Research Methodolgy (1)

8/17/2019 Research Methodolgy (1)

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Research Methodology

Professor S.S. Khullar

Abhay S Nair

Denitions:


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1) Research: careful and systematic study in some eld of knoled!e

undertaken to establish facts or "rinci"le#) Scientic method$careful and systematic): the ay in hich the

researcher is !oin! ith the e%idence and facts to reach conclusion in a

rationed manner

&) 'usiness research: the a""lication of scientic method for ndin! truthin the business "henomena. (hese include denin! business

o""ortunities "roblems monitorin! the business "erformance and

!eneratin! alternati%e course of actions

(y"es of research

1) 'asic research $"ure research): it is a "latform for the a""lied research.

*t is the curiosity of a scientic +uestion#) A""lied research: in%esti!ation of the ndin!s of ,"ure- or basic

research to determine if they could be used to de%elo" ne "roducts

or technolo!ies&) /"lanatory research: unstructured and +ualitati%e in nature. *t is not

used to dra conclusion. Data is more te/tual ith "ictures. 0ut"ut of

e/"lanatory research becomes the in"ut of conclusi%e research. e

commonly !o for secondary data otherise con%enient sam"les2) 3onclusi%e research: structured and +uantitati%e in nature out"ut of

conclusi%e research becomes in"ut of 4*S 5mana!ement information

system6a. Descri"ti%e research: e/"lains the datab. 3asual research: cause and e7ect relation

8) (heoretical research: the data hich is e/istin! and in more +ualitati%e

in nature9) m"irical research: the data is collected and measured as "art of

sur%ey e%idence.) *ndi%idual research: A research hich is conducted by an indi%idual

sin!le handedly is knon as indi%idual research;) ) 0"eration research: to nd out the o"timum utili?ation of

resources to ma/imi?e "rot.11) Action research: undertaken by teams to deal ith a "roblem and

nd a ay in hich an outcome can be obtained $collaborati%e in+uiry

of systems).1#) @istorical research: an attem"t directed toards a "henomenon

occurred in the "ast. *t is to understand the "ast trends and its cause


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and e7ect. (his hel"s to understand the "resent e%ents and "redict

future e%ents1&) ualitati%e research: +ualitati%e research is desi!ned to re%eal a

tar!et audienceBs ran!e of beha%ior and "erce"tions that dri%e it ith

reference to s"ecic to"ics or issues.

12) uantitati%e research: deals in number lo!ic*m"ortance of research:

1) (o nd the o"timal solution to business related "roblems#) (o analy?e and nd out hat is the "osition of the com"any in the

market in hich it o"erates.&) (o forecast the demand of already launched "roduct or a "roduct to be

launched2) Research hel"s the !o%ernment to come u" ith an e7ecti%e "olicy to

run the state administration.8) @el"s the !o%ernment to ado"t a technolo!y that is benecial for the

society.9) Social control and "erformance

Ste"s in%ol%ed in research

1) Denin! research "roblem should be s"ecic uniformly and similarly

understandable to all#) *dentifyin! the research obCecti%es&) Research desi!n

a. Selection of research a""roachb. Selection of sam"lin! "lan

c. Selection of +uestionnaires schedules obser%ational format schedule E self lled by the inter%ieer

+uestionnaires E lled by the inter%ieeed. Pilot study

2) 3ollection of data $"rimary or secondary)8) Presentation of data

a. (abularb.


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Selects "romotional techni+ues

4arketin! research hel"s in decidin! the "romotional techni+ues hich could

be em"loyed


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Su""lies marketin! information

4arketin! research su""lies data about the market situation

(his market E related data is used to nd out:

1) (he "resent and future demand and su""ly "osition.#) (he le%el of com"etition and ste"s taken to control it

&) 4arket o""ortunities2) (he cause of fall in sales le%el

%aluates marketin! "erformance

4arket research hel"s the com"any to e%aluate its marketin! "erformance

and to take ste"s to im"ro%e it.

