosylation mechanism by glycosyltransferases

7 Pharmacological Activities ofExtracts and Pure Compounds Isolatedfrom Gymnema sylvestre

Although the herb is widely used as a naturopathic treatmentfor diabetes [57 58] it also demonstrates promising effects inthe treatment of obesity arthritis hyperlipidemia Parkinson-ism and hypercholesterolemia [59ndash61] Furthermore thebioactive compounds of plant have antimicrobial anti-infla-mmatory and anticancer properties The leaves of the plantare used for the treatment of obesity [62] dental caries [63]antibiotic in stomachache blood purifier and in rheumatism[64] Some of the significant pharmacological properties ofthe herb had been discussed in detail Various plant partsnamely leaves roots possess medicinal properties and usedfor the treatment of various diseases in Ayurvedic system of

medicine (supplementary Table 2) Numerous bioactive com-pounds isolated from the plant either as pure compounds oras crude extracts possess medicinal properties and clinicallytested in animal model systems for scientific validation (sup-plementary Table 3)

71 Antidiabetic Property The herb accounts for its sweetinactivation property to the presence of triterpene saponinsknown as gymnemic acids gymnemasaponins and gur-marin Experimental trials confirmed the hypoglycemiceffect of G sylvestre on beryllium nitrate and streptozotocintreated rats There was a slight increase in body weight andprotein and a significant decrease in fasting blood glucose indiabetic rats treated with G sylvestre C auriculata E jam-bolanum and S reticulata and the effects were quite similar toinsulin and glibenclamide treated mice


An investigation to determine the antioxidant activity ofGymnema leaf extract and the role of antioxidants in diabeticrats was performed by Kang et al [65] using ethanolicextracts Several antioxidant assays namely thiobarbituricacid (TBA) assay with slight modifications using egg yolklecithin or 2-deoxyribose (associated with lipid peroxida-tion) superoxide dismutase- (SOD-) like activity assayand 221015840-Azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)(ABTS) assay (involved in electron or radical scavenging)depicted significant antioxidant activity of the ethanolicextract Further LCMS analysis revealed the presence of anti-hyperglycemic compounds like gymnemagenin and gymne-mic acids in G sylvestre extract and the level of lipid per-oxidation reduced by 317 in serum 99 in liver and 91in kidney in diabetic rats fed with the ethanolic extract Theactivity of transaminases in gluconeogenesis and ketogenesisin diabetes like glutamate pyruvate transaminase (GPT) inserum and glutathione peroxidase in cytosolic liver returnedto normal levels after the administration of ethanolic leafextract in diabetic rats [66] Antihyperglycemic effect ofcrude saponin fraction and five triterpene glycosides (gym-nemic acids IndashIV and gymnemasaponinV) isolated from themethanolic extract of the leaves was reported [56] It wasfound that gymnemic acid IV (34134mgkg) decreasedblood glucose levels by 140ndash600 within 6 hours of admin-istration as compared to glibenclamide It has been reportedthat gymnemic acid IV increased plasma insulin levels inSTZ-diabetic mice at a concentration of 134mgkg while itdid not cause inhibitory effect on120572-glucosidase activity in thebrush border membrane vesicles of small intestine in normalrat

Similarly in an experimental study the antidiabetic andhypolipidemic potential of dried powdered leaves of G syl-vestre was investigated The effect of G sylvestre leaf extractwas administered to nondiabetic and alloxan-diabetic rats Itwas found that theGymnema leaf extract had no effect on thealleviated glycemia caused by balanced meal or due to theadministration of glucose or amylose but increased serumlipid level after SOC treatment However in nondiabetic andalloxan diabetic rats the subacute and chronic treatment withGymnema extract had no effect on the ingestion of food andwater gain of bodyweight and the level of glucose and lipid inblood But the herbal formulation requires clinical approvaland scientific validation before being used for the treatmentof diabetes and hyperlipidemia [67] Finally it was concludedfrom the studies that the herb possesses antidiabetic effectand sugar inactivation properties

72 Antiarthritic Activity The leaf extract of G sylvestre wasexamined for antiarthritic activity on albino rats The watersoluble and petroleum ether (40ndash60∘C) extract was found tobe significantly effective in controlling arthritis It was alsoassumed that the most potent antiarthritic activity of theleaves may be due to the nature of triterpenoids steroids andsaponin glycosides [59] Different extracts were suspendedwith 1 Tween 80 and the drug Diclofenac sodium wasadministered once daily through oral route and the effect wasmonitored for 21 days It was observed that the rats developed

swelling in multiple joints on induction with an adjuvant andexhibited inflammation in cells bone destruction and re-shaping The petroleum ether extract treated group showedsignificant reduction in paw swelling possibly due to inhibit-ing the response of inflammatory cells or blocking the releaseof mediators like cytokines (IL-Ib and TNF-a) GM-CSFinterferons and PGDF which are responsible for pain anddisabilities arising due to destruction of bone and cartilage[68] The other possible mechanism of action suggested pro-tection of the release of joint cartilage and bone destruction inchronic arthritic model [59] The multiple studies employinguse of polar solvents in extract preparations by investigatorsdemonstrated the antiarthritic potential of the leaf extract

73 Treatment of Dental Caries Dental caries can be definedas infection of tooth occurring due to various kinds of gram-positive cariogenic bacteria [69] like S aureus S mitis and Smutans and fungus-like Candida albicans which attaches tothe tooth surface through release of extracellular polysaccha-rides from sucrose and metabolize sugar to organic acidmainly lactic acid resulting in demineralization of the toothenamel [70]The chloroform petroleum ether andmethano-lic leaf extracts of G sylvestre at various concentrations of 2550 and 100mgmLwere tested againstmicrobial dental infec-tions and found to be significantly effective against these cari-ogenic bacteria particularly the methanolic extract whichshowed highest activity atminimumconcentrationThe goodpotential of the hydroalcoholic extract of the plant leads to thedevelopment and manufacture of gurmar tooth powderedmarketed as ldquoGurmar Herbal tooth pasterdquo and ldquoGurmar Her-bal Tooth powderrdquo These herbal formulations offer new pro-spects in the treatment of dental caries once clinically ap-proved by the scientific community [63]

74 Antibiotic and Antimicrobial Activity The antibiotic andantimicrobial activity of different extracts of G sylvestre wasdetermined [71] against a number of pathogens namely Saureus E coli and B subtilis while no activity was observedagainst gram-negative bacteria G sylvestre leaf extractsshowed good prospects as an antibiotic herbal remedy waseffective as herbal formulation for the treatment of microbersquosrelated infections [71]The antibacterial activity ofG sylvestreand gymnemic acid was also studied against E coli and Bcereus and the antimicrobial effect was significant against themicrobes [72] Bhuvaneswari et al [73] demonstrated that themethanolic extracts of G sylvestre were assessed for antimi-crobial activity of aerial and root parts separately The resultexhibited that themethanol extracts in acidic range have goodactivity towards all the pathogens showing its broad spectrumnature In a similar study the antimicrobial effect of ethanolicextract of G sylvestre against Bacillus pumilus B subtilis Paeruginosa and S aureus showed promising antimicrobialeffect [74] It can be inferred from the studies that the meth-anolic and ethanolic leaf extract of Gymnema sylvestre pos-sesses considerable antibiotic and antimicrobial activity

75 Anti-Inflammatory Activity In the Ayurvedic system ofmedicine the leaf of G sylvestre has been widely used and is


considered as bitter acrid thermogenic digestive liver tonicanodyne and anti-inflammatory [75]The bioactive constitu-ents inG sylvestre known as tannins and saponins are respon-sible for the anti-inflammatory activity of the plant [76] Inthe study carrageenin induced paw oedema and cotton pelletinduced granuloma rats were taken and the aqueous extractof G sylvestre leaf was investigated for its anti-inflammatoryactivity at the doses of 200 300 and 500mgkg with drugphenylbutazone as standard It was found that the gymnemaaqueous extract at a concentration of 300mgkg significantlydecreased the pawoedema volume by 485within 4 hours ofadministration while the drug phenylbutazone decreased thepaw oedema volume by 576 Also the aqueous extract at aconcentration of 200 and 300mgkg exhibited reduction ingranuloma when compared with the control group [77]

76 Anticancer and Cytotoxic Activity Many plant-derivedsaponins namely ginsenosides soyasaponins and saikos-aponins have been found to exhibit significant anticanceractivity Anticancer potential of gymnemagenol onHeLa can-cer cell lines in in vitro conditions was determined [78] Thecytotoxic activity of the saponins was tested byMTT cell pro-liferation assay Different concentrations of gymnemagenol(5 15 25 and 50 120583gmL) were taken and plates were incu-bated for 48 hours The IC

50

value was found to be 37 120583gmLfor gymnemagenol and after 96 hours the extract at a concen-tration of 50120583gmL showed good cytotoxic activity on 73on HeLa cells The isolated bioactive constituent gymnema-genol was found to show a high degree of inhibition to theproliferation ofHeLa cancer cell line Further these saponinswere not toxic to the growth of normal cells under in vitroconditions [79] With the rising percentage of cancer inpeople the herbal formulation is a prospective medication incancer therapy

77 Antihyperlipidemic Activity The prevalence of coronaryartery disease is the cause of higher incidence of mortalitythan other causes combined [80]Themajor factor contribut-ing to atherosclerosis and related disorders like coronary art-ery diseases is hyperlipidemia [81] Reduction in serum cho-lesterol levels may significantly reduce the chances of coro-nary heart disease [80] Due to the limitations of syntheticdrugs in having adverse effects plant-based formulationsoffer a good prospect for the treatment of heart disease Gym-nemic acids preparations have been found to be effectiveagainst obesity [42] The triterpene saponins constitute sev-eral acylated (tigloyl methylbutyryl etc) derivatives of dea-cylgymnemic acid Gymnemic acids consist of gymnemicacids IndashVII gymnemosides AndashF gymnemasaponins and soforth [17] In the study high cholesterol diet standard ator-vastatin and high cholesterol diet with hydroalcoholic extractof gymnemic acid were fed to female rats for seven days Itwas observed that the rats fed with high cholesterol dietshowed increase in serum cholesterol serum triglycerideslow-density lipoprotein cholesterol and very low-densitylipoprotein and significant decrease in high-density lipopro-tein cholesterol in comparison to normal animals The groupadministered with hydroalcoholic extract ofGymnema leaves

at a dose of 200mgkg showed significant reduction in thelevels of all lipidswith increase inHDL-Cas compared to highcholesterol diet control [60] A study demonstrated that thehexane extract of the leaves of G sylvestre possesses antiobe-sity activity It was found that after 45 days of administrationof hexane extract of G sylvestre a significant reduction inincreased body weight and high temperature due to obesitywas observed Also the hexane extract improved the choles-terol triglyceride LDL andHDL levelsThehexane extract ofthe leaves of G sylvestre have the potential to treat obesitycomparable with that of standard drug atorvastatin [82]Thestudies showed that the leaf extract has good prospects in thereduction of cholesterol levels and as a herbal medication forobesity

