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Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
16
CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES, PROCESS AND METHOD
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Lincoln and Denzin (1994, 2000) write about their vision for the future of qualitative research
and elaborate on the tensions that define this collection of methods. They maintain that two
tensions are embraced simultaneously, on the one hand qualitative research is drawn towards
the broad, interpretative, post-modern, feminist and critical sensibility, on the other hand it
can also be drawn to a more narrowly defined, positivist, post-positivist, humanistic and
naturalistic conception of human experience and its analysis. The orientation of the present
study fits more with the former than with the latter position. In the later writing on
qualitative research of Lincoln and Denzin (2000, p. 1047) they further define this tension
and comment “that there is an elusive centre emerging in this contradictory, tension-riddled
enterprise”; a movement away from grand narratives with the center lying in the humanistic
commitment of the qualitative researcher to study the world, contextually, gendered and
historically situated. From this develops the radical and liberal politics of qualitative
research; there is the belief that previously silenced voices need to be heard to redefine
accepted ‘truths’. To work with or assist the unemployed is an attempt to expand their “life
chances”; to understand their crisis is to interact compassionately with them and listen to
their stories.
The choice to follow a qualitative approach was made based on the underlying assumptions
of the qualitative mode of enquiry (De Vos, 1998; Creswell, 2003; Rossman & Rallis, 1998;
Schurink, 1998; Wolcott, 1999). The assumptions of qualitative research are summarised in
Table 3.1.
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
17
Table 3.1 The Assumptions of Qualitative Research i. Inductive reasoning is utilised – concepts, insights and understanding are developed
from patterns of data.
ii. There is an emic perspective of enquiry – meaning is derived from the subject’s
perspective.
iii. It is idiographic rather than nomothetic, aiming to understand the meaning people
attach to everyday life.
iv. Reality is regarded as subjective.
v. The researcher captures and discovers meaning which is immersed in the data;
seeking to understand phenomena.
vi. Concepts are in the form of themes and categories and data are presented in the form
of words. Data are analysed by extracting themes.
vii. Observations are determined by the information “richness” of settings.
viii. The research design used is flexible and unique and evolves throughout the process;
there are no fixed steps to follow.
ix. The unit of analysis is holistic, concentrating on the relationships between elements
and contexts.
Note. Adapted from Schurink (1998).
Since the purpose of this study was to understand the unemployment experience, a qualitative
research process was chosen as being appropriate i.e. “qualitative researchers are interested in
meaning – how people make sense of their lives, experiences and their structures of the
world” (Creswell, 1994, p. 145); “if a concept or phenomena needs to be understood because
little research has been done on it, then it merits a qualitative approach” (Creswell, 2003, p.
22). Lincoln and Denzin (2000, p. 1063) refer to “the commitment of all qualitative
researchers to study human experience from the ground up, from the point of interacting
individuals who, together and alone, make and live histories that have been handed down to
them from the ghosts of the past”. Therefore, a qualitative approach was more aposite than a
quantitative approach.
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
18
Firstly, it was the emic (subjective) view of the participants which was of interest, and in
order to gain understanding through a reflexive interaction, the rich insight into behaviour
offered by qualitative data was preferred to a quantitative approach. Context is increasingly
regarded as a fundamental element of modern career theories (Herr, 2002; Collin, 1994;
Hansen, 1997) and in understanding the unemployed the stripping of context for the
exactitude of quantitative methods would detract from the complexity of the human situation
under analysis.
The discovery of ‘themes’ of the unemployed experience was a core aspect of this research
and quantitative method with its verification of preconceived hypotheses and deductive logic
would not encourage the discovery dimension of the inquiry. After receiving a large body of
data from the interviewees, inductive thinking and reasoning was used to arrive at the main
themes and the central storyline.
This study was not focussed on “objective” measurement but rather on understanding
(“verstehen” – from the tradition of Wilhelm Dilthey) experience, however, so-called ‘facts’
and objectivity have also been questioned for their value-ladeness (Phillips & Burbules,
2000) so a quantitative approach would not have been appropriate. The choice of a
qualitative approach was further endorsed by the positioning of the inquirer in an interactive
reflexive process with the participants. The position of the inquirer within quantitative
method as being ‘objective’ and recording ‘facts’ scientifically was not seen as suitable for
the purpose of this study; it is unlikely that the participants would respond with openness in
an impartial interaction. A qualitative approach would facilitate in breaking through the
silence surrounding the unemployed experience and would assist in articulating their stories.
Fontana and Frey (2000) note that interviewing is a common and powerful way to understand
fellow human beings, and in qualitative studies the interview may be seen as a form of
discourse between two or more speakers such as the interviewee and the respondents.
3.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The intention of this study is firstly to understand, at depth, and then describe the
unemployment lived experiences of unemployed individuals within a particular context. In
terms of the context, this research focused particularly on the mid-career adult (over 40 years
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
19
of age) who had been out of work for six months or longer and was anxious and motivated to
return to the workplace.
The second objective is to make counselling recommendations for career psychologists, out-
placement agencies, managers responsible for retrenchment programs and the unemployed
themselves. This research could assist in achieving a greater understanding of the dynamics
and impact of the unemployment experience contextualised with a focus on the mid-career
stage. The recommendations may be useful as a basis for the creation of a practical
individual or group counselling intervention for the unemployed who may be experiencing a
crisis period in their lives. This study has particular relevance for South Africa with a
reported unemployment rate of 28-40% of the total economically active population
(Makgetla, 2001; Schlemmer & Levitz, 1998). Unemployment is probably the most severe
problem facing South Africa Society. For the individual, job loss is ranked as being in the
upper quartile of unpleasant events that generate life stress (Holmes & Rahe, 1967).
The findings would, in addition, be useful to enhance the South African literature in this
domain. The South African experience of being unemployed may or may not be similar or
generalisable to the European of American condition about which much has been written.
Adults over 40 years of age are reported to be one of the groups most severely affected by job
loss (Greenhaus, Callahan & Godshalk, 2000). The participants had all previously been
employed by corporations and hence organisational life is another of the key contexts for this
study. This chapter will continue with a discussion of the research process and the
methodological basis of this study will be described.
3.3 THE RESEARCH PROCESS FROM A QUALITATIVE PERSPECTIVE
Denzin and Lincoln (1994, 2000) suggest that the qualitative researcher deploys a wide range
of interconnected, interpretative methods and orchestrates the research process from a
biographically situated position; the researcher’s view being filtered through language,
gender, class, race and ethnicity. The process, for ease of communication, can be described
as moving through five phases. Phase 1 – The Researcher; Phase 2 – The Interpretive
Paradigm; Phase 3 – The Strategy of Inquiry; Phase 4 – The Method of collecting and
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
20
analysing empirical material; Phase 5 – Ethics and Politics in Qualitative Research and Phase
6 – The Art of Interpretation. In the paragraphs that follow each of the above stages is
described.
Phase 1: The Researcher
In looking at qualitative research as a process the question arises, ‘who’ is doing the research,
‘who’ is selecting and orchestrating the process? As Creswell (2003) comments, the
qualitative researcher filters the data through a personal lens that is situated in a specific
socio-political and historical moment. Even after the decision is taken to follow a qualitative
rather than a quantitative orientation, there are further methodological decisions, some
either/or and others both/and, which need to be resolved. The outcome of this decision
process shapes and colours the path of the research and researcher and gives the final product
its original stamp or watermark. The researcher is not an empty vessel, but as Denzin and
Lincoln (1994) comment:
Behind these terms (ontology, epistemology and methodology) stands the personal
biography of the gendered researcher, who speaks from a particular class, racial,
cultural and ethnic community perspective. The gendered multi-culturally situated
researcher approaches the world with a set of ideas, a framework (theory, ontology)
that specifies a set of questions (epistemology) that are then examined (methodology,
analysis) in specific ways. (p. 11)
As a researcher, I bring my own distinct point of view to every stage of the research process,
this perspective will in addition influence my view of the ‘other’ and, likewise, the
participants bring their own ideas originating from their personal history as a gendered and
multi-cultural respondent. Furthermore, permeating every stage of this research will be my
view of and application of ethics and politics in the widest sense and as it relates to the study.
