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Stephen Jackson

Dr. Erin McLaughlin

Writing and Rhetoric 13300

24 November 2015

Music and Education

“Music is a moral law. It gives soul to the universe, wings to the mind, flight to the imagination,

and charm and happiness to life and everything.” – Unknown

Music has always been an integral part of human existence. Music was traditionally one

of the subjects of the quadrivium, an integral component of the full human education of the free

man. The study and appreciation of music in America seems to have fallen into decline in recent

years. This might appear as a paradox, since now more than ever before music is being listened

to. The majority of Americans spend a great part of their day listening to music through their

earbuds. Unfortunately, most of the music that is listened to is not what most music scholars

would classify as a true art form. The appreciation of Western music which reached its

culmination in the Baroque and Classical periods has largely declined. Many schools no longer

insist on the importance of including music in the general curriculum of studies. However, there

have been recent attempts to revive the waning interest in classical music, especially the music of

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. In addition to these attempts, in an almost completely unrelated

field, neuroscientists have been researching the link between music and the human brain.

In this paper, I will attempt to present the recent efforts made to promote classical music

in America in juxtaposition to the recent neurological studies regarding classical music and the

brain. I will conclude with a reflection on the current state of musical education in the United

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States, with possible ideas or remedies to continue the promotion and revival of classical music

in America, which include first and foremost the new possibilities presented by modern

technology.

The So-called Mozart Effect

Scholars continue to be fascinated by Mozart’s music. One of the pioneers of the

relationship between music and the brain, a Frenchman by the name of Dr. Alfred Tomatis,

began incorporating the music of Mozart into his scientific research in the 1960's (Campbell 3).

He was able to show that listening to music, and especially Mozart had a positive effect on

certain brain functions (Campbell 3). More recently than Dr. Tomatis, in 1993, researchers from

the University of California performed a study from which the Mozart effect would eventually

derive its name. In the study three separate groups of college students listened to music for ten

minutes. The first group listened to a Mozart piano sonata, the second group listened to

relaxation music, and the third group merely stayed in silence. At the end of the ten minutes,

each of the groups was given a spatial reasoning test. The scores of the test were then converted

to an IQ scale. The group that had listened to the Mozart piano sonata scored on average eight to

nine IQ points higher than the other two groups (Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky, “Music”). As a result

of this experiment, the so-called Mozart effect began to be widely publicized, and reached a high

amount of popularity in the United States.

The Mozart effect also had its critics. There were some who claimed that this study was

“empirically unsupported” and that “brain research is being misappropriated to the service of

misguided, ‘quick fix’ solutions to more complicated, systemic issues” (Jones and Zigler 355).

While one experiment probably wasn't enough to provide complete scientific backing to the

theory that listening to Mozart's music had positive effects on brain functions, nevertheless there

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were many people who claimed that exposure to the music of Mozart had been beneficial for

them. One student who attended the University of Massachusetts claimed that Mozart was the

key factor which helped him throughout college. He writes: “I have a severe learning disability

that impairs my ability to write and to ignore distractions. Mozart was the single most important

external factor in allowing me to do the kind of writing that I needed to do” (Campbell 183).

There are many other “success stories” of the same nature. Is this just imagination, or is there

something deeper here that neuroscience is on the verge of discovering? That is a question that

hopefully will be answered by neuroscience in the near future.

There was also another study that was carried out, but different from the research

conducted with the college students at the University of California. Whereas Mozart had been

used with the college students to improve reasoning skills that were already present, this time

Mozart was used rather as a cure for a disease. Twenty-nine patients who had been diagnosed

with epilepsy listened to the Mozart piano sonata K448 (the same sonata used in the test at the

University of California). Twenty-three of the patients showed an improvement. More

specifically, an electroencephalogram showed a significant decrease in epileptiform activity in

those patients (Jenkins 171). It is interesting to note that one of the patients showed an

improvement even when unconscious (Jenkins 171), which means that a conscious appreciation

or taste for music was not necessary in this case for the music to have its effect.

