International Journal of Food Studies IJFS October 2020 Volume 9 pages 264–281

Research, Development and Capacity Building for Food andNutrition Security in Sub-Saharan Africa

Afam I. O. Jideania*

a Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, 0950 Limpopo Province,South Africa

*Corresponding authorAfam.Jideani@univen.ac.zaTel.: +27 (0)73 967 6383Fax.: +27 (0)15 962 8078

Received: 29 October 2018; Published online: 18 October 2020Invited paper from the 5th International ISEKI Food Conference - ISEKI Food 2018 - The Food System

Approach - New challenges for Education, Research and Industry

Abstract

This paper focuses on research, development and capacity building in relation to food and nutritionsecurity (FNS) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). It looks at human capacity, education, teaching andlearning, women empowerment, research, innovation and technology, research, indigenous knowledge(IK), institutional aspects, infrastructure, information and communication technologies (ICT), policiesand finance. Professional bodies exist in many countries and the extent to which they engage in FNSawareness creation differs. Food and nutrition insecurity continues to affect people in Africa’s 54 nationswhere the population is expected to double by 2050 with the expected doubling of food productionto keep pace with population growth. Within the continent there is a substantial number of humancapacity professionals who are global leaders in food, nutrition and related professions. Some researchorganisations in the continent directly or indirectly benefit from grants administered by developedeconomies but a challenge exists with brain drain and ageing of qualified and experienced experts.Increasing educational need, coupled with the growing population necessitates attention to ensuringa sustained supply of highly trained, adequately equipped and qualified professionals in the relevantfields of food and nutrition sciences. Higher educational institutions exist in especially those that fallwithin the 500 in world universities ranking. Research activities take place in the continent along withthe translation of research outputs into commercialisable products. Research towards transformingagriculture for improved livelihoods is taking place in different parts of the continent. Education,governance, gender and rural development are the key challenges. Income growth and the impacts ofclimate change on food production have contributed to food insecurity. ICTs can play an importantrole for FNS. Strengthening research, development, capacity building and industry cooperation arecritical for FNS in Africa.

Keywords: Research; Human Capacity; Infrastructure; Policy; Food Security; Africa

1 Introduction

Food belongs at the heart of the culture of Africa,bringing families and friends together. At thesame time, food and its nutrients are essential

for our survival, and food-health issues are nowregarded as being as, or even more, importantthan global warming.Food security of households and individuals inthe developing world is negatively impacted by a

Copyright ©2020 ISEKI-Food Association (IFA) 10.7455/ijfs/9.2.2020.a1

Research, development, and capacity for food in Africa 265

range of issues including chronic poverty, rapidpopulation growth, declining per capita foodoutput/ low food production, poor infrastruc-ture, ecological constraints, limited arable land,inappropriate policies, parasites and diseases,poor water and sanitation, inadequate nutri-tional knowledge, civil war, and ethnic conflicts(Riely, Mock, Cogill, Bailey & Kenefick, 1999).Other factors militating against food security in-clude: seasonal food shortages; high food prices;high unemployment; low level of nutrition educa-tion; and cultural factors and taboos that reduceaccess to food (Aworh & Egounlety, 2011). Of re-cent, income growth and the impacts of climatechange on food production have contributed tofood insecurity. This paper focuses on research,development and capacity issues in relation tofood and nutrition security in Africa.Education, gender and rural development remaina key challenge to the development of Africa.Food security is defined as ‘when all people atall times have access to sufficient, safe and nutri-tious food to maintain a healthy and active life’(Clay, 2003). With the epidemic of obesity in thedeveloped world (Baum, 2014), nutrition refersto the process involved from the choice and con-sumption of food up to its effects on health andwell-being of individuals (Kropff, Van Arendonk& Loffler, 2013). From these definitions, foodand nutrition security in low- and middle-incomecountries still needs significant inputs in termsof higher education, research and community en-gagement activities to have the desired impact(NORHED, 2013).Food and nutrition insecurity continue to affectlarge numbers of people in Africa’s 54 nations.FAO estimates indicate that 925 million peopleare undernourished, with 239 million from subSaharan Africa (SSA) alone (FAO and WEP,2010). Of the nine countries in the world havinghigh population growth rates, five are from SSA(Table 1). Moreover, thirty-three countries inSSA (Figure 1) are among the forty-eight coun-tries globally classified as Least Developed Coun-tries (LDCs) by the United Nations Economicand Social Council (ECOSOC), with character-istics of low income, weak human resources andhigh economic vulnerability (UN, 2012). Re-search, development and capacity building arekey requisites needed by Africa to be able to

tackle the important challenges facing the con-tinent (Table 4).Recent research has revealed that the popula-tion in Africa is expected to double by 2050, andAfrican nations will have to double their foodproduction just to keep pace with populationgrowth (Lartey, 2013). In the past, food pro-duction in Africa has lagged behind populationgrowth, and the source of the problem has beenlow productivity on Africa’s farms. Improvingfarm productivity requires, inter alia, a complexof policy and technological options, such as ad-vocating for the adoption of good mixes of tech-nologies in Africa; focusing on country-specificpriorities, existing policies, availability of infra-structure for research and development; the roleof diverse technologies that exist in Africa in en-suring adequate food security in the continent;nature and scope of indigenous technology op-tions in Africa; examining the current food se-curity situation in Africa; and the opportunitiesoffered by different technologies in addressing thefood security situation (Ozor & Urama, 2013).Diversifying into biotechnology practices in foodproduction will help the continent’s growing pop-ulation in food and nutrition security. Possibil-ities exist for genetic modification involving an-imals, plants, and microorganisms, e.g. genetic-ally modified (GM) foods, GM food ingredientssuch as flavours and gums, and GM enzymes suchas chymosin which contain DNA of bacteria &yeasts.Some benefits of such Genetically ModifiedOrganisms (GMOs) include: improved foodquality including better processing qualit-ies/functionality; dramatic increases in agri-cultural productivity, world food supply (e.g.maize, which is a major staple in many coun-tries in Africa; protection of food (e.g. decreasedcrop losses due to insect herbivory); loweredproduction costs; grocery bill reduction to theconsumer; and safer farm environment (throughfewer/lower insecticide and herbicide use), andreduced exposure to pesticides (Jideani et al.,2013; Keats & Wiggins, 2014). Development andadaption of these technologies by Africa farm-ers requires considerable investment in research,education and capacity building. However, somecountries are against the use of genetically mod-ified crops.