Qualitative research is concerned with moral discourse. All qualitative researchers are united
in the belief that the oppressed should be heard. The qualitative researcher is concerned to
study the world from a humanistic perspective, the individual is viewed always in context,
gendered, historically situated or interacting. This viewpoint has resulted in studies of
individuals and for groups who have been oppressed by the ideological, economic or political
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
21
powers of a society or at a particular historical intersection (Lincoln & Denzin, 2000).
Qualitative research is very much about giving a space, a voice to those previously ignored or
overwhelmed.
In considering who I am, the researcher, the research instrument, another decision arises,
which part of my history has relevance in terms of bias for this inquiry. To what depth
should I disclose and, in fact, to what point is my life relevant as the researcher? Creswell
(2003) notes that biases, values and interests (or reflexivity) of the researcher should be
explicitly stated in the research report, such openness is considered useful and positive. In
this reflexive process (on reflecting who he or she is) it appears that a balance in terms of
disclosure is needed between self (me) and other (participants) as the research stories are
created, hence the ‘story’ of the researcher has relevance. Gergen and Gergen (2000)
consider reflexivity to be an emerging innovation in methodology. Here investigators share
their biases, show their historical and geographical situatedness and generally use self
disclosure in an effort to tell the truth.
The personal-self becomes inseparable from the researcher-self. Constructivism (the inquiry
paradigm situating this research) has as its aim the understanding of constructions that people
initially hold, and thereafter the continuous revisions (reconstructions) of these constructions,
both of the enquirer and the participant (Guba & Lincoln, 1994; 2000). It therefore seems
that the enquirer, the researcher, is required to reflect on the areas of personal bias or values
at more than a superficial level. In choosing qualitative research, ideas of a rational,
scientific observer are questioned and with a qualitative strategy of inquiry it is not
advantageous to hide one’s private persona behind the mask of scientific research; one needs
to communicate fully and find the courage for personal disclosure to finally create more
trustworthiness in the research findings.
As the researcher, what follows are aspects of my personal history, which have focused my
presently held ideas and beliefs. This overview is relevant to the reader who will then
understand or interpret my rendering of the interview material in the light of my biases or my
gendered, historical and racial biography.
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
22
Early Years - School Life: I attended a British styled girls-only, private school in Durban
from age three to 17 years. I then continued with the British/Durban tradition of education
and studied towards a BA degree in Psychology and English at the University of Natal in
Durban.
Early Working Life: After overseas travel and a short period of time in Oxford, England, I
moved to the London area to teach at an immigrant school, being responsible for the remedial
teaching of young scholars from Barbados, Trinidad and other West Indian countries. I was
the relief teacher for the district of Wilsdon Junction, (a poor neighbourhood on the outskirts
of London), where a large number of immigrant families had settled. Thereafter, I lived and
worked in the United States and Europe and after a period of some years in Austria I returned
to South Africa to become involved in a business venture in travel and tourism.
Gender: My nuclear family is relatively small, being comprised of mother, father and one
sister. Although my early years were predominantly in a female environment (home and
school), I was never an active participant in womans’ causes.
Class: My family background is white, middle class, English speaking, South African;
although many school associates were from the “socially advantaged class” I interacted with
students and friends across all classes. In my mature years, I find that I question the power
structures embedded in the hierarchical British class system, its social positions and titled
structures, such as British ‘gentlemen’, and historical classes such as lords and ladies.
Traditions such as these do not flow harmoniously with my preferred Eastern philosophies
(Dalai Lama, 1997) which uphold developing genuine empathy by considering others as
equal to yourself, and with that sense of equality you reverse a self-centred perspective and
adopt a more compassionate view of life. The Dalai Lama (1997) continues that as the world
becomes smaller and smaller the concept of divisions and ‘us’ and ‘them’ is almost outdated.
Race: I was schooled in South Africa during the Apartheid times of the 1950’s and 1960’s.
At university I questioned the political system and attended political meetings, but did not
become an active participant. My views led me to leave South Africa after university for a
period of almost 10 years, where I encountered and interacted with a variety of cultural and
racial groups in the United Kingdom, Europe, the United States and India.
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
23
Culture: I enjoy the evolving South African way of life, our blended culture with its African,
White, Asian and Indian strains. My travels to India have given me insight into the Hindu and
Buddhist cultures and way of life; my interest in African music/shamanism/primitive
myths/sangoma practices and the African world view are themes explored in my life. I have
experience and understanding of European cultures from living in the United Kingdom,
Switzerland and Austria. My personal philosophy is integrated with the spiritual teachings of
the Tao (LaoTsu), Buddha, Osho and various Indian mystics and I am familiar with the
Eastern practices of meditation, yoga and tai chi. The traditions of a Western Psychology
have been the core of my formal studies and of particular interest to me are thinkers such as
Frankl, Reich and Jung. I feel that mainstream psychology has limited itself by not
historically including a spiritual domain and a holistic view of body, mind and spirit is only
beginning to emerge. The philosophies and practices of the transpersonal psychologists such
as Mindell (1995) and Grof (1988) become increasingly of interest to me.
Family Life: I am a mother of one child and take an active part in a large extended family
group.
Later Working Life: Work has always been an important and integral part of my life and has
supported my independence. I have diverse experience in the commercial world – working in
large organisations in a senior management role, being self employed in business consulting,
as well as offering advisory and counselling services in human resources and career
counselling.
“World-view”: In exploring the much spoken of paradigm of post-modernism, I am
somewhat confused by the various authors. This paradigm is defined differently by many
writers, however, my appreciation includes a view of “a New Age, incorporating messy,
uncertain multi-voiced texts, cultural criticism and new experimental works” (Marcus, 1994
p. 567). Post-modernism is also an information revolution and it challenges modernist
rationality as anti-humanism (Turner, 1992). Each person is encouraged to choose his or her
unique world view and the “grand narratives” of science, religion and organisational life are
no longer fashionable or valid for many individuals, particularly the youth. The youth are
living in a post-modern, spontaneous, ever-changing context whilst many older people still
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
24
hold tight to their perception of a world with its once dominant and defining structures.
Marcus (1994) summarises the change from modernity to post-modernism.
Post-modernism has been powered by the widespread feeling that the conditions of
social life (especially in the West, and especially in the frame of American post-war
hegemony) were in fundamental transformation, a break up of the world order,
systematically conceived, with fragments that have not yet taken new configurations
that can be easily identified. (p. 564)
With the world media today and the global village phenomenon, we are now all participants
in a multi-cultural, multi-racial, eclectic world, where we can choose and exert our actions
from this vast menu of options. There appears to be more freedom for individuality than ever
before in our society.
Social action/values: My view of human behaviour fits with the idea that individuals have
consciousness, thoughts, feelings and intentions and hence do not merely react to external
stimuli but act on situations in terms of the meaning given to it. This does not resonate with a
positivist view of cause and effect and the acceptance that the behaviour of humans can be
objectively measured; it follows that, in my understanding, an objective view of human
behaviour is questioned. My values pertaining to social action, psychology and sociology
will influence this research; my paradigms contain my unique ideologies, a judgement not
only of how things are but how they ought to be. I suggest that my history directs me
towards eclectic thinking, and my wish is for an inclusive philosophy of life rather than an
exclusive viewpoint.
Phase 2: The Interpretative Paradigm, Constructivist Assumptions
I have mentioned that the paradigm, interpretative framework or set of beliefs which guides
my action in this research, is the constructivist theory (Guba & Lincoln, 1994, 2000). In
terms of my philosophy this paradigm combines my beliefs about ontology (what is the
nature of reality), epistemology (what is the relationship between the enquirer and the object
of investigation) and methodology (how do we know the world or gain knowledge of it).
These beliefs shape how the qualitative researcher sees the world and acts in it.
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
25
A comparison of the differences between qualitative and quantitative research is to be found
in many documents and the choice of research methodology depends on the questions to be
asked in the research. These differences are well documented by numerous authors and De
Vos (1998) has clearly illustrated these differences which are elaborated on in a table which
is attached in Appendix F. Wolcott (1990) suggests that there is no longer a call for each
researcher to discover and defend qualitative methods anew and he continues that audiences
probably do not share a comparable sense of excitement (with neophyte researchers) about
hearing them discussed once again. The assumptions of Qualitative Research are tabled in
Table 3.1.
