Research Methods

Studying Behavior Scientifically

O Behavior must be measurableO Methods and data must be objectiveO Procedures must be repeatableO Scientists must be able to

communicate the results of experiment to others

O Experimenters must use an organized and systematic approach in gathering data

ETHICAL GUIDELINESO Research involving human subjects

must meet the following standards:

O 1. INFORMED CONSENT = participants must know that they are involved in research and give their consent.

O 2. DECEPTION = Deception may be allowed as long as it doesn’t invalidate the informed consent. Researchers must be careful about the trauma deception may cause.

ETHICAL GUIDELINESO 3. COERCION = Participants cannot

be coerced in any way to give consent to be in the study.

O 4. ANONYMITY = the identities and actions of participants must not be revealed in any way by the researcher.

ETHICAL GUIDELINESO 5. RISK = participants cannot be

placed at significant mental or physical risk.

O 6. DEBRIEFING = participants must be told the purpose of the study and provided with ways to contact the researcher about study results.

Purpose of ResearchO To find ways to measure and

describe behavior.O To understand why, when, and how

events occur.O To apply this knowledge to solving

real-world problems.

To seek Cause & Effect researchers use experimental method.

Experimental method: a standardized way of making observations, gathering data, forming theories, testing predictions, and interpreting results.

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION:O Hypothesis = A testable prediction

that expresses a relationship between two variables.

O Falsifiable = written in a way that someone could possibly prove it to be untrue.

O Confirmation bias = A tendency to search for information that comfirms our preconceptions.

O EX. “Children who watch scary movies are more likely to have nightmares than are children who don’t watch scary movies.”

=

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

TERMINOLOGYO 1. Variables = the events,

characteristics, behaviors, or conditions that researchers

measure and study.O 2. Hypothesis = A testable

prediction that expresses a relationship between two

variables.

O 3. Subject or participant: an individual person or animal a researcher studies.

O 4. Sample: a collection of subjects researchers study.

O 5. Population: the collection of people or animals from which researchers draw a sample. Researchers study the sample and generalize their results to the population.

TYPES OF VARIABLES

Independent Variable = the experimental factor that is

manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studies.

Dependent Variable = the experimental factor that is being measured; the variable that may

change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

OperationalizationO Operationalization: to put an experiment into a

form that allows researchers to test the hypothesis

Independent variable Dependent variable

DECIDING WHO OR WHAT TO STUDY

O The goal in selecting a sample is that it be representative of a larger population.

O Random sample = a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

O Random assignment = assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

RANDOM ASSIGNMENTS

O Experimental Group = Group of subjects that receives the treatment or is exposed to the independent variable.

O Control Group = the group that does not receive the treatment or receives a treatment presumed to be effective. (Placebo & placebo effect)

Video O The Strange powers of the placebo

effect

CONTROLLING FOR BIASExperimenter Bias = the unconscious tendency

for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control group differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypothesis.

O Double blind procedure: occurs when neither the subjects nor the researcher are aware of group placement.

O Subject Bias = the tendency for subjects to behave in certain ways.

O Single blind procedure: controls subject awareness of group assignment

O Confounding Variables = any variable besides the independent variable that could influence the results of the experiment.

OperationalizationO Confounding variablesO ReliabilityO Validity

What else might cause nightmares?

What makes a movie scary?

SCARY

= ?

How can we tell if a child has had a

nightmare?

TERMINOLOGY

O Validity = the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

• Reliable = the extent to which a test yields consistent results. When it can be replicated it gets similar results.

O Confounding Variables = any variable besides the independent variable that could influence the results of the experiment.

Methods & Techniques

ONaturalistic ObservationOCase StudiesOSurveysOLongitudinal StudiesOCross-Sectional Studies

1. Naturalistic Observation

O Examine behavior “in the field” – natural habitatO No interference

O Considerations:+ behavior is authentic+ describes what happens- doesn’t explain why- lack of control- can be very difficult

2. Case StudyO An in-depth

investigationO One person or

isolated group

O Considerations:+ the more

known, the more helpful

+ useful for unique, rare situations

- intentional distortion, gaps, inaccuracies

- research bias- may not apply to

others

To describe behavior psychologist use case studies, surveys, and naturalistic

observation

O Case studies = Study one or more individuals in great depth. The research collects data through interviews, direct observation, psychological testing, or examination of documents or records.

Correlational method expresses a relationship between two variables

without stating a cause

OPositive Correlation = the presence of one variable predicts the presence of another variable.

ONegative Correlation = the presence of one variable predicts the absence of another variable.

OCorrelations may be either weak of strong and are expressed by a number between -1 and +1. 0 means no relationship.

Correlation between TV watching and GPA

Correlation and Causation

O Alcohol use is associated with violence. (one interpretation: Drinking triggers or unleashes aggressive behavior)

Correlation and Causation

O Adolescents who frequently see smoking in movies are more likely to smoke. (one interpretation: movie stars’ behavior influences impressionable teens)

O A college professor notices that the farther students sit toward the back of the room, the worse their grades in the course seem to be.

O A survey reveals that college students who eat breakfast regularly have a higher GPA than those that don't eat breakfast regularly.

3. SurveyO Sampling of a population

for opinions, facts, characteristics, etc.O written or oral questions

O Target Population = whole group of study

O Sample = those participating in the studyO Random – equal chanceO Stratified – proportionalO When subjects fill out

surveys about themselves, the data is called self-report data.O Why can this be misleading

information?

O Considerations:+ done in relaxed,

cooperative atmosphere+ done by trained personnel+ can gather a lot of data

quickly- may not be accurate- measurement of answers

may be vague- tend to generalize- wording can bias responses- volunteer bias

4. Longitudinal StudyO Select a group –

study over extended time to assess how certain characteristics change or remain the same during development.

O Considerations:+ accurate and

reliable+ allows us to

study developmental issues

- very time consuming

- subject drop-outs

5. Cross-Sectional Study

O Not over time – but many different age groups at same time

O Considerations:+ saves time and money+ results available sooner- less reliable – diff. people,

diff. experiences