IJFS October 2020 Volume 9 pages 264–281

266 Afam Jideani

As stated by Akinyele (2009) three strategic pil-lars of intervention include

1. support for national and regional centres ofexcellence;

2. support for infrastructure for higher educa-tion, science and technology; and

3. linking higher education, science and tech-nology and the productive sector.

Such an approach will contribute significantlyto the strengthening of African institutions ofhigher education (ADBG, 2008).

2 Human Capacity Building

Capacity is defined as ‘the ability of people, or-ganizations and society as a whole to managetheir affairs successfully’ (Bester, 2015). Capa-city development is the process of unleashing,strengthening and maintaining of such capacity.Leadership matters in capacity development is-sues; as strong capacities with poor leadershipcan cause an organization/country to stumble.On the other hand, strong and positive leader-ship can bring about progress, even with low ca-pacities (Pepping, 2010). Capacity building forfood and nutrition security in Africa would re-quire:

1. capacity development and infrastructurebuilding,

2. government commitment,

3. private sector involvement – including in-dustry, and

4. appropriate policies for reform.

It would also imply the promotion of nationaland regional innovation systems.

In human capacity, there are substantial num-ber of professionals in food, nutrition and re-lated professions in the continent. However,the growth in industries and demand fromrelated international organisations like WHO,FAO, UNICEF, etc creates an apparent scarcityof professional experts in SSA countries. Thiscalls for public-private partnerships (PPP) in

SSA with inherent benefits like the supply ofneeded funds, exposure of local researchers tomore skills, and the creation of an enabling envir-onment for promoting research findings (SPORE,2013). As stated by Hailu (2013) for the agricul-tural sector, and applicable to food and nutrition,forging innovative partnerships at different levelsand building competencies of women and youngpeople could bring about transformative changesin SSA.Research in Food and Nutrition in SSA is fa-cing the challenge of brain drain and ageingof highly qualified and experienced experts whowill retire before the end of next decade. Asreported in SPORE (2013), the goal set bythe New Partnership for Africa’s Development(NEPAD) of investing certain amount of agricul-tural GDP of a country in research and entrus-ted to the Forum for Agricultural Research inAfrica (FARA), could help research among na-tional, sub-regional and international organisa-tions.

2.1 Education, Teaching andLearning

The increasing educational need, coupled withthe growing population in SSA, particularlythe youth, necessitates attention to ensuring asustained supply of highly trained, adequatelyequipped and qualified professionals in the relev-ant fields of food and nutrition sciences. A goodnumber of higher educational institutions (HEI)– universities, colleges and training centres - existin most counties of SSA, the key ones are listedin Table 5. These HEIs offer training in FoodScience/Technology and in Nutrition at Bachel-ors, Masters, and Doctoral levels.The study of food and nutrition is a fast-developing discipline especially with the global-isation of the food industry; and is full of prac-tical, technical and intellectual challenges. Itdraws knowledge from a range of disciplines in-cluding chemistry, biology, physics, psychology,geography, business and even art. A graduateof Food Science/Technology and Nutrition hasthe knowledge and skills to tackle real issues andproblems on food faced by society and industry(Leeds, 2014).

IJFS October 2020 Volume 9 pages 264–281

Research, development, and capacity for food in Africa 267

Figure 1: The 33 Least Developed Countries in sub-Saharan Africa: Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Bur-undi, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Mali,Mauritania, Mozambique, Niger, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia,Sudan, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Lesotho, Liberia, Mada-gascar, Malawi, Togo, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, and Zambia (UN, 2012)

IJFS October 2020 Volume 9 pages 264–281

268 Afam Jideani

Table 1: Nine countries with high population growth rates

Country Population in 2011 Population in 2050 Percent change(in thousands) (projected) (in thousands)

Afghanistan 32,000 77,000 136Democratic Republic of the Congo 68,000 149,000 120Ethiopia 85,000 147,000 73India 1,250,000 1,736,000 39Niger 16,000 56,000 246Nigeria 163,000 392,000 140Pakistan 178,000 279,000 57Uganda 35,000 95,000 173Yemen 25,000 62,000 149

Source: UN, Annual letter from Bill Gates. Department of Economics and Social Affairs. PopulationDivision, UN (2011) The Least Developed Countries: Things to know, Things to do. Office of theHigh representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and SmallIsland Developing States UN (2012). www.un.org/ohrlls. Visited 07-09-2013

The aim and objectives of most Food Science,Nutrition and related programmes in the educa-tion system are similar, in that they strive to:

1. strengthen the Biomedical-Social-Environmental Science Partnership;

2. facilitate the transfer of food and nutritionsciences and their partnerships to relevanttechnologies for human development and en-vironmental sustainability;

3. build the capacity of individuals, institu-tions and the private sector to optimizefood supply so that hunger is overcome,nutritionally-related diseases are prevented,and overall good health is promoted;

4. work with communities to deal with foodand nutritionally-related diseases in waysthat are culturally-sensitive, sustainable andeffective; and

5. support sustainable food and nutritionpolicies based on sound science (Wahlqvist,2006).