78 Immunostimulatory Activity Immunomodulation is re-ferred to as the regulation or control of the immunity whichinvolves the enhancement or reduction in the immune res-ponsesThe body response to a particular conditionmight beregulated by agent that enhances or suppresses its action [83]G sylvestre is reported to be an immunostimulatory plant andthe leaves possess immunostimulatory effect [84] The aque-ous leaf extract was tested for immunostimulatory activitiesby detecting the movement of neutrophils chemotaxis testsphagocytosis of killed C albicans and nitroblue tetrazoliumassays Aqueous leaf extract of G sylvestre showed remark-able immunostimulatory activity at 10 25 50 100 and1000 120583gmL on human neutrophils under in vitro conditions[85]

79 Hepatoprotective Activity The hepatoprotective effect ofhydro-alcoholic extract of G sylvestre was evaluated by Sriv-idya et al [86] The rat hepatocytes (freshly prepared) weresubject to treatment with different concentration of hydro-alcoholic extract prepared by the hot maceration pro-cess The extract at a concentrations of 200 400 and600120583gmL showed significant antihepatotoxicity against theD-galactosamine-induced hepatotoxicity and the concentra-tion of 800120583gmL was found to be cytotoxicThe cells exhib-ited a significant restoration of the altered biochemical para-meters towards the normal (119875 lt 0001) when compared toD-galactosamine treated groups in a dose-dependent mannerwhen treated with the hydroalcoholic extract differentextracts of G sylvestre

710 Wound Healing Activity The alcoholic extract of leavesof G sylvestre was found to exhibit significant wound healingactivity in rats [85] According to Kiranmai et al [87] hydro-alcoholic extract ofG sylvestre has goodwound healing prop-erty as compared with control group TLC analysis woundcontraction and qualitative tests supported the synergisticwound healing effect of the plantThe increased wound heal-ing activity of hydroalcoholic extracts may be attributed tothe free radical scavenging action and the presence of phyto-constituents (flavonoids) which may act individually or haveadditive effect The flavonoids in alcoholic extract weredetected by TLC and phytochemical analysis [88]


711 Ethnobotanical Uses Traditionally the leaves of G sylv-estre were used for the treatment of diabetes and other disor-ders while the flowers and bark are given in diseases relatedto phlegm [89] The ancient literature on Indian medicineSushruta describes gurmar as a destroyer of madhumeha(glycosuria) and other urinary disorders The extract of Gsylvestre is reported to be a bitter acrid anti-inflammatoryanodyne digestive liver tonic emetic diuretic thermogenicstomachic stimulant anthelmintics laxative cardiotonicexpectorant antipyretic and uterine tonicThe plant also ex-hibits medicinal importance in the treatment of jaundiceconstipation cardiopathy asthma bronchitis amenorrhoeaconjunctivitis renal and vesical calculi dyspepsia leuco-derma and Parkinsonism [90] Reports in the ancient litera-ture suggested that the plant has multiple medicinal applica-tions namely antihelminthic antipyretic astringent an alex-ipharmic anodyne cardiotonic digestive diuretic coughdyspepsia hemorrhoids hepatosplenomegaly laxative stim-ulant stomachic uterine tonic intermittent fever jaundiceand leucoderma The root bark is useful as an emetic expec-torant and analgesic for bodyache and root juice in the treat-ment of snakebite [91] The plant extract is also useful in thetreatment of piles colic pain dropsy phlegm eye troublescardiac and respiratory diseases

8 Bioavailability and Toxicity

Bioavailability is a key issue in terms of effectiveness of anyherbalmedicine as a drug andwill determine its effective deli-very into the circulatory system in the body Bioavailability ofgymnemic acid is an important parameter for its in vivo phar-macological applicationsGymnemic acid has poor lipid solu-bility and complex structure and difficult to pass through thebiomembranes for its absorption in circulatory systemPathan and coworkers have developed a herbal formulation(gymnemic acid phospholipid complex) with an aim toimprove its bioabsorption and pharmacokinetics A phyto-some exhibits better absorption and utilization in body due toits increased capacity to cross lipid biomembranes and reachthe systemic circulation The complex exhibits antiapoptoticpotential in doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity in rats andshows cardioprotective effect [92] Toxicity studies of Gym-nema sylvestre extract have shown its safety when takenin recommended doses High doses may lead to sideeffects including hypoglycemia weakness shakiness exces-sive sweating and muscular dystropy Administration of100 basal powder (GSE) in the diet in Wistar rats for 52weeks has shown no toxic effects and no animal died duringthe experiment [93] Treatment of diabetic patients withGymnema sylvestre has been shown to cause toxic hepatitis ordrug-induced liver injury (DILI) [94]

9 In Vitro Cultivation of Gymnema sylvestre

Cultured plant cells and tissues are widely recognized as pro-mising alternatives for the production of valuable secondarymetabolites [95 96] Plant tissue culture techniques havebeen employed on an industrial scale for the production of

bioactive compounds [97] Various techniques were em-ployed for propagation of the herb in plant tissue culturethrough in vitro multiplication for shoot regeneration frommature nodal explants ofG sylvestre [98] and large-scale pro-duction of gymnemic acids in plant cell suspension cultures[99] Somatic embryogenesis was optimized and whole plantregeneration was achieved in callus cultures derived fromhypocotyl cotyledon and leaf explants excised from seed-lings of G sylvestre Globularheart shaped embryos devel-oped and produced torpedo and cotyledon stage embryosupon subculturing on embryo maturation medium EM8(medium containing MS salts B5 vitamins 05 120583M BA and2 sucrose) The mature embryos were subcultured on freshEM8 medium for embryo germination and plantlet forma-tion These plantlets were grown in glasshouse respectively[100]

For in vitro regeneration of mature nodal explants of Gsylvestre Murashige and Skoog (MS) media were used for theinoculation of single node explants having different combina-tions of 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) or kinetin with naph-thaleneacetic acid (NAA) and auxins like indoleacetic acid(IAA) alone or in combinationsTheMSmedium containingBAP (5mgL) and NAA (02mgL) exhibited maximumnumber of shoot (7 per explants) Further the regeneratedshoots were subjected to rooting onMShalf strengthmediumin absence of any growth regulator (IAA IBA and NAA) Incultures where the shoot explants were inoculated on auxin-free half strengthMS basal medium root primordia emergedfrom the shoot base 15ndash20 days after implantation and sub-sequently developed into roots without basal callus as com-pared to MS media supplemented with different concentra-tions of auxins which did not lead to root formation [15]

Plant cell suspension cultures were generated for large-scale production of gymnemic acids the antisweet phytocon-stituentsThemethodology employed led to the developmentof a novel cell culture system for in vitro growth and cultiv-ation of this species The conditions for the production andHPLC quantification of gymnemic acids were optimizedThegymnemic acids were not accumulated in callus but werereleased into the medium For the production of gymnemicacid commercially this needs to be further optimized Inanother study the extraction of gymnemic acid through gym-nemagenin from callus culture of G sylvestre was reportedThe aglycon component known as gymnemagenin wasextracted detected and quantified in different callus culturesofG sylvestre HPTLCmethodwas standardized for the rapidand accurate quantitative estimation of gymnemagenin incallus cultures of G sylvestre [101]

Recently Devi and Srinivasan [102] attempted the large-scale production of gymnemic acids under in vitro condi-tions through the mediation of fungal elicitors The use ofbioelicitors such as Aspergillus niger cell extract enhancedthe production of secondary metabolite namely gymnemicacids from G sylvestre suspension culture It is interestingto note that the elicitation of Gymnema suspension cultureby A niger significantly enhanced the production gymnemicacid as compared to nonelicited cultures The technique is apotential means for the establishment of large-scale produc-tion of gymnemic acids through the employment of shaking


flask and bioreactors Due to the limited availability ofG sylv-estre formulation this technique holds good prospects forlarge-scale commercial production of bioactive phytocon-stituents [102]

Gymnemic acid being an important bioactive compoundcell suspension cultures of G sylvestre were generated andoptimized for the production of gymnemic acids [103 104]

10 Summary and Future Prospects

Medicinal plants served as a platform for ancient Ayurvedicsystem of medicine In the present scenario herbal therapeu-tics are gaining momentum in pharmacological applicationsand asmolecular targets in the drug developmentThe emerg-ing trend in rising incidence of diseases and associated com-plications with commercial medications poses a seriousthreat to mankind Naturopathic treatments offer respitefrom the high cost of expensive drugs as well as in being com-paratively safe with less side effects It is estimated that nearly80of population depends on the natural remedies for healthcare Plants are a valuable source of a number of bioactivecompounds like alkaloids quinine paclitaxel opium alka-loids quinine atropine and cardiac glycosides (digitalisouabain) to name a few The first antidiabetic drug metfor-min isolated from Galega officinalis was a herbal formula-tion Thus it becomes very important to screen plants withpharmacological significance as a basis for the developmentof newer and more effective therapeutics In spite of the goodprospects of herbal medicines these have gained little impor-tance due to absence of scientific validationThe lack of avail-ability of standards for herbal formulations is a major limita-tion Although a vast repertoire of plant resources is availablebut very few have experimentally validated and scientificallyapproved as medications for the treatment of diseases

