RESUME OF PHONETIC AND PHONOLOGYPHONOLOGY · vowels classified into three parameter, there are •Position of the tongue vertically (high-low) •Position of the tongue horizontally

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RESUME OF PHONETIC AND RESUME OF PHONETIC AND RESUME OF PHONETIC AND RESUME OF PHONETIC AND

PHONOLOGYPHONOLOGYPHONOLOGYPHONOLOGY

By :By :By :By :

Muhammad Rizal FikryMuhammad Rizal FikryMuhammad Rizal FikryMuhammad Rizal Fikry

C0308048C0308048C0308048C0308048

English DepartmentEnglish DepartmentEnglish DepartmentEnglish Department

Faculty of letters and fine artsFaculty of letters and fine artsFaculty of letters and fine artsFaculty of letters and fine arts

Sebelas Maret UniversitySebelas Maret UniversitySebelas Maret UniversitySebelas Maret University

2010201020102010

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CHAPTER ONE

PHONETIC AND PHONOLOGY

1.1 Definition

Phonetic and phonology are two different things which are considered about sound in

language. Each subject has its own discipline field of discussion. There are a lot of thought from

the expert about the meaning of phonetic and phonology.

These are some of definition of phonetic:

� Crystal defined that, phonetic is the science which studies the characteristic of

human sound making. Especially those sound used in speech, and provides

methods for their description, classification, and transcription.

� Catford stated that, phonetic is the systematic study of human speech sound. It

provides means of describing and classifying virtually all the sound that can be

produced by human vocal tract.

� April McMahon stated that, phonetic provides objective ways of describing and

analyzing the of sounds humans in their languages.

� Verhaar stated that, phonetic is the evaluation about language sound, without

concern about the function and differentiate the meaning.

� Samsuri simplify state that phonetic is study about sound making.

� Katamba generally separated phonetic in three parts; Acoustic Phonetics,

Auditory Phonetics, and Articulatory Phonetics.

� Roger lass stated that phonetic is the more neutral investigation about sounds as

phenomenon in physical world and physiological substance, anatomy,

neurological and psychological in human which produce that sounds.

These are some definition of phonology:

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� Catford the study of how sounds are organized into system and are utilized in

language.

� Roger lass sub discipline within linguistic concerned with “the sounds of

language”. More narrowly, pure phonology concerned with the function, manner,

and organization of sounds as linguistic elements.

� Verhaar stated that phonology is an investigation about the sounds of language

considered only the functional aspect.

From those statements about the definition of phonetic and phonology we can make a

little conclusion, phonetic is study about how sound produced by human vocal tract. Phonology

is study about sounds language. The relationship between phonetic and phonology is a complex

one, but we might initially approach phonology as narrowed-down phonetics.

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CHAPTER TWO

ORGANS SOUND AND SOUND MAKING PROCESS

2.1 ORGANS SOUND

Organs sounds refer to human body part which related to producing speech sounds.

Organs sounds itself was the secondary function of the organ, because the organs has main

function, such as for eat, drink, chew, and swallow and for respiration. Lungs, larynx, pharynx

lips, teeth, gum, and vocal tract (velum, hard palate, tongue, and nasal cavity) are the organs of

sounds.

VOCAL TRACTS

2.1.2 VOCAL TRACTS

a. Lungs is the main organ for respiration, the other functions are to provide

main source of airstream to create speech sound and to organize speech sound.

Lungs is the initiator in initiation, so it’s called pulmonic sound.

b. Larynx is the valve in respiratory which will shut immediately to ensuring

our food or drink will come through pharynx and go into esophagus. Another

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speech sound in larynx is vocal fold. Vocal fold is the valve which controls

the air stream among lungs, oral cavity, and nasal cavity. The sound produced

by larynx called laringal sound

c. Pharynx is a pipe which located in the larynx. It’s about 7 cm on woman and

8 cm on man. Clark and Yallop stated that pharynx is the access-duct of the

air for respiration, help swallow the food or drink and the access-duct to nasal

cavity. When producing sound pharynx as the air tube which will vibrate

when the vocal fold vibrate. The sound produced by pharynx called

pharyngeal sound.

d. Velum is located in the up front of the uvular. The position of velum can be

up or down, so it will control the air stream through the oral cavity or nasal

cavity. Velum is passive articulator. The sound produced by this articulator

called velar sound.

e. Hard palate, this articulator often called as “roof of the mouth”. Just like

velar this articulator is passive articulator. The sound produced by this

articulator called palatal sound

f. Alveolar ridge, located between front teeth and hard palate. In producing

sound this articulator is passive, but the tip of the tongue is active. The sound

produced by this articulator called alveolar sound.

g. Tongue divided into five parts, tip of the tongue, blade of the tongue, front of

the tongue, back of the tongue, and root of the tongue.

h. Teeth divided into two, upper teeth and down teeth. In producing sound teeth

often be passive articulator. The sound produced by this articulator called

dental sound.

i. Lips divided into two parts, upper lips and down lips. The sound produced by

this articulator called labial sound.

