Research ArticleEpidemiological Survey on PorcineCysticercosis in Nay Pyi Taw Area Myanmar

Tin Aye Khaing12 Saw Bawm2 Soe Soe Wai2 Ye Htut1 and Lat Lat Htun2

1Department of Veterinary and Slaughterhouses Nay Pyi Taw Development Committee Nay Pyi Taw Myanmar2Department of Pharmacology and Parasitology University of Veterinary Science Nay Pyi Taw 15013 Myanmar

Correspondence should be addressed to Saw Bawm bestshadowgmailcom

Received 30 September 2014 Revised 6 January 2015 Accepted 16 February 2015

Academic Editor Raul J Bobes

Copyright copy 2015 Tin Aye Khaing et alThis is an open access article distributed under the Creative CommonsAttribution Licensewhich permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited

Cross-sectional surveys were conducted to determine the prevalence and associated risk factors of Taenia solium cysticercosis inpigs within Nay Pyi Taw area Myanmar Meat inspection in three slaughterhouses ELISA test and questionnaire surveys wereconducted in this studyThree hundred pigs were inspected in slaughterhouses and 364 pigs were randomly selected and examinedfrom 203 households from three townships in Nay Pyi Taw area The prevalence of porcine cysticercosis in meat inspection was2367 (71300) Seroprevalence of T solium cysticercosis in pigs in the study area was 1593 (58364) Significant associated riskfactors with T solium cysticercosis were gender (OR = 30 95 CI = 17ndash54) increased age (OR = 23 95 CI = 12ndash42)husbandry system (OR = 51 95 CI = 24ndash112) feed type (OR = 169 95 CI = 23ndash1243) not using anthelmintics in pigs(OR = 119 95 CI = 50ndash285) not using anthelmintics in owner (OR = 25 95 CI = 14ndash44) no hand-washing before feeding(OR = 315 95 CI = 43ndash2309) and pork consumption of owner (OR = 374 95 CI = 90ndash1561) in the study area This is thefirst report of porcine cysticercosis in Myanmar

1 Introduction

Human neurocysticercosis (NCC) is caused by larval stageof zoonotic tapeworm Taenia solium (pork tapeworm) whichremains a major public health problem in developing andsome developed countries [1] The World Health Organiza-tion estimates that eight people per 1000 worldwide haveNCC [2] This leads to epilepsy madness blindness anddeath [3] NCC can also occur in individuals who do notraise pigs or consume pork Porcine cysticercosis is the causeof human taeniasis and neurocysticercosis is a consequenceof taeniasis Based on the available information a veryconservative and rough economic estimate indicates that theannual losses due to porcine cysticercosis in 10 west andcentral African countries amount to about 25 million Euros[4] Ito et al [5] also stated that in China the amount of porkdiscarded in the whole country due to cysticercosis annuallyhas been estimated as 200000000 kg with a value of morethanUS $120000000Dorny et al [6] stated that notably data

on Myanmar are lacking although there are several reportsof porcine cysticercosis based on meat inspection in theabattoirs in neighboring countries 93 in India [7] 325in Nepal [8] 54 in China [9] 002ndash263 in Indonesia [10]and 004 to 09 in Vietnam [6]

Although most of Myanmar culinary habits are basedon thorough cooking new food style such as barbecue anddishes based on raw or undercooked pork or pork productbecomes popular among customers Moreover small-scalepig husbandry has become one of the major sources ofincome inMyanmar farmers So it may be high risk of gettingfood-borne zoonotic diseases according to the new foodstyle and traditional husbandry method Due to lacking ofinformation on porcine cysticercosis in Myanmar up to nowit is important to investigate the prevalence and associatedrisk factors

Nay Pyi Taw area the capital of Myanmar has bigpopulation of pigs (about 200000 pigs) [11] to supportthe demand of pork consumption in this area Most of

Hindawi Publishing CorporationJournal of Veterinary MedicineVolume 2015 Article ID 340828 5 pageshttpdxdoiorg1011552015340828

2 Journal of Veterinary Medicine

the pig farmers are smallholders and most of pig husbandrysystems are free ranging or semi-intensive with lack of propersanitation

One of the main obstacles to control the T soliuminfections is the lack of adequate epidemiological dataon cysticercosistaeniasis Therefore the objectives of thiscommunity-based study were to investigate the prevalenceof porcine cysticercosis and associated risk factors in pigswithin study area Moreover findings of this study will assistto develop the control strategies of porcine cysticercosis forthe public health aspect

2 Materials and Methods

21 Study Design Study Area and Sample Size The cross-sectional studies were conducted from January to March andJune to July 2014 to investigate the prevalence of Taeniasolium cysticercosis in slaughtered and farmed pigs withinPyinmana Lewe and Tatkon townships Nay Pyi Taw area Itis located between latitude 19∘451015840N and longitude 96∘61015840E andwith climate data the altitude is 115m above sea level annualrainfall is 115mm and annual temperature is 212ndash325∘CThetargeted population was 180000 pigs in three townships [11]during the sampling period The number of sampled pigswas calculated using the formula stated by Thrusfield [12]An expected prevalence of 30 with a confidence level of95 was used in this unit In this study 300 slaughteredpigs and 364 farmed pigs from the study area were examinedalthough calculated samples were 298 and 323 respectively(Table 1) Blood collected from the jugular vein of farmedpig was conducted for the seroprevalence and a structuredquestionnaire with both closed and open-ended questionswas administered to owners to obtain management practicesin pig husbandry Piglets younger than twomonths pregnantsows and nursing sows with litters less than two months oldwere excluded from this study to overcome the stress whichcauses adverse effect in animals

22 Meat Inspection in Slaughterhouses Meat inspectionwas carried out as described by Boa et al [13] in thethree slaughterhouses of these townships There were 300randomly selected pigs recruited and 9 different muscles(tongue masseter brain shoulder diaphragmatic heartskeletal fore limb and hind limb muscle) from each pig inmeat inspection Briefly long and parallel incision into themassetermuscles on both sides of face in an upward directionwas made A deep longitudinal incision covering about 34the thickness of the tongue and covering the whole lengthof the tongue was made to examine the cysts After openingthe pericardium the heart was also visually examined for thepresence of cysts The heart was cut open and a deep (34 thethickness of septum) incision into the septum was made toexpose any metacestodes All the other muscles were viewedpalpated incised by surgical blade and visually examined

23 Blood Collection and Antibody-ELISA Test for the Detec-tion of IgG Antibody of T solium Cysticerci The pig waskept under restraint at standing position and blood samples

Table 1 Distribution of the number of samples in pigs within thethree townships for blood collection

Number Township Pig population Number of sampled pigs1 Pyinmana 39000 812 Lewe 86000 1723 Tatkon 55000 111

Total 180000 364

were obtained from the external jugular vein by usingsterile disposable syringes and put into vacutainers with clotactivators Those vacutainers were kept in cold boxes withice and transported to Department of Pharmacology andParasitology University of Veterinary Science Nay Pyi Tawand allowed overnight at 4∘C to clot To obtain serum theclotted blood was separated by centrifugation at 4000 rpmfor 10 minutes The clear sera were transferred to 15mLmicrovial tubes and stored in labeled wails and kept at minus20∘Cuntil analysis

Detection of IgG antibody of T solium cysticerci wascarried out by using antibody-ELISA kit (NovaTec Immundi-agnostica GMBH Co Belgium) according to manufacturerrsquosinstruction Briefly all thawed samples were diluted as 1 + 100with IgG Sample Diluent (phosphate buffer) before assayingThe 100 120583L controls and diluted samples were dispensedinto their respective wells and the foil was covered Afterincubation for 1 hour at 37∘C and the foil being removedthe contents of the wells were aspirated and washed threetimes with washing solution And then remaining fluid wascarefully removed by tapping strips on tissue paper The100 120583L protein A conjugate (horseradish peroxidase) wasdispensed into all wells except A1 and covered with foil andincubated for 30min at room temperature After washingthree times 100 120583L TMB (331015840551015840-tetramethylbenzidine)substrate solution was dispensed into all wells and incubatedfor exactly 15min at room temperature in the dark Thereaction was stopped by adding 100120583L stop solution (02MH2SO4) The absorbance was determined at 450620 nm

using an ELISA reader (Stat Fax) In each ELISA kit testingthere are two cut-off controls (C

1and D

1) The mean

absorbance of these cut-off controls was used as cut-off valueSamples are considered ldquopositiverdquo if the absorbance value ishigher than 10 over the cut-off and samples are consideredldquonegativerdquo if the absorbance value is lower than 10 below thecut-offThe sensitivity and specificity of these kits to diagnoseswine cysticercosis are 938 and gt95 respectively

24 Household Questionnaire A questionnaire was devel-oped and used to collect information on hypothesized riskfactors and other related pieces of information from sampledpig owners Households in each township were selected byusing the snowballing technique from those farmers willingto participate in the study It is a technique for developing aresearch sample where existing study subjects recruit futuresubjects from their acquaintances

25 Statistical Analysis The questionnaire interviewed datawere analyzed for the relationship between the prevalence

Journal of Veterinary Medicine 3

Table 2 Distribution and odds ratio of associated risk factors concerning porcine cysticercosis in Nay Pyi Taw area

