RESEARCH REPORT - : Home

R E S E A R C H R E P O R T

The Scientific Research Basefor AGS Globe Textbooks

Debby Houston, Ph.D.

Consultant

Learning Systems Institute

Florida State University

The Scientific Research Base forAGS Globe TextbooksAGS Globe publishes textbooks, instructionalmaterials, and assessments for students with a widerange of special needs. Curriculum materials fromAGS Globe are widely recognized for theireffectiveness in regular and special needs classroomswith students at risk for failure in middle school andhigh school. The company publishes high-interest,low-reading level textbooks and worktexts to helpreluctant or struggling readers master core curriculumsubjects, including health, language arts, mathematics,reading and literature, science, and social studies, aswell as transition and life skills.

AGS Globe products reflect attributes of effectivetextbooks and instruction identified in a substantialbase of research. These attributes include designelements and instructional methodologies configuredto allow students greater access to subject area content.Content access is facilitated by controlled readinglevel, coherent text, and vocabulary development.Effective instructional design is accomplished byapplying research to the construction of lessons,learning activities, and assessments. Altogether, theseattributes promote ease of understanding forstruggling or diverse learners, especially when theyinclude multiple means of adjusting instruction tomatch learner needs.

The purpose of this report is to document how AGSGlobe textbooks are aligned with scientific researchthat supports best practices in pedagogy, instructionaldesign, and instructional techniques.

Table of ContentsBackground. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Text Difficulty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Instructional Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Learner Support Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Standards Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

I n t r o d u c t i o n

1AGS Globe Textbooks

B a c k g r o u n d

History of the AGS GlobeTextbook SeriesAmerican Guidance Service (AGS), was established in1957 and initially developed a line of reputableassessment instruments. From its inception, thecompany has demonstrated a strong commitment toproduct excellence, customer partnerships, and meetingspecial needs. Over time, the product line has beenrevised and expanded to meet the changing needs ofcustomers. In addition to an expanded array ofassessments, the product line eventually includedcomprehensive language development kits, earlychildhood curricula, classroom guidance products,parent training materials, software, and video products.

In 1991, AGS acquired a line of textbooks designedfor students with special needs. These textbooksfocused on basic secondary level academic subjects andutilized a simplified textual and conceptual treatment.AGS Globe is committed to the continueddevelopment of middle school and high schooltextbook products that focus on meeting the needs ofdiverse learners, providing quality product content anddesign, and ensuring that all students have access to theskills and knowledge they need to be successful adults.

The current line of AGS Globe textbooks providescontent in the areas of health, language arts, life skills,literature, mathematics, science, and social studies formiddle school and high school students with specialneeds. All texts are produced in hard cover with a full-color design. Consumable Student Workbooksaccompany each textbook title to provide additionalpractice. The wraparound Teacher’s Edition for eachtitle includes the complete Student Edition plus lessonoverviews, teaching strategies, application activities,ideas for projects, and learning style alternatives toassist with planning instruction. For each title, aTeacher’s Resource Library on CD-ROM that includesthe Student Workbook, mastery tests, and otherreproducible material is available to customizeinstruction and assessment to match learner needs.Most content areas offer a set of teaching strategiestransparencies designed to facilitate studentorganization and comprehension. Skill TrackSoftware, a CD-ROM program that includes studentreviews and assessments along with performancemanagement software, is available for most textbooktitles. This multifaceted series of materials is designedto meet the needs of a diversity of curricula, teachers,and students.

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The Need for High-QualityInstructional Materials forDiverse LearnersThe requirements of the federal No Child LeftBehind Act of 2001 clearly state the expectationthat all children will learn and progress in school.Students with disabilities; English languagechallenges such as English as a second language(ESL), English language learners (ELL), or limitedEnglish proficiency (LEP); and other diverseexperiential, cultural, and socioeconomicdifferences, have unique learner characteristicsthat often make it difficult for them to succeed intraditional instruction (Carnine, 1994). Yet, theyare not exempt from the demands to meet highernational and local standards. To assist students atrisk for failure in meeting these demands,educators need to ensure that students have accessand respond to high-quality instruction. Thequality of instruction is influenced by the qualityof the instructional tools and techniques availableto teachers (Simmons & Kameenui, 1996).

A study to improve the usability of textbooksfor students reading below grade level identifiedfour broad criteria for texts. The first criterion isto include material that links to studentexperience and piques student interest. Thesecond criterion is to support instruction thatteaches comprehension skills and contentconcurrently. The third criterion is to use well-organized writing that includes features to assistcomprehension. The fourth criterion is to includenovel assessments that allow students to activelyengage in the learning process by consolidatingtheir new knowledge with existing knowledge(Ciborowski, 1992).

Reading comprehension is a critical factor inthe acquisition of content. The reading level of thetext must be within a range that allows thestudent to comprehend the information(Allington, 2002; Chall & Conard, 1991).Comprehension is aided by high-quality texts thatinclude structural features that make it easy forthe learner to access the content in the text(Armbruster & Anderson, 1988; Ciborowski,1992; Tyree, Fiore, & Cook, 1994). The content ofthe text should match the learning goals andsupport student understanding and achievementof the concepts (Reiser & Dick, 1996).

Target Population: Studentswith Special NeedsAGS Globe textbooks are designed to meet thespecial needs of diverse learners at middle schooland high school levels who read below gradelevel due to disabilities, diverse language andcultural experiences, and/or other learningdifferences. Middle and high school studentswho read below grade level lack vocabularyknowledge, have limited comprehensionstrategies, and are less able to use the structure oftext to gain meaning (Baker, Kameenui, &Simmons, 1998; Chambliss, 1994; Tyree et al.,1994). These students require structured,explicit text accompanied by instruction to helpthem learn to gain meaning from the contentpresented (Dickson, Simmons, & Kameenui,1998b; Marzano, 1998; Seidenberg, 1989).

Research Support for AGSGlobe TextbooksThe following report is divided into three mainsections: text difficulty, instructional design, andlearner support strategies. Each section represents amajor theme in the research and summarizes theresearch that is the basis for the design anddevelopment of AGS Globe textbooks. Subsectionsunder each topic discuss specific textbookattributes substantiated by the research. Eachsubsection concludes with a table that illustrateshow research-based attributes are utilized in AGSGlobe textbook products. Standards alignment isaddressed at the end of the report.

B a c k g r o u n d

The discussion of text difficulty focuses on twomajor prongs. The first is reading level. This

includes the readability of the text, languageusage, and nature of vocabulary used in the text.The second prong is text organization. This refersto page layout, presentation characteristics, andtext structure. When all of these characteristics areaddressed as the text is written, the resulting textis “considerate,” which means it is easy to read andunderstand and can facilitate learning(Armbruster & Anderson, 1988).

Reading LevelReading level has been a long-standing measureof whether text is matched to a student’s ability tounderstand what is read (Anderson &Armbruster, 1984b; Chall & Conard, 1991). Theterm is typically used to denote the degree ofeffort needed to decode and make meaning of thetext. This discussion of reading level will considerthree areas. The first is the use of readabilityformulas to ascertain a global estimate of the levelof text difficulty. The second is the complexityand sequence of the written language in the text.The third area is the use and development oftechnical and new vocabulary within the text.

T e x t D i f f i c u l t y


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ReadabilityReadability formulas are used to provide generalinformation about reading level. They aredesigned to quickly and objectively measure worddifficulty and sentence length to determine thereading level of text (Chall & Conard, 1991).Anderson and Armbruster (1984b) determinedthat when error estimates are applied to areadability score using a formula, the result is avery large range of reading levels within which the“true” reading level can be located. They alsofound that the formula does not adjust forstructural characteristics that organize and signalinformation to the reader and thus aidcomprehension. These characteristics may resultin longer sentences, which typically result inhigher difficulty ratings when calculated using theformula (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984b; Beck &McKeown, 1986). Subsequent investigationssuggest that because of the variability within acalculated reading level, reading formulas shouldbe used to estimate or determine a global estimateof the reading level of text (Davison, 1984;Schumm & Strickler, 1991).