A more complex task is to understand and communicate the subtleties and differences in
interpretative enquiry under different names such as interpretative thinking (e.g. symbolic
interactionism) and the shades of constructivist thinking such as radical constructivism, social
constructionism or the constructivist paradigm of Guba and Lincoln (Schwandt, 1994). My
understanding is that these different approaches, under one umbrella, have more similarities
than differences; there is one goal for all these methodologies and that is of understanding our
complex world. These qualitative methods derive from Kant’s idea of human knowledge
being based in understanding, which in his time was in juxta-position to the held ideas of
Cartesian objectivity (Hamilton, 1994). Claims of reality (following Kant) were therefore
influenced by the perception of the enquirer and this created a transcendental perspective and
a break from the etic viewpoint. Both interpretist and constructivist thinking have roots back
to the ‘Verstehen’ (understanding) tradition in social science (Schwandt, 1994).
Constructivism is a more recent vintage than interpretive thinking and emphasises Kant’s
earlier position that what we take to be objective reality, knowledge or truth is a result of our
perception (Hamilton, 1994). In South Africa, Modlin (1999) may be used as an example of
this viewpoint in his book, “Prisoners of our Perceptions”. He writes how the behaviour of
his patients often changes with an altered perception or view point on their lives, using
hypno-analysis. Their reality is not linked to a scientific, objective, reality but it is very much
reliant on their emic view point, and changes in that, brings about a change in their reality,
their behaviour and their life.
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
26
Constructivist thinking says that the mind is active in the construction of reality or
knowledge, knowing is not passive, a simple imprinting of sense data on the mind, but active.
Human beings hence do not discover knowledge but rather create it and thereby make sense
of their world. Constructivists are deeply committed to a contrary view to modernism and
that what we take to be objective knowledge and truth is the result of perspective (Schwandt,
1994).
Schwandt (1994) elaborates and summarises on the key aspects of Guba and Lincoln’s (1989)
constructivist paradigm.
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
27
Table 3.2
The Constructivist Paradigm Positions __________________________________________________________________________________________ i. It is an eclectic framework.
ii. Constructivist, interpretative, naturalistic and hermeneutical paradigms are all similar
notions.
iii. They propose that the constructivist paradigm is a replacement for what they label the
conventional, scientific or positivist paradigm of enquiry.
iv. They assume that what is real is a construction in the mind of the individual.
v. The individual may hold multiple, competing or conflicting constructions. The
individual’s truth depends on the most sophisticated construction held at a given time.
vi. The observer cannot be disentangled from the observed in the activity of enquiring
into constructions.
vii. The outcome of an inquiry is a literal creation.
viii. Constructions are not part of the objective world but reside in the mind of individuals.
ix. Constructions are
attempts to interpret experience
extensively shared
there may be malconstructions (incomplete, simplistic, uninformed or internally
inconsistent)
a judgement of a malformed construction can only be made within context or with
reference to the paradigm of the constructor
challenged when new information conflicts with an already held construction, new
sense needs to be made
x. The goodness or quality criteria are trustworthiness and authenticity
xi. The inquiry aim is understanding (and reconstruction)
xii. The ‘voice’ is that of the ‘passionate participant’ facilitating multi-voice
reconstructions
Note. Adapted from Guba and Lincoln (1989, 1994, 2000).
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
28
Geertz (1980) suggested that social scientists were turning to the humanities for models and
theories and that the positivist and totalising approaches to human disciplines were giving
way to an interpretive perspective. Schwandt (1994) comments that the future of
interpretivist and constructivist ideas depends on dissolving dichotomies and on the
integration of opposites, one needs to be comfortable with blurring the lines between science
and the art of interpretation; the social scientific and the literary account (Geertz, 1980).
Guba and Lincoln (2000) reconfirm Geertz’s (1980) prophecy that the competing qualitative
paradigms would become interwoven and blurred as in the ‘blurring of genres’ – they write
that this is now becoming a reality.
Constructivist/interpretivist thinking is becoming accepted as an alternative to empirical
social science - there is now a distinct turn towards more interpretivist, post-modern and
critical practices and theories (Bloland, 1995). Lincoln and Guba (2000) note “that the
number of practitioners of new paradigm inquiry is growing daily” (p. 164). It is somehow a
more human investigation wherein one actively engages a participant placing our ideas on a
par with theirs and it does not evaluate him or her against a preset unchangeable standard, but
rather encounters him or her within his or her context without evaluation or measurement
against others or some set standard (Jackson, 1989).
Phase 3: The Strategy of Inquiry, Phenomenology
The strategy of enquiry connects the philosophical orientation of the researcher to the method
for the collection and analysis of data. Schurink (1998) suggests that research design is a
concept more suited to quantitative research where the researcher follows a preset design step
by step. In a qualitative inquiry, the plan (design) is flexible and determined by the action of
the researcher and may develop and change with the process of the research. Different
strategies may be linked in the final product. The strategy of inquiry or tools could for
example include the case study, the use of grounded theory, action research or
phenomenological techniques.
The strategy (or “tools”) that suited this study was derived from phenomenological thinking
which aims to interpret the meaning that individuals give to their everyday lives.
Phenomenological thinking or philosophy is congruent with the constructivist position in its
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
29
subjectivist assumptions about lived experience and interpretivist practices. These derive
from the phenomenological tradition of Husserl (1970) and Schutz (1967, 1970), Holstein
and Gubrium (1994). This strategy uses participant observation or interviewing as methods
of data collection. The data is then, after systematic collection, analysed within a specific
context (De Vos & Fouche, 1998). Morse (1994) clarifies the idea that research strategies are
merely tools and it is necessary for the researcher to understand the variety available and their
different purposes in order to select the most appropriate method over another.
Since this research question concerns the meaning of lived experience, the best strategy to
answer the question is one derived from a phenomenological tradition. Making the correct
link between the question and the method chosen will determine the type of results obtained
and the usefulness of the findings. Within the strategy of phenomenology an appropriate
method was deemed to be that of ‘audiotaped’ conversations or interviews (Morse, 1994).
Interviewing is often used as a method to study the interpretivist practices people use since
language is a central medium used to communicate meaning. “The researcher identifies the
‘essence’ of human experiences concerning a phenomenon, as described by participants in a
study. Understanding the ‘lived experiences’ marks phenomenology as a philosophy as well
as a method” (Creswell, 2003, p. 15).
Phase 4: Method of Collecting and Analysing Empirical Materials The key objective that drives this research is to understand the lived experience of the
unemployed mid-career adult. What does it mean to our participants to be without work?
Purposefully selected site Once the key objective was defined and the interview selected as the means for data
collection, the selection of a site and participants needed to be addressed. I chose the
interview rooms at my private practice as a preferred site, for a number of reasons. From a
practical point of view I would not need to travel; the offices are light, airy, quiet,
comfortable and easily accessible for the participants. The alternatives were, to either
interview the participants in their home environment, (this may raise questions from the
family, the participant may feel uncomfortable for an interviewer to be there, the participant
may also feel inhibited by the presence of children or a spouse); or alternatively a public
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
30
venue which would lack privacy. There would be noise, and curious onlookers could distract
the participant, particularly, if the conversation was being recorded. The participants had
visited me in my offices previously, they knew the location and were reimbursed for any out
of pocket travel costs.
Purposefully selected participants In choosing participants there was a ‘non-random’ or purposive selection process that was
followed. The individuals contain typical attributes of the topic being researched (Strydom,
1998). Patton (1990) advises that in purposive sampling the sample should be information
rich. Furthermore, a strategy of intensity sampling was followed – this means that the
participants are experiential experts with regards to the particular experience under study.
The criteria that the individuals were required to fill were that they had been previously
employed by a large corporate company (in excess of 100 employees); they needed to be at
the mid-career stage of their career cycle and over forty years of age; they should be beyond
the early stage of unemployment and have been without work for more than six months. The
early stage (the first few months) of employment is expected to be treated as a ‘holiday
period’ during which time the participant is optimistic with regards to early reemployment.