Factor Level 119899 Positive case Negative case Odds ratio 119875 value

Gender Male 221 22 199 3043 (1704ndash5436) 0000lowastFemale 143 36 107

Age lt6 month 291 39 252 2274 (1220ndash4235) 0012lowastge6 month 73 19 54

Husbandry system Intensive 146 8 138 5134 (2354ndash11195) 0000lowastSemi-intensive 218 50 168

Feed type Only commercial feed 71 1 70 16907 (2300ndash124302) 0000lowastBoth with kitchen waste 293 57 236

Use of anthelmintic in pigs Yes 183 6 177 11891 (4957ndash28526) 0000lowastNo 181 52 129

Use of anthelmintic in owner Yes 242 28 214 2492 (1409ndash4407) 0002lowastNo 122 30 92

Hand-washing before feeding Yes 110 1 119 31538 (4307ndash23092) 0000lowastNo 254 57 197

Pork consumption of owner No 177 2 175 37405 (8965ndash156068) 0000lowastYes 187 56 131

lowastSignificant association at 005 level

of T solium cysticercosis and hypothesized risk variablessuch as age gender of pigs husbandry system feed typeenvironment of pig farm (accessibility of human feces)personal hygiene of owners pork consumption cooking andeating habit of pork use of anthelmintics in pigs and ownersand knowledge on taeniasis They were examined for testingits significance by Pearson chi-square test at120572= 005Thedatawere analyzed by using SPSS (version 16)

3 Results

31 Seroprevalence of Porcine Cysticercosis in Farmed PigsSeroprevalence of porcine cysticercosis in farmed pigs was1593 (58364) in the study area

32 Prevalence of Households with Porcine CysticercosisPrevalence of households with pigs infected with T soliumcysticerci by Ab-ELISA examination was 2315 (47203households) The households with porcine cysticercosis inPyinmana Lewe and Tatkonwere 012 (0) 13124 (1048)and 3467 (5075) respectively

33 Prevalence of Porcine Cysticercosis in Meat InspectionThe prevalence of porcine cysticercosis investigated by meatinspection was 2367 (71300) All the infected pigs pre-sented parasites located in the tongue Only in one piganother parasite was found located in the heart In noneof the animals evaluated parasites were found in the otherlocations examined The prevalence in slaughterhouses ofPyinmana Lewe and Tatkon townships was 22 (44200)2333 (730) and 2857 (2070) respectively

34 Risk Factors Associated with Porcine Cysticercosis Uni-variate analysis of hypothesized risk factors of gender (OR= 30 95 CI = 17ndash54) increased age (OR = 23 95 CI

= 12ndash42) husbandry system (OR = 51 95 CI = 24ndash112)feed type (OR = 169 95 CI = 23ndash1243) no hand washinghabit before feeding (OR = 315 95 CI = 43ndash2309) notusing anthelmintic in pigs (OR = 119 95CI = 50ndash285) andowner (OR = 25 95 CI = 14ndash44) and pork consumptionof owner (OR = 374 95 CI = 90ndash1561) was significantlyassociated with Cysticercus cellulosae infection (119875 lt 005)The distribution and odds ratio of significant risk factorsconcerning porcine cysticercosis are shown in Table 2

4 Discussion

In Southeast Asia pigs are an important source of food andeconomic important for smallholder farmers Older pigs maybe penned or tethered although common raising practice ofpigs is freely roaming in the village [14] In Myanmar mostof the pig farmers are smallholders and practice as free-rangeor backyard farming In Myanmar most of the pig farmersusually keep the weaned pigs until six to eight months ofage and then send to slaughterhouse In the village everyhousehold keeps at least one pig not only for table wastefeeding to pigs but also for extra income Most farms arehaving the habit of feeding waste materials such as swilland kitchen leftover broken rice rice bran groundnut mealsesame meal and local forage and poor sanitation

The present study is the first report of T solium cysticer-cosis in pigs inMyanmarThis investigation showed relativelyhigh prevalence of porcine cysticercosis in the study area Pigsin the study area positive for cysticercosis have been exposedto T solium eggs Among the 17 hypothesized risk factorseight factors were evaluated as having association

The gender of pigs (being female) was significantlyassociated with porcine cysticercosis in this study It canbe explained that female pigs were for kept long time forbreeding purpose than male and so they have more risk to

4 Journal of Veterinary Medicine

get exposed to T solium eggs However Jayashi et al [15]reported that gender was not a significant risk factor forporcine cysticercosis

The present study demonstrated that the older the pigsthe greater the chance to get infection These results are inagreement with those reported by Pouedet et al [16] Jayashiet al [15] Sarti et al [17] Garcıa et al [18] and Pondja etal [19] Older pigs might also have greater chance to getexposed to T solium eggs than younger ones They mighthave much time to develop cyst and trigger the productionof circulating antibodies Besides it could be possible thatyounger pigs are protected during their first months of lifeagainst parasite infection due to the presence of maternalcysticercus antibodies and they become susceptible later afterthe slow clearance of those antibodies

The result showed that pigs from households practicedsemi-intensive system (the pigs are allowed to roam freelyin the environment and only panned or tethered at feedingtime and night) weremore likely to have porcine cysticercosisthan intensive (the pigs are kept in the backyard or corraland not allowed to roam) pigs Therefore semi-intensivemanagement system represented as an important risk factorfor porcine cysticercosis in the study area as the pigs in thispractice could access the infected human faeces Accessibilityof infected human faeces is the main source for porcinecysticercosis [17 19 20]

Among the feed types used in pig farms feeding ofkitchen waste is significantly associated with cysticercosisIn the farms most of housewives usually collect swill inpoor cleanliness containers from neighboring houses Thismight be contaminated with T solium eggs from infectedfood preparers of swill collected houses So the collectedswill should be cooked thoroughly before feeding to preventinfection including cysticercosisHuman taeniasis is themainsource for porcine cysticercosis [21]

Use of anthelmintic in pigs and owners was signifi-cantly associated in this study By interviewing the farmersand township veterinary officers the most common usedanthelmintic is albendazole in human and ivermectin inpigs Although ivermectin cannot kill any larvae of cestodealbendazole can kill these larvae Not having taeniasis inowners is preventive factor against cysticercosis [18]

Although all the farmers wash their hands after feedingthe pigs only 212 famers (43203) wash their handsbefore feeding All cysticercosis positive samples were fromthose who do not practice hand-washing habit Thereforehand-washing is a crucial factor for prevention of porcinecysticercosis However there was no literature about thisfactor associated with porcine cysticercosis But health edu-cation and sanitary infrastructure are involved in the controlmeasure for swine cysticercosis [17]

About half of farmers (114203) consume the pork curryin this study All positive samples were from the ownersconsumed pork (51 households) They might have taeniasisand cysticercosis due to cooking habit and poor sanitationPork consumption of owners is also one of the risk factors insurvey of porcine cysticercosis [19]

Nine hypothesized risk factors not included in analysiswere breed of pigs place of purchase presence of latrine

hand-washing after feeding the pigs source of water for pigscleanliness of water knowledge on taeniasis and cysticercosisand occurrence of cyst in pork In this study all pigs areindigenously bred All pigs were purchased from within theirtownship All farmers have latrines using water but thechildren do not use latrine and are used for defecation outof latrine Some farmers washed the hands before feedingthe pigs and all farmers washed their hands after feedingAll farmers used water from wells having good sanitationAll farmers did not have the knowledge on taeniasis andcysticercosis and they have never seen the cysts in the porkin the study area

The presence of zoonotic agent Cysticercus cellulosaemay depend on intrinsic factors age gender and extrinsicfactors pig husbandry system hand-washing habit of owneruse of kitchen waste as pig feed not using anthelmintic inpigs and owners and pork consumption of owner in the studyarea Presence of this infection is of public health importancebecause it may lead to the occurrence of neurocysticercosisin human

Although the occurrence of human neurocysticercosishas not been reported yet in Myanmar all public shouldtake awareness of potential risk factors due to the prevalencewith high percentage observed in this studyMyanmar has nonational monitoring program for T solium cysticercus sppin these animals yet Therefore it is advisable to monitorwhether there is high or low prevalence of T solium cys-ticercosis in the whole country It could also be suggestedthat confinement housing system should be developed in pigindustry of Myanmar to efficiently prevent porcine cysticer-cosis For practicing sanitary and culinary habit thoroughcooking education programs should also be implemented forboth swine breeders and consumers so as to prevent taeniasisin human and porcine cysticercosis and also other zoonotichelminth diseases in Myanmar

This prevalence with relatively high percentage of porcinecysticercosis (1593) in Ab-ELISA and 2367 in slaugh-tered pigs indicates the presence of human taeniasis andit also leads to the associated risk of human cysticercosisand neurocysticercosis Occurrence of porcine cysticercosisposes a serious problem to human health and the economyTherefore it is required to monitor porcine cysticercosisprevalence in the whole country

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that this work has not been inappropri-ately influenced by any financial or personal factors and theyhave no competing interests