Language Complexity andSequenceTextbook language is a factor that determines howwell students are able to access information. Textwritten with an active, rather than passive, voiceimproves readability (McAlpine & Weston, 1994).Seidenberg (1989) found that well-sequenced,explicitly written texts support comprehension byhelping students identify the main idea,summarize, and outline information from thetext. Results of a research synthesis indicate thatliteral comprehension is improved for adolescentswhen the text structure is simple and in narrativeform (Curtis, 2002).

Results of studies concerning attributes ofeffective instructional materials conducted over afive-year period indicate that limiting complexsentences, especially those with numbers ofclauses and noun strings, and using conciselanguage improve the readability of texts(McAlpine & Weston, 1994). However, sentencelength may be increased without decreasingreader comprehension when explicit language isused to signal connections between facts andideas (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984b).



Vocabulary Use andDevelopmentStudents must know the meaning of technical andnew words if they are to comprehend what theyread (Chambliss, 1994). Within written text,various techniques can be used to highlight newor important vocabulary (Tyree et al., 1994;McAlpine & Weston, 1994). These include signalsand cues to alert the reader that an importantvocabulary word is being encountered. Tworesearch syntheses have found that it is importantfor students to have multiple exposures to boththe vocabulary words and the signals that are used(Kameenui & Simmons, 1990; Marzano, 1998).

Direct instruction in vocabulary meaning andhow it is used provides a boost in learning whencompared to merely drawing attention to the words(Kameenui & Simmons, 1990; Marzano, 1998).Vocabulary instruction that includes pre-teachingdifficult words and their meanings, previewing textto emphasize those select words, and pairing newwords with images in context is shown to improvecomprehension and student ability to use text(Curtis, 2002; Kameenui & Simmons; Marzano;National Reading Panel, 2000). Instruction andpractice in how to use a glossary and understandtext conventions that signal or cue vocabulary use inthe text improve student vocabulary knowledge(Kameenui & Simmons).

Reading Level Research-Based AGS GlobePrinciples Characteristics Textbook Features

Students need access totextbooks written at alevel they can read andunderstand.

Students struggling withvocabulary and textcomprehension needtextbooks with accessiblelanguage.

Languagecomplexity andsequence

• Simple, direct languageusing an active voice

• Clear organization tofacilitate understanding

• Explicit language signals toshow sequence of and linksbetween concepts and ideas

Readability •Grade 4.0 or lowerreadability using the Spacheformula

•Controlled vocabularymatched to student readingability

• Simple sentence structures• Limited sentence length

Students need content-related vocabularyinstruction in the contextof readable andmeaningful text.

Vocabulary useand development

• New vocabulary boldfaced onfirst occurrence, used incontext, and defined in asidebar

• Glossary with pronunciation,definition, and relevantgraphic illustrations for allvocabulary words

• Activities to introducevocabulary provided inTeacher’s Edition

• Multiple exposures to newvocabulary in text andpractice exercises


Lesson 2 R E V I E W

Write your answers to these questions on a separate sheet of paper. Write complete sentences.

1. Name the five kingdoms of living things.

2. List two differences between plants and animals.

3. How are protists similar to plants and animals?

4. What is an important function of fungi?

5. Why are bacteria placed in a kingdom by themselves?

O


From Biology Student Text

Review and practice exercises containvocabulary reinforcement

Lesson How Organisms Are Classified2Living things are more like one another than they are likenonliving things. For example, living things all carry out thebasic life activities. However, living things can be very differentfrom one another. A cat is different from a dog. A bird and atree are even more different from each other.

Scientists divide the world of living things into five groups, orkingdoms. These kingdoms are plant, animal, protist, fungi,and monera. Biological classifications are based on howorganisms are related. The study of living things is calledbiology. The science of classifying organisms based on thefeatures they share is called taxonomy. Most of the living things you know are either in the plant kingdom or the animalkingdom. There are three other kingdoms that you may notknow very well.

The Plant KingdomMost plants are easy to recognize. Examples of plants are trees,grasses, ferns, and mosses. Plants don’t move from place toplace like animals. They don’t need to do so. Plants make theirown food, using sunlight and other substances around them.All plants have many cells. These cells are organized into tissues.Many plants also have organs.

The AnimalKingdomAnimals have manydifferent sizes andshapes. You probablyrecognize dogs, turtles,and fish as animals.Corals, sponges, andinsects are animals too.

Organizing Living Things Chapter 2 31

After reading thislesson, you shouldbe able to

u explain how livingthings are dividedinto kingdoms.

u list and describethe five kingdomsof living things.

Objectives

KingdomOne of the five groupsinto which living thingsare classified

BiologyThe study ofliving things

TaxonomyThe science of classifyingorganisms based on thefeatures they share

While mostscientists follow the five kingdomclassifications, some want to add a sixth kingdom for viruses. As new informationbecomes known,the five groupingsmay change.

Animals get their food by eating plants orby eating other animals that eat plants.

From Biology Student Text

u Easy-to-understand text with agrade 4.0 or lower reading level

u Simple sentence structure

u Short line length

u Text written in the active voice

u Lesson titles and heads help identifyand organize the concepts

u Vocabulary terms are boldfaced inthe text

u Vocabulary terms are defined in themargin, adjacent to the text



Text OrganizationA second feature that affects text difficulty is howthe text is organized (Anderson & Armbruster,1984a). Dickson et al. (1998b) identify twocomponents of text organization: physicalpresentation and text structure. Physicalpresentation includes print characteristics andpage layout. It also includes presentationcharacteristics such as organization of content(e.g., headings and subheadings), signals to showconnections, and cues to indicate importantinformation in the textbook. Text structure isprimarily concerned with cohesiveness of text,which refers to the use of sequences and patternsto clearly lead the reader to identify relationshipsbetween facts and concepts.

Print Characteristics and Page LayoutThe visual presentation of text and the arrangementof words on a page can ease reading of content.Research studies indicate that the use of simple serifor sans serif type improves both reading speed andcomprehension (Mansfield, Legge, & Bane, 1996;McAlpine & Weston, 1994). Likewise, readersbenefit from the use of text printed with unjustifiedright margins (McAlpine & Weston).

Presentation Characteristics A synthesis of research on text organization revealsthat text that uses clear organizational patterns,including an orderly presentation of the main ideaand supporting details, improves comprehension(Anderson & Armbruster, 1984a, 1988; Dickson,Simmons, & Kameenui, 1995a, 1995b). Orderlypresentation includes signals that provide structurefor the reader, such as previews, consistent use oftitles and headings, and summaries of the text.Cues such as underlined or boldface type alert thereader to new or important information.

Significant differences exist among students intheir awareness and strategic use of presentationcharacteristics (Baker et al., 1998; Marzano, 1998).Teaching students about attributes of orderlypresentation improves their ability to use signalsto locate ideas that are emphasized in the text(Dickson et al., 1995a). Comprehension improveswhen teachers work with students to buildawareness of text organization and provide directinstruction in the use of text structure (Dickson etal., 1995a). When text is not explicit or clearlyorganized, students can be taught to use decisionrules and organizers that provide structure foridentifying the main idea and supporting detailsfor concepts presented in text passages(Seidenberg, 1989).

From Economics Student Text

u Clean and uncluttered page layoutu Simple font use improves reading speed and comprehensionu Line length of under five inches eases readabilityu Unjustified right margins benefit readersu Titles and headings are consistent throughoutu Lessons begin with an introductory paragraphu Concepts are clearly presentedu Text links to students’ background knowledgeu Primary information appears in the main columnu Bold print cues highlight new vocabularyu Examples and other supportive information are set off in

sidebars and boxesu Photos and illustrations reinforce lesson content

Lesson Creating a Budget1

8 Unit 4 Money and Banking

What Is a Budget?A budget is a plan for spending and saving money. People whomanage their money wisely find budgets useful. Each month,they set aside a certain amount of money for expenses, or goodsor services that cost money. Examples are rent or mortgage(home loan) payments, groceries, entertainment, and gifts.

What Are the Qualities of a Good Budget?A good budget has several key qualities. It has to be flexible,ongoing, and clearly stated.

A flexible budget changes as needs change. For example, yourbudget may set aside a certain amount of money for clothes. Ifyour favorite jeans rip, you may have to buy another pair. Youmay not be able to wait to replace them. This means that youhave to adjust your budget. You may be able to buy the newjeans. Buying them means that you may not be able to go to the movies with friends during the month as you planned.