To achieve these objectives to their fullest ex-tent, and to ensure that the study of food andnutrition sciences and cognate technologies havetheir impact on the human condition and on na-tional economies, it is imperative that there is

a greater flow of resources into the teaching anddevelopment of these sciences/technologies. Sci-ence/technology partnerships and mounting ma-jor internationally significant projects can help toprovide part of the solution to these major chal-lenges facing all African Universities, and train-ing and research institutions.A snapshot survey of food science and relatedcurricula in 17 universities across 11 Africancountries by Minnaar, Taylor, Haggblade, Ka-basa and Ojijo (2017) revealed the following fun-damental problems:

1. given the tight links between the growingprevalence of processed foods and declininghealth status, solutions to Africa’s emergingpublic health problems will require cross-disciplinary work linking food technology,human nutrition and public health;

2. yet collaborative degree programmes are al-most completely lacking at national, re-gional and international levels for mostcountries in SSA;

3. too little extension work and training(non-degree education); and (iv) very fewuniversities present BSc Nutrition/ BScFood Science/Technology and Nutritionprogrammes.

IJFS October 2020 Volume 9 pages 264–281

Research, development, and capacity for food in Africa 269

Minnaar et al. (2017) also highlighted the follow-ing challenges faced by Food Science and Techno-logy educators: lack of modern food processingequipment; lack of “state-of-the-art” analyticalequipment; lack of technical support within in-stitutions; and insufficient numbers of academicsto run programmes. The low student numbersand poor quality of students (many potentialstudents perceive Food Science and Technologyto be the less attractive compared to other pro-grammes). In addition to the above problems, agood proportion of students are not aware of thedifferences between Food Science, Nutrition andallied professions (Jideani et al., 2013). Othercompounding problems include the facts that:

1. there is little nutrition education at schoollevel (FAO, 2011a), and

2. most Food Security interventions rarely em-phasise the issue of nutrition, and preventionof malnutrition.

Professional training in Food and Nutrition edu-cation and communication is needed not onlyby the new entrants into professions related tofood security, but also by those already in prac-tice, such as Nutrition Educators; AgriculturalEconomists; Agribusiness Executives and Man-agers; Rural Development Specialists, Parlia-mentary Portfolio Committee members on Agri-culture and Fisheries, Food Biotechnologists, Ag-riculture Extension Officers, women farmers, offi-cials from local and regional agricultural researchorganizations, Parliamentary Portfolio Commit-tee members on Water and Environmental Af-fairs, agricultural scientists, officials of state andnational departments of agriculture and fish-eries officials, Cooperatives Development Cen-ters, agricultural ICT experts, farmers and com-munity organizations, Food Security experts /Information Specialists, academics and research-ers from college and universities, officials fromFAO, SADC, IFPRI, USAID, IFAD, NEPAD,CGIAR, scientists in agricultural research insti-tutes, women working in agricultural researchand development, staff of Food and Nutrition As-sociations, etc.

2.2 Women Empowerment forFood & Nutrition Security

Smallholder agriculture must have a central in-vestment focus to support broad-based povertyreduction and food and nutrition security. Fur-thermore, gender issues must not be neglected,as African agriculture and food security are verymuch female-dominated in terms of the actualfarm work (although not in terms of land own-ership and financial benefits). Women make upmore than 50% of the agricultural labour forcein the LDCs (UN, 2012). Women therefore, canplay an important part in helping to improveproductivity, profitability and sustainability ofsmallholder farming. Experts agree that womenare a critical part of expanding agricultural out-put, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. There istherefore a need to

1. develop training and skills programmes inFood Science and Nutrition and agriculturefor African women;

2. make funding available for African womento engage in Food Science and Nutrition re-search and development,

3. establish appropriate mechanisms at alllevels to promote the advancement ofAfrican women economically, culturally andsocially, through provision of equal accessof women and girls to education, basic ser-vices, health care, economic opportunities,and decision-making at all levels (UN, 2012).

The Global Food Security Index (GFSI) showeda 0.93 correlation with the Economist Intelli-gence Unit’s Women’s Economic Opportunity In-dex, a measure of the global environment for fe-male economic participation (Unit, 2012). Simil-arly, an FAO (2011b) report states that as womenmake up 43% of the world’s farmers, women em-powerment would increase total agricultural out-put in developing countries by 2.5% to 4% andreduce hunger globally by 12% to 17%.

IJFS October 2020 Volume 9 pages 264–281

270 Afam Jideani

Table 2: Number of researchers in research & development (R&D) per million population

Countries Number of Researchers

Brazil 1176Russian Federation 3101India 215China 1176South Africa 1113United States 4231Britain 4299South Korea 6899

Source: Qhobela (2018)

3 Research, Innovation andTechnology Development

The number of researchers in research & devel-opment per million population is globally com-parable (Table 2). In the continent there ex-ist scientists “who are unequivocally recognisedby their peers as leading international scholarsin their field for the high quality and impactof their recent research outputs” (NRF/RISA,2019). Hence, the funds made available to uni-versities and research establishments for researchand development have positive impact both interms of excellent scientists, infrastructure andtangible products that are in the market. Nu-merous research activities are taking place inthe continent. This brings to fore the need totranslate research outputs into commercializableproducts and intellectual property. Hence, tra-ditional ways of doing research in laboratoriesand experimental stations and publishing the pa-pers in academic journals will not be enough(Hailu, 2013). As stated by Lartey (2013), pri-ority research with the potential to address un-dernutrition in Africa must focus on how effect-ive research interventions can be incorporatedinto country programmes and scaled up for max-imum effect. Research and innovation are in-formed by development needs to make a goodmodel. Most countries in Africa need national,regional and international partners, as well asthe private sector to tackle food and nutritionneeds and lead to development outcomes thatcan impact positively on the population. In-