After a period of about six months there is the “reality shock” that reemployment may not be
so easily found and adjustments need to be made, financially, emotionally, mentally and
within the daily life/lifestyle. In terms of the multi-cultural population of South Africa,
participants from different racial groups were selected, this applied as well to the selection of
participants across gender. There were eight individuals in the sample.
All of the participants were drawn from the Shipping, Freight and Logistics industries. It is
an industry sector that I am well acquainted with and hence I am able to communicate with
the participants using their ‘jargon’. Their industry context, corporate cultures and value
systems are familiar to me. The sampling technique was hence purposive and not random
and the collective case approach was used (eight participants), individuals were selected to
best reflect the processes being studied. The participants were chosen in terms of belonging
to ‘the general class’ being studied, that is “the unemployed adult”; however, each person
brought his or her own unique story on his or her experiences of being unemployed, after
years of secure, gainful and participative activities in his or her corporate setting. They were
all at mid-management level of seniority.
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
31
Sample size
With qualitative research, understanding meaning is the primary purpose and hence dense
description of the phenomenon is looked for. Once saturation is reached with the data, that
is, themes are repeated and no new insights are obtained, the sample size is considered
adequate. The sample size was determined in this study after eight interviews were
conducted, at that point there was a repetition of the themes identified. No further interviews
were considered (Morse, 1994). The table below summarises the criteria mentioned above
for the selection of participants.
Table 3.3
Selection criteria for Participants (Purposive Sampling) __________________________________________________________________________________________
i. Previously employed by a large corporate organisation (in excess of 100 employees)
ii. Individuals were required to be over 40 years of age (in their mid-career cycle)
iii. They needed to be beyond the early stage of unemployment, that is, they have been
without work for six months or longer
iv. There was a mix of participants in terms of race and gender
v. The participants had all previously worked in the Freight, Shipping and Logistics
industry
vi. The participants were all at mid-management level of seniority
Collecting the data - unstructured interviewing
The key method used for collecting empirical data was the unstructured interview with a
schedule. This type of interview was chosen to illicit depth and breadth in the responses from
participants, it was a face to face, individual, verbal interchange of approximately two hours
duration. A sample of the interview schedule may be found in the Appendix B. The opening
questions were intended to relax the participant, assure him or her of confidentiality and
obtain biographical information. Open-ended questions followed to allow the individual
freedom to express what was most important to him or her; the last group of questions were
open-ended but followed a schedule of topics expected to be of importance. If the
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
32
interviewee chose to give little attention to any of the structural questions I moved on to the
following one.
I encouraged a ‘feminine’ quality in the interview process and attempted to establish a co-
equal, open relationship with the respondents through emotional engagement. As trust
developed we explored cognitive and emotional issues with regards to unemployment and I
found that they shared quite freely their insights and feelings with me. This follows Oakley’s
(1981) Model of a Feminist Nature described by Fontana and Frey (1994, 2000). This model
endorses an ethic of commitment and equalitarianism contrasting the scientific position of
detachment and differential roles of power with interviewer and interviewee (Denzin &
Lincoln, 1994). The gender of both the interviewer and the interviewee have relevance for
the manner in which the process is conducted. In interviewing a woman, she was not treated
as an ‘object’ with no regard for her individuality; as an interviewer I understood that there is
no intimacy without reciprocity and a closer relationship was encouraged, “Interviewers show
their human side, answer questions and express feelings” (Fontana & Frey, 1994, p. 370).
Fontana and Frey (2000) clarify further that, “Interviewers are increasingly seen as active
participants in interactions with respondents and interviews as negotiated accomplishments of
both interviewers and respondents, that are shaped by the contexts and situations in which
they take place” (p. 663).
As already discussed, I wished to minimise the difference in status between self and
respondent and I attempted to establish a human to human exchange by sharing my own
relevant experiences and expressing feelings. In a ‘feminine’ approach (Oakley, 1981),
respondents are encouraged to digress and to relate anecdotal information, this often
contributes unexpected and relevant insight, and furthermore, allows for open-ended
responses. Fontana and Frey (1994, 2000) describe unstructured interviewing as giving
greater breadth of data through its open-ended character. They offer a synopsis of the process
of unstructured interviewing as illustrated in Table 3.4 and this was followed step by step in
the study.
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
33
Table 3.4
The Process of Unstructured Interviewing __________________________________________________________________________________________
i. Accessing the setting
ii. Understanding the language and culture of the respondents
iii. Deciding on how to present oneself
iv. Locating an informant
v. Establishing rapport, and,
vi. Collecting empirical materials
Note. Adapted from Fontana and Frey, 2000.
I will now elaborate on the stages of the interview process.
i. Accessing the setting
This is understood as getting in, breaking into, becoming an insider within the cultural
or delimited or boundaried group under study. Through my work in recruitment and
selection I have access to many individuals who have approached me as job seekers
and I was able to ask for co-operation from certain suitable individuals (participants)
and invite them to an interview to assist with this research. Firstly a letter outlining
the research objectives and process was read to the participants (see Appendix A)
over the telephone. They were asked if they would attend an interview and share their
relevant experiences since they left their last employer and have been without work.
There were one or two participants who, when requested to assist with the research,
were hesitant about the process and I understood that they were not comfortable to
discuss their experiences. I did not pursue them as respondents. Most of the
individuals that I approached were willing to participate.
ii. Understanding the language and culture of the respondents
Most of the participants were drawn from my job seekers; they had previously been
employed in the freight or shipping industry which is my niche speciality for
recruitment and placement. I have worked within these industries for 15 years and
hence understand the language, culture, nuances and jargon. In addition, I am
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
34
familiar with most of the major corporations who make up the core of this industry, I
understand and have experience of the climate and culture of most of the past
workplaces of the participants.
As I had been unemployed for a period of months after resigning from a senior
position in the freight industry, I had first hand experience of being ‘jobless’. So, not
only was I well suited to understand the language, conditions of employment and the
organisational culture of the participants past employer, but also the experience of
being unemployed at the mid-career stage. There is certainly “a jargon” which is used
by freight and shipping specialists and the ability to speak their ‘language’ and
understand their ‘context’ (culture) increased my credibility as an interviewer and
reduced the distance between us.
iii. Deciding on how to present oneself
In asking the respondents if they would be prepared to share their experience with me,
I explained to them that besides the role they associated me with (as recruitment
agent), I was, in addition, active with a research project through RAU University, the
topic of which was the experience of individuals who had been previously employed
in the corporate world and who were now, for whatever reason, unemployed. I
continued that I was hoping that after the interviews I would be in a position to create
a training program or counselling intervention which would assist other individuals in
a similar predicament.
The confidentiality of the process was stressed. I offered to give them general
feedback after I had completed my interviews with others who were in a similar
situation. Hence, my presentational self was that of a “researcher” gathering
information which should be useful for a programme that would assist other
unemployed persons. For most of the respondents the opportunity, to talk of and
share their experiences with an interested party, was welcomed. A few respondents
mentioned that it was a relief to talk about their situation since they were unable to
share their fears and insecurities with their family. They did not wish to alarm their
dependants or alert them to the seriousness of the situation. Others were concerned
that if they did disclose their fears that their partner or spouse would respond by
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
35
becoming more anxious, or would no longer respect them or hold them in high regard.
One participant communicated that after being unemployed for a lengthy period, he
now felt he was no longer able to sit at the Sunday dinner table and offer fatherly
advice, he no longer received respect from the family.
iv. Locating an informant
Since I had been ‘an insider’ (employed within the same industry) for many years, it
was not necessary to find a translator or an informant to guide me through the
organisational, cultural or social subtleties of my participants’ environments, I had
first hand experience.
v. Establishing rapport
I considered that the individuals who responded to my request for assistance and
arrived for the interview had already progressed some way down the road in terms of
feeling comfortable to interact with me, there was an element of trust. Once we were
settled in the interview room, I again clarified my reason for the interview, stressed
the confidentiality of the information and offered consolidated feedback,
incorporating the views of others who were unemployed, at a later stage. A request
was made to use a tape recorder. I was watchful of maintaining my role as “friend”
rather than that of interviewer, since in my daily work, given time restraints, I am
usually in control of the direction of the recruitment interview. I am aware that the
relationship of trust is extremely fragile and any change or shift to a position of power
in the interview could cause the individual to withdraw and then continue his or her
story at a superficial level. Any comments that I may make which could be
interpreted as judgmental would be detrimental to our open communication.