One major factor that comes into play is that many medi-cinal plants of commercial importance face threat of extinc-tion due to increase in demand and destruction of their habi-tats due to urbanization and industrialization The primeinitiative should focus on the cultivation and conserva-tion of medicinal plants with pharmacological importanceAlthough the herb has immense prospects in drug develop-ment but it faces threat of extinction due to continuous defor-estation and absence of established lines or varieties The invitro propagation of plants in plant tissue culture offers apromising alternative for the production of valuable sec-ondary metabolite G sylvestre being a valuable medicinalplant and source of bioactive substances needs to be propa-gated and conserved In vitro propagation of plants with highbioactive content and cell culture technologies for large-scaleproduction of such secondarymetaboliteswithmedicinal sig-nificance will be highly prospective and will provide newdimensions to this area of research Studies have been madein the past few years to understand the complex and incom-pletely understood nature of plant cells in vitro cultures [105]Bioelicitors based strategies (from Xanthomonas spp and Aniger cell extract) for enhanced production of gymnemicacids have been employed [102 106] and the technique findsrelevance for large-scale production of these bioactive com-pounds in bioreactors based industrial applications These

new technologies will be new beginning for further produc-tion and utilization of these sweet suppressing compoundsinvaluable as an antidiabetic herbal cure

G sylvestre holds a unique position among the sweetnessmodifying materials of natural origin The herb accounts formultiple pharmacological significance as a naturopathicmedication since ancient times and gaining popularity in thepresent scenario as well Various polyherbal formulations likeDihar [53] and D-400 [105] containing G sylvestre extracthave been used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus Severalclinical trials and experimental studies indicated that theplant is an invaluable source of bioactive compounds andphytoconstituents like gymnemic acids have been used asmolecular targets in drug development Besides having phar-macological importance the herbal extract exhibits goodprospects in dietary applications G sylvestre dried leafpowder is orally consumed by Paliyan tribes of Sirumalai hillsfor treatment of diabetes Several products such as GNCHer-bal Plus Standardized G sylvestre (herbal supplement) Vita-min Shoppe G Sylvestre (sugar destroyer) Gymnema gold(Nutrigold) abolishe the taste of sugar and help supporthealthy glucose Gurmar capsules (stimulates the heart andcirculatory system and activate uterus) are some of the pro-ducts composed of Gymnema extract and are marketed andsold as herbal preparations Among the medicinal plants Gsylvestre is a herb less exploited for its innumerable advan-tages The aim of this review is to highlight the prospects ofthis rare herb as a potential medication for treatment of dis-eases from diabetes obesity to cardiovascular disorders aswell as a very good dietary and health supplements in foodindustry as an health tablets beverages tea bags energy sup-plements and in food items which regulates body weightGymnema sylvestre 75 is a herbal preparation which contains75 Gymnemic acid from leaf extract and provides nutri-tional support to pancreas and maintain healthy blood sugarbalance when used as part of diet

The whole genome sequencing projects and functionalelucidation of pathway genes havemade significant contribu-tions in deciphering the biological role and properties of bio-molecules With the functional characterization of genestheir relevance in the plant and functional role in the bioac-tivity of phytomolecules are being established Informationabout such genes which code for economically viable traits orpharmacologically important bioactivemolecules holds greatprospects in crop engineering The development of genetictransformation systems will provide an edge in the propaga-tion and maintenance of such pharmacologically importantplant having applications in drug discovery and development

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to CSIR Network Project NWP09for the financial grant Pragya Tiwari thanks CSIR NewDelhi for the award of Senior Research Fellowship


References

[1] J K Grover S Yadav and V Vats ldquoMedicinal plants of Indiawith anti-diabetic potentialrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol81 no 1 pp 81ndash100 2002

[2] J P Burke K Williams K M V Narayan C Leibson S MHafener andM P Stern ldquoA population perspective on diabetesprevention whom should we target for preventing weightgainrdquo Diabetes Care vol 26 no 7 pp 1999ndash2004 2003

[3] CM Smith andAMReynardEssentials of PharmacologyWBSaunders Philadelphia Pa USA 1995

[4] P A Babu G Suneetha R Boddepalli et al ldquoA database of 389medicinal plants for diabetesrdquo Bioinformation vol 1 no 4 pp130ndash131 2006

[5] H-F Ji X-J Li and H-Y Zhang ldquoNatural products and drugdiscovery can thousands of years of ancientmedical knowledgelead us to new and powerful drug combinations in the fightagainst cancer and dementiardquo EMBO Reports vol 10 no 3 pp194ndash200 2009

[6] M Jung M Park H C Lee Y-H Kang E S Kang and S KKim ldquoAntidiabetic agents frommedicinal plantsrdquoCurrentMed-icinal Chemistry vol 13 no 10 pp 1203ndash1218 2006

[7] L Shane-McWhorter ldquoDietary supplements for diabetes anevaluation of commonly used productsrdquoDiabetes Spectrum vol22 no 4 pp 206ndash213 2009

[8] S H Manohar P M Naik N Praveen and H N Murthy ldquoDis-tribution of gymnemic acid in various organs ofGymnema sylv-estrerdquo Journal of Forestry Research vol 20 no 3 pp 268ndash2702009

[9] V K Singh S Umar S A Ansari andM Iqbal ldquoGymnema sylv-estre for diabeticsrdquo Journal of Herbs Spices andMedicinal Plantsvol 14 no 1-2 pp 88ndash106 2008

[10] P Kanetkar R Singhal and M Kamat ldquoGymnema sylvestre amemoirrdquo Journal of Clinical Biochemistry and Nutrition vol 41no 2 pp 77ndash81 2007

[11] A Saneja C Sharma K R Aneja and R Pahwa ldquoGymnemaSylvestre (Gurmar) a reviewrdquoDer Pharmacia Lettre vol 2 no 1pp 275ndash284 2010

[12] S J Persaud H Al-Majed A Raman and P M Jones ldquoGym-nema sylvestre stimulates insulin release in vitro by increasedmembrane permeabilityrdquo Journal of Endocrinology vol 163 no2 pp 207ndash212 1999

[13] K Shimizu M Ozeki A Iino S Nakajyo N Urakawa and MAtsuchi ldquoStructure-activity relationships of triterpenoid deri-vatives extracted from Gymnema inodorum leaves on glucoseabsorptionrdquo Japanese Journal of Pharmacology vol 86 no 2 pp223ndash229 2001

[14] J-T Xie A Wang S Mehendale et al ldquoAnti-diabetic effects ofGymnema yunnanense extractrdquo Pharmacological Research vol47 no 4 pp 323ndash329 2003

[15] P S ReddyG RGopal andG L Sita ldquoIn vitromultiplication ofGymnema sylvestre RBr an important medicinal plantrdquo Cur-rent Science vol 10 no 1ndash4 2004

[16] National Medicinal Plants Board Department of Ayush Min-istry of Health and FamilyWelfare Government of India 2008

[17] S Gurav V Gulkari N Duragkar and A Patil ldquoA Systemic re-view pharmacognosy phytochemistry pharmacology and clin-ical applications of Gymnema sylvestre R Brrdquo PharmacognosyReviews vol 1 pp 338ndash343 2007

[18] S E Potawale VM Shinde L Anandi S Borade H Dhalawatand RS Deshmukh ldquoGymnema sylvestre a comprehensive re-viewrdquo Pharmacologyonline vol 2 pp 144ndash157 2008

[19] S Foster ldquoGymnema sylvestrerdquo inAlternativeMedicine ReviewsMonographs pp 205ndash207 Thorne Research Inc 2002

[20] V A Khramov A A Spasov and M P Samokhina ldquoChemicalcomposition of dry extracts ofGymnema sylvestre leavesrdquo Phar-maceutical Chemistry Journal vol 42 no 1 pp 30ndash32 2008

[21] J E Sinsheimer G S Rao and H M McIlhenny ldquoConstuentsfrom Gymnema sylvestre leaves V isolation and preliminarycharacterization of the gymnemic acidsrdquo Journal of Pharmaceu-tical Sciences vol 59 no 5 pp 622ndash628 1970

[22] G P Dateo Jr and L Long Jr ldquoGymnemic acid the antisaccha-rine principle ofGymnema sylvestre Studies on the isolation andheterogeneity of gymnemic acid A1rdquo Journal of Agricultural andFood Chemistry vol 21 no 5 pp 899ndash903 1973

[23] D Chakravarti andN B Debnath ldquoIsolation of gymnemageninthe sapogenin fromGymnema sylvestre RBr (Asclepiadaceae)rdquoJournal of the Institution of Chemists vol 53 pp 155ndash158 1981

[24] K Yoshikawa K Amimoto S Arihara and K MatsuuraldquoStructure studies of new antisweet constituents from Gym-nema sylvestrerdquo Tetrahedron Letters vol 30 no 9 pp 1103ndash11061989

[25] K Yoshikawa K Amimoto S Arihara andKMatsuura ldquoGym-nemic acid V VI and VII from gur-ma the leaves of Gymnemasylvestre RBrrdquo Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin vol 37no 3 pp 852ndash854 1989

[26] W Stocklin E Weiss and T Resichstein ldquoGymnemasaure dasanti saccharine prinzip vonGymnema sylvestreRBr isolierngenund identifizierungenrdquo Helvetica Chimica Acta vol 50 no 2pp 474ndash490 1967

[27] K Yoshikawa M Nakagawa R Yamamoto S Arihara and KMatsuura ldquoAntisweet natural products V Structures of gym-nemic acids VIII-XII from Gymnema sylvestre RBrrdquo Chemicaland Pharmaceutical Bulletin vol 40 no 7 pp 1779ndash1782 1992

[28] N Murakami T Murakami M Kadoya H Matsuda J Yama-hara and M Yoshikawa ldquoNew hypoglycemic constituents inldquogymnemic acidldquo fromGymnema sylvestrerdquoChemical and Phar-maceutical Bulletin vol 44 no 2 pp 469ndash471 1996

[29] K Yoshikawa S Arihara and K Matsuura ldquoA new type of anti-sweet principles occurring in Gymnema sylvestrerdquo TetrahedronLetters vol 32 no 6 pp 789ndash792 1991

[30] H-M Liu F Kiuchi and Y Tsuda ldquoIsolation and structure elu-cidation of gymnemic acids antisweet principles of Gymnemasylvestre RBrrdquo Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin vol 40no 6 pp 1366ndash1375 1992