creased research in nutrigenomics, i.e. the applic-ation of high-throughput genomic tools in nutri-tion studies and research, is needed in the con-tinent, e.g. to help tackle a non-communicabledisease, such as obesity. Such research willprovide methods and tools for disease preven-tion and health promoting foods that match life-styles, cultures and genetics of people living inSSA. Genes and their variants have been evid-enced to play a role in obesity-associated meta-bolic complications through genetic associationstudies, including candidate gene and genome-wide association approaches in adults and chil-dren (Aguilera, Olza & Gil, 2013). A recent re-port by Baum (2014) states that the overweightpopulation in developing countries has surpasseddeveloped countries, with a higher number ofoverweight or obese adults in developing coun-tries than in rich countries in 2008 (Stevens etal., 2012).As it is for agricultural technologies, a signific-ant reduction of food prices and food insecur-ity in developing countries (IFRI, 2014) will beachieved by the application of different, effect-ive processing innovations and preservation tech-nologies (fermentation, canning, drying, etc) toplant and animal foods. This can most signific-antly reduce food prices and food insecurity inSSA. As “no single silver bullet exists” in foodand nutrition technologies that would provideenough food for the world in 2050, adapting arange of these technologies could yield maximumbenefit for the continent and improve food se-curity. However, a positive outcome depends on

IJFS October 2020 Volume 9 pages 264–281

Research, development, and capacity for food in Africa 271

SMEs gaining access to these technologies andlearning how to use them in food processing op-erations. This underscores the need for improvedfood and nutrition education to ensure that pro-cessors can use the best available technologies fortheir region, location and resources.

3.1 Research at sub-regional andregional levels

Many regional and sub-regional research towardstransforming agriculture for improved livelihoodsis taking place in different parts of the contin-ent. The collaborative project between the Asso-ciation for Strengthening Agricultural Researchin Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA) andthe International Food Policy Research Institute(IFPRI) is a good example which aims at Stra-tegic Priorities for Agricultural Development andAgricultural Research-for-Development in East-ern and Central Africa. The sources of fundingfor such projects are usually from developmentpartners including the United States Agencyfor International Development’s Regional Eco-nomic Development Support Organisation, theEuropean Union, Swedish International Develop-ment Agency and the International Maize andWheat Improvement Center, as well as otherfunding bodies like the FAO, United Nations De-velopment Programme (UNDP), and New Part-nership for African Development (NEPAD).New research areas in Eastern and Central Africainclude:

1. sustainable agricultural water productivityenhancement for improved food security andnutrition;

2. facilitating implementation of policies to en-hance equitable access to input and outputmarkets;

3. developing and upscaling technologies andinnovations for the management of maizelethal necrosis disease;

4. development of smallholder wheat produc-tion systems and value chains;

5. crop-livestock-fish integration to enhancefood security, nutrition and resilience ofsmallholder farms;

6. capacity development for sustainable plantgenetic resources (PGRS) utilization andconservation;

7. strengthening the value chains of fruits andvegetables for improved production, pro-cessing, marketing and nutrition security(ASARECA, 2014).

Cassava which is mostly grown by poor farmers isvital for both food security and for income gener-ation. Through a joint CIAT/ International In-stitute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) project,efforts on Cassava Genetic Resources & Breed-ing, diversity for cassava germplasm have beencentralized at regional research centers like theIITA in Nigeria. In 1996, IFAD and FAO initi-ated work to develop a global strategy for devel-opment of cassava considering its diverse utilisa-tion (Table 3).The Regional Universities Forum for CapacityBuilding in Agriculture (RUFORUM), which islocated at Makerere University, is a consortiumof 42 universities in an increasing number ofcountries. It tackles the oversee of graduatetraining and networks of specialization in thecountries and universities by fostering innov-ative and responsive research; high performingand proactive graduates; a dynamic platform foruniversity networking; advocacy for agriculturalhigher education; and university transformationfor relevance. It aims to becoming an essentialtool for anyone interested in agricultural researchand training in Africa.

4 Indigenous and traditionalknowledge

Most countries in Africa have a rich heritageof indigenous knowledge that is being exploitedin food and nutrition interventions. One ofsuch countries among others, is Kenya wherethe Indigenous Food Plants Programme, usinglocally available edible species to enhance com-munity health, provides income and conservebiodiversity thereby ensuring for and nutritionsecurity (Cousins & Witkowski, 2015). One ofthe aims is to compile a database of the indigen-ous food plants of Kenya through research in the

IJFS October 2020 Volume 9 pages 264–281

272 Afam Jideani

Table 3: Utilisation of cassava

Major uses Products

Human consumption Raw cassavaBoiled cassavaCooked cassava slicesFried cassava slicesFermented cassavaCassava flourMacaroniFufu - porridges or pastes (West Africa)GaplekComposite flour, breadTapiocaGari (West Africa)Cassaripo or tucupaCassava riceBeer

Livestock feed Cassava pelletsCassava mealCassava chips or slicesCassava leaf mealBroken rootsCassava silage

Industrial products Starch, glues, bindersFiller, stabilizer, food dusting agentGlucose, alcohol, acetone, dextrins

Source: CIAT (2004)

field and at the East African Herbarium as wellas the promotion of cultivation, consumption andmarketing of these foods through field demon-strations, educational materials and the media.The programme has three components: research,extension and education. It was necessary as

1. people (e.g. younger generation) who tookpride in their modern food consumption pat-tern) were despising their traditional foodsin favour of exotic foods,

2. poverty, famine, and malnutrition were com-mon in rural areas even though local foodswere readily available, and

3. much local knowledge regarding the nutri-tional value and cultivation of local edibleplants was being lost.