2.1.3 SOUND MAKING PROCESS

In sound making process there are three aspects.

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a. Initiation

b. Phonation

c. Articulation

Based on Layer he put one more aspect

d. Coordination

Initiation • Airstream mechanism

• Airflow direction

Phonation • Phonation type

Articulation • Place of articulation

• Degree of stricture

• Aspects of articulation

Co-ordination • Co-ordination option

(Taken from Layer)

Initiation

Based on Catford he stated that initiation is An activity in the vocal tract which

compresses or rarefies the air in the tract, and hence initiates or tends to initiates an air stream.

Initiation is a process where the sound process begins. From initiation there are two

important aspects; Airflow Mechanism and Airflow Direction.

Phonation

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Based on Clark and Yallop the term of phonation refers principally to vocal fold

vibration but can also be taken to include all means by which the larynx functions as source of

sound not all of which involve vibration of the folds in a strict sense.

Phonation mode separated into five areas there are voiceless, whisper, breathy voice, and

creak.

Catford also have definition about phonation, phonation is an activity in the larynx

which neither initiatory nor articulatory in which the airstream is modulated by its passage

through the glottis, before being finally shaped into a specific sound-type by the articulation.

Articulation

Catford had defined articulation as an activity in the vocal tract which interrupts, or

modulates the airstream in such a way that a specific type of sound is generated.

Articulation is the last phase of sound making process, in this phase the characteristic of

sound influence by place of articulation and manner of articulation.

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CHAPTER THREE

VOWELS

3.1 DEFINITION

Crystal defined vowels are sounds articulated without a complete closure in the mouth of

the degree of narrowing which would produce audible friction.

In producing vowels sound there are no obstacles in the articulation. Based on Catford

vowels classified into three parameter, there are

• Position of the tongue vertically (high-low)

• Position of the tongue horizontally (front-back)

• Position of the lips (round-unrounded)

3.2 CARDINAL VOWEL

Daniel Jones divided vowels into two, primary cardinal vowels and secondary cardinal

vowels.

Position of the tongue horizontally will recognized positions front, mid, and back.

Position of the tongue vertically will recognized positions high, mid-high, mid-low, and low.

Those systems are same between primary and secondary cardinal vowels. But the position of the

lips for primary cardinal vowels there are round and unrounded this is contrast with secondary

cardinal vowels.

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Taken from Loretto todd;Longman Yorkpress


3.3 TABLE OF VOWELS

No. Symbol Front/Back High/Low Position of the

tongue

1 ☯☯☯☯�� front high Unrounded

2 ☯☯☯☯�� front Mid-high Unrounded

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This table taken from Clark and Yallop

3 ☯☯☯☯�� front Mid-low Unrounded

4 ☯☯☯☯�� front Low Unrounded

5 ☯☯☯☯�� back Low Rounded

6 ☯☯☯☯�� back Mid-low Rounded

7 ☯☯☯☯�� back Mid-high Rounded

8 ☯☯☯☯�� back high Rounded

9 ☯☯☯☯ִִִִ�� front high Rounded

10 ☯☯☯☯�� front Mid-high Rounded

11 ☯☯☯☯ �� front Mid-low Rounded

12 ☯☯☯☯�� front Low Rounded

13 ☯☯☯☯�� back Low Unrounded

14 ☯☯☯☯�� back Mid-low Unrounded

15 ☯☯☯☯�� back Mid-high Unrounded

16 ☯☯☯☯�� back high Unrounded

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CHAPTER FOUR

CONSONANT

4.1 DEFINITION OF CONSONANT

Based on Crystal consonant are sounds made by a closure or narrowing in the vocal tract

so that the airflow is either completely blocked, or so restricted that audible friction is produced.

In contrary with vowels sound, consonant produced the vocal tract pressed, so the air flow closed

or obstacle.

Furthermore consonant will bi divided based on the place of articulation and manner of

articulation.

4.2 PLACE OF ARTICULATION

• Bilabial

• Labiodental

• Dental

• Alveolar

• Post alveolar

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• Retroflex

• Palatal

• Velar

• Uvular

• Pharyngeal

• Glottal

4.3 MANNER OF ARTICULATION

Generally Manner of Articulation divided into six, there are plosive, nasal, fricative, trill,

flap tap, and approximant.