The respondent was offered tea or coffee on arrival and friendly conversation
followed. This was used to relax him or her and take the respondent through the
transition from where they had been to being present in the interview. To talk about
their emotions or experience of being unemployed could be perceived by them as a
difficult, shameful or frightening interaction. I also needed to be open and clear with
them that this interview was not connected in any way to an employment interview or
promises of employment. A longer term relationship was envisaged with certain of
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
36
the participants (three) who were invited to attend a second interview at a later date to
verify the content of their transcripts, so that which I had understood and transcribed,
was what they had meant to convey. The content and meaning of the original
transcripts were confirmed in the second interview. On completion of the study all
respondents received a general overview of the results and the findings of the research
project.
I believe that my concern about their unemployed status was communicated to them.
The experience of having one’s basic security needs, as well as needs for social
interaction, status and challenging daily activity threatened, is still a reality for me,
and this motivated me throughout the period of this thesis to assist others in a similar
situation. I expressed my concern openly to them and showed genuine empathy
throughout the interview. Fontana and Frey (2000) refer to Lincoln’s (1995)
comment on the interviewing approach of the feminist, communitarian model, as one
in which the framework presumes a researcher who builds collaborative, reciprocal,
trusting and friendly relations with those studied. I attempted to keep this model in
mind during my interviews.
vi. Collecting empirical materials
The interviews took place in a private interview room, I used a tape recorder (with the
respondents’ consent) and made sure that I handled the operation of the tape recorder
quietly and unintrusively. I believe that after a short while the respondents forgot that
the interview was being taped. During the interview I was aware of my non-verbal
behaviour, my use of personal space, body movement and tone of voice. The non-
verbal elements of the exchange are important in that body language should support
the verbal communication and reinforce the open empathetic tone of the interview
(Schurink, 1998). The duration of each interview was between one and a half to two
hours.
The room has a round boardroom table and a number of chairs around the table;
respondents were able to choose their place in the room and I then chose a chair next
to them but with a good arm’s length of space between us. There is another interview
room with two couches facing each other, but it appears from recruitment interviews
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
37
that the interviewees like the security or protection of the table in front of them and to
have me sitting in a relaxed manner at a 45 degree angle rather than in a
confrontational or oppositional position. I attempted to maintain an open, relaxed
body posture throughout the interview, taking notes quietly when I needed to
highlight a response.
In terms of the pace of the interview I followed the lead given by the respondent but
allowed time and silences when necessary for the person to remember circumstances
or emotions or frame his/her comments or responses. It was important to fall into the
rhythm and pace of the respondents to allow them to feel that they were able to
express themselves in their own time and that they had control over the interaction. I
closed the interview allowing time for questions, discussions or comments and then
reoriented them for travelling or driving safely. I made sure that they had my
telephone number so if any perplexing or worrying thoughts or emotions arose, they
could be in contact with me.
Four of the interviews had already been conducted as the preliminary phase of the
original research project (which was to gather information for the creation of an
intervention which would be evaluated through the use of a control and experimental
group). These initial interviews were then treated as a pilot study and the information
generated allowed focus on particular areas of interest and on a redefinition of the
questions in the interview schedule. This being in accordance with an understanding
that qualitative research is emergent – the research questions may change and be
refined as the inquirer learns what to ask (Creswell, 2003).
The new interview schedule allowed for more ‘in depth’ questions; the participants
were encouraged to participate spontaneously with regards to the general theme and,
thereafter, the schedule was used as a guideline. The questionnaire used in the present
study (attached in the Appendix B) shows the opening statements to the participant,
the open-ended interview questions followed by the semi-structured questions. I
made reflective notes and comments on aspects of the interview.
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
38
Personal notes were made to refer to during the interview, these were to remind me
about certain procedural issues, such as offering a contribution to the travelling costs
of the participants or giving my telephone number should he or she wish to make
contact after the interview. I also had a reminder for myself with regards to the
‘distance’ in the interview between self and ‘other’ and to maintain an open, human
interaction. Notes were taken to describe the ‘presentational self’ of the participant.
Analysing empirical material There is no one right method for the analysis of data, there are many ways of getting analyses
‘right’ (Miles & Huberman, 2002) and qualitative processes can generate a vast volume of
textual narrative which needs to be managed and finally reduced for sense making.
Qualitative data are voluminous and “like the phenomena they mirror, these data are usually
complex and ambiguous and sometimes downright contradictory” (Miles & Huberman, 2002,
p. 394). They suggest an interactive model for data management, which includes data
collection, data display, data reduction and finally conclusion drawing and verification.
Tesch’s approach (1990) proposes that the researcher combines the activities of data
collection and data analysis simultaneously, rather than wait to begin the analysis after the
field is exited, or the interview process is completed. He continues that first one should get a
sense of the whole; then select one transcript and read through it to establish the meaning
and sub-themes, then continue with the rest of the documents. Thereafter, cluster the sub-
themes into major, unique and left over topics. These sub-themes are then aggregated and
turned into themes or categories – the categories can be linked by drawing lines to show their
inter-relationship. A preliminary analysis can then be performed. In this research the
methods of both authors (Tesch, 1990; Huberman & Miles, 1994; Miles & Huberman, 2002)
have been used and integrated. What follows is a description of my procedure, with
examples, of qualitative content analysis.
The interviews were audio-taped and the cassettes given to a typist who transcribed the
interviews verbatim, printing the transcript with a large margin on the left hand side. The
transcribed tapes were returned to me at different times and on receipt of the material I
listened to the recording and read through the transcript for errors. At the same time I started
the process of labelling chunks of meaning with a describing word, which I wrote in the
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
39
margin. I worked systematically through the first manuscript noting the ‘sub-themes’ in the
margin. I worked through all of the eight transcripts in a similar manner as I received them
from the typist.
The passage quoted below is taken from one of the transcripts. This is an example of how I
coded the verbatim interchange of the participants. In one paragraph this participant spoke
about the main changes in his life that he was attempting to cope with, that is, financial strain
and declining self-esteem – these are two of the main themes of the study. He also touched on
his experience of being socially stigmatised, his increasing isolation and his altered sleep
patterns which indicated depression or worry. Qualitative research is known for the richness
of its data and in this one short paragraph the participant touches on a variety of sub-themes.
Interviewer: Looking at the most difficult changes for you to cope
with since leaving ------, what are they?
Participant: Um, self-belief and readjusting, the finances;
obviously self-belief covers so many things. I have noticed
(Self esteem) that unemployed people are treated like lepers for example,
(Finances) and people who used to phone me just don’t phone me, and
(Social Stigma) things like that, so it leads to an altered sleep pattern, and I
(Stress symptoms) don’t sleep as well as what I used to, so all those issues are
there attached, but that’s probably those two that are the
major ones.
Thereafter, I took a large A5 drawing paper and noted the names of the participants across the
top using different colour pens for each person. Starting with the first participant I noted
his/her sub-themes down the left column of the sheet and included a few key words for each
topic, I then moved on to the next transcript and treated it similarly, matching similar sub-
themes on the sheet or adding new ones. After completing all the transcripts I had a number
of sheets with 33 sub-themes noted. An example of the final sheet is shown as Table 3.5.
Table 3.5 An Example of Coding Sheet showing Sub-Themes
PARTICIPANTS
SUB-THEMES
A B
C 8 Participants
i. Stress • Hair turned grey overnight
• Depression
• Feet swollen • Problem with
sleeping
• Blood pressure up
• Altered sleep pattern
ii. Lack of Finances • Downsized my
life • No finances for
basic necessities
• No entertain-ment, no luxuries
• Change in lifestyle
• No money for maintenance payments
• No money for children’s schooling
33 themes
On another sheet these sub-themes were then grouped under the headings of major topics
(sub-themes), unique sub-themes and left-overs. The sub-themes were looked at for
duplication and overlap and then reduced to 15. Figure 3.1 illustrates how a group of sub-
themes were condensed and integrated into a main theme.
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
40
THEME
Coping behaviour
SUB-THEMES, e.g.