An ongoing budget means it is not just a one-time event.To be effective, consumershave to make the budget partof everyday life. It is good forthe budget to be flexible, butnot so flexible that the budgetdoes not help manage yourmoney.

A good budget is clear andeasy to follow. It should reflectreal life. Saying that you aregoing to save half of all themoney you make is probablynot realistic. If you have manythings to pay for, it may not be possible to save that much.

A budget can help plan for things you need such as clothing.

BudgetA plan for spending andsaving money

ExpenseA good or service thatcosts money

MortgageA home loan



Text StructureText structure can facilitate how students use andlearn from what is written. Beck and McKeown(1986) and Dickson et al. (1995a) found that textstructure is useful for narrative and expository textand can be explicitly matched to the purpose of thetext (e.g., to compare/contrast, describe, or argue).Beck and McKeown found that story grammarscan be used to teach the sequence of ideas innarrative text. Similarly, using an explicit structurematched to the expository genre and purpose ofthe text also aids comprehension and learning(Beck & McKeown; Beck, McKeown, & Grommoll,1989; Dickson et al.). Structural features ofconsiderate textbooks include clear relationshipsbetween the concepts presented, a match betweentext structure and the target audience, and astructure that corresponds to the genre andpurpose of the text (e.g., to compare and contrast,tell a story, or present facts) (Beck et al.).

A coherent text, one with a logical and explicitpresentation of relationships between and withinconcepts, provides smooth transitions betweenideas presented in the text and improvescomprehension (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984a).A series of studies to measure how the clearexpression of major ideas facilitates coherenceindicates that text written using coherent phrasesto link information within and between sentencesimproves comprehension (Anderson &Armbruster, 1984a, 1984b). Even though the use oflanguage that signals these connections may resultin longer sentences, comprehension improves.

However, students with diverse learning needshave difficulty identifying main ideas, supportingdetails, and text cues that assist withcomprehension (Dickson, Simmons, &Kameenui, 1998a; Seidenberg, 1989). Theselearners have increased comprehension whenthere are explicit statements of text purpose,adequate explanations of information, and linksto the students’ background knowledge(McNamara, Kintsche, Songer, & Kintsche, 1996;Beck & McKeown, 1986; Dickson et al., 1995a).

Text Organization Research-Based AGS GlobePrinciples Characteristics Textbook Features

Students need anuncluttered page layout,with easy-to-read print,that clearly directs thereader to main ideas,important information,examples, andcomprehensive practiceand review.

Reading comprehensionis improved by structuralfeatures in the text thatmake it easier for learnersto access the content.

Presentationcharacteristics• Organization• Signals• Cues

• Previews or introductions• Consistent use of titles and

headings label and organizemain ideas

• Summaries• Signals alert readers to

important information,meaningful illustrations, andgraphics

• Cues (e.g., bold print)highlight importantinformation

Print characteristics• Font • Page layout

• Serif font for running text;sans serif font for boxedfeatures and examples

• Maximum line length of 5 inches

• Unjustified right margins• When major/minor column

page layout is used, primaryinstructional information ispresented in the majorcolumn and support contentappears in a sidebar or box

• Balanced proportion of textto white space

Text structure• Cohesive

presentation• Use of sequence

and patterns toidentify facts andconcepts

• Lesson heads in question orstatement format guidecomprehension

• Text written to explicitly linkconcepts in lesson

• Each skill or concept linkedto direct practice and review


Instructional design refers to a systematic processused to develop a plan intended to guide

students to effectively meet learning needs andgoals (Gagne, Briggs, & Wager, 1988). This sectionaddresses the instructional design of informationpresented in textbooks. The first subsectionaddresses lesson structure—the framework used toguide students through the learning process. Thesecond subsection addresses assessment—themethods used to determine the degree to whichstudents have made progress toward learning goals.

Lesson StructureThe elements of effective lessons can be groupedinto three steps (Kameenui & Simmons, 1990).The first element introduces the lesson andprepares students to learn. The second providesinstruction and guides students to practice whatthey have learned. The third element providesopportunities for students to apply what theyhave learned and make generalizations. Theteacher also assesses learning and gives feedbackto the learner.

Step 1: Introduce the Lessonand Prepare Students to LearnThe introduction of the lesson begins withinforming students of the learning goal,motivating them to engage in learning the goal,and prompting connections to prior learning andstudent background (Dixon, Carnine, Lee, Wallin,& Chard, 1998; Reiser & Dick, 1996). The learninggoal is a statement of what students will be able todo at the conclusion of the instruction and is theguide for the entire lesson (Reiser & Dick). It canalso be used to communicate expectations aboutthe lesson to students. Students become motivatedto learn information when they understand why itis important and how it fits with what they alreadyknow or are familiar with, such as theirexperiences, previous learning, or personalinterests (Reiser & Dick; Ciborowski, 1992).

Anderson (1984) reports that reading contentthat is connected to a student’s backgroundknowledge and experience positively influencesreading comprehension scores. A review of researchon effective features of textbook design found thatlinking text to previously learned content and skillshelps students connect to the new information(Tyree et al., 1994). Reading comprehension alsogreatly improves when students have knowledgerelevant to the topic and vocabulary used intextbook content (Armbruster & Anderson, 1988).

I n s t r u c t i o n a l D e s i g n

From Basic Math SkillsStudent Text

u Chapter and lesson introductionsprepare students for learning

u The introduction promptsstudents to consider priorknowledge

u Goals for Learning are listed atthe beginning of each chapter

From Basic Math SkillsTeacher’s Edition

Wraparound Teacher’s Editionprovides a 3-Step TeachingPlan for each lesson

1 Warm-Up Activity

Find out what students already knowabout percent by asking them to explainwhat is meant by a score of 95% on a test.Ask students to share other experiencesthey have had involving percents.

2 Teaching the Lesson

Give examples of how to find a percent of an amount other than 100. Show a 10-by-5 grid with 10 squares shaded. Reviewratios and proportion and show how 10out of 50 is in the same proportion as 20out of 100 and that both examples show20% shaded. Repeat with other repre-sentations of 20%, such as 5 out of 25 or40 out of 200.

3 Reinforce and Extend

LEARNING STYLES

Body/Kinesthetic

Some students may benefitfrom tactile experience. Askstudents to shade several

figures showing various percents on 10-by-10 grid paper.

139

Percent6

Chapter

List the places where you have seen percents used tocommunicate an idea to people. Does your list includebaseball statistics on trading cards, or grades on reports,

projects, and tests? How about money off at sales? Tips for goodservice are usually based on a percent. Some jobs such as carsales pay based on a percent of sales. When you think about itand look around you, you see that we use percent many ways in our daily lives.

In Chapter 6, you will learn about the mathematics involved inworking with percents. Next time you and your friends go outto eat, you can be the one who calculates the tip!

Goals for Learning

u To rename a percent as a decimal and a fraction in simplest form

u To rename a decimal and a fraction as a percent

u To find the missing terms in a percent sentence

u To use a proportion to find the missing term in a percent sentence

u To solve word problems involving percents and tax, commissions, interest, and tips

u To calculate monthly payments on an installment plan



Step 2: Provide Instructionand Guided Practice Instruction consists of explicitly communicatingcontent, presenting multiple examples, andproviding guided practice (Reiser & Dick, 1996). Asummary of research indicates that lesson contentis communicated effectively when the lesson designincorporates adequate explanations, periodicchecks for student understanding, demonstrationsor modeling of content, and active studentinvolvement (Dixon et al., 1998). A meta-analysisof effective instruction for students with learningdisabilities by Swanson (2000) ascertained that thepower of instruction is increased by sequencing(such as step-by-step presentation, prompts, andtask breakdown), using whole-to-part instruction,direct questioning and responses, and modeling bythe teacher.

A meta-analysis of effective learning strategiesreveals that multiple exposures to models,concepts, and attributes improve studentunderstanding of concepts within lesson content(Marzano, 1998). Effectiveness is enhanced whenexamples of a concept actually model ordemonstrate attributes of the concept. The rangeof examples should demonstrate all variables ofthe concept being taught, including relevant andirrelevant attributes (Jones, Wilson, & Bhojwani,1997). The same research synthesis establishedthat examples must be at the student’sfunctioning level and must be of sufficientnumber to allow the student to move towardmastery of the skill.