4arket research is also used to nd out the e7ect of "rice "acka!e brand

name etc. on sales

4iscellaneous needs

1) *m"ro%es eHciency of the marketin! de"artment creates !oodill and

!ood re"utation#) 4arketin! research hel"s take a rational and e7ecti%e decision&) 4arket research hel"s choose a suitable sta7

Research desi!n

Research desi!n is a blue"rint for the research to be conducted

(erms

1) Gariables: are factors hich mi!ht or mi!ht not a7ect an e/"eriment/traneous %ariables: these are those %ariables hich interfere ith the

research

3onfounded relationshi": hen the e/ternal factors are not under

homo!eneity

(reatment: s"ecial conditions !i%en to research

control !rou": the !rou" to hich treatment is not a""lied but is

homo!eneous to the e/"erimental !rou"

/"erimental !rou": the !rou" to hich treatment is !i%en.

Schedule uestionnaireIesser co%era!e @i!her co%era!ePersonal touch No "ersonal touch@i!her cost Ioer cost


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*nter%ie techni+ue

An inter%ie is a con%ersation beteen to or more here +uestions are

asked by the inter%ieer and res"onded by the inter%ieee

(y"es of inter%ies

1) Structured inter%ie#) Jnstructured inter%ie&) ocused inter%ie2) Non directi%e inter%ie8) Personal inter%ie9) (ele"honic inter%ie

A) Structured inter%ie: standardi?ed inter%ie or research administered

inter%ie

inter%ieer decides and "lans in ad%ance the nature and sco"e of

+uestions to be asked from the inter%ieee. Structured inter%ies are

the "referred means of collectin! data for a statistical sur%ey.') Jnstructured *nter%ie: inter%ieer chan!es or mani"ulates the

+uestions in order to meet res"ondentBs intelli!ence understandin! or

belief. *t does not o7er limited "reLset ran!e of ansers for a

res"ondent to choose but instead ad%ocates listenin! to ho each

indi%idual "erson res"onds to the +uestion. 4ostly used for sociolo!y

otherise this techni+ue is rarely used.3) ocused inter%ie: this techni+ue is used to collect +uantitati%e data

by settin! u" a situation $the inter%ie) that allos a res"ondent the

time and sco"e to talk about their o"inions on a "articular subCect. (he

focus of the inter%ie is decided by the researcher toard areas that

the researcher is interested in e/"lorin!. *t uses o"enLended +uestions.D) Non E directi%e inter%ie: this is the inter%ie hich is unstructured

and Me/ible in nature.


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0bser%ation (echni+ues

*.1) Dis!uisedF@idden: hen the subCect under obser%ation is not aare

that he is bein! obser%ed. 0bser%ers "resence is not knon#) Jndis!uised F o"en F %isible: hen the subCect under obser%ation is

aare that he is bein! obser%ed**.

1) Structured: format is decided beforehand from here to start and

here to end. Systematic a""roach for scientic obser%ation is

alays structured#) Jnstructured: format is not "reLdecided and is not systematic

***.1) 0%ert obser%ation: obser%erBs a""roach is acti%e. (he researcher

acti%ely "artici"ates in the obser%ation takin! "lace $usually

desi!ned). Doin! the same acti%ities as the "artici"ants

#) 3o%ert obser%ation: researcher or obser%erBs a""roach is "assi%ei.e. not an acti%e "artici"ant in the obser%ation "rocess

*G.1) Natural obser%ation: hen you look at the subCect in the normal

routine en%ironment#) 3ontri%ed obser%ation: hen lookin! at the beha%ior of the

subCect in an articially created en%ironment

hat are the ad%anta!e of obser%ation techni+ue

• Data is %ery much of current scenario accurate.

• e donBt need the coo"eration of the subCect.

• hen the subCect is illiterate and not illin! to coo"erate.

3onditions for obser%ation techni+ues:

1) 0bser%ations should be inferable F to be able to dra conclusion#) 0bser%ation should be re"etiti%e in nature to be able to dra

conclusions $re"etiti%e fre+uencies)


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4easurement and scales4easurement is the "rocess of assi!nin! numbers to the "ro"erties of

em"irical e%ents obCects "ersons etc. in com"liance ith a set of rules.

Scale may be dened as any series of items that are arran!es "ro!ressi%ely

accordin! to %alue or ma!nitude into hich an item can be "laced accordin!to its +ualication

2 ma""in! rules

1) Nominal scale of measurement#) 0rdinal scale of measurement&) *nter%al scale of measurement2) Ratio scale of measurement

3haracteristics of measurement

1) 3lassication: numbers are used to !rou" or sort res"onses. No ordere/ists

#) 0rder: numbers are ordered or ranked&) Distance: di7erence beteen numbers are ordered2) 0ri!in: the number series has a uni+ue ori!in and is indicated by the

number ?ero. (his is an absolute and meanin!ful ?ero "oint.