[31] M Yoshikawa TMurakamiM Kadoya et al ldquoMedicinal food-stuffs IXThe inhibitors of glucose absorption from the leaves ofGymnema sylvestre RBr (Asclepiadaceae) structures of gym-nemosides A and BrdquoChemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin vol45 no 10 pp 1671ndash1676 1997

[32] T Imoto AMiyasaka R Ishima andK Akasaka ldquoA novel pep-tide isolated from the leaves ofGymnema sylvestremdashI Charact-erization and its suppressive effect on the neural responses tosweet taste stimuli in the ratrdquo Comparative Biochemistry andPhysiology vol 100 no 2 pp 309ndash314 1991

[33] N P Sahu S BMahato S K Sarkar andG Poddar ldquoTriterpen-oid saponins from Gymnema sylvestrerdquo Phytochemistry vol 41no 4 pp 1181ndash1185 1996

[34] X Liu W Ye B Yu S Zhao H Wu and C Che ldquoTwo new fla-vonol glycosides fromGymnema sylvestre and Euphorbia ebrac-teolatardquo Carbohydrate Research vol 339 no 4 pp 891ndash8952004


[35] H-S Zhen X-Y Zhu R-M Lu J Liang Q Qiu and Q-MMeng ldquoResearch on chemical constituents from stem of Gym-nema sylvestrerdquo Journal of Chinese Medicinal Materials vol 31no 8 pp 1154ndash1156 2008

[36] J F Gent T P Hettinger M E Frank and L E Marks ldquoTasteconfusions following gymnemic acid rinserdquo Chemical Sensesvol 24 no 4 pp 393ndash403 1999

[37] R R Chattopadhyay ldquoA comparative evaluation of some bloodsugar lowering agents of plant originrdquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 67 no 3 pp 367ndash372 1999

[38] K Arai R Ishima S Morikawa et al ldquoThree-dimensionalstructure of gurmarin a sweet taste-suppressing polypeptiderdquoJournal of Biomolecular NMR vol 5 no 3 pp 297ndash305 1995

[39] R Suttisri I-S Lee and A Douglas Kinghorn ldquoPlant-derivedtriterpenoid sweetness inhibitorsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 47 no 1 pp 9ndash26 1995

[40] G S Rao and J E Sinsheimer ldquoConstituents from Gymnemasylvestre leaves 8 Isolation chemistry and derivatives of gym-nemagenin and gymnestrogeninrdquo Journal of PharmaceuticalSciences vol 60 no 2 pp 190ndash193 1971

[41] K Yoshikawa S Arihara K Matsuura and T Miyaset ldquoDam-marane saponins fromGymnema sylvestrerdquoPhytochemistry vol31 no 1 pp 237ndash241 1992

[42] K Yoshikawa T Murakami and H Matsuda ldquoMedicinal foodstuffs IXThe inhibitors of glucose absorption from the leaves ofGymnema sylvestre RBr (Asclepiadaceae) structures of gym-nemosides A and BrdquoChemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin vol45 no 10 pp 1671ndash1676 1997

[43] A Sathya R Ramasubramaniaraja and P Brindha ldquoPharma-cognostical phytochemical and GC-MS investigation of suc-cessive extract ofGymnema sylvestre RBrrdquo Journal of PharmacyResearch vol 3 pp 984ndash987 2010

[44] J-P Vincken LHeng A deGroot andHGruppen ldquoSaponinsclassification andoccurrence in the plant kingdomrdquoPhytochem-istry vol 68 no 3 pp 275ndash297 2007

[45] V Haridas M Higuchi G S Jayatilake et al ldquoAvicins triter-penoid saponins fromAcacia victoriae (Bentham) induce apop-tosis by mitochondrial perturbationrdquo Proceedings of theNational Academy of Sciences of theUnited States of America vol98 no 10 pp 5821ndash5826 2001

[46] D J Marciani J B Press R C Reynolds et al ldquoDevelopment ofsemisynthetic triterpenoid saponin derivatives with immunestimulating activityrdquo Vaccine vol 18 no 27 pp 3141ndash3151 2000

[47] H-J Park S-H Kwon J-H Lee K-H Lee K-I MiyamotoandK-T Lee ldquoKalopanaxsaponinA is a basic saponin structurefor the anti-tumor activity of hederagenin monodesmosidesrdquoPlanta Medica vol 67 no 2 pp 118ndash121 2001

[48] A C A Yendo F De Costa G Gosmann and A G Fett-NetoldquoProduction of plant bioactive Triterpenoid saponins elicita-tion strategies and target genes to improve yieldsrdquo MolecularBiotechnology vol 46 no 1 pp 94ndash104 2010

[49] M Shibuya YKatsubeMOtsuka et al ldquoIdentification of a pro-duct specific 120573-amyrin synthase from Arabidopsis thalianardquoPlant Physiology and Biochemistry vol 47 no 1 pp 26ndash30 2009

[50] X Qi S Bakht M Leggett C Maxwell R Melton and AOsbourn ldquoA gene cluster for secondary metabolism in oat im-plications for the evolution ofmetabolic diversity in plantsrdquoPro-ceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United Statesof America vol 101 no 21 pp 8233ndash8238 2004

[51] P Tiwari F Sabir Asha and N S Sangwan ldquoGymnema sylv-estre glycosyltransferase mRNA partial cds (accession noGU181368)rdquo NCBI Database 2009

[52] F Sabir P Tiwari Asha andN S Sangwan ldquoGymnema sylvestreUDP-glucosyltransferase mRNA partial cds (accession noGU191124)rdquo NCBI Database 2009

[53] S S Patel R S Shah andR K Goyal ldquoAntihyperglycemic anti-hyperlipidemic and antioxidant effects of Dihar a polyherbalayurvedic formulation in streptozotocin induced diabetic ratsrdquoIndian Journal of Experimental Biology vol 47 no 7 pp 564ndash570 2009

[54] K Bone ldquoGymnema a key herb in themanagement of diabetesrdquoin Phytotherapy Review and Commentary National Institute ofHerbalists National Herbalists Association of Australia 2002

[55] S Ishijima T Takashima T Ikemura and Y Izutani ldquoGymne-mic acid interacts withmammalian glycerol-3-phosphate dehy-drogenaserdquoMolecular and Cellular Biochemistry vol 310 no 1-2 pp 203ndash208 2008

[56] Y Sugihara H Nojima H Matsuda T Murakami MYoshikawa and I Kimura ldquoAntihyperglycemic effects of gym-nemic acid IV a compound derived from Gymnema sylvestreleaves in streptozotocin-diabeticmicerdquo Journal of AsianNaturalProducts Research vol 2 no 4 pp 321ndash327 2000

[57] E R B Shanmugasundaram G Rajeswari K Baskaran B R RKumar K R Shanmugasundaram and B K Ahmath ldquoUse ofGymnema sylvestre leaf extract in the control of blood glucose ininsulin-dependent diabetes mellitusrdquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 30 no 3 pp 281ndash294 1990

[58] K Baskaran B K Ahamath K R Shanmugasundaram and ER B Shanmugasundaram ldquoAntidiabetic effect of a leaf extractfrom Gymnema sylvestre in non-insulin-dependent diabetesmellitus patientsrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 30 no 3pp 295ndash305 1990

[59] J K Malik F V Manvi B R Nanjware D K Dwivedi P Puro-hit and S Chouhan ldquoAnti-arthritic activity of leaves of Gym-nema sylvestre RBr leaves in ratsrdquoDer Pharmacia Lettre vol 2pp 336ndash341 2010

[60] P R Rachh M R Rachh N R Ghadiya et al ldquoAntihyperlipi-demic activity of Gymenma sylvestre RBr leaf extract on ratsfed with high cholesterol dietrdquo International Journal of Pharma-cology vol 6 no 2 pp 138ndash141 2010

[61] A A Spasov M P Samokhina and A E Bulanov ldquoAntidiabeticproperties of Gymnema sylvestre (a review)rdquo PharmaceuticalChemistry Journal vol 42 no 11 pp 22ndash26 2008

[62] Government of India Department of Ayurveda Yoga amp Natur-opathy Unani Siddha ampHomoeopathy (AYUSH) ldquoMesasrngirdquoin TheAyurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India Part I vol 5 pp 110ndash114 The Controller of Publications New Delhi India 1st edi-tion 2006

[63] B ParimalaDevi andR Ramasubramaniaraja ldquoPharmacognos-tical and antimicrobial screening of Gymnema sylvestre RBrand evaluation of Gurmar herbal tooth paste and powder com-posed of Gymnema sylvestre RBr extracts in dental cariesrdquoInternational Journal of PharmaandBio Sciences vol 1 no 3 pp1ndash16 2010

[64] W C Evans G E Trease andD Evans Trease and Evans Phar-macognosy WB Saunders Philadelphia Pa USA 15th edition2002

[65] M-H Kang M S Lee M-K Choi K-S Min and TShibamoto ldquoHypoglycemic activity of Gymnema sylvestreextracts on oxidative stress and antioxidant status in diabeticratsrdquo Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol 60 no 10pp 2517ndash2524 2012

[66] P M Patil P D Chaudhari N J Duragkar and P P KatolkarldquoFormulation of anti-diabetic liquid preparation of Gymnema


sylvestre and qualitative estimated by TLCrdquo Asian Journal ofPharmaceutical and Clinical Research vol 5 supplemet 1 pp16ndash19 2012

[67] R Galletto V L D Siqueira E B Ferreira A Oliveira and RBazotte ldquoAbsence of antidiabetic and hypolipidemic effect ofGymnema sylvestre in non-diabetic and alloxan-diabetic ratsrdquoBrazilian Archives of Biology and Technology vol 47 no 4 pp545ndash551 2004

[68] G B Eric and J L Lawrence Rheumatoid Arthritis and ItsTherapymdashTheText Book ofTherapeutics Drug andDiseaseMan-agement vol 16 Williams and Wilkins Company BaltimoreMd USA 16th edition 1996