Jarrett (1999) reviewed the research on effectiveinstructional practices and found that studentsimprove their problem-solving skills whenteachers provide explicit instruction and guidedpractice in how to solve problems. Using multipleclear examples, with each step described andmodeled, improves student ability to solve mathproblems (Allsopp, 1990). Similarly, a researchsynthesis on text organization in reading indicatesthat students are able to better utilize steps in aprocess when teachers use “thinking aloud”strategies, that is, when they cue students on howto proceed through the comprehension process(Dickson et al., 1998a).

Strategies can be used to organize thepresentation of concepts and models and guidestudent learning (Vaughn, Gersten, & Chard,2000). For subject areas such as math, studiesconducted at the kindergarten and middle schoollevels show that the use of hands-onmanipulatives is a strategy that has positivebenefits for student learning (Dixon et al., 1998).

From Basic Math Skills Student Text

Examples followed by exercises are provided throughout

140 Chapter 6 Percent

Lesson Meaning of Percent1

The symbol “%” is read as “percent.” Percent means “perhundred” or “out of one hundred.” Therefore, 82% means 82per hundred, or 82 out of one hundred. In the example below,82 squares out of the 100 squares are shaded. We say that 82%of the figure is shaded.

Exercise A Tell what percent of each figure is shaded.

1. 3. 5.

2. 4. 6.

Percent, %Part per one hundred

EXAMPLE

IN THE COMMUNITY

Tell students to research thenumbers and kinds of storesthere are in a local mall orshopping district. Have

students collect the data and thencalculate the percent for each type ofstore. For example, ask students todetermine what percent of stores aremusic stores, department stores,clothing stores, and shoe stores.Have students compare their findings.


Teacher’s Edition offersadditional activities during

class, at home, and in thecommunity




Teacher’s Edition providesabundant application activities

From Basic Math Skills Student Text

Practice questions and exercises to reinforce learning follow lessons

When using strategies or other techniques to help students organize theirlearning, it is important to teach students to model the strategy through multipleexamples and then to provide multiple opportunities for students to apply thestrategy to solve problems with guidance from the teacher (Montague, 1997).

Step 3: Provide Opportunities for AppliedPractice and GeneralizationThe practice and application of skills build automatic use of information andensure student mastery of skills and concepts (Carnine, 1989; Marzano, 1998;Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001). A meta-analysis of effective instructionalpractices reveals that students require daily practice when a concept is initiallypresented. Once students can apply the concept accurately, periodic practice overlonger intervals of time is required to sustain the learning. Finally, a periodicreview that links the concept to new information promotes connections to newconcepts (Carnine; Marzano; Marzano et al.; Simmons, Kameenui, Dickson,Chard, Gunn, & Baker, 1994).

Once students have learned the basic information, it is important to facilitateboth the generalization of the learning to other settings and a deeperunderstanding of content (Marzano, 1998). A meta-analysis of writing instructionresearch indicates that providing a review that uses a variety of purposes andapplications promotes transfer of knowledge to new tasks (Stein, Dixon, &Isaacson, 1994). Marzano also found that graphic organizers can be used toprovide structure that will assist students with organizing information andgeneralizing information and patterns.

Students benefit from feedback on their practice and assessment performance.Feedback throughout the instructional process and after independent practiceincreases student understanding and clarifies misconceptions (Allsopp, 1990;Reiser & Dick, 1996). Feedback should tell students what is correct and incorrect,be timely, and be specific to the criteria expected for the student to show masteryof learning (Marzano, 1998; Marzano et al., 2001).

Exercise F Make the conversions asked for in these word problems.

1. “55% cotton.” What fraction iscotton?

2. The Bluebirds win 0.625 oftheir games. What percent dothey win?

3. 48% are girls. What fraction are girls?

4. 87% pass the test. Whatfraction passes?

5. “}14

} off all prices.” What is the

percent off?

6. Joe is batting .408. Whatpercent is this?

7. “22% down on a car.” Whatfraction is this?

8. Sales are up 6.4%. What is thisas a decimal?

9. “16% unemployed.” Whatfraction are unemployed?

10. “4 out of 5 doctors

CAREER CONNECTION

Lead a class discussion aboutthe use of percents in thefinancial-planning industry.Cut out and ask students to

cut out articles and advertisementsfrom newspapers that focus on finan-cial planning, rates for mutual funds,certificates of deposit, treasury bonds,and so on. Read through the infor-mation and focus on the use of per-cents with interest rates. Talk abouthow financial planners use percents tomake a plan for investing a sum ofmoney in different places. If possible,invite a financial planner to class toprovide more information aboutfinancial planning and the use ofpercents.

CALCULATOR

Provide students with addi-tional practice in expressingnumbers as percents. Havestudents use a calculator to

determine a percent for eachsituation. Students should round tothe nearest whole percent. Giveproblems such as the following:

n 52 out of 73 people surveyed(71%)

n 113 students in a group of 290(39%)

n 976 of 1,200 patients (81%)

n 3,995 of the 4,628 homes intown (86%)



Lesson Structure Principle Research-Based Characteristics AGS Globe Textbook Features

Instruction that includes thecomponents of effectiveinstruction, utilizes effectivestrategies and interventions tofacilitate student learning, andaligns with standards improveslearning for all students,especially diverse learners andstudents who are struggling.

Step 2: Explicit instruction and guidedpractice

In the Student Edition:• Short, manageable lessons break content and skills into smaller

step-by-step, part-by-part pieces• Systematic presentation of lesson concepts and skills• Models or examples throughout lessons link directly to the

explanation of the concept• Multiple opportunities for direct practice throughout• Sidebar notes review skills and give reminders of important facts

and informationIn the Teacher’s Edition:• 3-Step Teaching Plan for each lesson includes “Teaching the

Lesson” to help teachers present and clarify lesson skills andconcepts and to guide practice

• Supplemental strategies and activities for each lesson

Step 1: Goals and lesson introduction;prepare students to learn

In the Student Edition:• Chapter and lesson introductions• Goals for LearningIn the Teacher’s Edition:• Lesson objectives• Explicit 3-Step Teaching Plan begins with “Warm-Up Activity” to

inform students of objectives, connect to previous learning andbackground knowledge, review skills, and motivate students toengage in learning

Step 3: Applied practice and generalization

In the Student Edition:• Each skill or concept lesson is followed by direct practice or

review questions• Multiple exercises throughout• Generalization and application activities in sidebars and lessonsIn the Teacher’s Edition:• 3-Step Teaching Plan concludes with “Reinforce and Extend” to

reinforce, reteach, and extend lesson skills and concepts• Multiple supplemental and alternative activities• Career, home, and community application exercisesIn the Teacher’s Resource Library:• Multiple exercises in Student Workbook and reproducibles offer

applications, content extensions, additional practice, andalternative activities at a lower (Grade 2 Spache) readability

Skill Track Software:• Monitors student learning and guides teacher feedback to student



AssessmentThe concluding activity in the instructionalprocess is to assess what students have learned.The assessment should match the objectives ofthe lesson (Reiser & Dick, 1996). The assessmentcan take many forms, depending on the nature ofthe concept and purpose of the lesson. Studentswith diverse needs may need alternate methods todemonstrate their knowledge (Jarrett, 1999). In asummary of research about effective assessmentpractices, Jarrett indicates that performanceassessments, portfolios, and concept maps allowstudents to demonstrate their understanding andcommunicate what they have learned. Rubrics arealso useful for both measuring studentunderstanding and judging final products.

While the final assessment of student learningis important, formative assessment can occurduring all stages of the instructional process andcan inform learners and teachers about progresstoward learning objectives (Jarrett, 1999). In ananalysis of research on instructional materialsfor diverse learners, Tyree et al. (1994) indicatethat activities for direct and frequentmeasurement of skills in lessons and units helpstudents and teachers monitor progress. Theyalso found that response to questions andparticipation in discussions are methods thatcan assess student learning of facts, problemsolving, inferences, and summarization.

Assessment Research-Based AGS GlobePrinciples Characteristics Textbook Features

Assessment shouldmeasure student progresson learning goals overthe course of a lesson,chapter, or content-areatextbook.