More elaborate Gimson divide obstacle in organ of speech

• Complete closure

ℵ Plosive stop

ℵ Affricates

ℵ Nasal

• Intermittent closure

ℵ Trill

ℵ Tap

• Partial closure

ℵ Lateral

• Narrowing

ℵ Fricative

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CHAPTER FIVE

PHONEME

5.1. PHONEM DEFINITION

Phonemes are the minimal, sequential, and contrastive units of the phonology of the

language (Catford). phonemes are minimal sequential that’s mean phonemes are the smallest

unit that cannot be divide anymore.

Laver stated that two speech sounds are said to be manifestation of different phonemes in

a given accent of a language when they act as the basis of contrastive opposition that

distinguishes a pair of words of identical phonological structure, differing in the systemic choice

made at single place in that structure.

Furthermore Layer elaborate that speech sounds regularly occurring in a number of

different structures and contexts may be classified as a member of a given phoneme if their

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occurrences are in complementary distribution, and if they display sufficient phonetic similarity

to ma it plausible to class them together as members of a common test.

Clark and Yallop defined phonemes as contrastive or distinctive sound within a

language. And a phoneme is conventionally represented by a letter symbol between slant lines.

5.2 Phone and Allophone

Crystal defined phone is a segment sound that has it’s own characteristic which appear in

the process of making sound. Based on phonology segmental, phone is physic realization from

phoneme.

Allophone is one or two or more phonetically distinct segments which can realize a single

phoneme in varying circumstances, based on Trask definition. Clark and Yallop describe that

allophone as conditioned variants of phoneme, generated by phonological conditioning. Katamba

stated that members of the same phoneme family, i.e., the various physically distinct sounds

which count as executions of a given phoneme are called the allophones of that phoneme.

5.3 Phoneme Identification

Minimal pairs are a way to differentiate between two phonemes.

5.4 Distinctive Features

Used to see or find out the component that differentiae between phonemes. Based on

Katamba distinctive features separated into 7;

• Major class features

• Cavity features

• Tongue body features

• Tongue root features

• Laryngeal features

• Manner features

• Prosodic features

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CHAPTER SIX

PROCESS of PHONOLGY

Process of phonology is the process of changing sound in certain condition. Katamba

divide process of phonology into two, assimilation and dissimilation. Lass more elaborate input

more topic about process of phonology, there are insertion, deletion, and reordering.

6.1 Assimilation

The influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that

the sounds became more alike or identical, these are assimilation based on Crystal statement.

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6.2 Dissimilation

In contrary with assimilation, dissimilation made the same sound to be different sound.

6.3 Deletion

Based on Clark and Yallop deletion is case of losing the segment or syllable. Speech

sound which articulated weakly will be disappeared. Lass categorized deletion into three parts,

deletion in the beginning of the syllable (Aphaeresis), deletion in the middle of the syllable

(Syncope), and deletion in the last of the syllable (Apocope).

6.4 Reordering

Crystal stated that metathesis is change in the element of a sentence, usually the sound.

Sometimes it happens in the syllable, word, other unit of the sentence.

CHAPTER SEVEN

ENGLISH PHONOLOGY

Based on a lot of writer and refer to what Giegerich already wrote, it will be better if we

see system phonology of English based on the origin, that is English it self.

7.1 English vowels

All of people in South England, not include Scotland and north England have same

vowels system, except little regionally different. The variation only happens in the level of

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phonetic realization from vowels phoneme. English has twelve monophthongs and eight

dhiptogns, whereas US only has ten monophtongs and five diphthongs


7.2 English consonant

The consonant of British and American English are essentially the same and twenty-four

distinct consonant can be distinguished by means of minimal pairs.

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CHAPTER EIGHT

DEVELOPMENT OF PHONOLGY

Clark and Yallop in 1996 discuss about development of phonology,

• Phonetic and phonology before 20th century.

• Phomenic phonology

• Phonetic tradition

• The Prague School

• Glossematic and Stratificational

• Prosodic Phonology

• Generative Phonology

• Natural Generative Phonology

• Natural Phonology

• Autosegmental and CV Phonology

• Metrical Phonology

• Lexical Phonology

• Dependency Phonology

• Experimental Phonology

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lass, R. (1998). Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University press.

McMahon, A. (2002). An introduction to English Phonology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh

University Press.

Hari Wibowo, A. (2001). Fonetik dan Fonologi. Surakarta: UNS Press.

Todd. L. (1995). An introduction to linguistic. Leeds: Longman York Press.

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RESUME OF PHONETIC AND PHONOLOGYPHONOLOGY · vowels classified into three parameter, there are •Position of the tongue vertically (high-low) •Position of the tongue horizontally