[69] P Marsh and M Martin Oral Microbiology vol 3 Chapmanand Hall London UK 1992

[70] M S Akhtar and V Bhakuni ldquoStreptococcus pneumoniae hyal-uronate lyase an overviewrdquo Current Science vol 86 no 2 pp285ndash295 2004

[71] D R Saumendu K Sarkar S Dipankar T Singh and B PrabhaldquoIn vitro antibiotic activity of various extracts ofGymnema sylv-estrerdquo International Journal of Pharmaceutical Research andDevelopment vol 2 pp 1ndash3 2010

[72] S Yogisha and K A Raveesha ldquoIn vitro antibacterial effect ofselected medicinal plant extractsrdquo Journal of Natural Productsvol 2 pp 64ndash69 2009

[73] C H Bhuvaneswari K Rao and A Giri ldquoEvaluation ofGymnema sylvestre antimicrobial activity in methanolrdquo RecentResearch in Science and Technology vol 3 pp 73ndash75 2011

[74] R K Satdive P Abhilash and D P Fulzele ldquoAntimicrobialactivity of Gymnema sylvestre leaf extractrdquo Fitoterapia vol 74no 7-8 pp 699ndash701 2003

[75] C K Kokate Pharmacognosy vol 12 Nirali Prakashan 1999[76] P V Diwan I Margaret and S Ramakrishna ldquoInfluence of

Gymnema sylvestre on inflammationrdquo Inflammopharmacologyvol 3 pp 271ndash277 1995

[77] J K Malik F V Manvi K R Alagawadi et al ldquoEvaluation ofanti-inflammatory activity of Gymnema sylvestre leaves extractin ratsrdquo International Journal of Green Pharmacy vol 2 pp 114ndash115 2007

[78] K S Jain M K Kathiravan R S Somani and C J ShishooldquoThe biology and chemistry of hyperlipidemiardquo Bioorganic andMedicinal Chemistry vol 15 no 14 pp 4674ndash4699 2007

[79] V Khanna and K Kannabiran ldquoAnticancer-cytotoxic activity ofsaponins isolated from the leaves of Gymnema sylvestre andEclipta prostrata on HeLa cellsrdquo International Journal of GreenPharmacy vol 3 no 3 pp 227ndash229 2009

[80] J GHardman L E Limbird L S Goodman andAG GilmanGoodman and Gilmanrsquos the Pharmacological Basis of Therapeu-tics McGraw Hill New York NY USA 10th edition 2001

[81] M Kaushik A Kaushik R Arya G Singh and P Malik ldquoAnti-obesity property of hexane extract from the leaves of Gymnemasylvestre in high fed cafeteria diet induced obesity ratsrdquo Interna-tional Research Journal of Pharmacy vol 2 pp 112ndash116 2011

[82] H N Shivaprasad M D Kharya A C Rana and S MohanldquoPreliminary immunomodulatory activities of the aqueousextract of Terminalia chebulardquo Pharmaceutical Biology vol 44no 1 pp 32ndash34 2006

[83] G E Trease and W C Evans Pharmacognosy vol 12 BalliereTindale London UK 1983

[84] S N Gupta S Pramanik O P Tiwari N Thacker M Pandeand N Upmanyu ldquoImmunomodulatory activity of Gymnemasylvestre leavesrdquo Internet Journal of Pharmacology vol 8 no 2pp 1531ndash2976 2010

[85] J K Malik F V Manvi B R Nanjware et al ldquoWound healingproperties of alcoholic extract ofGymnema sylvestreRBr leavesin ratsrdquo Journal of Pharmacy Research vol 2 pp 1029ndash10302009

[86] A R Srividya S K Varma S P Dhanapal R Vadivelan and PVijayan ldquoIn vitro and in vivo evaluation of hepatoprotectiveactivity ofGymnema sylvestrerdquo International Journal of Pharma-ceutical Sciences and Nanotechnology vol 2 pp 768ndash773 2010

[87] GAlamM P Singh andA Singh ldquoWoundhealing potential ofsomemedicinal plantsrdquo International Journal of PharmaceuticalSciences Review and Research vol 9 pp 136ndash145 2011

[88] M Kiranmai S M Kazim andM Ibrahim ldquoCombined woundhealing activity of Gymnema sylvestre and Tagetes erecta linnrdquoInternational Journal of Pharmaceutical Applications vol 2 pp135ndash140 2011

[89] K R Kirtikar and B D Basu Indian Medicinal Plants vol 3Periodicals Experts Delhi India 1975

[90] M Anis M P Sharma andM Iqbal ldquoHerbal ethnomedicine ofthe Gwalior forest division inMadhya Pradesh Indiardquo Pharma-ceutical Biology vol 38 no 4 pp 241ndash253 2000

[91] B S Sastry Gymnema sylvestre Bhav Prakash NighantuChaukhambha Varanasi India 1994

[92] R A Pathan U Bhandari S Javed and T C Nag ldquoAnti-apop-totic potential of gymnemic acid phospholipid complex pre-treatment in wistar rats with experimental cardiomyopathyrdquoIndian Journal of Experimental Biology vol 50 no 2 pp 117ndash1272012

[93] Y Ogawa K Sekita T Umemura et al ldquoGymnema sylvestre leafextract a 52-week dietary toxicity study inwistar ratsrdquo ShokuhinEiseigaku Zasshi vol 45 no 1 pp 8ndash18 2004

[94] A Shiyovich I Sztarkier and L Nesher ldquoToxic hepatitisinduced byGymnema sylvestre a natural remedy for type 2 dia-betes mellitusrdquo American Journal of the Medical Sciences vol340 no 6 pp 514ndash517 2010

[95] F Sabir R S Sangwan J Singh L NMisra N Pathak andN SSangwan ldquoBiotransformation of withanolides by cell suspen-sion cultures ofWithania somnifera (Dunal)rdquo Plant Biotechnol-ogy Reports vol 5 no 2 pp 127ndash134 2011

[96] F Sabir R S Sangwan R Kumar and N S Sangwan ldquoSaltstress-induced responses in growth and metabolism in calluscultures and differentiating in vitro shoots of Indian ginseng(Withania somnifera Dunal)rdquo Journal of Plant Growth Regula-tion pp 1ndash12 2012

[97] S RamachandraRao andGA Ravishankar ldquoPlant cell cultureschemical factories of secondary metabolitesrdquo BiotechnologyAdvances vol 20 no 2 pp 101ndash153 2002

[98] P S ReddyG RGopal andG L Sita ldquoIn vitromultiplication ofGymnema sylvestre RBrmdashan important medicinal plantrdquo Cur-rent Science vol 75 no 8 pp 843ndash845 1998

[99] C S Devi S Murugesh and V M Srinivasan ldquoGymnemic acidproduction in suspension cell cultures of Gymnema sylvestrerdquoJournal of Applied Sciences vol 6 no 10 pp 2263ndash2268 2006

[100] H G Ashok Kumar H N Murthy and K Y Paek ldquoSomaticembryogenesis and plant regeneration in Gymnema sylvestrerdquoPlant Cell Tissue and Organ Culture vol 71 no 1 pp 85ndash882002

[101] P V Kanetkar R S Singhal K S Laddha and M Y KamatldquoExtraction and quantification of gymnemic acids throughgymnemagenin from callus cultures of Gymnema sylverstrerdquoPhytochemical Analysis vol 17 no 6 pp 409ndash413 2006


[102] C S Devi and V M Srinivasan ldquoIn vitro studies on stimulationof gymnemic acid production using fungal elicitor in suspen-sion and bioreactor based cell cultures of Gymnema sylvestreRBrrdquo Recent Research in Science and Technology vol 3 pp 101ndash104 2011

[103] N Praveen H N Murthy and I M Chung ldquoImprovement ofgrowth and gymnemic acid production by altering the macroelements concentration and nitrogen source supply in cell sus-pension cultures of Gymnema sylvestre RBrrdquo Industrial Cropsand Products vol 33 no 2 pp 282ndash286 2011

[104] B Ch K Rao S Gandi and A Giri ldquoAbiotic elicitation ofgymnemic acid in the suspension cultures of Gymnema sylv-estrerdquoWorld Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology vol 28no 2 pp 741ndash747 2012

[105] S D Anturlikar S Gopumadhavan B L Chauhan and S KMitra ldquoEffect of D-400 a herbal formulation on blood sugar ofnormal and alloxan-induced diabetic ratsrdquo Indian Journal ofPhysiology and Pharmacology vol 39 no 2 pp 95ndash100 1995

[106] V Veerashree C M Anuradha and V Kumar ldquoElicitor-en-hanced production of gymnemic acid in cell suspension cul-tures of Gymnema sylvestre RBrrdquo Plant Cell Tissue and OrganCulture vol 108 no 1 pp 27ndash35 2012

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

PainResearch and TreatmentHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Volume 2014

ToxinsJournal of

VaccinesJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

AntibioticsInternational Journal of

ToxicologyJournal of


StrokeResearch and TreatmentHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Drug DeliveryJournal of



Advances in Pharmacological Sciences

Tropical MedicineJournal of


Medicinal ChemistryInternational Journal of


AddictionJournal of



BioMed Research International

Emergency Medicine InternationalHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014


Autoimmune Diseases


Anesthesiology Research and Practice

ScientificaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of


Pharmaceutics


MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of


The present review is a research update on Gymnema syl-vestre a rare herb with significant medicinal attributes withan overview of its ethnobotanical uses phytochemistry deal-ing with an in-depth study of its phytochemicals and theirbioactivities It also explores the facts and prospects of itsdevelopment into a modern and efficient therapeutic con-temporary with the present trends of pharmacology and drugdevelopment Furthermore it holds significant prospects inmajor health problems like cardiovascular disorders obesityosteoporosis and asthma besides being a popularmedicationfor number of other health ailments The herb finds signifi-cant application in various food preparations for control ofobesity and blood cholesterol levels besides regulation ofsugar homeostasisThe herbal preparations ofG sylvestre arepresently used in tea bags health tablets and supplementsbeverages and confectioneries

2 Traditional Perspective

G sylvestre is an indigenous herb belonging to the class dicot-yledonous of the family Asclepiadaceae The plant is a goodsource of a large number of bioactive substances [8] It hasdeep roots in history being one of the major botanicals usedin Ayurvedic system of medicine to treat conditions rangingfrom diabetes malaria to snakebites [9] The herb is cultiv-ated worldwide and also known as Chigengteng or AustralianCowplantWaldschlinge inGerman periploca of thewoods inEnglish and gurmar in Hindi [10]