Monitoringlearning andstudent progress(formativeassessment)

• Lesson and chapter reviewscheck student understandingof content

• Discussion questions allowteachers to monitor studentprogress toward lessonobjectives

• Self-Study Guides (in theTeacher’s Resource Library)allow teacher and student totrack individual assignmentsand progress

• Skill Track Software tracksstudent progress through thesubject matter in the text

Measurement oflearning goalsmastery

• Chapter assessmentactivities correlate tochapter Goals for Learning:- Chapter reviews- End-of-chapter tests- Cumulative midterm and

final mastery tests- Alternative chapter

assessments• Skill Track Software

assesses and tracksindividual studentperformance by lesson andchapter

Students and teachersneed timely and ongoingfeedback so instructioncan focus on specific skilldevelopment.

From Basic MathSkills Teacher’s

Resource Library

Chapter, Midterm,and Final Mastery

Tests can be printedfrom a convenient

CD-ROM

From Basic Math Skills Skill Track Software

Software provides hundreds of practice questionsfor assessing skill and concept acquisition

© American Guidance Service, Inc. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use only. Basic Math Skills

Name Date Period Mastery Test A, Page 1

Chapter 1

Chapter 1 Mastery Test A

Directions Circle the letter of the best answer.

Directions Write the name of the place for each underlined digit.

Directions Use words to write the names of the numerals.

11. 37,412 ___________________________________________________________________

12. 6,023,015 ___________________________________________________________________

13. 47,003 ___________________________________________________________________

14. 45,037,421 ___________________________________________________________________

1. Identify the name of the place for theunderlined digit: 190,825

A millions

B ten-millions

C ten-thousands

D thousands

2. How is 304,980,000 written in words?

A three hundred four thousand, ninehundred eighty

B three hundred forty million, nine hundredeighty thousand

C three hundred four million, nine hundredeight thousand

D three hundred four million, nine hundredeighty thousand

3. What is 6,671 rounded to the nearesthundred?

A 6,600

B 6,670

C 6,700

D 7,000

4. What is 329,608 rounded to the nearestthousand?

A 330,000

B 329,600

C 329,000

D 300,000

5. Jasmine bought a bagel for $0.55, juice for$0.85, and a magazine for $3.50. If shehanded the clerk $10.00, how much changeshould Jasmine receive?

A $6.20

B $6.10

C $5.20

D $5.10

6. Kim’s scooter can travel 80 miles on 1 gallonof gas. He rides about 2,400 miles in oneyear. How many gallons of gas does Kim’sscooter use in one year?

A 3

B 30

C 300

D 2,320

7. 345 ____________________________

8. 2,607 ____________________________

9. 35,013 ____________________________

10. 260,153 ____________________________

14

L e a r n e r S u p p o r t S t r a t e g i e s

Advance OrganizersAdvance organizers are preview tools used at thebeginning of a lesson to orient students andfacilitate progression through the concepts in thetext. Use of advance organizers assists secondarystudents to learn content area information andskills, focus on learning objectives, and buildconnections (Allsopp, 1990; Curtis, 2002;Marzano et al., 1999). A meta-analysis of effectiveinstructional practice research indicates thatadvance organizers are most useful when textinformation is not written in a consideratesequence. The meta-analysis also indicates thatdifferent types of organizers produce differentlearner results, and that advance organizers canbe used to facilitate higher-level learning(Marzano, 1998).

Dickson et al. (1995b) conducted a synthesis ofresearch on text organization that reveals thatinstruction in the features of text organizationfacilitates student comprehension. Likewise,explicitly reviewing the text helps teachersdetermine student knowledge about textorganization and the type of support that mightbe needed to facilitate text comprehension(Schumm & Strickler, 1991).

Textbooks can include features that provideorganizational assistance to students and

instructional assistance to teachers who use them(Ciborowski, 1992; Steele, 2002). This section ofthe report focuses on textbook features that assistteachers in instructional delivery or guide studentstoward more effective use of the textbook. Fourareas are described. First, organizational tools thathelp students structure information are discussed.Second, instructional process techniques for usingtextbooks in conjunction with best practices arepresented. Third, effective assessment supportstrategies are described. Finally, differentiatedinstruction methods to meet individual studentneeds are addressed.

Organizational ToolsTextbooks can include specific organizationaltools to assist students in structuring information.Two approaches are discussed here: advanceorganizers and graphic organizers.

From BasicEnglishCompositionStudent Text

Each textopens with asectionshowingstudents howto use thebook and howit is organized

Call Toll Free 800.328.2560 • www.agsglobe.com

How to Use This Book: A Study Guide ix

Before Beginning Each Chapteru Read the chapter title and study the photograph.

What does the photo tell you about the chapter title?

u Read the opening paragraphs.

u Study the Goals for Learning. The Chapter Review and tests will ask questions related to these goals.

u Look at the Chapter Review. The questions cover the most important information in the chapter.

Note theseFeaturesWriting TipQuick tips to helpimprove writing skills

NoteHints or reminders that point out important information

13

Musicians play instruments such as these topunctuate music. Each instrument emphasizes adifferent emotion. For example, a musician might

use the cymbals only when the music calls for excitement.

To emphasize different emotions in their writing, writers mustuse punctuation marks. Periods, question marks, exclamationmarks, and commas give readers clues to sentence meanings.Punctuation marks tell readers when to pause or stop and helpthem hear changes in tone. Punctuation marks tell readerswhen someone is asking a question or giving an order.

In Chapter 2, you will learn how to punctuate your sentences sothat readers will hear exactly what you mean.

Goals for Learning

u To recognize the purpose of a sentence

u To end each sentence with the correct punctuation mark

u To recognize nouns of direct address

u To punctuate dialogue correctly

u To distinguish between direct and indirect quotations

Chapter

2 Punctuating Sentences

viii How to Use This Book: A Study Guide

How to Use This Book:A Study Guide

Welcome to Basic English Composition. This bookfocuses on practical writing skills that you can usenow and later in life. You may be wondering why you

should study English composition. Think about how many timeseach day you put your ideas in writing. How often do you needto write something––a paragraph, a phone message, a letter, ane-mail message, or a report? We write to express our thoughtsand ideas, and to share information with other people. In thisbook, you will learn how to write and punctuate topic sentencesand paragraphs. You will practice writing letters, messages,memos, e-mail messages, and reports. You will also learn how to prepare for written tests and how to write essay answers. Inaddition, you will practice your grammar and vocabulary skills,and spend some time using references and resources.

As you read this book, notice how each lesson is organized.Information is presented and then followed by examples andactivities. Read the information. Then practice what you haveread. If you have trouble with a lesson, try reading it again.

It is important that you understand how to use this bookbefore you start to read it. It is also important to know how tobe successful in this course. The first section of the book canhelp you to achieve these things.

How to Study These tips can help you study more effectively:u Plan a regular time to study.u Choose a desk or table in a quiet place where you will not be

distracted. Find a spot that has good lighting.u Gather all the books, pencils, paper, and other equipment

you will need to complete your assignments.u Decide on a goal. For example: “I will finish reading and taking

notes on Chapter 1, Lesson 1, by 8:00.”u Take a five- to ten-minute break every hour to keep alert.u If you start to feel sleepy, take a break and get some fresh air.

Look for this boxfor helpful tips!

Writing Tip

Vary the verbsyou use to introducedialogue. Insteadof said, useexclaimed,shouted,whispered,responded,or suggested.



Graphic OrganizersVisual cues and graphic organizers emphasizeimportant ideas in text and aid studentcomprehension (Dickson et al., 1995a). Asummary of multiple studies conducted by Lovittand Horton (1994) indicates that graphicorganizers can be used before instruction as anorientation activity and during instruction as ateacher-led activity or a student-directed activity,provided that the teacher cues students on whento use the organizer. Results of a study usinggraphic organizers in science and social studiesclasses indicate that the use of student-directedorganizers with teacher cues and structure resultsin better achievement than does self-study alone(Horton, Lovitt, & Bergerud, 1990). Chambliss(1994) reports that graphic organizers are moreeffective when they are matched to the purpose ofthe text (e.g., to inform, argue, or explain). Theyare also effective in teaching similarities anddifferences (Marzano et al., 2001).

From General Science Student Text

Textbook explains how graphicorganizers can be used to study andorganize information

Using Graphic OrganizersA graphic organizer is a visual representation of information.It can help you see how ideas are related to each other. A graphicorganizer can help you study for a test or organize informationbefore you write. Here are some examples.