5 Institutional Aspects

Most countries have national professional bod-ies, and the extent to which they engage in foodand nutrition security awareness creation differs(FAO, 2011b). Some of these organisations arelisted in Table 5. They, along with others suchas The African Union of Nutritional Sciences,help to create awareness of food and nutritionsecurity through seminars, conferences and work-shops. They also have linkages with similar or-ganisations at the global level, namely the Inter-national Union of Nutritional Sciences (IUNS),and the International Union of Food Science andTechnology (IUFoST). Regional nutrition leader-ship and institutional capacity building activit-ies is increasingly gathering momentum, for in-stance the partnership between IUNS and the

IJFS October 2020 Volume 9 pages 264–281

Research, development, and capacity for food in Africa 273

Table 4: Challenges militating research, development and capacity towards food and nutrition securityin Africa

Infrastructure and Production Finance andTechnology Issues Issues Policy Issues

Rudimentary technologies Inconsistent quality & quantity Poor market analysisInadequate supply Safety & quality constraints Policy failures - affectingof appropriate packaging domestic resource mobilizationPoor processing methods Poor linkages between producers Inadequate fiscal reforms

& processorsPoor health facilities Climatic conditions - global warming Governance issues -Lack of innovativeness Declining per capita food outputand product diversificationLack of technical expertise Climatic conditions - global warming

United Nations University. Furthermore, inter-scientific union activities have strengthened, e.g.IUNS and IUFoST are collaborating in an on-line Food Science and Technology training initi-ative in Africa. The IUNS President chairs theInternational Science Council initiative on theSciences for Health and Well-Being. This en-gages all major science unions, so allowing newscience platforms and models to develop regard-ing contemporary and future needs (IUNS, 2013;Wahlqvist, 2006).

6 Infrastructure, Information andCommunication Technologies (ICT)

Infrastructure, tools and equipment remains anarea of challenge in most institutions of higherlearning in SSA. However, some institutions ex-ist that are as well equipped for food and nutri-tion research as in developed countries, especiallythose that fall within the top 500 in the WorldUniversities Ranking (WUR, 2014); while othersare a little less well equipped, such as some ofthose that fall within the top 50 in the RankingWeb (RW, 2014) of universities in Africa.The development of renewable energy supply sys-tems has considerable potential in many Africacountries. However, this requires major financialinvestment and technical know-how. This is an-other area where capacity building at all levels iscritical (UN, 2012).Information and Communication Technologies(ICTs) can play an important role for Food and

Nutrition Security (FNS) in Africa. While thepotential benefits of ICT in FNS are immense,ICT has not penetrated sufficiently in the vari-ous aspects of FNS. So far, ICT has remainedat the level of mobile phones in practically everyAfrican village, however the other applicationsfor FNS have remained largely untapped. Pos-sibilities include improved and timely accessingand dissemination of information for supplement-ing the food value chain better and integratedproduction planning, monitoring and follow-up,access to the latest results of research, informa-tion on the latest agricultural production techno-logy, markets, pest and disease control improve-ment of standards of food professionals, etc, allof which can contribute to enhancing productiv-ity and reducing food insecurity in Africa andto meeting the challenges of modernized agro-processing technologies (FAO, 2011a). A majorhindrance to the development of ICT is the in-adequacy of a regular energy supply. In fact,92% of rural households in African LDCs haveno electricity.

7 Policies and Programmes

There have been several initiatives by SSA coun-tries aimed at providing the necessary policyenvironment for addressing malnutrition in linewith the MDG. The various policies articulatethe fact that food and nutrition are an integralpart of the overall national objective of improv-ing nutritional status and socioeconomic well-

IJFS October 2020 Volume 9 pages 264–281

274 Afam Jideani

Table 5: Some institutions and societies relating to Food and Nutrition Sciences in sub-Saharan Africa

Country Institutions/ Societies

Benin RepublicHigher Educational Institutions: Universite d’Abomey-Calavi;l’Universite Nationaledu Cotonou; Agronomiques del’Universite de Benin,lome

Botswana

Botswana Dietetic AssociationBotswana Technology Centre GaboroneNational Food Technology Research Centre, KanyeHigher Educational Institutions: Botswana College of Agriculture, Gaborone;University of Botswana, Gaborone

Cameroon Higher Educational Institutions: Centre Universitaire de Ngaoundere

Cote d’lvoireHigher Educational Institutions: Institute National Superieur del’EnseignementTechnique, Yamoussoukro

DR Congo Higher Educational Institutions: University of Kinshasha; Universite Catholique du Graben

EthiopiaFood Research and Development Centre, Ethiopian Food Corporation, Addis AbabaHigher Educational Institutions: Hawassa University; Addis Ababa University; AwasaJunior Agricultural College of Addis Ababa University; Kotebe College of Teacher Education

Gabon Institute de Recherche Technologique,libreville-Akebe

Gambia Gambia Food and Nutrition Association, Banjul

Ghana.

Technology Consultancy Centre, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi.Ghana Regional Appropriate Technology Industrial Service, TemaGhana Nutrition Association (GNA)Higher Educational Institutions: University of Ghanalegon; Kwame Nkrumah Universityof Science and Technology, Kumasi

KenyaHigher Educational Institutions: University of Nairobi; Egerton University; Jomo KenyattaUniversity of Agric \& Technology, Nairobi; Technical University of Kenya; Moi University;Dairy Training School Naivasha; Egerton University

Lesotho Higher Educational Institutions: National University oflesotho Maseru

Malawi

TCC/PHN Women in Development Project, Namadzi.Malawi Enterprise Development Institute, MpnelaSmall Enterprise Development Organisation of Malawi, BlantyreHigher Educational Institutions: The Malawi Polytechnic; University of Malawi

Mauritius Higher Educational Institutions: University of Mauritius, Reduit

NamibiaDevelopment Centre for Research Information Action in Africa, WindhoekHigher Educational Institutions: University of Namibia