• Dealing with the self
• Coping with stress over time
• Structuring of the day
• Coping resources – family support
Figure 3.1 An Example – From Sub-Themes to Theme in Qualitative Content Analysis. Note: Adapted from Henning (2004)
Phase 5: Ethics and Politics in Qualitative Research
Punch (1994) writes that field work and qualitative research includes one’s social and moral
conduct in relation to the political restraints of the field or setting. What follows is an
elaboration on my understanding of the moral and ethical requirements in conducting
qualitative research.
The creation of trust had already started to take place before the participant entered my office
for the interview. In simple terms they knew where to come, they knew who would interact
with them, they have been interviewed by me before (albeit for a different outcome) and they
knew of the company from its profile in this specific market. An open relationship certainly
developed over this one to two hour interview, but an encounter of this nature is not expected
to generate the same variety of ethical considerations as those relevant to field work or
ethnography where the researcher would live, sleep or eat with the participant. However,
ethical and political issues do arise even from an interview situation since these participants
revealed many thoughts and feelings, describing their position of vulnerability and fear.
Similarly to a counselling intervention, there could be at a later stage, day dreaming,
cognitive restructuring or emotional issues which may cause concern for the participant.
The participants in the interviews were asked to be in contact with me if there were any
disturbing issues or questions that arose after the interview session. Participants had spoken
during the interviews about ideas of suicide, feelings of failure and rejection, changes in their Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
41
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
42
self concept, declining self esteem and guilt at the impact of their unemployment on their
family. Any of these experiences “relived” could result in negative or positive outcomes at a
later stage, which may need to be dealt with. For many of the participants this was the first
time that they ‘broke their silence” with regards to their thoughts or feelings about being
jobless.
As a researcher I take responsibility for the ethics of my intervention and do this by firstly
clarifying my reason (the research objective) with the participants for initiating the interview,
explaining that I hoped to create a training intervention from this information to help others
in the same or similar situations. I then assured all participants of the confidentiality of the
interview and their material. Feedback was offered to them, not only on their interview but
also on the experiences of other participants. An emotionally safe environment was created, I
ensured that the interview process moved in tune with their level of willingness for
disclosure. I asked their permission to use the tape recorder and made sure that they were
comfortable with their story being recorded; in addition, I was careful in the choice of a
recorder, in that it should be quiet, non-intrusive and require little adjustment. Since the
individuals were without work, I offered to reimburse them for any travelling costs. They
understood that they are able to call me at any time after the interview should they have any
questions, dilemmas or discomfort. I reminded myself at all stages of the interview process
that I am a ‘friend’ and not an interrogator; that I have been through a similar experience and
crisis in my life, and that I do not wish to project a distant, judgmental, authority figure. The
Buddhist ideal of cultivating genuine empathy by putting yourself in others’ shoes was used
as a personal reminder to myself (Dalai Lama, 1997). I requested that some of the
participants return at a later date to verify my transcripts to make sure that I had understood
their experiences as they intended to communicate them.
Ethical behaviour in the research process rests with the individual researcher, and she will be
accountable for the positive and negative consequences of every decision (Strydom, 1998).
Strydom continues that there are a variety of relevant ethical issues and each issue should be
internalised by the researcher so that ethically guided decisions become part of a non-
negotiable response set. The following are core ethical issues for any research project and
were respected and followed in this study.
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
43
Harm to the respondent
In a study such as this, harm is likely to be of an emotional rather than a physical nature, if
such should occur. It is difficult to predict if harm will arise out of these interview situations
and all participants were thoroughly informed with regards to the possible impact of the
investigation. At any stage of the interview, if the respondent did not wish to continue, he or
she was made aware that he or she could terminate the interaction. With almost all of the
respondents the interview continued for more than one and a half hours and the researcher
was the party that needed to guide the session to a close. The participants would willingly
have continued for longer.
Babbie (1990) mentions that negative behaviour or emotions may be recalled from the past
during a session and this could later have repercussions for the participant. He suggests that
unless such information is crucial to the study, it should not be included. Since these
participants were responding to open-ended questions or leading the direction of the
discussion, they initiated the topics and were not requested to respond to any intrusive
questions. If the participant wished to bypass any of the ‘schedule’ questions, the interviewer
moved on to the next topic.
Informed Consent
This refers to placing all possible or adequate knowledge with regard to the goal of the study,
the procedures, the credibility of the researcher and the advantages and disadvantages of
being a participant – in the hands of the individual. The person needs to fully comprehend
the possible impact for themselves and make a clear decision on participation. Of course, the
participant should be legally and psychologically competent to give consent. These
participants were all older adults who had maintained sound working careers for most of their
adult life and were viewed as being able to make their own decision with regards to
participation. Information with regards to this project was first given over the telephone
when the request for their participation was made. Before beginning the interview, a more
detailed overview of this research work was communicated and if the participant chose not to
continue, this would have been respected. In practice this did not happen.
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
44
Deception of Participants
Judd, Smith and Kidder (1991) suggest that this may be done to disguise the real goal of the
study or hide the experiences that subjects will go through. Since much of the information
for this study was volunteered by the participants, this was not believed to be an issue for
concern.
Violation of Privacy
The individuals were given a commitment that their interview information would remain
anonymous and that this would ensure their privacy. All information has been kept in a
secure, locked and private place and has not been accessible to others. Before the tape
recorder was used in the interview session, respondents were asked for their consent for its
use. The respondents were asked for their permission to participate in the research and were
read a letter explaining the objective of the study, and given time to ask any questions.
Furthermore, they were given assurance that there would be no personal referrals in the
written findings and that their particular information would be combined with that of other
participants in a general report. Verbatim quotations would be used in the text but the source
would remain anonymous. Anonymity for the participant in the final research text is my
responsibility as researcher and is an important ethical concern. The final story or outcome
could also be shaped by the researcher from the reflexive and intimate sharing of stories – the
researcher needs to be watchful about changing the participants stories or meaning.
Publication of the Data
The findings of this study will be presented to the academic community and presented in as
clear and trustworthy a manner as possible. The participants will all receive a document
outlining the findings. This will be written in such a manner that it is not too detailed or that
it discloses any issues of confidentiality (Huysamen, 1993).
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
45
Debriefing Sessions
After receiving a summary of the findings of the research, all participants will be offered the
opportunity to verify their information and the content of their individual interviews. At the
same time the individual will have the opportunity to clear any misconceptions, to ask further
questions, to make comments on his or her experience of the interview process and his or her
participation in the study. The research experience should be a positive learning experience
for the participants as well as the researcher and Dane (1990) comments that a debriefing
session is an ideal opportunity. Three debriefing sessions were held prior to the completion
of the study – the balance of the participants will be invited to a session once the general
summary is written.
Permission for Conducting the Research
Each participant was read a letter, Application for Permission to Conduct Research (see
Appendix A) giving the background to the research project, the process of the research, the
academic context and the objective for the study. They were asked if they understood the
document and if there were any questions. At a later stage each participant signed the letter.
Competence of the Researcher
The authority of the researcher is elaborated on in the Section 3.5 Measures to Ensure
Trustworthiness.
Respect for Participants
Oakley (1981) takes a stand with regards to ‘human’ face to face interviews. She feels that
most traditional interviews treat the participant as an object or a number and that the tactics
used are manipulatory. In feminism or feministic interviewing a subjective reflexivity is
accepted and is used to counter the supposed, objective, value-free discourses. In this
research an attempt has been made to reduce the distance between ‘self’ and ‘other’ and
maintain a close relationship with the interviewees. Punch (1986) suggests that as
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
46
researchers we need to exercise moral responsibility and common sense; Fontana and Frey
(1994) add that this should be to our participants first, the study next and ourselves last.
Researcher’s Degree of Involvement
Fontana and Frey (2000) discuss further issues such as the researcher’s degree of
involvement with the participants and the manipulation of the respondents as objects. These
ethical problems were not seen to be relevant to this study.
Accuracy
Christians (2000) comments “that data that are internally and externally valid are the coin of
the realm, experimentally and morally” (p. 140). Fabrications, fraudulent materials as well as
omissions are contrary to the spirit of social science research. The researcher has attempted
to communicate the participants stories as accurately as possible.
A Sacred Discourse
There is a shift from individualist utilitarianism to feminist communitarianism (Lincoln &
Denzin, 2000); Christians (2000) clarifies this as a new way forward in the field of ethics.