Venn DiagramA Venn diagram can help you compare and contrast twothings. For example, this diagram compares and contrastssolar energy and wind energy. The characteristics of solarenergy are listed in the left circle. The characteristics of wind energy are listed in the right circle. Thecharacteristics that both have are listed in the intersectionof the circles.

Column ChartColumn charts can help you organize information intogroups, or categories. Grouping things in this format helpsmake the information easier to understand and remember.For example, this four-column chart groups informationabout each of the four biomes. A column chart can bedivided into any number of columns or rows. The chartcan be as simple as a two-column list of words or ascomplex as a multiple-column, multiple-row table of data.

Network TreeA network tree organizer shows how ideas are connectedto one another. Network trees can help you identify mainideas or concepts linked to related ideas. For example, thisnetwork tree identifies concepts linked to the concept ofconservation. You can also use network trees to rank ideasfrom most important to least important.

How to Use This Book: A Study Guide xxi

Solar Energycan be received onlywhen sun is shining

does not work close toNorth or South Poles

uses solar cell to transform sunlight into electricity

Wind Energyonly a few places havewind strong enough togenerate electricity

storing and transporting electricitygenerated by wind iscostly

Bothfree

do notcause

pollution

produce no waste

Tundra Grassland Tropical DesertRain Forest

cold, dry temperate warm very dryfrozen below humid wetthe surface

lichens, grasses palms, tree cactilow shrubs ferns, vines

polar bears, antelopes, bats, birds, lizards,caribou, bison, monkeys snakes,wolves coyotes kangaroo rats

Four Biomes

Conservation

Soil

contour plowing

Water

protectingwatersheds

intelligentuse of fertilizers

not wasting

planting

Graphic organizer transparency sets are available for Social Studies, Science, Math, and English



Instructional ProcessTechniquesTextbooks can be designed to include bestpractice strategies that teachers can use tofacilitate learning. Four such strategies that keepstudents actively engaged in learning arediscussed here: cooperative learning, student self-monitoring and questioning, real-life examples,and mnemonics.

Cooperative LearningCooperative learning is a team activity that allowsstudents to interact with each other to facilitatethe learning of all group members. Researchsyntheses of cooperative learning studies indicatethat cooperative learning results in positiveachievement for all students, including diversepopulations, across all grade levels. Cross-abilitygrouping is the most powerful cooperativelearning configuration (Johnson, Johnson, &Stanne, 2000; Marzano, 1998; Vaughn, Bos, &Schumm, 1997). Jarrett’s (1999) summary ofresearch on instructional procedures in scienceindicates that cooperative learning improves thelevel of student discourse and improves problemsolving. Cooperative teams also have been foundto result in higher homework completion ratesand higher accuracy scores on assignments(Maccini & Hughes, 1997).

3 Reinforce and Extend

GROUP PROBLEMSOLVING

Suggest students work insmall groups to solve thefollowing problem.

The following is informationabout the student lunch program atMarquette School.

The school orders enough lunches forall students but does not pay for anyuneaten lunches. How many students

are in Marquette School? [0.40(x) 2

0.40(43) 5 $62.80; x 5 200]

Invite groups to present theirsolutions, including any equationsthey may have used, as a “Just theFacts” segment of the lunchtime news.Students can assign roles to groupmembers such as writer, announcer,designer, and coordinator.

Tuesday, October 14

cost per lunch $0.40

uneaten lunches 43

total spent on lunches $62.80What polynomialrepresents (a 1 b)4?

You might expect to get 5 headsand 5 tails in 10coin tosses. Toss acoin 10 times.Tally the results.Compare yourresults to yourprediction.

Writing AboutMathematics

From Algebra Teacher’s Edition

Group Problem Solving activities facilitate cooperative learning

From Algebra Student Text

Boxed extension activitiesstimulate higher-level thinking

Student Self-Monitoring and QuestioningStudent self-monitoring and questioningstrategies provide students with tools to guidetheir learning. A synthesis of effective instructionresearch indicates instruction that uses studentself-monitoring and questioning strategies tocheck recall, keep students actively engaged, andchart progress, improves student comprehensionand awareness of learning (Tyree et al., 1994;Dickson, Collins, Simmons, & Kameenui, 1998).Student performance improves when students aretaught to be aware of and regulate strategy use(Maccini & Hughes, 1997).

A meta-analysis of effective instruction researchby Marzano et al. (2001) indicates thatquestioning is useful before and after learning andthat student answers are deeper when teachersallow wait time after posing questions. Theanalysis also supports the use of cues andquestions tied to important concept attributesrather than those that are novel or unusual.Finally, the researchers found that posing higher-level questions results in deeper learning.



Real-Life ExamplesReal-life examples help students to connect theinformation and skills they have learned to theirown life experiences and better generalize theskills they have learned to other areas (Roderick& Camburn, 1999; Marzano, 1998). Learning ispositively correlated with curriculum that offersa wide range of examples that teach relevant andirrelevant attributes with no misleading cues(Jones et al., 1997). A summary of research oneffective textbook design indicates theimportance of multiple examples that includereal-world applications (Tyree et al., 1994). Asummary of adolescent reading research (Curtis,2002) determined that providing students withreal-life examples as well as in-school examplesimproves comprehension and cognitive strategyuse.

Building, Baking, Candlestick Making . . .Everything we build, cook, and mix uses

ratio and proportion. We build houses from plans drawnto scale. We bake cookies by mixing specific proportions ofingredients. A one-to-one ratio of blue and yellow paint makesgreen. Changing the ratio produces different shades of blue-greens and yellow-greens. A two-to-one ratio of hydrogen andoxygen atoms produces water. Let’s face it—we just can’t getaway from ratios and proportions!

Algebra in Your Life

2 Teaching the Lesson

Students must master and remember theorder of operations to solve equationsaccurately. A mnemonic device can helpthem remember the proper order ofoperations:

Please (parentheses)

Excuse (exponent)

My Dear (multiply, divide)

Aunt Susan (add, subtract)From Mathematics: Pathways Teacher’s Edition

In this example, a mnemonic device helps studentsrecall the order of operations

From Algebra Student Text

Sidebars like “Algebra in Your Life” help students relate conceptsto their own experiences

From Earth Science Teacher’s Edition

Mnemonics provide an easy way to rememberthe planets’ order in our solar system

Teaching the Lesson

Before students read the lesson, havethem write on paper each vocabularyword and what they think it means. Asstudents read, have them review whatthey wrote and add notes to correct orextend information about the words.

Direct students to the diagram on page79. Ask them to name the planetsbeginning with the one closest to the sun.(Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto) Explainthat one way to remember the order ofthe planets is to use a memory aid. Forexample, the words in the sentence “Myvery eager mother just served us ninepizzas” begin with the same letters as thenames of the planets.

2

MnemonicsMnemonics promote retention of ideas by usingmemory strategies (Schumm & Strickler, 1991).Miller and Mercer (1993) determined that middleschool math students are able to use mnemonicstrategies at the representation (solvingequations) and abstract (applying steps toproblem solving) levels to retrieve informationfrom memory to help them improve mathperformance. Mnemonic devices can facilitate therecall of simple facts and vocabulary to completescience activities (Munk, Bruckert, Call,Stoehrmann, & Radandt, 1998). They have beenfound to assist with the transfer and retrieval ofinformation in long-term memory (Deshler, Ellis,& Lenz, 1996). Mnemonics also help studentsremember lists and spelling rules, as well asprocedures that require multiple responses(Miller & Mercer, 1993).


Assessment SupportThere are several ways textbooks can incorporatefeatures that facilitate an accurate assessment ofstudent learning. Deshler et al. (1996) provide asummary of research on effective test-takingstrategies by students with learning disabilities.They found that students with learningdisabilities are not aware of test-taking strategies,and even when they receive strategy instruction,their use of such strategies is on a limited basis.

Research on adapting science textbooksconducted by Lovitt and Horton (1994) indicatesthat student study guides are effective whenmatched to student ability level. The research alsoindicates that best results occur when teachers cuestudents to use study guides. The use of studyguides with peers is less powerful. However, bothare superior to studying alone without guidance.In a study of middle and high school student useof study guides in science and social studies,


From Earth Science Student Textu Chapter and lesson reviews u Chapter reviews reinforce vocabulary, u Textbooks offer helpful

prepare students for tests concepts, and critical thinking skills test-taking tips

Vocabulary Review

Choose the word or phrase from the Word Bank that best

matches each phrase. Write the answer on your paper.