Nominal scale of measurement

(his scale of measurement refers to the ra data bein! labeled usin!

numbers. Statistical measurements ill not hel" in drain! analysis from the

nominal scale

0rdinal scale of measurement

A""ro"riate measure of central tendency is median. A""ro"riate measure of

dis"ersion is inter+uartile de%iation or +uartile de%iation. 4ostly consumerL

oriented research and attitude measurement rely on ordinal data.

*nter%al scale of measurement

hen data has only & characteristics out of the 2 $classication order

distance ori!in) ith the absence of ori!in it is knon as inter%al scale of

measurement

e.!. > O3 #& OK O3 #;> OK 12 O3 #=2 OK

the numbers are assi!ned to arran!e obCects accordin! to their ma!nitudes

as ell as also distin!uish the ordered arran!ement in units of e+ual

inter%als. *nter%al scale ,lacks a true ?ero or uni+ue natural ori!in-Q it does

not ha%e the ca"acity to measure the com"lete absence of a characteristic.


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A""ro"riate measure of central tendency is mean. A""ro"riate measure of

dis"ersion is standard de%iation.

Ratio scale of measurement

A scale ha%in! absolute +uantities instead of relati%e +uantities and

"ossessin! an absolute ?ero here%er there is an absence of a !i%en

attribute is knon as ratio scale. Ratio scale re"resents the actual amount of

%ariables. 4ost of the statistics techni+ues are usable ith ratio scales. e

can do multi"lication and di%ision on such dataQ !eometric mean and

harmonic mean can be used as measures of central tendency. 3oeHcient of

%ariation can be calculated.

Errors in Measurement

Origin Type of ErrorResearcher *ncorrect +uestion ina""ro"riate analysis

misinter"retation.Sam"le ron! sam"lin! techni+ue not bein! true re"resentati%e of

"o"ulation.*nter%ieer 'iased attitude misinter"retation carelessness etc.

*nstrument *na""ro"riate scale ambi!uous +uestionnaire com"le/

ords inade+uate s"ace to re"ly res"onse choice

omission etc.Situation Iack of ra""ort lack of assurance condition that "laces

strain on inter%ieee

Res"ondent 3asual attitude to re"ly fati!ue may not admit i!norance

boredom etc.

Characteristics of Sound measurement tool

Precise

Unambiguous

Reliable, free from error

Valid

Practical feasibility of the tool

!ccuracy of MeasurementThe e"trent to #hich the measurement is free from systematic and

$ariable errors%Three ma&or criteria of a good measurement'

Reliability' (egree to #hich measures are error free

Validity' !bility to scale


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Sensiti$ity' ! measuring instrument ability to accurately

measure $ariability in stimuli or responses%

*ncrease sensiti%ity: sensiti%ity of a scale can be increased by alloin! for a

!reater ran!e of "ossible scored i.e. by addin! more number of +uestions or

items. (his is re+uired "articularly hen chan!es in attitudes or other

hy"othetical constructs are under in%esti!ation

3riterion %alidity

*t refers to the ability of some measure to correlate ith other measures of

the same construct. *t is assessed hen one is interested in determinin! the

relationshi" of scores on a test to a s"ecic criterion. (his form of %alidityreMects the success of measures used for some em"irical estimatin!

"ur"ose.

)o# to assess reliability*

Scorer reliability: refers to the consistency ith hich di7erent "eo"le

$Cud!esFobser%ers) ho score the same test a!ree. @erein e need to

calculate the correlation beteen ratin!s of to obser%ers.

*nternal consistency reliability

*n *nternal consistency reliability estimation e use the sin!le measurement

instrument administered to a !rou" of "eo"le on one occasion to estimate

reliability. *n e7ect e Cud!e the reliability of the instrument by estimatin!

ho ell the items that reMect the same construct yield similar results. (here

are a ide %ariety of internal consistency measures that can be used such

as:

1) S"lithalf reliability: it in%ol%es s"littin! a test into to e+ui%alent

hal%es and checkin! the consistency of the scores obtained from theto hal%es.

#) 3ronbachBs al"ha: it can be used hen test items are +uantitati%e and

hen they are dichotomous. Researchers "refer to use coeHcient

al"ha hen they ant an estimate of the reliability of a homo!eneous

test.