Acknowledgments

This study was partially financially supported by Nay PyiTaw Development Committee Nay Pyi Taw Myanmar Theauthors are grateful to Townships Veterinary Officers fromLewe and Tatkon townships and all pig owners in threetownships for their good cooperation

Journal of Veterinary Medicine 5

References

[1] A Carpio A Escobar and A W Hauser ldquoCysticercosis andepilepsy a critical reviewrdquo Epilepsia vol 39 no 10 pp 1025ndash1040 1998

[2] WHO Neglected Tropical Diseases in the World Today 2010[3] I K Phiri H Ngowi S Afonso et al ldquoThe emergence of Taenia

solium cysticercosis in Eastern and Southern Africa as a seriousagricultural problem and public health riskrdquo Acta Tropica vol87 no 1 pp 13ndash23 2003

[4] A Zoli O Shey-Njila E Assana et al ldquoRegional statusepidemiology and impact of Taenia solium cysticercosis inWestern and Central Africardquo Acta Tropica vol 87 no 1 pp 35ndash42 2003

[5] A Ito T Wandra H Yamasaki et al ldquoCysticercosistaeniasis inAsia and the Pacificrdquo Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases vol4 no 2 pp 95ndash107 2004

[6] P Dorny R Somers T C T Dang V K Nguyen and J Ver-cruysse ldquoCysticercosis in Cambodia Lao PDR and VietnamrdquoSoutheast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Healthvol 35 supplement 1 pp 223ndash226 2004

[7] K N Prasad S Chawla D Jain et al ldquoHuman and porcineTaenia solium infection in rural North Indiardquo Transactions ofthe Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene vol 96 no5 pp 515ndash516 2002

[8] V Rajshekhar ldquoEpidemiology of Taenia solium in India andNepalrdquo Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and PublicHealth vol 35 supplement 1 pp 247ndash251 2004

[9] Y Chen L Xu and X Zhou ldquoDistribution and burden ofcysticercosis in Chinardquo Southeast Asian Journal of TropicalMedicine and Public Health vol 35 supplement 1 pp 231ndash2392004

[10] S G Simanjuntak and H S Widarso ldquoThe current situationof Taenia solium taeniasiscysticercosis in Indonesiardquo SoutheastAsian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health vol 35supplement 1 pp 240ndash246 2004

[11] Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Department (LBVD) Datafrom District office of Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Depart-ment Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Department (LBVD)Nay Pyi Taw Myanmar 2013

[12] M Thrusfield ldquoSurveysrdquo in Veterinary Epidemiology pp 178ndash189 Butterwords London UK 2nd edition 1995

[13] M E Boa A A Kassuku A LWillingham III J D Keyyu I KPhiri and P Nansen ldquoDistribution and density of cysticerci ofTaenia solium bymuscle groups and organs in naturally infectedlocal finished pigs inTanzaniardquoVeterinary Parasitology vol 106no 2 pp 155ndash164 2002

[14] H Barennes S Sayasone P Odermatt et al ldquoA major trichinel-losis outbreak suggesting a high endemicity of Trichinellainfection in northern Laosrdquo The American Journal of TropicalMedicine and Hygiene vol 78 no 1 pp 40ndash44 2008

[15] C M Jayashi G Arroyo M W Lightowlers H H Garcıa SRodrıguez andA E Gonzalez ldquoSeroprevalence and risk factorsfor Taenia solium cysticercosis in rural pigs of Northern PerurdquoPLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases vol 6 no 7 Article ID e17332012

[16] M S R Pouedet A P Zoli L Vondou et al ldquoEpidemiologicalsurvey of swine cysticercosis in two rural communities ofWest-Cameroonrdquo Veterinary Parasitology vol 106 no 1 pp 45ndash542002

[17] E Sarti P M Schantz A Plancarte et al ldquoEpidemiologicalinvestigation of Taenia solium taeniasis and cysticercosis in a

rural village of Michoacan State Mexicordquo Transactions of theRoyal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene vol 88 no 1pp 49ndash52 1994

[18] H H Garcıa A E Gonzalez C AW Evans and R H GilmanldquoTaenia solium cysticercosisrdquoThe Lancet vol 362 no 9383 pp547ndash556 2003

[19] A Pondja L Neves J Mlangwa et al ldquoPrevalence and risk fac-tors of porcine cysticercosis in Angonia District MozambiquerdquoPLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases vol 4 no 2 article e594 2010

[20] E V G Komba E C Kimbi H A Ngowi et al ldquoPrevalence ofporcine cysticercosis and associated risk factors in smallholderpig production systems inMbeya region southern highlands ofTanzaniardquoVeterinary Parasitology vol 198 no 3-4 pp 284ndash2912013

[21] A Flisser D Correa G Avilla and P Marvilla ldquoBiology ofTaenia soliumTaenia saginata and Taenia saginata asiaticardquo inWHOFAOOIE Guidelines for the Surveillance Prevention andControl of TaeniosisCysticercosis K D Murrell Ed pp 1ndash8Office International des Epizooties Paris France 2005

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Case Reports in Veterinary Medicine

2 Journal of Veterinary Medicine

the pig farmers are smallholders and most of pig husbandrysystems are free ranging or semi-intensive with lack of propersanitation

One of the main obstacles to control the T soliuminfections is the lack of adequate epidemiological dataon cysticercosistaeniasis Therefore the objectives of thiscommunity-based study were to investigate the prevalenceof porcine cysticercosis and associated risk factors in pigswithin study area Moreover findings of this study will assistto develop the control strategies of porcine cysticercosis forthe public health aspect

2 Materials and Methods

21 Study Design Study Area and Sample Size The cross-sectional studies were conducted from January to March andJune to July 2014 to investigate the prevalence of Taeniasolium cysticercosis in slaughtered and farmed pigs withinPyinmana Lewe and Tatkon townships Nay Pyi Taw area Itis located between latitude 19∘451015840N and longitude 96∘61015840E andwith climate data the altitude is 115m above sea level annualrainfall is 115mm and annual temperature is 212ndash325∘CThetargeted population was 180000 pigs in three townships [11]during the sampling period The number of sampled pigswas calculated using the formula stated by Thrusfield [12]An expected prevalence of 30 with a confidence level of95 was used in this unit In this study 300 slaughteredpigs and 364 farmed pigs from the study area were examinedalthough calculated samples were 298 and 323 respectively(Table 1) Blood collected from the jugular vein of farmedpig was conducted for the seroprevalence and a structuredquestionnaire with both closed and open-ended questionswas administered to owners to obtain management practicesin pig husbandry Piglets younger than twomonths pregnantsows and nursing sows with litters less than two months oldwere excluded from this study to overcome the stress whichcauses adverse effect in animals

22 Meat Inspection in Slaughterhouses Meat inspectionwas carried out as described by Boa et al [13] in thethree slaughterhouses of these townships There were 300randomly selected pigs recruited and 9 different muscles(tongue masseter brain shoulder diaphragmatic heartskeletal fore limb and hind limb muscle) from each pig inmeat inspection Briefly long and parallel incision into themassetermuscles on both sides of face in an upward directionwas made A deep longitudinal incision covering about 34the thickness of the tongue and covering the whole lengthof the tongue was made to examine the cysts After openingthe pericardium the heart was also visually examined for thepresence of cysts The heart was cut open and a deep (34 thethickness of septum) incision into the septum was made toexpose any metacestodes All the other muscles were viewedpalpated incised by surgical blade and visually examined

23 Blood Collection and Antibody-ELISA Test for the Detec-tion of IgG Antibody of T solium Cysticerci The pig waskept under restraint at standing position and blood samples

Table 1 Distribution of the number of samples in pigs within thethree townships for blood collection

Number Township Pig population Number of sampled pigs1 Pyinmana 39000 812 Lewe 86000 1723 Tatkon 55000 111

Total 180000 364

were obtained from the external jugular vein by usingsterile disposable syringes and put into vacutainers with clotactivators Those vacutainers were kept in cold boxes withice and transported to Department of Pharmacology andParasitology University of Veterinary Science Nay Pyi Tawand allowed overnight at 4∘C to clot To obtain serum theclotted blood was separated by centrifugation at 4000 rpmfor 10 minutes The clear sera were transferred to 15mLmicrovial tubes and stored in labeled wails and kept at minus20∘Cuntil analysis

Detection of IgG antibody of T solium cysticerci wascarried out by using antibody-ELISA kit (NovaTec Immundi-agnostica GMBH Co Belgium) according to manufacturerrsquosinstruction Briefly all thawed samples were diluted as 1 + 100with IgG Sample Diluent (phosphate buffer) before assayingThe 100 120583L controls and diluted samples were dispensedinto their respective wells and the foil was covered Afterincubation for 1 hour at 37∘C and the foil being removedthe contents of the wells were aspirated and washed threetimes with washing solution And then remaining fluid wascarefully removed by tapping strips on tissue paper The100 120583L protein A conjugate (horseradish peroxidase) wasdispensed into all wells except A1 and covered with foil andincubated for 30min at room temperature After washingthree times 100 120583L TMB (331015840551015840-tetramethylbenzidine)substrate solution was dispensed into all wells and incubatedfor exactly 15min at room temperature in the dark Thereaction was stopped by adding 100120583L stop solution (02MH2SO4) The absorbance was determined at 450620 nm

using an ELISA reader (Stat Fax) In each ELISA kit testingthere are two cut-off controls (C