3 Taxonomy

G sylvestre RBr is a perennial woody climber belonging tofamily Asclepiadaceae or the ldquomilk weedrdquo family [11] Thegenus is classified into 40 species some of which like G syl-vestre G montanum G yunnanense and G inodorum havemedicinal properties [12ndash14] The plant is found in tropicaland subtropical regions well distributed in parts of centraland southern India and in the southern part of China trop-ical Africa Malaysia and Sri Lanka [9] G sylvestre is slowgrowing herb found ideally in tropical and subtropical humidclimate and common in hills of evergreen forests It is a clim-ber and generally requires support for growth The seeds aresown in the months of November-December and harvestedfrom September to February The propagation through seedgermination is difficult due to low viability of the seeds there-fore the alternative has been root cuttingswhich are generallyplanted in themonths of June and July [15] Terminal cuttingswith three of four nodes have also been used as for vegetativepropagation and usually planted in the month of February-March [16] The leaves are opposite usually elliptic or ovate(125ndash20 inch times 05ndash125 inch) inflorescence is lateral umbelin cymes follicles are terete and lanceolate up to 3 inches inheight Corolla is pale yellow in colour valvate campanulatewith single corona with 5 fleshy scales The calyx-lobes arelong ovate obtuse and pubescent Carpels-2 unilocularovules locules may be present anther connective producedinto a membranous tip [17 18]

4 Phytochemical Profiling

The leaves of G sylvestre contain triterpene saponins belong-ing to oleanane and dammarane classes The major constitu-ents like gymnemic acids and gymnemasaponins are mem-bers of oleanane type of saponins while gymnemasides aredammarane saponins [19 20] Other phytoconstituents in-clude anthraquinones flavones hentriacontane pentatria-contane phytin resins tartaric acid formic acid butyric acidlupeol 120573-amyrin related glycosides stigmasterol and cal-ciumoxalate [21]Thepresence of alkaloids had been detectedin plant extracts Leaves of G sylvestre have acidic glycosidesand anthraquinones and their derivatives [22]Themajor sec-ondary metabolites in Gymnema includes a group of nineclosely related acidic glycosides the main are gymnemic acidAndashD and found in all parts of the plant (see SupplementaryTable 1 in supplementary materials available online at httpdxdoiorg1011552014830285) The maximum content ofgymnemic acid is found in shoot tips (5429mg-gminus1DW) andleast in seeds (131mg-gminus1DW) Antisaccharin property ofgymnemic acidA

1

was greatly reduced on conversion intoA2

while no activity was observed in case of A

3

suggesting thatthe ester group in the genin portion of gymnemic acid im-parts the antisweet property to the triterpene saponins thegymnemic acids Gymnemic acids A

2

and A3

possessed bothglucuronic acid and galactose in their molecular structureswhile glucuronic acid was found to be the only moiety ingymnemic acid A

1

[23] Further a series of gymnemic acids(gymnemic acid I II III IV V VI and VII) were isolated andcharacterized from the hot water extract of dry leaves of Gsylvestre [24 25] The Gymnemic acids comprise of severalmembers designated as gymnemic acids IndashVII gymnemo-sides AndashF and gymnemasaponins Table 1 The derivatives ofgymnemic acids are several acylated tigloyl methylbutyrylgroup substituted members derived from deacylgymnemicacid (DAGA) which is a 3-O-120573-glucuronide of gymnema-genin (3120573 16120573 21120573 22120572 23 28-hexahydroxy-olean-12-ene)Gymnemic acid A comprises of gymnemic acids A

1

A2

A3

and A

4

and named gymnemagenin This constituent is a D-glucuronide of hexahydroxy-triterpene that esterifies withacids [26]Other five gymnemic acids namely VIII IX X XIand XII were isolated and characterized later [27] Gymne-masaponins III another antisweet compound isolated fromG sylvestre was found to consist of 23 hydroxylongispino-genin as the aglycone moiety glycosylated with either one ortwo glucose molecules at both the 23 or 28 hydroxyl groups[28] These compounds exhibited lesser antisweet effect thanthose of gymnemic acids [29]

Gurmarin an important 35 amino-acid peptide having amolecular weight of 4209 was isolated from G sylvestre [32]The sugar suppression activity of this compound was deter-mined electrophysiologically on the taste responses of rat[36]The antisweet effect of this polypeptide is very specific tosweet taste on tongue affected by the pH change It has beenreported that the polypeptide exhibitedmaximum antisweet-ner property near its isoelectric point [37] The hydrophobicrather than the ionic interaction plays a significant role inproper binding of gurmarin to the target molecules [32 38]The other important constituents isolated from leaves are


Table1Ph

ytocon

stituentsin

Gymnemasylve

stre

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Triterpenes

apon

ins

Gym

nemicacids-acylated

(tiglolyl


atives


(DAG

A)w

hich

isa


ideo

fgym

nemagenin

(3120573

161205732112057322120572

23


OH

OH

CH2O

HG

lcAndashO

OR 1

CH2O

R 2

[30]

Gym

nemicacid

types

R1R2

Gym

nemicacid

ITigloyl

AcGym

nemicacid

II2-methylbutyroyl

AcGym

nemicacid

III

2-methylbutyroyl

HGym

nemicacid

IVTigloyl

H

Oleananes

apon

ins

Gym

nemicacidsa

ndgymnemasapon

ins

O

H

OH

OH

OH

CH2O

H

HOO

H OH

OH

Gym

nem

asap

onin

s V

HO

HO

HO

HO

OO

OHO

HO

OOH

CH2O

HO

O

H

H

OH

[31]


ble1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Dam

marenes

apon

ins

Gym

nemosides

abcdeandf

O

OH

OH

OH

COO

HO O

H

OAc

O

O

H

Gym

nem

osid

e A

OHCH2O

H

CH2O

H

O

OH

OH

OH

COO

HO O

H

OH

O

OAc

O

H

Gym

nem

osid

e B

CH2O

H

CH2O

H

O

OH

OH

OH

COO

H

O

O OH

OH

O

OH

O

CH2O

H

CH2O

Gym

nem

osid

e C

[31]


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

OH

OH

OH

COO

H

HOO O

HHO

O

H

Gym

nem

osid

e D

CH2O

H

CH2O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

O

HOH

OH

OO

HOH

OH

OH

OH

COO

H

OH

OH

OHHO

O

OH

OH

OH

HOO

HOH

OH

OH Gym

nem

osid

e E

CH2O

CH2OH

OH

2C

HO

O

HOH

OH

OO

HOH

O

HO

HO

H

OH

COO

H

OH

OH

OHHO

O

OH

OH

OH

HOO

HOH

OH

OH

Gym

nem

osid

e F

CH2OH

OH

2C

CH2O


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Gurmarin

Ano

vel35-am

ino-acid

peptidew

itha4

209

molecular

weight

lt1 Glu-G

ln-C

ys-V

al-5Lys-Lys-As

p-Glu-L

eu-1

0 Cys-Ile-

Pro-Ty

r-Ty

r-15Leu-

Asp-

Cys-Cy

s-Glu-2

0 Pro-L

eu-G

lu-C

ys-

Lys-

25Lys-Va

l-As

n-Trp-

Trp-

30As

p-His-

Lys-Cy

s-Ile

-35 G

lygt

(Glu=pyroglutam

ic-acidresid

ue)

[32]

Triterpenoidsapo

nins

Gym

nemasinsA

3-O[120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl

(1-3)-120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl]-22-O

-tiglyol

gymnemanol

mdash

Gym

nemasinsB

3-O-[120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl-(1-3

)-120573-D

-glucuro-

nopyrano

syl]-gymnemanol

mdash[33]

Gym

nemasinsC

3-O-120573-D

-glucurono

pyrano

syl-2

2-O-tigloyl-

gymnemanol

mdash

Gym

nemasinsD

3-O-120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl-g

ymnemanol

mdash

Gym

nemanol(aglycon

e)3120573-16120573-22


OH

OH

OH O

H

OH

[33]

Gym

mestro

genin


CH2O

H

CH2O

HO

H

OH

HO

[31]

Flavon

olglycoside

Kaem

pferol3-O-120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl-(1-4

)-120572-

L-rham

nopyrano

syl-(1-6

)-120573-D

-galactopyrano

side

OO

H

OH

O

RO

H

OR 1

[34]


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Sterols

Stigmasterol

CH2CH

3

CH3

H3C

CH3

CH3

HO

[18]

d-Quercito

lmdash

O O

O O

OH

H

H

H

HQ

uerc

itol

[18]

Lupeol

mdash

OH

Lupe

ol

CH3

H3C

H3C

CH3

CH3

CH3

H3C

CH2

[21]

Parabin

mdash

OO

R

Para

ben

HO

[21]


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Con

duritolA

OH

OH

OH

OH

Con

durit

ol A

[35]

Quercito

l

O

OH

O

OH

OH

Que

rcito

l120573-Amyrin

related

glycosides

mdashmdash

[22]

Anthraquino

nes

mdashmdash

[22]
















Mevalonic acid

HMG-CoA reductase


Acetoacetyl-CoA

Acetyl-CoAThiolase

HMG-CoA synthase


ATP

23 Oxidosqualene



epoxidase

Farnesyl-PP

FPPS

Squalene synthase

Geranyl-PP

IPP


DMAPP

Dimethylallyl PP




CO2


Pyruvate DXS




Dimethylallyl PP


















50




























Acknowledgments



References



















































































































Volume 2014

ToxinsJournal of

VaccinesJournal of















AddictionJournal of






Autoimmune Diseases




Journal of


Pharmaceutics



of


Table1Ph

ytocon

stituentsin

Gymnemasylve

stre

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Triterpenes

apon

ins

Gym

nemicacids-acylated

(tiglolyl


atives


(DAG

A)w

hich

isa


ideo

fgym

nemagenin

(3120573

161205732112057322120572

23


OH

OH

CH2O

HG

lcAndashO

OR 1

CH2O

R 2

[30]