Like the previous study at the University of California, the effects that were noted in this

study were only temporary. However, there was another test performed to assess possible long

term effects of exposure to Mozart. The patient for the test in question was an eight-year-old girl

also suffering from epilepsy. Before the experimentation with Mozart's music began, she would

suffer around nine seizures in the course of four hours. The testing involved playing Mozart

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while she was awake – but only for ten minutes of every hour that she was awake (Jenkins 171).

In the second period of four hours, when she normally would have had nine seizures, she only

suffered one seizure, and the duration of focal discharges in the brain had decreased. The day

after, the girl suffered only one seizure in the course of more than seven hours (Jenkins 171).

Skeptics may still try to claim that all this is merely a coincidence, or that the causal link

between Mozart's music and the amelioration of the brain function cannot be proven. It is true

that neuroscience is a vast field, and there is much that remains to be discovered. However, the

cases mentioned are only a few examples of many situations in which listening to Mozart

seemed to benefit the person in question. It will be helpful to now consider some of the relations

between music and the brain as studied in neuroscience, abstracted from the music of one

particular composer.

Music and Neuroscience

At this point in the discussion, one might be tempted to ask the question “Why Mozart?”

or “Is Mozart the only composer with a noticeable effect on the brain?” In fact, some of the

researchers of the “Mozart Effect” have themselves answered this question. Rauscher, Shaw, and

Ky state: “We chose Mozart since he was composing at the age of four. Thus we expect that

Mozart was exploiting the inherent repertoire of spatial-temporal firing patterns in the cortex”

(“Listening to Mozart” 46). One model of the brain proposes the cortical column of the brain,

which is the basic network of the brain cortex, to be made up of trions which in turn have “a

large repertoire of inherent, quasi-stable, periodic spatial-temporal firing patterns which can be

excited” (Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky, “Listening to Mozart” 44). Some have proposed that music is

able to access these inherent firing patterns in the cortex at an early age, which can actually

improve other functions of the brain (Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky, “Listening to Mozart” 44). Since

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Mozart was so young when he first began composing, the researchers made the link between the

part of the brain that can be accessed at a young age (which deals with spatial-temporal firing

patterns), and the spatial-reasoning skills that seemed to improve after listening to Mozart.

Another less complicated explanation to answer the question “Why Mozart?” takes into

account the actual qualities contained in Mozart's compositions. A computer analysis of several

pieces of classical composers including Mozart, J.C. Bach, J.S. Bach, Chopin showed that the

works of Mozart, J.C. Bach, and J.S. Bach shared a common characteristic – that of long term

periodicity (Jenkins 171). In addition, the analysis showed that there were three notes (C, B, and

D) that appeared very often with a high level of intensity (Jenkins 171). Jenkins concludes by

saying that “it is suggested that music with a high degree of long-term periodicity, whether of

Mozart or other composers, would resonate within the brain to decrease seizure activity and to

enhance spatial-temporal performance” (171). From this statement one could conclude that the

music of Mozart is not unique. This does not lessen the value of Mozart's music – it rather

widens the scope of music that is potentially beneficial for the brain.

The New Element in Music: Technology

There is a new element nowadays that was not present at the time when the first

experiments and tests with the hypothesis of the Mozart Effect took place. That is the element of

technology, which makes music so easily accessible at any time and in any place. With the aid of

technology, it is easier than ever before not only to access and listen to any kind of music, but

also to create music. With all the possible avenues of social media available nowadays, it is very

popular to post which is one's favorite type of music to listen to. This is where technology and

peer pressure can actually dissuade someone from liking classical music (or at least

acknowledging that liking by posting it). Research from the past has shown that what kind of

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music someone likes can be a reflection of their educational background or their social status

(Yang and Cong 2797). In addition, there is a tendency for people to stereotype those who like

such forms of music as opera and classical music as higher class and better educated, and to

consider those who like pop music as lower class or of a lower education level (Yang and Cong

2797). What is perhaps most interesting to note is that those who like classical music are widely

considered “unattractive”, though intelligent, whereas those who like pop music are considered

“enthusiastic and attractive” (Yang and Cong 2797). This is one aspect then that would tend to

dissuade the youth (who seem to be the primary users of social media) from liking classical

music, or at best, from admitting a liking for classical music. Unfortunately, this is a slight

obstacle to the regrowth and spread of a new appreciation for classical music.