Social and feminist ethics go beyond the utilitarian models of the past, which is not meant to
reduce the value of informed consent, deception or confidentiality. Compassion and
nuturance resolve conflicting responsibilities amongst people and this moves us beyond
merely avoiding harm. The desire to offer counselling recommendations is indicative of a
desire to take action in a helping mode to enhance the ‘life chances’ of unemployed people.
A sacred discourse moves us forward to a universal human ethic emphasising the sacredness
of life, human dignity, truth- telling and non-violence (Christians, 1997).
Axiology
There is a recent move to include ‘values’ as part of the ethics domain in qualitative research
and Lincoln and Guba (2000) refer to axiology in this regard. This introduces the
consideration of and dialogue around the role of spirituality in human inquiry; the place
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
47
where the spiritual meets the social. Values are seen to feed into the research process with
each process decision taken and this stresses how qualitative research is value-laden.
Decisions such as choice of the problem, choice of paradigm and choice of method all reflect
the basic beliefs of the researcher.
Phase 6: The Art of Interpretation
Once the data is reduced, analysed and reformatted into a text which makes sense, given the
multiple meanings expressed – the task is to interpret the material. This is not a
straightforward deductive process but a creative leap from the results and field text to
producing a meaningful storyline. Van Maanen (1988) suggests that the final tale from the
field may have many forms such as confessional, realist or impressionary.
This research tells the story of the unemployed experience. I have described the participants
comments, emotions, experiences and thoughts and attempted to find underlying meaning(s)
in their responses to their unique situations. This qualitative project is a ‘realist’ story about
entering into the world of the unemployed and bringing it to light and making it alive for the
reader (Clough, 1992). Denzin and Lincoln (1994) write that the researcher moves from the
field to the text to the reader, each step involving a reflexive process. Within the
constructivist paradigm there is the reality of the reader, the researcher and the participants.
Creswell (2003) describes a process for the inductive logic of research in a qualitative study.
The first step is the collection of data, the researcher asks open-ended questions – the data is
then analysed to form themes or categories. What follows is the creative step of
interpretation wherein the researcher looks for broad patterns, generalisations or theories
from the themes. Finally there is the generalisation (or theory) to past experience and
literature. This process was followed step by step with the resulting theory being a ‘pattern
theory’ rather than a theory devised from deductive reasoning. Neuman (2000) explains that
pattern theories are systems that inform – the concepts and relations within them form a
mutually reinforcing, closed system. Creswell (2003) writes that pattern theories are an
explanation that develops during naturalistic or qualitative research.
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
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3.4 STRATEGY OF INQUIRY
Phenomenology, which aims to understand and interpret the meaning that subjects give to
their everyday lives (De Vos & Fouche, 1998) was chosen as an appropriate strategy for this
study. The researcher attempts to place herself in the position of the participant and elicit
rich data through the medium of interview or audiotaped conversations. Both types of
interaction were used in this study. Unstructured interviews with a schedule were the more
formal tool and yet informal, reflexive conversations developed at times as the researcher
engaged in a real conversation with give and take (Fischer & Wertz, 2002). Phenomenology,
as an approach, considers how lived experience is constructed through perception. Husserl
(1970) has insisted that an assumption of phenomenology is that the relation between
perception and its objects is not passive and that human consciousness actively constitutes the
objects of experience.
Bracketing and intuiting is much spoken of in data analysis in qualitative method. Burns and
Grove (1987) explain that in bracketing the researcher puts aside his preconceived notions or
ideas about the phenomenon being studied in order to achieve an open context. They
continue that intuiting occurs after the process of bracketing when the researcher focuses all
awareness and energy on the data or part of the data to allow an increase of insight. Absolute
concentration and absorption with the experience being studied is necessary. In the data
analysis phase the researcher was aware of both bracketing and intuiting as an attempt was
made to reach an understanding of the nuances being discussed or the subtleties of the story
of the participant. Poggenpoel (1998) refers to these reasoning strategies used in data
analysis (on bracketing and intuiting) and quotes Burns and Grove (1987) in that regard. I
was aware that as a ‘gendered’ researcher with a particular history it was useful for me to
remind myself of my areas of potential bias whilst analysing material, yet from a
contextualist viewpoint one cannot be entirely removed from the interpretation.
When following a traditional interview format in qualitative research the researcher is
expected to avoid becoming involved in a real conversation and should not answer questions
asked by the participant, interviewers are not expected to give opinions. However, in
‘gendered’ or creative interviewing the researcher may decide to engage in a real
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
49
conversation with empathetic comments, which allows for the expression of feelings in the
interview , making the exchange more honest, morally sound and reliable (Douglas, 1985).
Rules are forgotten to allow research participants and the interviewer to express themselves
more freely. There is, however, a balance required with gendered interviewing, as Bruner
(1990) explains, there is a danger in putting yourself (the researcher) so deeply in the text that
it dominates. No-one advocates such self-indulgence. It appears that critical judgement is
required.
3.5 MEASURES TO ENSURE TRUSTWORTHINESS
Denzin (1994) suggests that the positivist terms of reliability and validity be replaced in
qualitative research within the constructivist paradigm by the notions of trustworthiness and
authenticity. Trustworthiness consists of four aspects which are described as credibility,
transferability, dependability and confirmability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Denzin continues
that although the constructivist paradigm is not supportive of post-positivist assumptions,
Lincoln and Guba (1985) are still embracing the elements of “good science” in their
commitment to methods and procedures that display trustworthiness. It would appear that
this aspect of qualitative research is still moving through change and is unresolved. Lincoln
and Guba (2000) continue to grapple with the place of validity in the new paradigms and
indicate that the central question is how do we know that our social inquiry has delivered
‘faithful’ findings upon which we may feel safe to take action or the community may
respond. The debate continues not so much around which criteria to use but rather whether
the nature of social inquiry should change. Lincoln and Guba (2000) refer as well to the
authority of the text and whether we can genuinely lay claims to being accurate, true and
complete, that is, offer a Gods-eye view.
These are indeed taxing and confusing questions and I can make the choice and decide that
criteria for validity, given a contructivist paradigm, are not applicable, that the ‘truth’ is
subjective and hence not available for external consideration. Alternatively, I can follow, to
some degree, the guidelines of trustworthiness and attempt to introduce some rigour in the
research study. I have decided on the latter.
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
50
Guba and Lincoln (1994) elaborate on the two sets of criteria for judging the quality or
‘goodness’ of a research inquiry, that is its trustworthiness. The criteria of credibility
parallels with internal validity; transferability parallels external validity; dependability
parallels reliability and confirmability addresses objectivity. Authenticity is the criteria of
fairness.
Poggenpoel (1998) supports Guba’s model of trustworthiness as one that is well developed
conceptually and in use by qualitative researchers. She uses the term ‘truth value’ for
credibility. We do need to be reminded that qualitative studies stress the social construction
of reality, the intimate relationship of the researcher with what is being studied (as well as the
situational restraints) hence the value laden nature of such research is stressed.
Quantitative studies emphasise measurement within a ‘value free’ environment and reliability
and validity are central to such research. However, Guba and Lincoln (1994) attempt to bring
some rigor into the evaluation of qualitative studies. The future use of ‘trustworthiness’ in
qualitative research is likely to evolve and change as the discipline matures.
The four aspects of trustworthiness are elaborated upon by Schurink, (1998) and Poggenpoel,
(1998) i.e. credibility or truth value, transferability or applicability, dependability or
consistency and confirmability or neutrality.
Credibility (Truth Value)
This criterion will be used to determine the extent to which the findings are representative of
the experience of unemployed adults in this sample, whether the researcher has confidence in
the “truth” of the findings based on the design, participants’ contributions and the context.
This could be tested by asking other unemployed individuals if these findings reflected their
experience and if they recognise the major themes that are tabled. Another worker in the
field of unemployment or an ‘expert’ could be approached to make comment on the
credibility of the findings.
In this research process follow up interviews were arranged with three of the participants.