IJFS October 2020 Volume 9 pages 264–281

Research, development, and capacity for food in Africa 275

Country Institutions/ Societies

Nigeria

Federal Institute of Industrial Research, Oshodi (FIIRO)International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, IbabanNutrition Society of Nigeria (NSN)Nigerian Institute of Food Science and Technology (NIFST)National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC)Higher Educational Institutions: Ahmadu Bello University; University of Calabar; MichaelOkpara (Federal) University of Agriculture, Umuahia; Federal University of Agriculture,Abeokuta; Federal University of Technology, Owerri; University of Agriculture, Makurdi;University of Ibadan; Obafemi Awolowo University; University of Nigeria Nsukka; Universityof Maiduguri; Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike;ladoke AkintolaUniversity of Technology, Ogbomoso; Rivers State University of Science and Technology,Port Harcourt; Federal University of Technology, Akure; Federal University of Technology,Yola; Federal University of Technology, Minna; University of Uyo, Uyo; Kogi State University,Anyigba, Bowen University, Iwo; Imo State University, Owerri, Bells University of Technology,Ota; Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki; University of Ilorin, Ilorin; Anambra State Universityof Technology; Bendel State University; Enugu State University of Science and Technology;Yaba College of Technology; Idah Polytechnic, Idah;

Rwanda Higher Educational Institutions: National University of Rwanda

Sierraleone Higher Educational Institutions: University of Sierraleone

South Africa

Food Science Institute for Africa, Human Nutrition Institute, StellenboschMedical Research Council, Nutritional Intervention Research Unit, Tygerberg, Cape TownCouncil for Scientific and Industrial Research, PretoriaAgricultural Research Council - Animal Production, Institute. Human Nutrition and SensoryScience, IreneSouth African Association for Food Science and Technology(SAAFoST)Nutrition Society of South Africa (NSSA)Higher Educational Institutions: University of Pretoria, Stellenbosch University; Universityof Venda; Central University of Technology, Bloemfontein; University of the Free State,Bloemfontein; Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville; University ofJohannesburg; Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria; Durban University ofTechnology; Monash University

SudanFood Processing Research Centre, KhartoumHigher Educational Institutions: Ahfad University for Women, Omurdman; School ofHygiene, Khartoum

Swaziland Higher Educational Institutions: University of Swaziland

Tanzania

Small Industries Development Organisation, Dar-es-SalaamMinistry of Agriculture Training Institute, Mwanza and KilosaNational Food Control Commission, Dar-es-SalaamFood and Nutrition Association of Tanzania (FONATA)Higher Educational Institutions: Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro;University of Dar-es-salaam; University of Dodoma

IJFS October 2020 Volume 9 pages 264–281

276 Afam Jideani

Country Institutions/ Societies

Uganda

Uganda Manufacturers Association, PO Box 6966, KampalaUganda Small Scale Industries Association, MbaleNational Agricultural Research Organisation, KampalaNile Vocational Institute, JinjaHigher Educational Institutions: Makerere University, Kampala; Gulu University;Mbarara University of Science and Technology

ZambiaHigher Educational Institutions: University of Zambia; Natural ResourcesDevelopment Collegelusaka

ZimbabweRanche House College, HarareHigher Educational Institutions: Chinhoyi University of Technology, Zimbabwe;Midlands State University, Zimbabwe; University of Zimbabwe, Harare

being of the people, particularly of the mostvulnerable groups. However, with 115 peopledying every hour in SSA from diseases linkedto poor sanitation, poor hygiene and contam-inated water, there is need to halve by 2015,the proportion of people without sustainable ac-cess to safe drinking water and basic sanitation(UN, 2012). Akinyele (2009) outlined that suchpolicies should aim at:

1. promoting the establishment of a viable sys-tem for guiding and coordinating food andnutrition activities;

2. incorporating food and nutrition consider-ations in development plans and allocatingadequate resources toward solving the prob-lems pertaining to food and nutrition at alllevels;

3. promoting habits and activities that will re-duce the level of malnutrition and improvethe nutritional status of the population; and

4. promoting good indigenous food culturesand dietary habits for healthy living and de-velopment.

Some other challenges common to all SSA coun-tries on food and nutrition security include:

1. lack of government policies on innovationsensitive to the African context in optimiz-ing abundant resources;

2. translation of outputs from R&D into usableand accessible solutions; and

3. lack of nutritional guidelines to help con-sumers and chefs.

Indicators of food insecurity in SSA include verylow levels of average food consumption, largefluctuations of food consumption and the largepopulation of absolute poor (Aworh & Egoun-lety, 2011).

8 Financial and other resources

The impact of the world economic and finan-cial crisis, combined with food and fuel crises,has undermined the development and progressof many developing economies. Lack of finan-cial resources is one of the biggest constraintsto both LDCs and other countries in achiev-ing sustainable development and progress (UN,2012). Increased access to financial services espe-cially for SMEs, increased government spendingon productive capacity-building, and support de-velopment to science and technology by all stake-holders will increase agricultural output and im-pact positively on food and nutrition security.Most countries in SSA have put in place finan-cial resource mechanisms contributing to object-ives such as:

1. internationalising the research platform,

2. enhancing networking within the global sci-ence system,

IJFS October 2020 Volume 9 pages 264–281

Research, development, and capacity for food in Africa 277

Figure 2: International participation in European Union FP7 (Hogan, 2013)

Figure 3: Number of Horizon 2020 applications from the 10 most active third countries, 2014-2016(European Commission, 2018)

IJFS October 2020 Volume 9 pages 264–281

278 Afam Jideani

3. fostering collaboration in order to improvethe quality of research outputs by research-ers,

4. promoting research into how climate changecan alter agricultural strategies to supportfood security and nutrition in Africa,

5. identifying research priorities for Food Se-curity and Nutrition Adequacy,

6. tackling land issues that impact on Food andNutrition Security,

7. investigating ways to meet the food and nu-trition needs of the Africa’s growing popu-lation without damaging the soils,

8. collecting and disseminating national stat-istics for policy, planning and research

9. developing knowledge and approachesthrough applied research, and

10. developing irrigation and water harvestingsystems to increase production.