1and D

1) The mean

absorbance of these cut-off controls was used as cut-off valueSamples are considered ldquopositiverdquo if the absorbance value ishigher than 10 over the cut-off and samples are consideredldquonegativerdquo if the absorbance value is lower than 10 below thecut-offThe sensitivity and specificity of these kits to diagnoseswine cysticercosis are 938 and gt95 respectively

24 Household Questionnaire A questionnaire was devel-oped and used to collect information on hypothesized riskfactors and other related pieces of information from sampledpig owners Households in each township were selected byusing the snowballing technique from those farmers willingto participate in the study It is a technique for developing aresearch sample where existing study subjects recruit futuresubjects from their acquaintances

25 Statistical Analysis The questionnaire interviewed datawere analyzed for the relationship between the prevalence

Journal of Veterinary Medicine 3

Table 2 Distribution and odds ratio of associated risk factors concerning porcine cysticercosis in Nay Pyi Taw area

Factor Level 119899 Positive case Negative case Odds ratio 119875 value

Gender Male 221 22 199 3043 (1704ndash5436) 0000lowastFemale 143 36 107

Age lt6 month 291 39 252 2274 (1220ndash4235) 0012lowastge6 month 73 19 54

Husbandry system Intensive 146 8 138 5134 (2354ndash11195) 0000lowastSemi-intensive 218 50 168

Feed type Only commercial feed 71 1 70 16907 (2300ndash124302) 0000lowastBoth with kitchen waste 293 57 236

Use of anthelmintic in pigs Yes 183 6 177 11891 (4957ndash28526) 0000lowastNo 181 52 129

Use of anthelmintic in owner Yes 242 28 214 2492 (1409ndash4407) 0002lowastNo 122 30 92

Hand-washing before feeding Yes 110 1 119 31538 (4307ndash23092) 0000lowastNo 254 57 197

Pork consumption of owner No 177 2 175 37405 (8965ndash156068) 0000lowastYes 187 56 131

lowastSignificant association at 005 level

of T solium cysticercosis and hypothesized risk variablessuch as age gender of pigs husbandry system feed typeenvironment of pig farm (accessibility of human feces)personal hygiene of owners pork consumption cooking andeating habit of pork use of anthelmintics in pigs and ownersand knowledge on taeniasis They were examined for testingits significance by Pearson chi-square test at120572= 005Thedatawere analyzed by using SPSS (version 16)

3 Results

31 Seroprevalence of Porcine Cysticercosis in Farmed PigsSeroprevalence of porcine cysticercosis in farmed pigs was1593 (58364) in the study area

32 Prevalence of Households with Porcine CysticercosisPrevalence of households with pigs infected with T soliumcysticerci by Ab-ELISA examination was 2315 (47203households) The households with porcine cysticercosis inPyinmana Lewe and Tatkonwere 012 (0) 13124 (1048)and 3467 (5075) respectively

33 Prevalence of Porcine Cysticercosis in Meat InspectionThe prevalence of porcine cysticercosis investigated by meatinspection was 2367 (71300) All the infected pigs pre-sented parasites located in the tongue Only in one piganother parasite was found located in the heart In noneof the animals evaluated parasites were found in the otherlocations examined The prevalence in slaughterhouses ofPyinmana Lewe and Tatkon townships was 22 (44200)2333 (730) and 2857 (2070) respectively

34 Risk Factors Associated with Porcine Cysticercosis Uni-variate analysis of hypothesized risk factors of gender (OR= 30 95 CI = 17ndash54) increased age (OR = 23 95 CI

= 12ndash42) husbandry system (OR = 51 95 CI = 24ndash112)feed type (OR = 169 95 CI = 23ndash1243) no hand washinghabit before feeding (OR = 315 95 CI = 43ndash2309) notusing anthelmintic in pigs (OR = 119 95CI = 50ndash285) andowner (OR = 25 95 CI = 14ndash44) and pork consumptionof owner (OR = 374 95 CI = 90ndash1561) was significantlyassociated with Cysticercus cellulosae infection (119875 lt 005)The distribution and odds ratio of significant risk factorsconcerning porcine cysticercosis are shown in Table 2

4 Discussion

In Southeast Asia pigs are an important source of food andeconomic important for smallholder farmers Older pigs maybe penned or tethered although common raising practice ofpigs is freely roaming in the village [14] In Myanmar mostof the pig farmers are smallholders and practice as free-rangeor backyard farming In Myanmar most of the pig farmersusually keep the weaned pigs until six to eight months ofage and then send to slaughterhouse In the village everyhousehold keeps at least one pig not only for table wastefeeding to pigs but also for extra income Most farms arehaving the habit of feeding waste materials such as swilland kitchen leftover broken rice rice bran groundnut mealsesame meal and local forage and poor sanitation

The present study is the first report of T solium cysticer-cosis in pigs inMyanmarThis investigation showed relativelyhigh prevalence of porcine cysticercosis in the study area Pigsin the study area positive for cysticercosis have been exposedto T solium eggs Among the 17 hypothesized risk factorseight factors were evaluated as having association

The gender of pigs (being female) was significantlyassociated with porcine cysticercosis in this study It canbe explained that female pigs were for kept long time forbreeding purpose than male and so they have more risk to

4 Journal of Veterinary Medicine

get exposed to T solium eggs However Jayashi et al [15]reported that gender was not a significant risk factor forporcine cysticercosis

The present study demonstrated that the older the pigsthe greater the chance to get infection These results are inagreement with those reported by Pouedet et al [16] Jayashiet al [15] Sarti et al [17] Garcıa et al [18] and Pondja etal [19] Older pigs might also have greater chance to getexposed to T solium eggs than younger ones They mighthave much time to develop cyst and trigger the productionof circulating antibodies Besides it could be possible thatyounger pigs are protected during their first months of lifeagainst parasite infection due to the presence of maternalcysticercus antibodies and they become susceptible later afterthe slow clearance of those antibodies

The result showed that pigs from households practicedsemi-intensive system (the pigs are allowed to roam freelyin the environment and only panned or tethered at feedingtime and night) weremore likely to have porcine cysticercosisthan intensive (the pigs are kept in the backyard or corraland not allowed to roam) pigs Therefore semi-intensivemanagement system represented as an important risk factorfor porcine cysticercosis in the study area as the pigs in thispractice could access the infected human faeces Accessibilityof infected human faeces is the main source for porcinecysticercosis [17 19 20]

Among the feed types used in pig farms feeding ofkitchen waste is significantly associated with cysticercosisIn the farms most of housewives usually collect swill inpoor cleanliness containers from neighboring houses Thismight be contaminated with T solium eggs from infectedfood preparers of swill collected houses So the collectedswill should be cooked thoroughly before feeding to preventinfection including cysticercosisHuman taeniasis is themainsource for porcine cysticercosis [21]

Use of anthelmintic in pigs and owners was signifi-cantly associated in this study By interviewing the farmersand township veterinary officers the most common usedanthelmintic is albendazole in human and ivermectin inpigs Although ivermectin cannot kill any larvae of cestodealbendazole can kill these larvae Not having taeniasis inowners is preventive factor against cysticercosis [18]

Although all the farmers wash their hands after feedingthe pigs only 212 famers (43203) wash their handsbefore feeding All cysticercosis positive samples were fromthose who do not practice hand-washing habit Thereforehand-washing is a crucial factor for prevention of porcinecysticercosis However there was no literature about thisfactor associated with porcine cysticercosis But health edu-cation and sanitary infrastructure are involved in the controlmeasure for swine cysticercosis [17]

About half of farmers (114203) consume the pork curryin this study All positive samples were from the ownersconsumed pork (51 households) They might have taeniasisand cysticercosis due to cooking habit and poor sanitationPork consumption of owners is also one of the risk factors insurvey of porcine cysticercosis [19]

Nine hypothesized risk factors not included in analysiswere breed of pigs place of purchase presence of latrine

hand-washing after feeding the pigs source of water for pigscleanliness of water knowledge on taeniasis and cysticercosisand occurrence of cyst in pork In this study all pigs areindigenously bred All pigs were purchased from within theirtownship All farmers have latrines using water but thechildren do not use latrine and are used for defecation outof latrine Some farmers washed the hands before feedingthe pigs and all farmers washed their hands after feedingAll farmers used water from wells having good sanitationAll farmers did not have the knowledge on taeniasis andcysticercosis and they have never seen the cysts in the porkin the study area

The presence of zoonotic agent Cysticercus cellulosaemay depend on intrinsic factors age gender and extrinsicfactors pig husbandry system hand-washing habit of owneruse of kitchen waste as pig feed not using anthelmintic inpigs and owners and pork consumption of owner in the studyarea Presence of this infection is of public health importancebecause it may lead to the occurrence of neurocysticercosisin human