However, the positive aspect in favor of classical music outweighs the obstacle

mentioned above. Practically everybody today has a smartphone, and apps are the most popular

tool for performing various functions with the phone. The digital software publisher Touch Press

recognized the fact that classical music is on the decline in America, and decided to do

something about it, using the means at their disposal. Touch Press developed an app which

allowed the user to interactively listen to Beethoven's ninth symphony. The success of the app

was astonishing – more than 620,000 Apple users downloaded the app (Isacoff). This is

definitely a reassuring sign for those who are concerned about the future of classical music in

America. It would seem that the easiest way to promote the appreciation of classical music

would be in primary and secondary schools. However, some statistics reveal that even in schools

the appreciation for music is dropping. Based on a trend in statistical data, some have concluded

that only around seven percent of high school students in Florida, to take one state as an

example, will participate in voluntary music classes in the year 2025 (Williams 51). However, it

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is not inconceivable that this trend can be reversed through the aid of new apps that promote

classical music, and make it within hand's reach to people of all ages.

A Glance to the Future

After having taken an overview of some of the beneficial effects of listening to Mozart,

and having discussed the recent insights that neuroscience has added to the links and relationship

between music and some key cerebral functions, it is perhaps time to take a glance into the

future. As has been mentioned, the new technology has the potential to distance the youth from

classical music, but luckily it can also be an easy tool to promote the spread and appreciation of

classical music. While I don't think it is reasonable to expect a sudden or drastic change in the

musical taste and appreciation of Americans, nevertheless it can be hoped that little by little

classical music will once again find a place in American culture.

The discussion certainly is not finished. With the way that science advances day by day,

with more fascinating and insightful discoveries being published, it is not unreasonable to

assume that neuroscience will be able in the near future to provide even more detailed scientific

evidence demonstrating the benefits of Mozart, or any music of those recognized as great

composers. There are skeptics that remain, most certainly. Hopefully the facts presented in this

paper will be enough to make even the most skeptical critic reflect for a few moments on the

possible benefits of classical music, especially for the youth. May parents and educators in

particular take note of what they are missing out on if they choose to disregard the use of

classical music in the education of their children and students. As a result of the influence of

such great men as Mozart, Bach and Beethoven, coupled with the convincing proof of

neuroscience (if taste for fine art were not enough) and with the aid of technology, Americans

have the great opportunity of using what has been handed down from previous generations to

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make the world a better place.

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Works Cited

Campbell, Don G. The Mozart Effect for Children : Awakening Your Child's Mind, Health, and

Creativity with Music. 1st ed. New York: William Morrow, 2000. Print.

Isacoff, Stuart. "Music Education: Saving Classical Music: An App for that?" Wall Street

Journal, Eastern edition ed.Aug 29 2013. ProQuest. Web. 24 Nov. 2015.

Jenkins, J. S. “The Mozart Effect.” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 94.4 (2001): 170–

172. Web. 23 Nov. 2015.

Jones, Stephanie M., and Zigler, Edward. "The Mozart Effect: Not Learning from History."

Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 23.3 (2002): 355-72. Web. 22 Nov. 2015.

Rauscher, Frances H., Shaw, Gordon L., and Ky, Katherine N. "Listening to Mozart Enhances

Spatial-temporal Reasoning: Towards a Neurophysiological Basis." Neuroscience Letters

185.1 (1995): 44-47. Web. 24 Nov. 2015.

- - -. "Music and Spatial Task Performance." Nature 365.6447 (1993): 611. Web. 22 Nov. 2015.

Williams, David A.. “The Elephant in the Room”. Music Educators Journal 98.1 (2011): 51–57.

Web. 24 Nov. 2015.

Yang, Qinghua, and Li, Cong. "Mozart or Metallica, Who Makes You More Attractive? A

Mediated Moderation Test of Music, Gender, Personality, and Attractiveness in

Cyberspace." Computers in Human Behavior 29.6 (2013): 2796-804. Web. 24 Nov. 2015.