Research organisations in African countriesdirectly or indirectly benefit from financial sup-port administered by developed economies likethe EU-Horizon 2020 (n. d.), which is theEuropean Union’s biggest (2014-2020) ever re-search and innovation framework programme.However, few countries in the continent wereamong the top participants in the EU-FrameworkProgramme 7 (2007 - 2014) grant as shown inFigure 2. The strategic programme (focus areas)of most developed economies include: Personal-ising health and care for quality of life, sustain-able food security, and water innovation (Hogan,2013). In addition to bilateral and multilateralfinancing instruments, Africa has put in placeseveral domestic financing mechanisms. A goodexample is the National Research Foundation(NRF) of South Africa. The internationalisa-tion of research is an intrinsic part of fundinginstruments, built into research grants awardedthrough programmes such as Competitive Fund-ing for Rated Researchers, the South AfricanResearch Chairs Initiatives (SARChI), and theCentres of Excellence (CoE) Programme (NRF,2014). The number of Horizon 2020 applications

from the 10 most active third countries, 2014-2016 is shown in Figure 3) (European Commis-sion, 2018).

9 Conclusion

Strengthening research, development and capa-city building is critical for food and nutrition in-security in Africa. This will require among othersactions, the

1. acceptance of the application of biotechno-logy in food production by all countries,

2. effective collaboration within and outsidesub-Saharan Africa,

3. provision, by the government of each coun-try in the continent, of enhanced financialand technical support to research and in-novation, science and technology, includingstrengthening national and regional institu-tions,

4. ensuring that science and technology aremainstreamed into national developmentand sectoral policies as this will ensure bet-ter information dissemination typical of di-gitalisation age,

5. broadening access to secondary, tertiary andvocational education and skill developmenttraining,

6. eliminating gender disparities in educationand training,

7. increasing the quality of education andtraining at all levels,

8. helping African countries go beyond MDGeducation targets, especially in increased en-rolment and decreased drop-out rates,

9. strengthen the sharing of knowledge, appliedresearch and extension as well as transferof technology under mutually agreed termsto African countries and support them instrengthening their capacity to manage theirnatural resources, and

10. good governance for greater efficiency andbetter delivery of goods and services.

IJFS October 2020 Volume 9 pages 264–281

Research, development, and capacity for food in Africa 279

Good governance and rule of law are essentialfor sustained, inclusive and equitable economicgrowth, sustainable development and the eradic-ation of poverty and hunger (UN, 2012). Also,attention is needed in reducing food losses as ithas immediate and significant impact on live-lihoods and wellness, tackling poor infrastruc-ture (access to farm gate, processing facilit-ies/consumer), developing irrigation, water har-vesting systems, use of renewable energy, effect-ive use of resource wealth - land resources forfood crops, and nutrition education and commu-nication - helping people to improve their dietthrough discussion, demonstration and practice(FAO, 2011a; FAO and WEP, 2010).

Acknowledgements

The University of Venda, South Africa, ResearchGrant is hereby acknowledged.

References

ADBG. (2008). Strategy for higher education,science and technology (adbg) revised edi-tion. operations policies and compliancedepartment. Retrieved from http : / /www . afdb . org / fileadmin / uploads /afdb / Documents / Policy - Documents /10000019 - EN - STRATEGY - FOR -HIGHER-EDUCATION-SCIENCE-AND-%20TECHNOLOGY.PDF

Aguilera, C., Olza, J. & Gil, A. (2013). Geneticsusceptibility to obesity and metabolic syn-drome in childhood. Nutricion Hospital-aria, 28, 44–55. doi:10.3305/nh.2013.28.sup5.6917

Akinyele, I. O. (2009). Ensuring food and nu-trition security in rural nigeria: An assess-ment of the challenges, information needs,and analytical capacity. International FoodPolicy Research Institute (IFPRI) NSSP,7, 80. Retrieved from http ://www. ifpri .org / sites / default / files / publications /nsspbp07.pdf

ASARECA. (2014). ASARECA sets stage fornew research projects. Association forstrengthening Agricultural Research inEastern and Central Africa. Retrieved from

https://www.asareca.org/news/asareca-sets-stage-new-research-projects

Aworh, O. C. & Egounlety, A. M. (2011). Statusof food science and technology in westafrica. IFT and IUFoST.

Baum, S. (2014). Obesity problem in developingcountries surpasses other nations. medcitynews. Retrieved from http://medcitynews.com/2014/01/obesity/#ixzz2pS00NFqL

Bester, A. (2015). Capacity development. a re-port prepared for the united nations de-partment of economic and social affairs forthe 2016 quadrennial comprehensive policyreviewqpcr2016 - study on capacity devel-opment. Retrieved from https : / / www .un . org / en / ecosoc / qcpr / pdf / sgr2016 -deskreview-capdev.pdf

CIAT. (2004). Cassava: A Crop for Hard Timesand Modern Times. Retrieved from http://www.ciat.cgiar.org/ciatinfocus/cassava.htm

Clay, E. (2003). Trade reform and food security:Conceptualizing the linkages. (Chap. Foodsecurity: concepts and measurement). FAOExpert Consultation. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/y4671e/y4671e06.htm#bm06

Cousins, S. R. & Witkowski, E. T. F. (2015).Indigenous plants: Key role players incommunity horticulture initiatives. HumanEcology Review, 21 (1), 59–86. Retrievedfrom https : / / www . jstor . org / stable /24875120

European Commission. (2018). Horizon 2020in full swing. three years on - key factsand figures 2014-2016. directorate-generalfor research and innovation, directoratea - policy development and coordinationunit a.5 - better regulation, b-1049 brus-sels luxembourg: Publications office of theeuropean union, 2018. doi:10.2777/316104

FAO. (2011a). The need for professional train-ing in nutrition education and communic-ation. report on seven case studies car-ried out in botswana, egypt, ethiopia,ghana, malawi, nigeria, and tanzania. fao-bmelv project gcp/int/109/ger, united na-tions. Retrieved from http : / / www .fao . org / ag / humannutrition / 29493 -0f8152ac32d767bd34653bf0f3c4eb50b.pdf

IJFS October 2020 Volume 9 pages 264–281

280 Afam Jideani

FAO. (2011b). The state of food insecurity in theworld 2011, fao, rome.