Although the occurrence of human neurocysticercosishas not been reported yet in Myanmar all public shouldtake awareness of potential risk factors due to the prevalencewith high percentage observed in this studyMyanmar has nonational monitoring program for T solium cysticercus sppin these animals yet Therefore it is advisable to monitorwhether there is high or low prevalence of T solium cys-ticercosis in the whole country It could also be suggestedthat confinement housing system should be developed in pigindustry of Myanmar to efficiently prevent porcine cysticer-cosis For practicing sanitary and culinary habit thoroughcooking education programs should also be implemented forboth swine breeders and consumers so as to prevent taeniasisin human and porcine cysticercosis and also other zoonotichelminth diseases in Myanmar

This prevalence with relatively high percentage of porcinecysticercosis (1593) in Ab-ELISA and 2367 in slaugh-tered pigs indicates the presence of human taeniasis andit also leads to the associated risk of human cysticercosisand neurocysticercosis Occurrence of porcine cysticercosisposes a serious problem to human health and the economyTherefore it is required to monitor porcine cysticercosisprevalence in the whole country

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that this work has not been inappropri-ately influenced by any financial or personal factors and theyhave no competing interests

Acknowledgments

This study was partially financially supported by Nay PyiTaw Development Committee Nay Pyi Taw Myanmar Theauthors are grateful to Townships Veterinary Officers fromLewe and Tatkon townships and all pig owners in threetownships for their good cooperation

Journal of Veterinary Medicine 5

References

[1] A Carpio A Escobar and A W Hauser ldquoCysticercosis andepilepsy a critical reviewrdquo Epilepsia vol 39 no 10 pp 1025ndash1040 1998

[2] WHO Neglected Tropical Diseases in the World Today 2010[3] I K Phiri H Ngowi S Afonso et al ldquoThe emergence of Taenia

solium cysticercosis in Eastern and Southern Africa as a seriousagricultural problem and public health riskrdquo Acta Tropica vol87 no 1 pp 13ndash23 2003

[4] A Zoli O Shey-Njila E Assana et al ldquoRegional statusepidemiology and impact of Taenia solium cysticercosis inWestern and Central Africardquo Acta Tropica vol 87 no 1 pp 35ndash42 2003

[5] A Ito T Wandra H Yamasaki et al ldquoCysticercosistaeniasis inAsia and the Pacificrdquo Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases vol4 no 2 pp 95ndash107 2004

[6] P Dorny R Somers T C T Dang V K Nguyen and J Ver-cruysse ldquoCysticercosis in Cambodia Lao PDR and VietnamrdquoSoutheast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Healthvol 35 supplement 1 pp 223ndash226 2004

[7] K N Prasad S Chawla D Jain et al ldquoHuman and porcineTaenia solium infection in rural North Indiardquo Transactions ofthe Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene vol 96 no5 pp 515ndash516 2002

[8] V Rajshekhar ldquoEpidemiology of Taenia solium in India andNepalrdquo Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and PublicHealth vol 35 supplement 1 pp 247ndash251 2004

[9] Y Chen L Xu and X Zhou ldquoDistribution and burden ofcysticercosis in Chinardquo Southeast Asian Journal of TropicalMedicine and Public Health vol 35 supplement 1 pp 231ndash2392004

[10] S G Simanjuntak and H S Widarso ldquoThe current situationof Taenia solium taeniasiscysticercosis in Indonesiardquo SoutheastAsian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health vol 35supplement 1 pp 240ndash246 2004

[11] Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Department (LBVD) Datafrom District office of Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Depart-ment Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Department (LBVD)Nay Pyi Taw Myanmar 2013

[12] M Thrusfield ldquoSurveysrdquo in Veterinary Epidemiology pp 178ndash189 Butterwords London UK 2nd edition 1995

[13] M E Boa A A Kassuku A LWillingham III J D Keyyu I KPhiri and P Nansen ldquoDistribution and density of cysticerci ofTaenia solium bymuscle groups and organs in naturally infectedlocal finished pigs inTanzaniardquoVeterinary Parasitology vol 106no 2 pp 155ndash164 2002

[14] H Barennes S Sayasone P Odermatt et al ldquoA major trichinel-losis outbreak suggesting a high endemicity of Trichinellainfection in northern Laosrdquo The American Journal of TropicalMedicine and Hygiene vol 78 no 1 pp 40ndash44 2008

[15] C M Jayashi G Arroyo M W Lightowlers H H Garcıa SRodrıguez andA E Gonzalez ldquoSeroprevalence and risk factorsfor Taenia solium cysticercosis in rural pigs of Northern PerurdquoPLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases vol 6 no 7 Article ID e17332012

[16] M S R Pouedet A P Zoli L Vondou et al ldquoEpidemiologicalsurvey of swine cysticercosis in two rural communities ofWest-Cameroonrdquo Veterinary Parasitology vol 106 no 1 pp 45ndash542002

[17] E Sarti P M Schantz A Plancarte et al ldquoEpidemiologicalinvestigation of Taenia solium taeniasis and cysticercosis in a

rural village of Michoacan State Mexicordquo Transactions of theRoyal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene vol 88 no 1pp 49ndash52 1994

[18] H H Garcıa A E Gonzalez C AW Evans and R H GilmanldquoTaenia solium cysticercosisrdquoThe Lancet vol 362 no 9383 pp547ndash556 2003

[19] A Pondja L Neves J Mlangwa et al ldquoPrevalence and risk fac-tors of porcine cysticercosis in Angonia District MozambiquerdquoPLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases vol 4 no 2 article e594 2010

[20] E V G Komba E C Kimbi H A Ngowi et al ldquoPrevalence ofporcine cysticercosis and associated risk factors in smallholderpig production systems inMbeya region southern highlands ofTanzaniardquoVeterinary Parasitology vol 198 no 3-4 pp 284ndash2912013

[21] A Flisser D Correa G Avilla and P Marvilla ldquoBiology ofTaenia soliumTaenia saginata and Taenia saginata asiaticardquo inWHOFAOOIE Guidelines for the Surveillance Prevention andControl of TaeniosisCysticercosis K D Murrell Ed pp 1ndash8Office International des Epizooties Paris France 2005

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Veterinary MedicineJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Veterinary Medicine International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Microbiology

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

AnimalsJournal of

EcologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PsycheHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Applied ampEnvironmentalSoil Science

Volume 2014

Biotechnology Research International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Agronomy

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of Parasitology Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology

GenomicsInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

InsectsJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

VirusesJournal of

ScientificaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Cell BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Case Reports in Veterinary Medicine

Journal of Veterinary Medicine 3

Table 2 Distribution and odds ratio of associated risk factors concerning porcine cysticercosis in Nay Pyi Taw area

Factor Level 119899 Positive case Negative case Odds ratio 119875 value

Gender Male 221 22 199 3043 (1704ndash5436) 0000lowastFemale 143 36 107

Age lt6 month 291 39 252 2274 (1220ndash4235) 0012lowastge6 month 73 19 54

Husbandry system Intensive 146 8 138 5134 (2354ndash11195) 0000lowastSemi-intensive 218 50 168

Feed type Only commercial feed 71 1 70 16907 (2300ndash124302) 0000lowastBoth with kitchen waste 293 57 236

Use of anthelmintic in pigs Yes 183 6 177 11891 (4957ndash28526) 0000lowastNo 181 52 129

Use of anthelmintic in owner Yes 242 28 214 2492 (1409ndash4407) 0002lowastNo 122 30 92

Hand-washing before feeding Yes 110 1 119 31538 (4307ndash23092) 0000lowastNo 254 57 197

Pork consumption of owner No 177 2 175 37405 (8965ndash156068) 0000lowastYes 187 56 131

lowastSignificant association at 005 level

of T solium cysticercosis and hypothesized risk variablessuch as age gender of pigs husbandry system feed typeenvironment of pig farm (accessibility of human feces)personal hygiene of owners pork consumption cooking andeating habit of pork use of anthelmintics in pigs and ownersand knowledge on taeniasis They were examined for testingits significance by Pearson chi-square test at120572= 005Thedatawere analyzed by using SPSS (version 16)

3 Results

31 Seroprevalence of Porcine Cysticercosis in Farmed PigsSeroprevalence of porcine cysticercosis in farmed pigs was1593 (58364) in the study area

32 Prevalence of Households with Porcine CysticercosisPrevalence of households with pigs infected with T soliumcysticerci by Ab-ELISA examination was 2315 (47203households) The households with porcine cysticercosis inPyinmana Lewe and Tatkonwere 012 (0) 13124 (1048)and 3467 (5075) respectively

33 Prevalence of Porcine Cysticercosis in Meat InspectionThe prevalence of porcine cysticercosis investigated by meatinspection was 2367 (71300) All the infected pigs pre-sented parasites located in the tongue Only in one piganother parasite was found located in the heart In noneof the animals evaluated parasites were found in the otherlocations examined The prevalence in slaughterhouses ofPyinmana Lewe and Tatkon townships was 22 (44200)2333 (730) and 2857 (2070) respectively

34 Risk Factors Associated with Porcine Cysticercosis Uni-variate analysis of hypothesized risk factors of gender (OR= 30 95 CI = 17ndash54) increased age (OR = 23 95 CI