1. steady winds north and south of the equator

2. height above the earth’s surface

3. water that falls from the atmosphere

4. what water vapor does to become cloud droplets

5. what liquid water does to become water vapor

6. gas form of water

7. winds near the poles that blow from the east

8. pattern of wind movement around the earth

9. low, flat, gray clouds

10. high, wispy clouds

Concept Review

11. Refer to the diagram. Name

each lettered layer of the

atmosphere. Write your

answers on your paper.

Choose the word or phrase that best completes each sentence.

Write the letter of the answer of your paper.

12. The gases of the atmosphere that move in cycles as living

things use them are __________.

A oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen

B methane, hydrogen, and helium

C argon, neon, and ozone

D nitrogen, xenon, and oxygen

13. The __________ reflects radio signals.

A troposphere C mesosphere

B stratosphere D ionosphere

226 Chapter 9 The Earth’s Atmosphere

Chapter 9 R E V I E W

Word Bankaltitude

cirrus clouds

condenses

evaporates

polar easterlies

precipitation

stratus clouds

trade winds

water vapor

wind belt

A

B

C

D

The Earth’s Atmosphere Chapter 9 227

14. The __________ is important because it absorbs most

of the harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

A troposphere C mesosphere

B ozone layer D ionosphere

15. Fluffy, white clouds are called __________.

A cirrus clouds C cumulus clouds

B stratus clouds D rain clouds

16. Rain forms when __________.

A cumulus clouds are present

B radio waves reflect from a layer of the atmosphere

C water collects as heavy droplets in clouds

D sunlight hits the earth at an indirect angle

17. A continuous cycle of rising warm air and falling cold

air is called __________.

A water vapor C the nitrogen cycle

B a thunderstorm D a wind cell

18. The prevailing westerlies are ______.

A winds coming from the west

B the wind belts nearest the equator

C trade winds

D winds blowing to the west

Critical Thinking

Write the answer to each of the following questions.

19. When a rain forest is destroyed, how does this affect the

composition of the atmosphere?

20. Moist air is pushed up a mountainside, as shown. How might

the weather on the right side of the mountain be different from

that on the left side?

Do not wait until the night before a test to study. Plan yourstudy time so that you can get a good night’s sleep before a test.

Test-Taking Tip

Moist air

Horton and Lovitt (1989) found that middleschool students perform higher on student-completed study guides when allowed to comparetheir answers to teacher answers. The researchersalso found that high school students performhigher on teacher-directed study guides. In bothinstances, study guides are more effective thanstudent self-study.

For students with diverse needs, assessmentsthat monitor student progress are important toensure that these students are progressing towardmastery of learning goals. This is demonstrated byTyree et al. (1994), whose research analysisindicates that activities for direct and frequentmeasurement of skills in lessons and units helpteachers monitor student progress. Jones et al.(1997) found that frequent assessments that aretied to specific tasks within the overall goalprovide information on mastery level and theneed for instructional changes.



Learner SupportStrategy Principles Research-Based Characteristics AGS Globe Textbook Features

Effective strategies andinstructional techniques supportstudent learning and improvestudent performance.

Instructional process techniques• Cooperative learning• Student self-monitoring and

questioning

• Real-life examples

• Mnemonics

• Activities for group learning and problem solving provided inTeacher’s Edition

• Chapter and lesson headings presented as questions orstatements to guide reading

• Chapter reviews and summaries highlight major points• Student monitoring activities provided in the Teacher’s Resource

Library• Unit or chapter projects focus on linking and application of unit or

chapter concepts • Home, career, and community applications• Sidebar features and activities directly link content to real-life

applications• Mnemonics provided to help students remember content and steps

in procedures or problem solving

Organizational tools• Advance organizers• Graphic organizers

• “How to Use This Book” feature explicitly teaches textorganization (Student and Teacher’s Editions)

• Graphic and visual organizers preview chapter and lessoncontent

• Transparencies and reproducibles for graphic organizersappropriate to the subject matter allow teacher to demonstrateand guide student understanding of important ideas

• Graphic organizers arrange lesson content visually—charts,graphs, tables, diagrams, bulleted lists, arrows, graphics,illustrations, and captions

Assessment support • Texts include integrated test-taking tips for students• Lesson and chapter reviews provided before formal assessments• Workbook and reproducible activities in the Teacher’s Resource

Library provide additional monitoring of student progress• Alternative Assessments for each chapter offer performance-based

items for diverse learners• Skill Track Software provides multiple versions of assessments

Textbooks can incorporatefeatures to facilitate andsupport assessment oflearning, allowing teachers tomonitor student progress andprovide information on masterylevel and the need forinstructional changes.



Differentiated InstructionDifferentiated instruction is an approach thatteachers use to organize instruction that adjustsfor diverse learning needs within a classroom(Tomlinson, 1999). Its principal focus is onproviding flexible instruction that meetsindividual learner needs. This approach isdocumented in the literature and has numerousaccounts of teacher and school implementation,although peer-reviewed, comparative research isnot currently available (Hall, 2002).

Roderick and Camburn (1999) conducted astudy of factors that influence recovery fromfailure in high school courses. They suggest thatadolescent students are more successful whentasks are matched to their academic skills,developmental stage, and personal skills andknowledge. Student outcomes are also enhancedwhen tasks are structured to provide bothchallenge and support to the learner. In thedevelopment of its textbooks, AGS Globeincorporates certain principles from within thedifferentiated instruction approach that are usefulfor organizing and presenting strategies thatteachers can use to address the needs of diverselearners at risk for academic failure.

Flexible InstructionDifferentiated instruction asserts that teachingbased on student instruction and assessmentinformation builds flexibility into theinstructional process. A major AGS Globetextbook feature that facilitates flexibleinstruction is step-by-step, part-by-part lessondesign. Student lessons break chapter content andskills into smaller, manageable pieces. The use ofstep-by-step lesson design facilitates theadjustment of teaching activities and assessmentsto meet individual needs. AGS Globe textbooksfeature alternative learning activities and multipleassessments throughout each Teacher’s Editionand related ancillary products. The description ofthe research base that supports an explicitinstructional design sequence is addressed in the“Instructional Design” section of this report.

T18 Algebra

Interpersonal/Group LearningLearners benefit from working with atleast one other person on activities thatinvolve a process and an end product.

Auditory/VerbalStudents benefit from having someoneread the text aloud or listening to thetext on audiocassette. Musical activitiesappropriate for the lesson may helpauditory learners.

LEARNING STYLES

InterpersonalGroup Learning

Have students work in smallgroups to write, solve, and

graph the inverse of the equations inproblems 5–10 in Exercise B. Forexample, y 5 3x becomes x 5 3y; y 52x + 1 becomes x 5 2y + 1. Ask thegroups to describe the similarities anddifferences between their graphs andthe graphs of the equations forExercise B.

LEARNING STYLES

Logical/Mathematical

Have each student pick fourcomposite numbers between100 and 1,000 and find the

prime factorizations. For example,

121 5 11 • 11

200 5 2 • 2 • 2 • 5 • 5

925 5 5 • 5 • 37

620 5 2 • 2 • 5 • 31

Have students write the factored formon a piece of paper. Ask pairs ofstudents to exchange papers and findthe original numbers.

LEARNING STYLES

Auditory/Verbal

Complete Exercise A orally inclass. Ask volunteers to readaloud each sentence with their

chosen word or phrase. Then ask themto explain why they chose that word orphrase to complete that sentence.

LEARNING STYLES

LEP/ESL

Have students work in pairsto write complete sentencesdescribing the points in

Exercise B. Using problem 11, providea model sentence for students: “PointY is 1 unit to the right of the y-axisand 2 units above the x-axis.” For eachproblem, one student should write thesentence, and the partner should plotthe point described. Encouragestudents to exchange roles after each problem.