FAO and WEP. (2010). The state of food insec-urity in the world. food and agriculture or-ganization and world food programme. Re-trieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/%20i1683e/i1683e.pdf

Hailu, M. (2013). Research that matters. themagazine for agricultural and rural devel-opment in acp countries, spore no. 161, p.3. Retrieved from http://spore.cta.int

Hogan, S. (2013). International collaboration inhorizon 2020. ec international strategy forresearch and innovation. ist-africa 2013,nairobi. Retrieved from http : / / www .ist - africa . org / home / files / ISTAfricaHorizon2020 310513.pdf

IFRI. (2014). Agricultural technologies could in-crease global crop yields as much as 67percent and cut food prices nearly in halfby 2050. International Food Policy Re-search Institute. Retrieved from https ://www.ifpri.org/news- release/agricultural-technologies - could - increase - global - crop -yields-much-67-percent-and-cut

IUNS. (2013). IUNS 20th International Congressof Nutrition Granada Spain September 15-20.

Jideani, A. I. O., Takalani, T., Silungwe, H.,Kyei, K. A., Beswa, D., Kgatla, T. E.& Mashau, M. E. (2013). Evaluation ofthe perception and awareness of food sci-ence and technology amongst high schoollearners in limpopo province of southafrica. African Journal of Agricultural Re-search, 8 (21), 2572–2581.

Keats, S. & Wiggins, S. (2014). Future diets: Im-plications for agriculture and food prices.

Kropff, M. J., Van Arendonk, J. A. M. & Loffler,H. J. M. (2013). Food for all: Sustainablenutrition security. Wageningen UR.

Lartey, A. (2013). Research to improve infant nu-trition in africa. Annals of Nutrition andMetabolism, 63.

Leeds. (2014). Food science and nutrition – un-dergraduate degrees 2014. school of foodscience and nutrition, faculty of mathem-atical and physical sciences, university ofleeds. Retrieved from www.food.leads.ac.uk/undergraduates

Minnaar, A., Taylor, J. R. N., Haggblade, S., Ka-basa, J. D. & Ojijo, N. K. O. (2017). Foodscience and technology curricula in africa:Meeting africa’s new challenges. In Globalfood security and wellness (pp. 247–276).Springer.

NORHED. (2013). The norwegian programmefor capacity development in higher edu-cation and research for development. Re-trieved from https : / / www . google . com /#q = The + Norwegian + Programme +for + Capacity + Development + in +Higher+Education+and+Research+for+Development

NRF. (2014). The national research foundation(nrf), south africa. Retrieved from http://www.nrf.ac.za/

NRF/RISA. (2019). Definition of nrf rating cat-egories. national research foundation/ re-search and innovation support and ad-vancement, south africa.

Ozor, N. & Urama, K. (2013). The role of tech-nology in ensuring adequate food securityin africa. Development, 56 (2), 266–273.

Pepping, F. (2010). Capacity development: Chal-lenges and opportunities. SCN News, (38,Suppl.), 11–13.

Qhobela, M. (2018). Scientific research is sa’sfuture. Mail and Guardian Newspaper,34 (30).

Riely, F., Mock, N., Cogill, B., Bailey, L. &Kenefick, E. (1999). Food security indic-ators and framework for use in the mon-itoring and evaluation of food aid pro-grams. Nutrition Technical Assistance Pro-ject (FANTA), Washington, DC.

RW. (2014). Ranking web of universities in afric.Retrieved from http://www.webometrics.info/en/africa

SPORE. (2013). Public-private partnerships, afair deal? the magazine for agricultural andrural development in acp countries, no. 161.Retrieved from http://spore.cta.int

Stevens, G. A., Singh, G. M., Lu, Y., Danaei, G.,Lin, J. K., Finucane, M. M., . . . Cowan,M. (2012). National, regional, and globaltrends in adult overweight and obesity pre-valences. Population health metrics, 10 (1),22. doi:10.1186/1478-7954-10-22

IJFS October 2020 Volume 9 pages 264–281

Research, development, and capacity for food in Africa 281

UN. (2011). Annual letter from bill gates. depart-ment of economics and social affairs. pop-ulation division.

UN. (2012). The least developed countries:Things to know, things to do. office of thehigh representative for the least developedcountries, landlocked developing countriesand small island developing states (ohrlls).Retrieved from www.un.org/ohrlls

Unit, E. I. (2012). Global food security index2012: An assessment of food affordability,availability, and quality. London: The Eco-nomist.

Wahlqvist, M. L. (2006). Towards a new gen-eration of international nutrition scienceand scientist: The importance of africa andits capacity. Journal of Nutrition, 136 (4),1048–1049. 18th International Congress ofNutrition, Durban, SOUTH AFRICA, SEP21, 2005.

WUR. (2014). World universities rank-ing. Retrieved from http : / / www .timeshighereducation . co . uk / world -university - rankings / 2013 - 14 / world -ranking

IJFS October 2020 Volume 9 pages 264–281