= 12ndash42) husbandry system (OR = 51 95 CI = 24ndash112)feed type (OR = 169 95 CI = 23ndash1243) no hand washinghabit before feeding (OR = 315 95 CI = 43ndash2309) notusing anthelmintic in pigs (OR = 119 95CI = 50ndash285) andowner (OR = 25 95 CI = 14ndash44) and pork consumptionof owner (OR = 374 95 CI = 90ndash1561) was significantlyassociated with Cysticercus cellulosae infection (119875 lt 005)The distribution and odds ratio of significant risk factorsconcerning porcine cysticercosis are shown in Table 2

4 Discussion

In Southeast Asia pigs are an important source of food andeconomic important for smallholder farmers Older pigs maybe penned or tethered although common raising practice ofpigs is freely roaming in the village [14] In Myanmar mostof the pig farmers are smallholders and practice as free-rangeor backyard farming In Myanmar most of the pig farmersusually keep the weaned pigs until six to eight months ofage and then send to slaughterhouse In the village everyhousehold keeps at least one pig not only for table wastefeeding to pigs but also for extra income Most farms arehaving the habit of feeding waste materials such as swilland kitchen leftover broken rice rice bran groundnut mealsesame meal and local forage and poor sanitation

The present study is the first report of T solium cysticer-cosis in pigs inMyanmarThis investigation showed relativelyhigh prevalence of porcine cysticercosis in the study area Pigsin the study area positive for cysticercosis have been exposedto T solium eggs Among the 17 hypothesized risk factorseight factors were evaluated as having association

The gender of pigs (being female) was significantlyassociated with porcine cysticercosis in this study It canbe explained that female pigs were for kept long time forbreeding purpose than male and so they have more risk to

4 Journal of Veterinary Medicine

get exposed to T solium eggs However Jayashi et al [15]reported that gender was not a significant risk factor forporcine cysticercosis

The present study demonstrated that the older the pigsthe greater the chance to get infection These results are inagreement with those reported by Pouedet et al [16] Jayashiet al [15] Sarti et al [17] Garcıa et al [18] and Pondja etal [19] Older pigs might also have greater chance to getexposed to T solium eggs than younger ones They mighthave much time to develop cyst and trigger the productionof circulating antibodies Besides it could be possible thatyounger pigs are protected during their first months of lifeagainst parasite infection due to the presence of maternalcysticercus antibodies and they become susceptible later afterthe slow clearance of those antibodies

The result showed that pigs from households practicedsemi-intensive system (the pigs are allowed to roam freelyin the environment and only panned or tethered at feedingtime and night) weremore likely to have porcine cysticercosisthan intensive (the pigs are kept in the backyard or corraland not allowed to roam) pigs Therefore semi-intensivemanagement system represented as an important risk factorfor porcine cysticercosis in the study area as the pigs in thispractice could access the infected human faeces Accessibilityof infected human faeces is the main source for porcinecysticercosis [17 19 20]

Among the feed types used in pig farms feeding ofkitchen waste is significantly associated with cysticercosisIn the farms most of housewives usually collect swill inpoor cleanliness containers from neighboring houses Thismight be contaminated with T solium eggs from infectedfood preparers of swill collected houses So the collectedswill should be cooked thoroughly before feeding to preventinfection including cysticercosisHuman taeniasis is themainsource for porcine cysticercosis [21]

Use of anthelmintic in pigs and owners was signifi-cantly associated in this study By interviewing the farmersand township veterinary officers the most common usedanthelmintic is albendazole in human and ivermectin inpigs Although ivermectin cannot kill any larvae of cestodealbendazole can kill these larvae Not having taeniasis inowners is preventive factor against cysticercosis [18]

Although all the farmers wash their hands after feedingthe pigs only 212 famers (43203) wash their handsbefore feeding All cysticercosis positive samples were fromthose who do not practice hand-washing habit Thereforehand-washing is a crucial factor for prevention of porcinecysticercosis However there was no literature about thisfactor associated with porcine cysticercosis But health edu-cation and sanitary infrastructure are involved in the controlmeasure for swine cysticercosis [17]

About half of farmers (114203) consume the pork curryin this study All positive samples were from the ownersconsumed pork (51 households) They might have taeniasisand cysticercosis due to cooking habit and poor sanitationPork consumption of owners is also one of the risk factors insurvey of porcine cysticercosis [19]

Nine hypothesized risk factors not included in analysiswere breed of pigs place of purchase presence of latrine

hand-washing after feeding the pigs source of water for pigscleanliness of water knowledge on taeniasis and cysticercosisand occurrence of cyst in pork In this study all pigs areindigenously bred All pigs were purchased from within theirtownship All farmers have latrines using water but thechildren do not use latrine and are used for defecation outof latrine Some farmers washed the hands before feedingthe pigs and all farmers washed their hands after feedingAll farmers used water from wells having good sanitationAll farmers did not have the knowledge on taeniasis andcysticercosis and they have never seen the cysts in the porkin the study area

The presence of zoonotic agent Cysticercus cellulosaemay depend on intrinsic factors age gender and extrinsicfactors pig husbandry system hand-washing habit of owneruse of kitchen waste as pig feed not using anthelmintic inpigs and owners and pork consumption of owner in the studyarea Presence of this infection is of public health importancebecause it may lead to the occurrence of neurocysticercosisin human

Although the occurrence of human neurocysticercosishas not been reported yet in Myanmar all public shouldtake awareness of potential risk factors due to the prevalencewith high percentage observed in this studyMyanmar has nonational monitoring program for T solium cysticercus sppin these animals yet Therefore it is advisable to monitorwhether there is high or low prevalence of T solium cys-ticercosis in the whole country It could also be suggestedthat confinement housing system should be developed in pigindustry of Myanmar to efficiently prevent porcine cysticer-cosis For practicing sanitary and culinary habit thoroughcooking education programs should also be implemented forboth swine breeders and consumers so as to prevent taeniasisin human and porcine cysticercosis and also other zoonotichelminth diseases in Myanmar

This prevalence with relatively high percentage of porcinecysticercosis (1593) in Ab-ELISA and 2367 in slaugh-tered pigs indicates the presence of human taeniasis andit also leads to the associated risk of human cysticercosisand neurocysticercosis Occurrence of porcine cysticercosisposes a serious problem to human health and the economyTherefore it is required to monitor porcine cysticercosisprevalence in the whole country

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that this work has not been inappropri-ately influenced by any financial or personal factors and theyhave no competing interests

Acknowledgments

This study was partially financially supported by Nay PyiTaw Development Committee Nay Pyi Taw Myanmar Theauthors are grateful to Townships Veterinary Officers fromLewe and Tatkon townships and all pig owners in threetownships for their good cooperation

Journal of Veterinary Medicine 5

References

[1] A Carpio A Escobar and A W Hauser ldquoCysticercosis andepilepsy a critical reviewrdquo Epilepsia vol 39 no 10 pp 1025ndash1040 1998

[2] WHO Neglected Tropical Diseases in the World Today 2010[3] I K Phiri H Ngowi S Afonso et al ldquoThe emergence of Taenia

solium cysticercosis in Eastern and Southern Africa as a seriousagricultural problem and public health riskrdquo Acta Tropica vol87 no 1 pp 13ndash23 2003

[4] A Zoli O Shey-Njila E Assana et al ldquoRegional statusepidemiology and impact of Taenia solium cysticercosis inWestern and Central Africardquo Acta Tropica vol 87 no 1 pp 35ndash42 2003

[5] A Ito T Wandra H Yamasaki et al ldquoCysticercosistaeniasis inAsia and the Pacificrdquo Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases vol4 no 2 pp 95ndash107 2004

[6] P Dorny R Somers T C T Dang V K Nguyen and J Ver-cruysse ldquoCysticercosis in Cambodia Lao PDR and VietnamrdquoSoutheast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Healthvol 35 supplement 1 pp 223ndash226 2004

[7] K N Prasad S Chawla D Jain et al ldquoHuman and porcineTaenia solium infection in rural North Indiardquo Transactions ofthe Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene vol 96 no5 pp 515ndash516 2002

[8] V Rajshekhar ldquoEpidemiology of Taenia solium in India andNepalrdquo Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and PublicHealth vol 35 supplement 1 pp 247ndash251 2004

[9] Y Chen L Xu and X Zhou ldquoDistribution and burden ofcysticercosis in Chinardquo Southeast Asian Journal of TropicalMedicine and Public Health vol 35 supplement 1 pp 231ndash2392004

[10] S G Simanjuntak and H S Widarso ldquoThe current situationof Taenia solium taeniasiscysticercosis in Indonesiardquo SoutheastAsian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health vol 35supplement 1 pp 240ndash246 2004

[11] Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Department (LBVD) Datafrom District office of Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Depart-ment Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Department (LBVD)Nay Pyi Taw Myanmar 2013

[12] M Thrusfield ldquoSurveysrdquo in Veterinary Epidemiology pp 178ndash189 Butterwords London UK 2nd edition 1995

[13] M E Boa A A Kassuku A LWillingham III J D Keyyu I KPhiri and P Nansen ldquoDistribution and density of cysticerci ofTaenia solium bymuscle groups and organs in naturally infectedlocal finished pigs inTanzaniardquoVeterinary Parasitology vol 106no 2 pp 155ndash164 2002