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Alternati%e form reliability:

ach of the to tests must be desi!ned to measure the same thin! but

should di7er in a systematic ay. (he alternati%e form method is %ieed as

su"erior to the retest method because a res"ondentBs memory of test items

is not as likely to "lay a role in the data recei%ed. 0ne draback of thismethod is the "ractical diHculty in de%elo"in! test items that are consistent

in the measurement of a s"ecic "henomenon.

(estL retest reliability

*t in%ol%es administerin! of the same scale or measure to the same

res"ondents at to se"arate "oint of time in order to test only one form of

measure. (he amount of time alloed beteen measures in critical. *f e

measure the same thin! tice then the correlation beteen the to

obser%ations ill de"end u"on the to measurement occasions. (he shorter

the time !a" the hi!her the correlationQ the lon!er the time !a" the loer

the correlation. (his is because the to obser%ations are related o%er time E

the closer in time e !et the more similar the factors that contribute to error.

(he correlation coeHcient beteen to such sets of res"onses is normally

used as a +uantitati%e measure of the test E retest reliability

+mportance of scaling

• 4easurable

• Precise

• Gariables are amenable to mathematical treatment

Methods of Scaling

(irectundisguised method' prone to errors,

a#areness in admissibily, selfincrimination, etc%

+ndirectdisguised method' Re$eals respondents

attitude, belief, etc% indirectly%

Scaling Techni-ues• Ratin! Scales

o


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b) (hurston LDi7erent scalesc) Summati%e Scales $Iikert Scales)d) 3umulati%eL


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IimitationL

• Jnidimensions

• 3onstructionLtedious com"le/

• Not reliableL com"le/ obCects

E"perimental research

*t in%ol%es mani"ulation of at least one %ariable and control o%er the other

rele%ant %ariables so as to measure its e7ect on de"endent %ariable

(he %ariable$s) hich is mani"ulated is also called inde"endent %ariables a

treatment an e/"erimental %ariables or the cause

/"erimental research ill alays ha%e to or more !rou"s for com"arison

on the de"endent %ariables. *ts obCecti%e is to e/"lore and understand cause

a7ect relationshi".

/"erimental research desi!n E a blue"rint of the "rocedure that enables the

researcher to test his hy"othesis by reachin! %alid conclusions about

relationshi"s beteen inde"endent and de"endent %ariables. *t refers to the

conce"tual frameork ithin hich the e/"eriment is conducted.

Professor R. A. isher reali?ed by di%idin! a!ricultural elds into blocks and

conductin! e/"eriments in each of these blocks indi%idually results in more

reliable informationFoutcomes

(y"es of e/"erimental methods1) Iaboratory e/"eriment

a. /"eriment under controlled condition in a lab similar to natural

conditionb. /"lore cause and e7ect relationshi" beteen %ariablesc. Attem"ts to control e/traneous %ariables.d. 4ani"ulation of inde"endent %ariable

#) Simulationa. 3reatin! articial en%ironment similar to actual natural

en%ironment

b. @ere the study is s"ecic to a "articular situationF"roblem inhand $unlike laboratory method)

&) ield e/"erimenta. /"eriment under real natural en%ironmentb. Re+uired hi!h de!ree to skills and com"etence to conduct studyc. /"eriment conducted in loose situation


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'asic "rinci"les of e/"erimental research desi!n

1) Princi"le of re"licationa. Accordin! to this e/"eriment should be re"eated more than

once. (hus each treatment is a""lied in many e/"eriment units

instead of one in order to increase statistical accuracy

#) Princi"le of randomi?ationa. Accordin! to this e/"eriment should be desi!ned in such a

manner that the %ariations caused by e/traneous factors can all

be combined under the !eneral headin! of ,chance-. (his

"ro%ides "rotection a!ainst the e7ect of e/traneous factors by

"ro%idin! a better estimation of e/"erimental error.&) Princi"le of local control

a. Accordin! to this e/traneous factor is made to %ary deliberately

o%er idest "ossible ran!e such that the %ariability caused by it

can be measured and thereby eliminated from the e/"erimental

error. (hus the e/"eriment should be "lanned in such a ay so

that researcher can "erform to E ay AN0GA $Analysis of

%ariance) in hich the total %ariability of data is di%ided into

com"onents attributed to:i. (reatmentsii. /traneous factoriii. /"erimental error


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Data Processin!