Gym

nemicacid

types

R1R2

Gym

nemicacid

ITigloyl

AcGym

nemicacid

II2-methylbutyroyl

AcGym

nemicacid

III

2-methylbutyroyl

HGym

nemicacid

IVTigloyl

H

Oleananes

apon

ins

Gym

nemicacidsa

ndgymnemasapon

ins

O

H

OH

OH

OH

CH2O

H

HOO

H OH

OH

Gym

nem

asap

onin

s V

HO

HO

HO

HO

OO

OHO

HO

OOH

CH2O

HO

O

H

H

OH

[31]


ble1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Dam

marenes

apon

ins

Gym

nemosides

abcdeandf

O

OH

OH

OH

COO

HO O

H

OAc

O

O

H

Gym

nem

osid

e A

OHCH2O

H

CH2O

H

O

OH

OH

OH

COO

HO O

H

OH

O

OAc

O

H

Gym

nem

osid

e B

CH2O

H

CH2O

H

O

OH

OH

OH

COO

H

O

O OH

OH

O

OH

O

CH2O

H

CH2O

Gym

nem

osid

e C

[31]


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

OH

OH

OH

COO

H

HOO O

HHO

O

H

Gym

nem

osid

e D

CH2O

H

CH2O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

O

HOH

OH

OO

HOH

OH

OH

OH

COO

H

OH

OH

OHHO

O

OH

OH

OH

HOO

HOH

OH

OH Gym

nem

osid

e E

CH2O

CH2OH

OH

2C

HO

O

HOH

OH

OO

HOH

O

HO

HO

H

OH

COO

H

OH

OH

OHHO

O

OH

OH

OH

HOO

HOH

OH

OH

Gym

nem

osid

e F

CH2OH

OH

2C

CH2O


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Gurmarin

Ano

vel35-am

ino-acid

peptidew

itha4

209

molecular

weight

lt1 Glu-G

ln-C

ys-V

al-5Lys-Lys-As

p-Glu-L

eu-1

0 Cys-Ile-

Pro-Ty

r-Ty

r-15Leu-

Asp-

Cys-Cy

s-Glu-2

0 Pro-L

eu-G

lu-C

ys-

Lys-

25Lys-Va

l-As

n-Trp-

Trp-

30As

p-His-

Lys-Cy

s-Ile

-35 G

lygt

(Glu=pyroglutam

ic-acidresid

ue)

[32]

Triterpenoidsapo

nins

Gym

nemasinsA

3-O[120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl

(1-3)-120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl]-22-O

-tiglyol

gymnemanol

mdash

Gym

nemasinsB

3-O-[120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl-(1-3

)-120573-D

-glucuro-

nopyrano

syl]-gymnemanol

mdash[33]

Gym

nemasinsC

3-O-120573-D

-glucurono

pyrano

syl-2

2-O-tigloyl-

gymnemanol

mdash

Gym

nemasinsD

3-O-120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl-g

ymnemanol

mdash

Gym

nemanol(aglycon

e)3120573-16120573-22


OH

OH

OH O

H

OH

[33]

Gym

mestro

genin


CH2O

H

CH2O

HO

H

OH

HO

[31]

Flavon

olglycoside

Kaem

pferol3-O-120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl-(1-4

)-120572-

L-rham

nopyrano

syl-(1-6

)-120573-D

-galactopyrano

side

OO

H

OH

O

RO

H

OR 1

[34]


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Sterols

Stigmasterol

CH2CH

3

CH3

H3C

CH3

CH3

HO

[18]

d-Quercito

lmdash

O O

O O

OH

H

H

H

HQ

uerc

itol

[18]

Lupeol

mdash

OH

Lupe

ol

CH3

H3C

H3C

CH3

CH3

CH3

H3C

CH2

[21]

Parabin

mdash

OO

R

Para

ben

HO

[21]


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Con

duritolA

OH

OH

OH

OH

Con

durit

ol A

[35]

Quercito

l

O

OH

O

OH

OH

Que

rcito

l120573-Amyrin

related

glycosides

mdashmdash

[22]

Anthraquino

nes

mdashmdash

[22]
















Mevalonic acid

HMG-CoA reductase


Acetoacetyl-CoA

Acetyl-CoAThiolase

HMG-CoA synthase


ATP

23 Oxidosqualene



epoxidase

Farnesyl-PP

FPPS

Squalene synthase

Geranyl-PP

IPP


DMAPP

Dimethylallyl PP




CO2


Pyruvate DXS




Dimethylallyl PP


















50




























Acknowledgments



References



















































































































Volume 2014

ToxinsJournal of

VaccinesJournal of















AddictionJournal of






Autoimmune Diseases




Journal of


Pharmaceutics



of


ble1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Dam

marenes

apon

ins

Gym

nemosides

abcdeandf

O

OH

OH

OH

COO

HO O

H

OAc

O

O

H

Gym

nem

osid

e A

OHCH2O

H

CH2O

H

O

OH

OH

OH

COO

HO O

H

OH

O

OAc

O

H

Gym

nem

osid

e B

CH2O

H

CH2O

H

O

OH

OH

OH

COO

H

O

O OH

OH

O

OH

O

CH2O

H

CH2O

Gym

nem

osid

e C

[31]


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

OH

OH

OH

COO

H

HOO O

HHO

O

H

Gym

nem

osid

e D

CH2O

H

CH2O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

O

HOH

OH

OO

HOH

OH

OH

OH

COO

H

OH

OH

OHHO

O

OH

OH

OH

HOO

HOH

OH

OH Gym

nem

osid

e E

CH2O

CH2OH

OH

2C

HO

O

HOH

OH

OO

HOH

O

HO

HO

H

OH

COO

H

OH

OH

OHHO

O

OH

OH

OH

HOO

HOH

OH

OH

Gym

nem

osid

e F

CH2OH

OH

2C

CH2O


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Gurmarin

Ano

vel35-am

ino-acid

peptidew

itha4

209

molecular

weight

lt1 Glu-G

ln-C

ys-V

al-5Lys-Lys-As

p-Glu-L

eu-1

0 Cys-Ile-

Pro-Ty

r-Ty

r-15Leu-

Asp-

Cys-Cy

s-Glu-2

0 Pro-L

eu-G

lu-C

ys-

Lys-

25Lys-Va

l-As

n-Trp-

Trp-

30As

p-His-

Lys-Cy

s-Ile

-35 G

lygt

(Glu=pyroglutam

ic-acidresid

ue)

[32]

Triterpenoidsapo

nins

Gym

nemasinsA

3-O[120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl

(1-3)-120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl]-22-O

-tiglyol

gymnemanol

mdash

Gym

nemasinsB

3-O-[120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl-(1-3

)-120573-D

-glucuro-

nopyrano

syl]-gymnemanol

mdash[33]

Gym

nemasinsC

3-O-120573-D

-glucurono

pyrano

syl-2

2-O-tigloyl-

gymnemanol

mdash

Gym

nemasinsD

3-O-120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl-g

ymnemanol

mdash

Gym

nemanol(aglycon

e)3120573-16120573-22


OH

OH

OH O

H

OH

[33]

Gym

mestro

genin


CH2O

H

CH2O

HO

H

OH

HO

[31]

Flavon

olglycoside

Kaem

pferol3-O-120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl-(1-4

)-120572-

L-rham

nopyrano

syl-(1-6

)-120573-D

-galactopyrano

side

OO

H

OH

O

RO

H

OR 1

[34]


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Sterols

Stigmasterol

CH2CH

3

CH3

H3C

CH3

CH3

HO

[18]

d-Quercito

lmdash

O O

O O

OH

H

H

H

HQ

uerc

itol

[18]

Lupeol

mdash

OH

Lupe

ol

CH3

H3C

H3C

CH3

CH3

CH3

H3C

CH2

[21]

Parabin

mdash

OO

R

Para

ben

HO

[21]


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Con

duritolA

OH

OH

OH

OH

Con

durit

ol A

[35]

Quercito

l

O

OH

O

OH

OH

Que

rcito

l120573-Amyrin

related

glycosides

mdashmdash

[22]

Anthraquino

nes

mdashmdash

[22]
















Mevalonic acid

HMG-CoA reductase


Acetoacetyl-CoA

Acetyl-CoAThiolase

HMG-CoA synthase


ATP

23 Oxidosqualene



epoxidase

Farnesyl-PP

FPPS

Squalene synthase

Geranyl-PP

IPP


DMAPP

Dimethylallyl PP




CO2


Pyruvate DXS




Dimethylallyl PP


















50




























Acknowledgments



References



















































































































Volume 2014

ToxinsJournal of

VaccinesJournal of















AddictionJournal of






Autoimmune Diseases




Journal of


Pharmaceutics



of


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

OH

OH

OH

COO

H

HOO O

HHO

O

H

Gym

nem

osid

e D

CH2O

H

CH2O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

O

HOH

OH

OO

HOH

OH

OH

OH

COO

H

OH

OH

OHHO

O

OH

OH

OH

HOO

HOH

OH

OH Gym

nem

osid

e E

CH2O

CH2OH

OH

2C

HO

O

HOH

OH

OO

HOH

O

HO

HO

H

OH

COO

H

OH

OH

OHHO

O

OH

OH

OH

HOO

HOH

OH

OH

Gym

nem

osid

e F

CH2OH

OH

2C

CH2O


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Gurmarin

Ano

vel35-am

ino-acid

peptidew

itha4

209

molecular

weight

lt1 Glu-G

ln-C

ys-V

al-5Lys-Lys-As

p-Glu-L

eu-1

0 Cys-Ile-

Pro-Ty

r-Ty

r-15Leu-

Asp-

Cys-Cy

s-Glu-2

0 Pro-L

eu-G

lu-C

ys-

Lys-

25Lys-Va

l-As

n-Trp-

Trp-

30As

p-His-

Lys-Cy

s-Ile

-35 G

lygt

(Glu=pyroglutam

ic-acidresid

ue)

[32]

Triterpenoidsapo

nins

Gym

nemasinsA

3-O[120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl

(1-3)-120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl]-22-O

-tiglyol

gymnemanol

mdash

Gym

nemasinsB

3-O-[120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl-(1-3

)-120573-D

-glucuro-

nopyrano

syl]-gymnemanol

mdash[33]