[14] H Barennes S Sayasone P Odermatt et al ldquoA major trichinel-losis outbreak suggesting a high endemicity of Trichinellainfection in northern Laosrdquo The American Journal of TropicalMedicine and Hygiene vol 78 no 1 pp 40ndash44 2008

[15] C M Jayashi G Arroyo M W Lightowlers H H Garcıa SRodrıguez andA E Gonzalez ldquoSeroprevalence and risk factorsfor Taenia solium cysticercosis in rural pigs of Northern PerurdquoPLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases vol 6 no 7 Article ID e17332012

[16] M S R Pouedet A P Zoli L Vondou et al ldquoEpidemiologicalsurvey of swine cysticercosis in two rural communities ofWest-Cameroonrdquo Veterinary Parasitology vol 106 no 1 pp 45ndash542002

[17] E Sarti P M Schantz A Plancarte et al ldquoEpidemiologicalinvestigation of Taenia solium taeniasis and cysticercosis in a

rural village of Michoacan State Mexicordquo Transactions of theRoyal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene vol 88 no 1pp 49ndash52 1994

[18] H H Garcıa A E Gonzalez C AW Evans and R H GilmanldquoTaenia solium cysticercosisrdquoThe Lancet vol 362 no 9383 pp547ndash556 2003

[19] A Pondja L Neves J Mlangwa et al ldquoPrevalence and risk fac-tors of porcine cysticercosis in Angonia District MozambiquerdquoPLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases vol 4 no 2 article e594 2010

[20] E V G Komba E C Kimbi H A Ngowi et al ldquoPrevalence ofporcine cysticercosis and associated risk factors in smallholderpig production systems inMbeya region southern highlands ofTanzaniardquoVeterinary Parasitology vol 198 no 3-4 pp 284ndash2912013

[21] A Flisser D Correa G Avilla and P Marvilla ldquoBiology ofTaenia soliumTaenia saginata and Taenia saginata asiaticardquo inWHOFAOOIE Guidelines for the Surveillance Prevention andControl of TaeniosisCysticercosis K D Murrell Ed pp 1ndash8Office International des Epizooties Paris France 2005

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Veterinary MedicineJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Veterinary Medicine International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Microbiology

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

AnimalsJournal of

EcologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PsycheHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Applied ampEnvironmentalSoil Science

Volume 2014

Biotechnology Research International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Agronomy

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of Parasitology Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology

GenomicsInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

InsectsJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

VirusesJournal of

ScientificaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Cell BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Case Reports in Veterinary Medicine

4 Journal of Veterinary Medicine

get exposed to T solium eggs However Jayashi et al [15]reported that gender was not a significant risk factor forporcine cysticercosis

The present study demonstrated that the older the pigsthe greater the chance to get infection These results are inagreement with those reported by Pouedet et al [16] Jayashiet al [15] Sarti et al [17] Garcıa et al [18] and Pondja etal [19] Older pigs might also have greater chance to getexposed to T solium eggs than younger ones They mighthave much time to develop cyst and trigger the productionof circulating antibodies Besides it could be possible thatyounger pigs are protected during their first months of lifeagainst parasite infection due to the presence of maternalcysticercus antibodies and they become susceptible later afterthe slow clearance of those antibodies

The result showed that pigs from households practicedsemi-intensive system (the pigs are allowed to roam freelyin the environment and only panned or tethered at feedingtime and night) weremore likely to have porcine cysticercosisthan intensive (the pigs are kept in the backyard or corraland not allowed to roam) pigs Therefore semi-intensivemanagement system represented as an important risk factorfor porcine cysticercosis in the study area as the pigs in thispractice could access the infected human faeces Accessibilityof infected human faeces is the main source for porcinecysticercosis [17 19 20]

Among the feed types used in pig farms feeding ofkitchen waste is significantly associated with cysticercosisIn the farms most of housewives usually collect swill inpoor cleanliness containers from neighboring houses Thismight be contaminated with T solium eggs from infectedfood preparers of swill collected houses So the collectedswill should be cooked thoroughly before feeding to preventinfection including cysticercosisHuman taeniasis is themainsource for porcine cysticercosis [21]

Use of anthelmintic in pigs and owners was signifi-cantly associated in this study By interviewing the farmersand township veterinary officers the most common usedanthelmintic is albendazole in human and ivermectin inpigs Although ivermectin cannot kill any larvae of cestodealbendazole can kill these larvae Not having taeniasis inowners is preventive factor against cysticercosis [18]

Although all the farmers wash their hands after feedingthe pigs only 212 famers (43203) wash their handsbefore feeding All cysticercosis positive samples were fromthose who do not practice hand-washing habit Thereforehand-washing is a crucial factor for prevention of porcinecysticercosis However there was no literature about thisfactor associated with porcine cysticercosis But health edu-cation and sanitary infrastructure are involved in the controlmeasure for swine cysticercosis [17]

About half of farmers (114203) consume the pork curryin this study All positive samples were from the ownersconsumed pork (51 households) They might have taeniasisand cysticercosis due to cooking habit and poor sanitationPork consumption of owners is also one of the risk factors insurvey of porcine cysticercosis [19]

Nine hypothesized risk factors not included in analysiswere breed of pigs place of purchase presence of latrine

hand-washing after feeding the pigs source of water for pigscleanliness of water knowledge on taeniasis and cysticercosisand occurrence of cyst in pork In this study all pigs areindigenously bred All pigs were purchased from within theirtownship All farmers have latrines using water but thechildren do not use latrine and are used for defecation outof latrine Some farmers washed the hands before feedingthe pigs and all farmers washed their hands after feedingAll farmers used water from wells having good sanitationAll farmers did not have the knowledge on taeniasis andcysticercosis and they have never seen the cysts in the porkin the study area

The presence of zoonotic agent Cysticercus cellulosaemay depend on intrinsic factors age gender and extrinsicfactors pig husbandry system hand-washing habit of owneruse of kitchen waste as pig feed not using anthelmintic inpigs and owners and pork consumption of owner in the studyarea Presence of this infection is of public health importancebecause it may lead to the occurrence of neurocysticercosisin human

Although the occurrence of human neurocysticercosishas not been reported yet in Myanmar all public shouldtake awareness of potential risk factors due to the prevalencewith high percentage observed in this studyMyanmar has nonational monitoring program for T solium cysticercus sppin these animals yet Therefore it is advisable to monitorwhether there is high or low prevalence of T solium cys-ticercosis in the whole country It could also be suggestedthat confinement housing system should be developed in pigindustry of Myanmar to efficiently prevent porcine cysticer-cosis For practicing sanitary and culinary habit thoroughcooking education programs should also be implemented forboth swine breeders and consumers so as to prevent taeniasisin human and porcine cysticercosis and also other zoonotichelminth diseases in Myanmar

This prevalence with relatively high percentage of porcinecysticercosis (1593) in Ab-ELISA and 2367 in slaugh-tered pigs indicates the presence of human taeniasis andit also leads to the associated risk of human cysticercosisand neurocysticercosis Occurrence of porcine cysticercosisposes a serious problem to human health and the economyTherefore it is required to monitor porcine cysticercosisprevalence in the whole country

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that this work has not been inappropri-ately influenced by any financial or personal factors and theyhave no competing interests

Acknowledgments

This study was partially financially supported by Nay PyiTaw Development Committee Nay Pyi Taw Myanmar Theauthors are grateful to Townships Veterinary Officers fromLewe and Tatkon townships and all pig owners in threetownships for their good cooperation

Journal of Veterinary Medicine 5

References

[1] A Carpio A Escobar and A W Hauser ldquoCysticercosis andepilepsy a critical reviewrdquo Epilepsia vol 39 no 10 pp 1025ndash1040 1998

[2] WHO Neglected Tropical Diseases in the World Today 2010[3] I K Phiri H Ngowi S Afonso et al ldquoThe emergence of Taenia

solium cysticercosis in Eastern and Southern Africa as a seriousagricultural problem and public health riskrdquo Acta Tropica vol87 no 1 pp 13ndash23 2003

[4] A Zoli O Shey-Njila E Assana et al ldquoRegional statusepidemiology and impact of Taenia solium cysticercosis inWestern and Central Africardquo Acta Tropica vol 87 no 1 pp 35ndash42 2003

[5] A Ito T Wandra H Yamasaki et al ldquoCysticercosistaeniasis inAsia and the Pacificrdquo Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases vol4 no 2 pp 95ndash107 2004

[6] P Dorny R Somers T C T Dang V K Nguyen and J Ver-cruysse ldquoCysticercosis in Cambodia Lao PDR and VietnamrdquoSoutheast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Healthvol 35 supplement 1 pp 223ndash226 2004

[7] K N Prasad S Chawla D Jain et al ldquoHuman and porcineTaenia solium infection in rural North Indiardquo Transactions ofthe Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene vol 96 no5 pp 515ndash516 2002

[8] V Rajshekhar ldquoEpidemiology of Taenia solium in India andNepalrdquo Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and PublicHealth vol 35 supplement 1 pp 247ndash251 2004