Process of con%ertin! ra data into useful information or knoled!e

*t in%ol%es

1) Data editin!#) Data classication

&) (ranscri"tion2) 3odin!

Data ditin!

A "rocess of locatin! and remo%in! errors incom"leteness or inconsistency

in sur%ey data so it ensures that sur%ey data is accurate com"lete and

consistent

0bCecti%es of data editin! are:

1) (o ensure the accuracy of data#) (o establish the consistency of data&) (o determine hether or not the data are com"lete2) (o ensure the coherence of a!!re!ated dataQ and8) (o obtain the best "ossible data a%ailable

Data 3lassication

3ate!ori?ation of data for its most e7ecti%e and eHcient use is done by

arran!in! data in homo!eneous !rou"s based in similar characteristics. A

ellL"lanned data classication system makes essential data easy to nd.

(his can be of "articular im"ortance in risk mana!ement le!al disco%ery

and com"liance ith !o%ernment re!ulations.

(ranscri"tion

(he "rocess of con%ersion of data from one medium to another is called

transcri"tion. (he data is transferred from inter%ie schedule to a card such

that there is only once card corres"ondin! to each unit in the sur%ey

(ranscri"tion makes sortin! of information easierQ and the records remain

intact ithout any markin! on them

*t is recommended that to indi%iduals make inde"endent transcri"tions to

eliminate the "ossibility of cree"in! transcri"tion errors.

3odin!:

(ransferrin! the data from inter%ie schedule to a card is in the form of

abbre%iation a number an al"habet or symbol hich is assi!ned by

researcher to e%ery schedule item and res"onse cate!ory. Such

re"resentation of data in card is referred to as codin!. 4ock code book is


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constructed for "i%ot study to sho %arious codes that are tem"orarily

assi!ned to di7erent res"onse cate!ories. Iater ra data code book is

"re"ared that contains nal codes to di7erent res"onse cate!ories.


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3om"letely randomi?ed desi!n $3.R. desi!n): *n%ol%es only to "rinci"les

%i?. the "rinci"le of re"lication and the "rinci"le of randomi?ation of

e/"erimental desi!ns. *t is the sim"lest "ossible desi!n and its "rocedure of

analysis is also easier. (he essential characteristic of the desi!n is that

subCects are randomly assi!ned to e/"erimental treatments $or %iceL%ersa).

or instance if e ha%e 1> subCects and if e ish to test 8 under treatment

A and 8 under treatment ' the randomi?ation "rocess !i%es e%ery "ossible

!rou" of 8 subCects selected from a set of 1> an e+ual o""ortunity of bein!

assi!ned to treatment A and treatment '. 0neLay analysis of %ariance $or

oneLay AN0GA) is used to analy?e such a desi!n. %en une+ual re"lications

can also ork in this desi!n. *t "ro%ides ma/imum number of de!rees of

freedom to the error. Such a desi!n is !enerally used hen e/"erimental

areas ha""en to be homo!eneous. (echnically hen all the %ariations due to

uncontrolled e/traneous factors are included under the headin! of chance%ariation e refer to the desi!n of e/"eriment as 3.R. desi!n.

Randomi?ed block desi!n $R.'. desi!n) is an im"ro%ement o%er the 3.R.

desi!n. *n the R.'. desi!n the "rinci"le of local control can be a""lied alon!

ith the other to "rinci"les of e/"erimental desi!ns. *n the R.'. desi!n

subCects are rst di%ided into !rou"s knon as blocks such that ithin each

!rou" the subCects are relati%ely homo!eneous in res"ect to some selected

%ariable. (he %ariable selected for !rou"in! the subCects is one that is

belie%ed to be related to the measures to be obtained in res"ect of the

de"endent %ariable. (he number of subCects in a !i%en block ould be e+ual

to the number of treatments and one subCect in each block ould be

randomly assi!ned to each treatment. *n !eneral blocks are the le%els at

hich e hold the e/traneous factor /ed so that its contribution to the total

%ariability of data can be measured. (he main feature of the R.'. desi!n is

that in this each treatment a""ears the same number of times in each block.

(he R.'. desi!n is analy?ed by the toLay analysis of %ariance $toLay

AN0GA) techni+ue.