These interviews lasted one to one and a half hours. The participants were asked to
reconfirm their most critical experiences of being unemployed. This was compared with the
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
51
overall storyline and main themes that were arrived at previously. With all three participants
the key themes were confirmed. Thereafter I went through their typed transcript with them
and asked for confirmation of my understanding of their experiences. I was quite surprised to
hear them almost ‘verbatim’ repeat their previous comments. I asked for comments on my
time scale graph, A Suggested Pictorial Expression of the Unemployed Experience over
Time (Figure 3.1) and received two major adjustments to the shape of the graph. Firstly,
after leaving their job or being retrenched there was not as great a period of ‘shock’ as I had
anticipated. Secondly, after finding employment the return to ‘normal’ functioning was
dramatic and instantaneous and not as slow as I had predicted. Changes were made to the
Time Scale graph.
In terms of prolonged engagement, the researcher has worked in the field of unemployment
and career counselling for twelve years and has in addition known the participants and their
environment, the industry within which they work. The authority of the researcher plays an
important role in assessing the truth-value of the research. The researcher’s authority for
proceeding with the research is based on the following criteria. I am a registered Industrial
Psychologist (with a theoretical and academic background); I have worked in an
organisational context for more than twenty years (practical experience); I have worked with
unemployed adults for twelve years in a career counselling as well as in a recruitment and
selection role (career counselling experience); I have written and conducted a training
program for unemployed graduates, and finally, working with the unemployed is of particular
interest for the researcher and hence enhanced attention is given to these activities.
Transferability (Applicability)
This criterion refers to the transferability of these findings to other contexts, groups or
settings. This could be established by a ‘face value’ confirmation, which would occur when
another unemployed adult from another industry or age group reads the findings and confirms
that much in the findings relates to his/her experience. The fit with the background
literature, journal articles and peer studies would in addition confirm the applicability of the
findings. The background literature and content of the journal articles were to a large extent
supported by the experiences expressed by the participants.
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
52
Dependability (Consistency)
Lincoln and Guba (1985) define consistency in terms of dependability. This criterion will
denote the similarity of the results of other studies using a similar sample group from the
same contexts. To allow for the conducting of a similar project, a clear description is needed
of the data collection and data analysis methods so that other researchers could follow the
process of this work. An attempt has been made to do so. From another perspective if one
assumes that there are multiple realities in qualitative research this notion is no longer
relevant. In terms of the interactive interview process whereby a different reality would
emerge with each participant, and the unique involvement of a particular researcher in the
research text – each author is likely to bring his or her reality into the text. Krefting (1990)
comments that if there are multiple realities the notion of reliability is no longer relevant.
Confirmability (Neutrality)
This refers to the degree that the findings are the texts of the participants and that the
influence of other biases, motivations and perspectives is recorded and made allowance for.
The personal history of the researcher has been written up in considerable detail and is to be
found at the beginning of this chapter. Bracketing is also discussed in the methodology in
terms of an attempt being made to put aside one’s biases when one is integrating and
analysing the findings of this research; intuiting has, in addition, been discussed as a thought
process to enhance neutrality.
It is necessary to add that a researcher speaks from a perspective of class, race, gender and
culture and orchestrates the qualitative research process. It is a ‘value laden’ process where
recognition of bias may be more authentic than the pretence of neutrality (Lincoln & Denzin,
1994, 2000). In quantitative research objectivity is the criterion of neutrality and is achieved
through adherence to reliability and validity; it is also achieved through distancing the
researcher from the participants. Qualitative work has other intentions such as decreasing the
distance between researcher and participant and neutrality is not desired during the process of
the research. Guba and Lincoln (1994) suggests that it is the neutrality of the data that should
be considered and not that of the researcher.
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
53
Triangulation
With triangulation the researcher may decide to use more than one method or more than one
source of data to arrive at the research findings. Denzin (1978) identifies four types of
triangulation. These types include data triangulation, a variety of sources of data or sampling
strategies, investigator triangulation (use of different researchers, coders or interviewers),
theory (different perspectives to interpret the data) and method triangulation (multiple
methods within one research project). Frequently researchers use triangulation as a
combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches. Finally, interdisciplinary
triangulation is seen to be an integration of perspectives which would assist in obtaining a
‘holistic’ view of the experiences or phenomena being studied.
In this research triangulation was used in the following instances. An in depth case study
could have been used, however, the decision was to use eight participants (purposive
sampling) and thereby obtain a broader perspective. One method, that of the unstructured
interview was used but within that main interview method other systems were introduced
reflecting a more ‘creative’ method of interviewing. At times the interview reflected an in-
depth methodology, at other times open-ended questions were introduced, conversation
developed as well, with the interviewer at times answering questions or passing comment.
Although this research is viewed through the lens of a constructivist paradigm (whereby a
unique reality is created in the reflexive interaction between participant and researcher) the
analysis of the data into themes by an independent coder was arranged.
The themes that the independent coder arrived at confirmed those of the researcher. Her four
major themes reflected exactly the analysis of the researcher, however, her ordering of
importance differed, as did her main story line which she described as a story of loss. The
researcher’s overarching theme was one of coping with crisis – loss is reflected as a minor
theme within other themes.
In terms of using different perspectives to interpret the data, multiple theories underpinning
this project are reflected at each stage of the research. The chapter on recontextualisation of
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
54
the research into theory and literature gives, in depth, detail of the theories underpinning this
inquiry.
A promoter’s knowledge and skills have, in addition, been drawn upon to confirm or
disconfirm processes or information in this study (expert supervision). Finally all
respondents have been invited back to receive a summary of the findings and confirm or
question their individual transcripts (member checking) and group findings. Peer viewing
has also taken place in terms of a seminar where critical appreciation and feedback was
requested.
To use multi-perspectives, methods or data to arrive at the trustworthiness of a qualitative
project makes common sense in terms of creditworthiness. Janesick (1994) refers to
triangulation as a heuristic tool for the researcher.
Sources of Bias
Janesick (2000) reminds us that qualitative research is ideologically driven and hence there is
no bias-free or value-free inquiry. The qualitative researcher declares her paradigms,
explains her social, philosophical and physical location in the study and source of bias – the
reader is therefore able to discern the ideological viewpoint and make allowances for it. The
researcher is not able to rid him or herself of his or her cultural self which is brought to the
inquiry (Hughes, 1992). The researcher should still be aware about his or her views and
uncover these perspectives particularly on issues central to the research. Questions of bias on
race, age, class or gender should be attended to.
When evaluating the quality of qualitative reports, Lincoln and Guba (2002) refer to
resonance criteria which assess the degree of overlap between a qualitative report as written
and the basic belief system which the inquirer has chosen to follow. The construction has an
obligation to be self-examining, self-questioning, self-critical and self-correcting. There
should be conscious reflexivity to expose bias.
Sadler (2002) refers to biases which arise simply from being a person. ‘Man’s’ performance
as an intuitive data processor (as in qualitative research processing) shows evidence of
Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method
55
misperception, misaggregation and defective inference all of which lead to suboptimal
assessments. He continues that these biases are linked to our national processes of cognition.
These biases may be summarised as data overload, first impression, availability of
information, missing information and unreliability of information amongst others. This
draws attention to common failings or limitations in human information-processing and
through this understanding better evaluations should emerge.
Other sources of bias identified by Sadler (2002) are ethical compromise (due to payoffs or a
conflict of interest with a funding agency) and biases traced to the researcher’s background,
knowledge, experience or world view, which he acknowledges as a natural and necessary
element in qualitative research.
Verification includes checking for bias, which can enter into the conclusions drawn.
Huberman and Miles (1994) write that data overload could skew the analysis (information
overload); the salience of first impressions could influence the researcher; overconfidence
with the data could lead to superficial analysis; one could misinterpret co-occurrences as
correlation; there could be unreliability of information from certain sources and finally the
over-accommodation of information that should be seen to question conclusions drawn.
During the analysis phase these checks and balances were kept in mind.
3.6 CONCLUSION
This chapter completes the discussion on the research objectives, process and method and
leads into the following chapter, which will report on the results of the unstructured and semi-
structured interviews with the participants. In conclusion, to mention again that in qualitative
research the data are usually complex and ambiguous and sometimes downright
contradictory, analysis is a matter of coming to terms with it and passing on conclusions
which clarify and deepen understanding (Miles & Huberman, 2002).