[9] Y Chen L Xu and X Zhou ldquoDistribution and burden ofcysticercosis in Chinardquo Southeast Asian Journal of TropicalMedicine and Public Health vol 35 supplement 1 pp 231ndash2392004

[10] S G Simanjuntak and H S Widarso ldquoThe current situationof Taenia solium taeniasiscysticercosis in Indonesiardquo SoutheastAsian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health vol 35supplement 1 pp 240ndash246 2004

[11] Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Department (LBVD) Datafrom District office of Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Depart-ment Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Department (LBVD)Nay Pyi Taw Myanmar 2013

[12] M Thrusfield ldquoSurveysrdquo in Veterinary Epidemiology pp 178ndash189 Butterwords London UK 2nd edition 1995

[13] M E Boa A A Kassuku A LWillingham III J D Keyyu I KPhiri and P Nansen ldquoDistribution and density of cysticerci ofTaenia solium bymuscle groups and organs in naturally infectedlocal finished pigs inTanzaniardquoVeterinary Parasitology vol 106no 2 pp 155ndash164 2002

[14] H Barennes S Sayasone P Odermatt et al ldquoA major trichinel-losis outbreak suggesting a high endemicity of Trichinellainfection in northern Laosrdquo The American Journal of TropicalMedicine and Hygiene vol 78 no 1 pp 40ndash44 2008

[15] C M Jayashi G Arroyo M W Lightowlers H H Garcıa SRodrıguez andA E Gonzalez ldquoSeroprevalence and risk factorsfor Taenia solium cysticercosis in rural pigs of Northern PerurdquoPLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases vol 6 no 7 Article ID e17332012

[16] M S R Pouedet A P Zoli L Vondou et al ldquoEpidemiologicalsurvey of swine cysticercosis in two rural communities ofWest-Cameroonrdquo Veterinary Parasitology vol 106 no 1 pp 45ndash542002

[17] E Sarti P M Schantz A Plancarte et al ldquoEpidemiologicalinvestigation of Taenia solium taeniasis and cysticercosis in a

rural village of Michoacan State Mexicordquo Transactions of theRoyal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene vol 88 no 1pp 49ndash52 1994

[18] H H Garcıa A E Gonzalez C AW Evans and R H GilmanldquoTaenia solium cysticercosisrdquoThe Lancet vol 362 no 9383 pp547ndash556 2003

[19] A Pondja L Neves J Mlangwa et al ldquoPrevalence and risk fac-tors of porcine cysticercosis in Angonia District MozambiquerdquoPLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases vol 4 no 2 article e594 2010

[20] E V G Komba E C Kimbi H A Ngowi et al ldquoPrevalence ofporcine cysticercosis and associated risk factors in smallholderpig production systems inMbeya region southern highlands ofTanzaniardquoVeterinary Parasitology vol 198 no 3-4 pp 284ndash2912013

[21] A Flisser D Correa G Avilla and P Marvilla ldquoBiology ofTaenia soliumTaenia saginata and Taenia saginata asiaticardquo inWHOFAOOIE Guidelines for the Surveillance Prevention andControl of TaeniosisCysticercosis K D Murrell Ed pp 1ndash8Office International des Epizooties Paris France 2005

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Veterinary MedicineJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Veterinary Medicine International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Microbiology

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

AnimalsJournal of

EcologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PsycheHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Applied ampEnvironmentalSoil Science

Volume 2014

Biotechnology Research International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Agronomy

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of Parasitology Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology

GenomicsInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

InsectsJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

VirusesJournal of

ScientificaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Cell BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Case Reports in Veterinary Medicine

Journal of Veterinary Medicine 5

References

[1] A Carpio A Escobar and A W Hauser ldquoCysticercosis andepilepsy a critical reviewrdquo Epilepsia vol 39 no 10 pp 1025ndash1040 1998

[2] WHO Neglected Tropical Diseases in the World Today 2010[3] I K Phiri H Ngowi S Afonso et al ldquoThe emergence of Taenia

solium cysticercosis in Eastern and Southern Africa as a seriousagricultural problem and public health riskrdquo Acta Tropica vol87 no 1 pp 13ndash23 2003

[4] A Zoli O Shey-Njila E Assana et al ldquoRegional statusepidemiology and impact of Taenia solium cysticercosis inWestern and Central Africardquo Acta Tropica vol 87 no 1 pp 35ndash42 2003

[5] A Ito T Wandra H Yamasaki et al ldquoCysticercosistaeniasis inAsia and the Pacificrdquo Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases vol4 no 2 pp 95ndash107 2004

[6] P Dorny R Somers T C T Dang V K Nguyen and J Ver-cruysse ldquoCysticercosis in Cambodia Lao PDR and VietnamrdquoSoutheast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Healthvol 35 supplement 1 pp 223ndash226 2004

[7] K N Prasad S Chawla D Jain et al ldquoHuman and porcineTaenia solium infection in rural North Indiardquo Transactions ofthe Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene vol 96 no5 pp 515ndash516 2002

[8] V Rajshekhar ldquoEpidemiology of Taenia solium in India andNepalrdquo Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and PublicHealth vol 35 supplement 1 pp 247ndash251 2004

[9] Y Chen L Xu and X Zhou ldquoDistribution and burden ofcysticercosis in Chinardquo Southeast Asian Journal of TropicalMedicine and Public Health vol 35 supplement 1 pp 231ndash2392004

[10] S G Simanjuntak and H S Widarso ldquoThe current situationof Taenia solium taeniasiscysticercosis in Indonesiardquo SoutheastAsian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health vol 35supplement 1 pp 240ndash246 2004

[11] Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Department (LBVD) Datafrom District office of Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Depart-ment Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Department (LBVD)Nay Pyi Taw Myanmar 2013

[12] M Thrusfield ldquoSurveysrdquo in Veterinary Epidemiology pp 178ndash189 Butterwords London UK 2nd edition 1995

[13] M E Boa A A Kassuku A LWillingham III J D Keyyu I KPhiri and P Nansen ldquoDistribution and density of cysticerci ofTaenia solium bymuscle groups and organs in naturally infectedlocal finished pigs inTanzaniardquoVeterinary Parasitology vol 106no 2 pp 155ndash164 2002

[14] H Barennes S Sayasone P Odermatt et al ldquoA major trichinel-losis outbreak suggesting a high endemicity of Trichinellainfection in northern Laosrdquo The American Journal of TropicalMedicine and Hygiene vol 78 no 1 pp 40ndash44 2008

[15] C M Jayashi G Arroyo M W Lightowlers H H Garcıa SRodrıguez andA E Gonzalez ldquoSeroprevalence and risk factorsfor Taenia solium cysticercosis in rural pigs of Northern PerurdquoPLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases vol 6 no 7 Article ID e17332012

[16] M S R Pouedet A P Zoli L Vondou et al ldquoEpidemiologicalsurvey of swine cysticercosis in two rural communities ofWest-Cameroonrdquo Veterinary Parasitology vol 106 no 1 pp 45ndash542002

[17] E Sarti P M Schantz A Plancarte et al ldquoEpidemiologicalinvestigation of Taenia solium taeniasis and cysticercosis in a

rural village of Michoacan State Mexicordquo Transactions of theRoyal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene vol 88 no 1pp 49ndash52 1994

[18] H H Garcıa A E Gonzalez C AW Evans and R H GilmanldquoTaenia solium cysticercosisrdquoThe Lancet vol 362 no 9383 pp547ndash556 2003

[19] A Pondja L Neves J Mlangwa et al ldquoPrevalence and risk fac-tors of porcine cysticercosis in Angonia District MozambiquerdquoPLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases vol 4 no 2 article e594 2010

[20] E V G Komba E C Kimbi H A Ngowi et al ldquoPrevalence ofporcine cysticercosis and associated risk factors in smallholderpig production systems inMbeya region southern highlands ofTanzaniardquoVeterinary Parasitology vol 198 no 3-4 pp 284ndash2912013

[21] A Flisser D Correa G Avilla and P Marvilla ldquoBiology ofTaenia soliumTaenia saginata and Taenia saginata asiaticardquo inWHOFAOOIE Guidelines for the Surveillance Prevention andControl of TaeniosisCysticercosis K D Murrell Ed pp 1ndash8Office International des Epizooties Paris France 2005

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Veterinary MedicineJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Veterinary Medicine International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Microbiology

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

AnimalsJournal of

EcologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PsycheHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Applied ampEnvironmentalSoil Science

Volume 2014

Biotechnology Research International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Agronomy

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of Parasitology Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology

GenomicsInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

InsectsJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

VirusesJournal of

ScientificaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Cell BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Case Reports in Veterinary Medicine

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Veterinary MedicineJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Veterinary Medicine International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Microbiology

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

AnimalsJournal of

EcologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

PsycheHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Applied ampEnvironmentalSoil Science

Volume 2014

Biotechnology Research International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Agronomy

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of Parasitology Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology

GenomicsInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

InsectsJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

VirusesJournal of

ScientificaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Cell BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Case Reports in Veterinary Medicine