Iatin s+uare desi!n

• 3ontrols the e7ects of # non interactin! e/traneous %ariables on the

de"endent %ariable

• *t economi?es the use of test units

• e di%ide each e/traneous %ariable into as many le%els as the

inde"endent %ariable


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• *t does not detect the e7ect of interaction beteen %arious le%els of

the to e/traneous %ariables

• *t re+uires the number for ros columns and treatment to be e+ual

• *n case of the #/# I.S desi!n there are no de!rees of freedom

a%ailable for 4S

1 # & 2

s1 A1 D# '1 31

s# '# c2 A# D&

s& 3& A& D2 '2

s2 D1 '& 3# A2

D.f for residual error nLtLcLrT#

Analy?e

!eneral linear model

uni%ariate

brin! the de"endent%ariable .. model

actorial desi!n

*t is "referred in e/"eriments herein the e7ects of %aryin! more than one

factor are to be determined i.e. number of factors e7ectin! a "articular

"roblem

*t also hel"s to measure the interaction e7ects of %ariables. 4ost "referred

hen # or more inde"endent %ariables interact ith each other

Galidity can be dened as the de!ree to hich a desi!n F test measures hat


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Analy?e classify discriminant $discriminant analysis indo o"ens)

'rin! the cate!orical de"endent %ariable belo the !rou"in! %ariable

dene the ran!e brin! "redicti%e %ariable belo inde"endents select the

radio button ,enter

to!ether

3lick the button statistics select means uniL%ariate AN0GA ithin

!rou"s relations $to check multi collinearity) unstandardi?ed $to estimate

the discriminant function) continue

3lick button classify all !rou"s e+ual ithin !rou"s summary table

lea%eLoneLout classication $for cross %alidation) continue

3lick the sa%e button "redicted !rou" membershi" discriminant scores

continue

3lick the ok button to !et the out"ut screen


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ReadyLtoLeat case analysis

rom the table ,!rou" statistics- and ,functions at !rou" centroids- e

Custify that the sam"le has been di%ided into # !rou"s namely rarely

consumed and eekly consumed. Jsin! the table ,canonical discriminant

function coeHcients- e deri%e the discriminant function as follos:

V1.&>&T>.>2# WaL.&9#WbT>.&1#WcL.28WdT1.>&&WeL.8;WfT.;#;W!X

Analy?in! the tables ,!rou" statistics- folloed by tests of e+uality of !rou"

means e reali?e that the si!nicant "redicti%e %ariables to discriminate the

hea%y and li!ht consumers are taste as com"ared to freshly cooked food $W!)

and "rice reasonability $We) both W! and We are associated ith the P %alues

less than >.>8. (his analysis is further su""orted by the table ,Structure

matri/- herein e notice the hi!hest correlation beteen W! and D score

folloed by >.&92 by coeHcient correlation and D score.

rom the table ,"ooled ithin !rou"s matrices- e notice that no to

"redictors sho correlation coeHcient more than >.8. (hus e conclude

that there does not e/ist a se%ere "roblem of multi collinearity beteen the

"redictor %ariables and hence this model seems to be reliable.

rom the tables ,ei!en%alues- e nd that ei!en%alue >.8; is lar!e enou!h

to e/"lain 1>>Y %ariance ith a canonical correlation of >.98 beteen the

D score and the 1> "redictor %ariables. (his im"lies that 2&.19 Y

$>.98.98) is the contribution of all 1> "redictor %ariables to the %alue of DL

Score. rom the table ilksB lambda e reali?e Iambda>.89= is small

enou!h ith a P %alue >.>>8 $less than >.>8) to conclude that the

discriminant %alue is statistically si!nicant.

rom the table ,functions at !rou" centroid- e deri%e the cut o7 score for

classifyin! the ne res"ondent as follos:

$contd. in "a"er)

rom the table ,classication result e obtain the hit ratio as follos:

@it ratio $$#=T12)F8#)1>> ;#.Y (his im"lies that ;#.Y of the ori!inal cases are correctly classied.

*n cross %alidation e remo%e the rst record out of 8# and deri%e the

discriminant function on the remainin! 81 record. e substitute the %alue of

"redictor %ariable from the remo%ed record to this discriminant function and

check if it as classied correctly. e re"eat this ste" hile remo%in! and


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re"lacin! all records re"eatedly 8# times and reali?e that 98.2Y of cross

%alidated !rou" cases are correctly classied.


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Research Methodolgy (1)