Research Methods in Crime and Justice

Chapter 2The Research Process

The Research Process

• There are similarities between the research process and the manner in which police officers conduct investigations.– Researchers and criminal investigators adhere to a

methodological process. – Research hypotheses and criminal allegations are

functionally equivalent.– Researchers and criminal investigators collect

information to prove or disprove their hypotheses or allegations.

Objectives of the Research Process

• The research process is a set of specific steps that, when done correctly, produce data.

• The objectives of the research process are to;– Answer research questions,– Resolve disagreements among researchers,– Fill gaps within the body of knowledge, and– To produce opportunities for more research.

Characteristics of the Research Process

• The research process is;– Generally linear because the steps are usually

completed in a certain order,– Internally cyclical because researchers often find

it necessary to revisit previously completed steps, and

– Externally cyclical because research findings often produce additional questions for future researchers.

Steps in the Research Process

• Step 1: Ask a Research Question• Step 2: Conduct a Literature Review• Step 3: Refine the Research Question• Step 4: Define the Concepts• Step 5: Create the Measures• Step 6: Design a Method• Step 7: Collect the Data• Step 8: Analyze the Data• Step 9: Interpret the Results• Step 10: Communicate the Findings• Step 11: Ask Another Question

The Research Process

• Step 1: Ask a Research Question– Research questions should be actual questions

that can be answered.– Research questions should not be mere

statements that make some claim– Research questions often begin with casual

observations.– From these observations, and the curiosity of the

researcher, research questions emerge.

The Research Process

• Step 2: Conduct a Literature Review– A literature review is a summary of what previous

researchers have learned about a particular topic.– It is a researcher’s ethical responsibility to locate,

understand and communicate what previous researchers have learned about a particular topic.

– There are five commonly used sources of information. Each of these has advantages and disadvantages.

Sources of InformationSources Advantages Disadvantages

Books Provide good background information.

Information may be obsolete

Scholarly journals Provide objective , reliable and more current information.

Topic coverage is narrow and limited.

Newspapers and magazines

Provide timely information. Information on the methodology and context may be missing.

Internet Provides timely and accessible information.

Information may not be objective.

Experts Provide practical and timely information.

Experts may be biased.

Pyramiding

• Pyramiding – an effective technique for locating research and determining when you have ‘enough’ information.– Use the bibliographies of the research articles you

find to locate additional sources.– Commonly cited researchers or studies are

indicators of quality or authoritative research.

The Research Process

• Step 3: Refine the Research Question– The literature review process informs researchers

and enables them to;• Refine their research questions,• Identify a theory related to their research

questions, and• Propose a hypothesis that predicts the answer

to their research questions.

The Research Process

• Step 4: Define the Concepts– Conceptualization is a process by which

researchers define the concepts in their hypotheses.

– It is a rather difficult process in the social sciences because the concepts we measure are more difficult to quantify.

– Conceptualization is important because it determines how researchers will actually measure concepts.

The Research Process

• Step 5: Create the Measures– Operationalization is the process by which

researchers develop methods for measuring the concepts they defined during the conceptualization process.

– The operational measures must include all dimensions of the conceptual definition.

The Research Process

• Step 6: Design a Method– The method is the process by which a researcher

will gather the data necessary to answer the research question.

– There is no ‘one best way’. All research methods have advantages and disadvantages.

– The most important part of this step is to insure that the method will produce sufficient data in the appropriate form to answer the research question.

The Research Process

• Step 7: Collect the Data– The process by which researchers collect data

depends on their research methodology (e.g. surveys, experiments, field observations, etc.)

– Because ‘things can go wrong’ during the data collection process researchers should develop contingency plans.

The Research Process

• Step 8: Analyze the Data– A plan for data analysis should be developed early

in the research process.– A-priori assumptions establish what the data

must reveal for a researcher to confirm the hypothesis.

– Researchers code, enter and clean data before running statistical tests or performing other types of analysis.

The Research Process

• Step 9: Interpret the Results– Research findings should be interpreted within the

context they arise.– Research findings are subject to the limitations of

the available data.– When findings are interpreted to mean more than

they actually do, the researcher has overreached the data.

The Research Process

• Step 10: Communicate the Findings– The actual format of the research report depends

on where it is published.– Scholarly articles follow a standard organizational

format.– Identifying the weaknesses and strengths of a

research project is essential when communicating the findings.

– Visual images (e.g. charts and figures) are often more communicative than words.

Getting to the Point

• The objectives of research are to answer research questions, to resolve disagreements among researchers, to fill gaps within the body of knowledge, and to produce more research questions.

Getting to the Point

• The research process is characteristically linear in that the steps must be completed in a certain order.

• However, the process is also internally cyclical, because researchers often have to revisit previous steps, and externally cyclical, because good research leads to additional research questions.

Getting to the Point

• Research questions should be actual questions that can be answered rather than statements that make some claim.

Getting to the Point

• The literature review involves locating and understanding what previous researchers have learned about a topic.

• Researchers rely on several sources during the literature review process, each source has advantages and disadvantages.

Getting to the Point

• The literature review process helps researchers;– refine their research question, – identify a theory related to their research

question, and – propose a hypothesis that predicts the answer to

their research question.

Getting to the Point

• Conceptualization is a process by which researchers define the concepts in their hypotheses.

• These definitions are important because they determine how researchers actually measure the concepts they use in their research.

Getting to the Point

• Operationalization is the process by which researchers decide on how they are going to measure their concepts as they have defined them.

• Often it is necessary to measure concepts along multiple dimensions.

Getting to the Point

• The process by which researchers collect data depends on their research methodology.

• Things can and do go wrong in the process of data collection.

• Researchers should develop contingency plans in case problems arise.

Getting to the Point

• Researchers should pre-test their method to be sure that the research method(s) they use will produce the data necessary to actually answer their research question(s).

Getting to the Point

• A plan for data analysis is developed early in the research process.

• A-priori assumptions establish what the data must reveal for a researcher to confirm their hypothesis.

• Researchers code, enter and clean the data before running statistical tests or performing other types of data analysis.

Getting to the Point

• Research findings should be interpreted in the context in which they arise and are subject to the limitations of the available data.

• When findings are interpreted to mean more than they actually do, the researcher has overreached their data.

Getting to the Point

• The actual format of the research report depends on where it is published.

• Scholarly articles follow a standard organizational format .

• Identifying the weaknesses and limitations of the research is critical when presenting research findings in publications or at conferences.

Research Methods in Crime and Justice

Chapter 2The Research Process