LEARNING STYLES

Body/Kinesthetic

Have students work in groupsof four to play a game called“General Directions.” Direct

each group to use masking tape tocreate a 220 to 120 number line on the classroom floor. Have studentstake turns being “The General” andgiving directions such as “The Generalsays stand on 13,”“The General saysmove to the opposite of 27,” and “The General says give the absolutevalue of the number you’re at.”

The learning style activities in the Algebra Teacher’s Editionprovide activities to help students with special needs understandthe lesson. These activities focus on the following learning styles: Visual/Spatial, Auditory/Verbal, Body/Kinesthetic,Logical/Mathematical, Interpersonal/Group Learning,LEP/ESL. These styles reflect Howard Gardner’s theory ofmultiple intelligences. The writing activities suggested in thisStudent Text are appropriate for students who fit Gardner’sdescription of Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence.

The activities are designed to help teachers capitalize onstudents’ individual strengths and dominant learning styles.The activities reinforce the lesson by teaching or expandingupon the content in a different way.

Following are examples of activities featured in theAlgebra Teacher’s Edition:

Body/KinestheticLearners benefit from activities that include physical movement or tactile experiences.

Visual/SpatialStudents benefit from seeing illustrations ordemonstrations beyond what is in the text.

LEARNING STYLES

Visual/Spatial

Have students copy thegraphs shown in Exercise A.For each graph, ask students

to apply the vertical line test. Havethem attempt to draw a line thatintersects the graph at more than onepoint. Have students post their efforts,indicating whether each graph passedor failed the vertical line test.

LEP/ESLStudents benefit from activities thatpromote English language acquisition andinteraction with English-speaking peers.

Logical/MathematicalStudents learn by using logical/mathematical thinking in relation to the lesson content.

Learning Styles

From Algebra Teacher’s Edition

u Lesson activities are designed to capitalize on students’ individualstrengths and dominant learning styles

u Various activities address these different learning styles:Visual/Spatial, Auditory/Verbal, Body/Kinesthetic,Logical/Mathematical, Interpersonal/Group Learning, LEP/ESL

u Special LEP/ESL activities provide support for students learningEnglish and lesson content at the same time



Learning StylesAnother principle in differentiated instruction isthe importance of addressing individualdifferences such as readiness, interest, and howstudents best learn. One way to structureplanning for individual differences is based on thetheory of multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1983;Lazear, 1999). Multiple intelligences theory assertsthat intelligence is multifaceted and does not relysolely on those facets typically valued intraditional schooling—verbal and quantitativeaptitudes. This theory has been used to provideframeworks to develop multiple methods toapproach student learning experiences (Orlich,Harder, Callahan, & Gibson, 2001).

Multiple intelligences theory is based onresearch from many disciplines and dividesintellectual aptitude into eight categories:bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal,logical/mathematical, musical/rhythmic,naturalist, verbal/linguistic, and visual/spatial(Lazear, 1999). While comparative research to testthis theory and its applications in the classroom isnot complete, teachers have found the theoreticalstructure useful in stimulating their thinkingabout instruction (Fasko, 2001; Lazear, 1999;Orlich et al., 2001).

The basic premise behind multiple intelligencestheory is that there are many ways individualsprocess and learn information. These differenttypes of intelligences prompt a wide variety ofideas about how students might engage inlearning. AGS Globe uses the categories frommultiple intelligences theory to organizesuggestions for addressing unique learner needsthat teachers may encounter in the classroom. It iswell documented that diverse learners, such asstudents with disabilities or English languagelearners, require adapted activities and additionalpractice (Carnine, 1994; Gersten & Baker, 2000).AGS Globe provides a variety of alternativelearning activities designed to provide teacherswith models to address the needs of diverselearners in the Learning Styles features in theTeacher’s Edition for each textbook.

Differentiated Text AGS GlobeInstruction Principle Characteristics Textbook Features

Student learning ismore successful whentasks are aligned withacademic skill levelsand adjustments aremade to allow studentsmultiple means toengage and expresstheir learning strengthsand styles.

Learning styles• Auditory/Verbal

• Body/Kinesthetic

• Interpersonal/Group Learning

• LEP/ESL

• Logical/Mathematical

• Visual/Spatial

• Learning Styles activitiesprovide a wide range ofactivities to address diverselearner characteristics

• LEP/ESL activities providesupport for students who arelearning English and lessoncontent concurrently

Flexible instruction • Multiple features, includingLearning Styles activities,help teachers matchassignments to students’abilities and interests

• Variety of media to selectfrom—print, audio, visual,software

• Step-by-step, basic contentand skill-level lessons in theStudent and Teacher’sEditions

• Alternative Activities writtenat a Grade 2 (Spache)readability in the Teacher’sResource Library

• Alternative Assessment itemsfor each chapter in theTeacher’s Edition

• Variety of review materials,activities, sidebars, andalternative readings

• Multiple assessments—lesson or chapter reviews,end-of-chapter tests,cumulative midterm/finalmastery tests, alternativeassessment items

• Various features highlightedin other sections of thisreport allow explicitinstruction to guide andassess student progresstoward learning goals


S t a n d a r d s A l i g n m e n t

Standards Alignment

In an analysis of how national standards andreform activities interact with instruction for

students with learning disabilities, Miller andMercer (1997) conclude that it is important toalign instruction to national standards for subjectareas when those standards exist. Miller andMercer also indicate that it is important toconnect instruction to state standards,particularly when those standards are used toestablish testing and graduation requirements.However, standards can be so broad that they donot give a clear indication of instructional goalsor sequence (Matlock, Fielder, & Walsh, 2001;Stein et al., 1994). In a discussion of theimplications of standards, the researchersdetermined that when language arts standards inparticular are so broad that they do not addressspecific goals, it is difficult to interpret how to bestaddress the needs of diverse learners to facilitatemeeting the standards. Matlock et al. (2001)determined that, given the importance of aligningstudent goals to standards, there must be someinterpretation of how the standards translate intoinstructional sequences and lessons for students.

Standards Research-Based AGS GlobePrinciple Characteristic Textbook Feature

Subject area instructionneeds to be based onskills, concepts, andprocesses represented bycommon standards forthat subject area.

Alignment withsubject areastandards

•Textbook content and skillsare aligned with nationalstandards and state grade-level or course-specificcontent standards, whereavailable

Basic Math Skills T13

Correlation of Basic Math Skills to the NCTM Standards

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12should enable all students to:

u understand numbers, ways of representing numbers,relationships among numbers, and number systems;

u understand meanings of operations and how they relate toone another;

u compute fluently and make reasonable estimates.

Basic Math SkillsWhole numbers, relationships among numbers, number systems: pages 1–35, 36–57, 64–67, 83–85, 95–98, 106–107, 124, 141–147,308–309, 342–346.Operations: pages 8–35, 38–39, 44–49, 68–89, 99–113, 158–166,196–199, 201–204, 223–238, 310–323, 326–329, 330–333,343–349, 351–354, 373–374.Computation with Calculator Practice: pages 29, 39, 65, 113,127, 147, 183, 204, 233, 248, 268–269, 298, 333; estimation: 7, 166and throughout; paper/pencil computation throughout thetextbook.

STANDARD 1 Number and Operations


u understand patterns, relations, and functions;

u represent and analyze mathematical situations and structuresusing algebraic symbols;

u use mathematical models to represent and understandquantitative relationships;

u analyze change in various contexts.

Basic Math SkillsPages 306–341, 373–374.

STANDARD 2 Algebra


u analyze characteristics and properties of two- and three-dimensional geometric shapes and develop mathematicalarguments about geometric relationships;

u specify locations and describe spatial relationships usingcoordinate geometry and other representational systems;

u apply transformations and use symmetry to analyzemathematical situations;

u use visualization, spatial reasoning, and geometric modelingto solve problems.

Basic Math SkillsPages 170–189, 362–366.

STANDARD 3 Geometry


u understand measurable attributes of objects and the units,systems, and processes of measurement;

u apply appropriate techniques, tools, and formulas todetermine measurements.

Basic Math SkillsMeasurable attributes and processes of measurement: pages190–215, 216–241, 242–259, 288–305.Determining measurements: pages 176–179, 183, 186, 190–215,216–241, 242–259, 288–305.

STANDARD 4 Measurement


Detailed correlations to nationalstandards are included in the Teacher’sEditions and correlations to state grade-level or course-specific content standardsare available on request


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