Gym

nemasinsC

3-O-120573-D

-glucurono

pyrano

syl-2

2-O-tigloyl-

gymnemanol

mdash

Gym

nemasinsD

3-O-120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl-g

ymnemanol

mdash

Gym

nemanol(aglycon

e)3120573-16120573-22


OH

OH

OH O

H

OH

[33]

Gym

mestro

genin


CH2O

H

CH2O

HO

H

OH

HO

[31]

Flavon

olglycoside

Kaem

pferol3-O-120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl-(1-4

)-120572-

L-rham

nopyrano

syl-(1-6

)-120573-D

-galactopyrano

side

OO

H

OH

O

RO

H

OR 1

[34]


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Sterols

Stigmasterol

CH2CH

3

CH3

H3C

CH3

CH3

HO

[18]

d-Quercito

lmdash

O O

O O

OH

H

H

H

HQ

uerc

itol

[18]

Lupeol

mdash

OH

Lupe

ol

CH3

H3C

H3C

CH3

CH3

CH3

H3C

CH2

[21]

Parabin

mdash

OO

R

Para

ben

HO

[21]


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Con

duritolA

OH

OH

OH

OH

Con

durit

ol A

[35]

Quercito

l

O

OH

O

OH

OH

Que

rcito

l120573-Amyrin

related

glycosides

mdashmdash

[22]

Anthraquino

nes

mdashmdash

[22]
















Mevalonic acid

HMG-CoA reductase


Acetoacetyl-CoA

Acetyl-CoAThiolase

HMG-CoA synthase


ATP

23 Oxidosqualene



epoxidase

Farnesyl-PP

FPPS

Squalene synthase

Geranyl-PP

IPP


DMAPP

Dimethylallyl PP




CO2


Pyruvate DXS




Dimethylallyl PP


















50




























Acknowledgments



References



















































































































Volume 2014

ToxinsJournal of

VaccinesJournal of















AddictionJournal of






Autoimmune Diseases




Journal of


Pharmaceutics



of


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Gurmarin

Ano

vel35-am

ino-acid

peptidew

itha4

209

molecular

weight

lt1 Glu-G

ln-C

ys-V

al-5Lys-Lys-As

p-Glu-L

eu-1

0 Cys-Ile-

Pro-Ty

r-Ty

r-15Leu-

Asp-

Cys-Cy

s-Glu-2

0 Pro-L

eu-G

lu-C

ys-

Lys-

25Lys-Va

l-As

n-Trp-

Trp-

30As

p-His-

Lys-Cy

s-Ile

-35 G

lygt

(Glu=pyroglutam

ic-acidresid

ue)

[32]

Triterpenoidsapo

nins

Gym

nemasinsA

3-O[120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl

(1-3)-120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl]-22-O

-tiglyol

gymnemanol

mdash

Gym

nemasinsB

3-O-[120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl-(1-3

)-120573-D

-glucuro-

nopyrano

syl]-gymnemanol

mdash[33]

Gym

nemasinsC

3-O-120573-D

-glucurono

pyrano

syl-2

2-O-tigloyl-

gymnemanol

mdash

Gym

nemasinsD

3-O-120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl-g

ymnemanol

mdash

Gym

nemanol(aglycon

e)3120573-16120573-22


OH

OH

OH O

H

OH

[33]

Gym

mestro

genin


CH2O

H

CH2O

HO

H

OH

HO

[31]

Flavon

olglycoside

Kaem

pferol3-O-120573-D

-glucopyrano

syl-(1-4

)-120572-

L-rham

nopyrano

syl-(1-6

)-120573-D

-galactopyrano

side

OO

H

OH

O

RO

H

OR 1

[34]


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Sterols

Stigmasterol

CH2CH

3

CH3

H3C

CH3

CH3

HO

[18]

d-Quercito

lmdash

O O

O O

OH

H

H

H

HQ

uerc

itol

[18]

Lupeol

mdash

OH

Lupe

ol

CH3

H3C

H3C

CH3

CH3

CH3

H3C

CH2

[21]

Parabin

mdash

OO

R

Para

ben

HO

[21]


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Con

duritolA

OH

OH

OH

OH

Con

durit

ol A

[35]

Quercito

l

O

OH

O

OH

OH

Que

rcito

l120573-Amyrin

related

glycosides

mdashmdash

[22]

Anthraquino

nes

mdashmdash

[22]
















Mevalonic acid

HMG-CoA reductase


Acetoacetyl-CoA

Acetyl-CoAThiolase

HMG-CoA synthase


ATP

23 Oxidosqualene



epoxidase

Farnesyl-PP

FPPS

Squalene synthase

Geranyl-PP

IPP


DMAPP

Dimethylallyl PP




CO2


Pyruvate DXS




Dimethylallyl PP


















50




























Acknowledgments



References



















































































































Volume 2014

ToxinsJournal of

VaccinesJournal of















AddictionJournal of






Autoimmune Diseases




Journal of


Pharmaceutics



of


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Sterols

Stigmasterol

CH2CH

3

CH3

H3C

CH3

CH3

HO

[18]

d-Quercito

lmdash

O O

O O

OH

H

H

H

HQ

uerc

itol

[18]

Lupeol

mdash

OH

Lupe

ol

CH3

H3C

H3C

CH3

CH3

CH3

H3C

CH2

[21]

Parabin

mdash

OO

R

Para

ben

HO

[21]


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Con

duritolA

OH

OH

OH

OH

Con

durit

ol A

[35]

Quercito

l

O

OH

O

OH

OH

Que

rcito

l120573-Amyrin

related

glycosides

mdashmdash

[22]

Anthraquino

nes

mdashmdash

[22]
















Mevalonic acid

HMG-CoA reductase


Acetoacetyl-CoA

Acetyl-CoAThiolase

HMG-CoA synthase


ATP

23 Oxidosqualene



epoxidase

Farnesyl-PP

FPPS

Squalene synthase

Geranyl-PP

IPP


DMAPP

Dimethylallyl PP




CO2


Pyruvate DXS




Dimethylallyl PP


















50




























Acknowledgments



References



















































































































Volume 2014

ToxinsJournal of

VaccinesJournal of















AddictionJournal of






Autoimmune Diseases




Journal of


Pharmaceutics



of


Table1Con

tinued

Phytocon

stitu

ents

Classifi

catio

nMolecular

structure

Reference

Con

duritolA

OH

OH

OH

OH

Con

durit

ol A

[35]

Quercito

l

O

OH

O

OH

OH

Que

rcito

l120573-Amyrin

related

glycosides

mdashmdash

[22]

Anthraquino

nes

mdashmdash

[22]
















Mevalonic acid

HMG-CoA reductase


Acetoacetyl-CoA

Acetyl-CoAThiolase

HMG-CoA synthase


ATP

23 Oxidosqualene



epoxidase

Farnesyl-PP

FPPS

Squalene synthase

Geranyl-PP

IPP


DMAPP

Dimethylallyl PP




CO2


Pyruvate DXS




Dimethylallyl PP


















50




























Acknowledgments



References



















































































































Volume 2014

ToxinsJournal of

VaccinesJournal of















AddictionJournal of






Autoimmune Diseases




Journal of


Pharmaceutics



of
















Mevalonic acid

HMG-CoA reductase


Acetoacetyl-CoA

Acetyl-CoAThiolase

HMG-CoA synthase


ATP

23 Oxidosqualene



epoxidase

Farnesyl-PP

FPPS

Squalene synthase

Geranyl-PP

IPP


DMAPP

Dimethylallyl PP




CO2


Pyruvate DXS




Dimethylallyl PP


















50




























Acknowledgments



References



















































































































Volume 2014

ToxinsJournal of

VaccinesJournal of















AddictionJournal of






Autoimmune Diseases




Journal of


Pharmaceutics



of






Mevalonic acid

HMG-CoA reductase


Acetoacetyl-CoA

Acetyl-CoAThiolase

HMG-CoA synthase


ATP

23 Oxidosqualene



epoxidase

Farnesyl-PP

FPPS

Squalene synthase

Geranyl-PP

IPP


DMAPP

Dimethylallyl PP




CO2


Pyruvate DXS




Dimethylallyl PP


















50




























Acknowledgments



References



















































































































Volume 2014

ToxinsJournal of

VaccinesJournal of















AddictionJournal of






Autoimmune Diseases




Journal of


Pharmaceutics



of












50




























Acknowledgments



References



















































































































Volume 2014

ToxinsJournal of

VaccinesJournal of















AddictionJournal of






Autoimmune Diseases




Journal of


Pharmaceutics



of




50




























Acknowledgments



References



















































































































Volume 2014

ToxinsJournal of

VaccinesJournal of















AddictionJournal of






Autoimmune Diseases




Journal of


Pharmaceutics



of






















Acknowledgments



References



















































































































Volume 2014

ToxinsJournal of

VaccinesJournal of















AddictionJournal of






Autoimmune Diseases




Journal of


Pharmaceutics



of












Acknowledgments



References



















































































































Volume 2014

ToxinsJournal of

VaccinesJournal of















AddictionJournal of






Autoimmune Diseases




Journal of


Pharmaceutics



of


References



















































































































Volume 2014

ToxinsJournal of

VaccinesJournal of















AddictionJournal of






Autoimmune Diseases




Journal of


Pharmaceutics



of

















































































Volume 2014

ToxinsJournal of

VaccinesJournal of















AddictionJournal of






Autoimmune Diseases




Journal of


Pharmaceutics



of
















































Volume 2014

ToxinsJournal of

VaccinesJournal of















AddictionJournal of






Autoimmune Diseases




Journal of


Pharmaceutics



of











Volume 2014

ToxinsJournal of

VaccinesJournal of















AddictionJournal of






Autoimmune Diseases




Journal of


Pharmaceutics



of





Volume 2014

ToxinsJournal of

VaccinesJournal of















AddictionJournal of






Autoimmune Diseases




Journal of


Pharmaceutics



of

Documents

Review Article Phytochemical and Pharmacological ...downloads.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2014/830285.pdf · Review Article Phytochemical and Pharmacological Properties of Gymnema sylvestre