Research Article Diacritical Seismic Signatures for

Research ArticleDiacritical Seismic Signatures for Complex GeologicalStructures Case Studies from Shushan Basin (Egypt) andArkoma Basin (USA)

Mohamed I Abdel-Fattah1 and Hamed A Alrefaee2

1 Geology Department Faculty of Science Suez Canal University Ismailia Egypt2 Geology Department Faculty of Science Kafr Elsheikh University Kafr Elsheikh Egypt

Correspondence should be addressed to Mohamed I Abdel-Fattah mabdelfattah99gmailcom

Received 24 July 2014 Revised 8 October 2014 Accepted 8 October 2014 Published 2 December 2014

Academic Editor Joerg Schleicher

Copyright copy 2014 M I Abdel-Fattah and H A Alrefaee This is an open access article distributed under the Creative CommonsAttribution License which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work isproperly cited

Seismic reflection techniques show an imperative role in imaging complex geological structures and are becoming more acceptableas data interpreting tools in 2D3D view These subsurface geological structures provide complex seismic signature due to theirgeometrical behavior Consequently it is extremely difficult to interpret these seismic sections in terms of subsurface configurationThe main goal of this paper is to introduce seismic attributes as a powerful tool to interpret complex geological structures indifferent geological settings In order to image these complex geological features multiple seismic attributes such as coherence andcurvature have been applied to the seismic data generated over the Shushan Basin (Egypt) and Arkoma Basin (USA) Each type ofgeological structure event usually generates a unique seismic ldquosignaturerdquo that we can recognize and identify by using these seismicattributes In Shushan Basin (Egypt) they provide a framework and constraint during the interpretation and can help preventmistakes during a 3D structural modeling In Arkoma Basin (USA) the seismic attributes results provide useful information forbroader analyses of the complex structural relations in the region where the Ouachita orogenic belt intersects with the southernOklahoma aulacogen Finally complex geological structures provide dramatically diacritical seismic signatures that can be easilyinterpreted by collaborating conventional seismic interpretation techniques with multiple seismic attributes

1 Introduction

3D seismic data have become the key tool used in the oiland gas industry to understand the subsurface geology Thismeansmapping subsurface structure to find structures whereoil and gas may be trapped or mapping faults that maybe barriers to oil flow in a producing field In addition toproviding excellent structural images the dense sampling ofa 3D survey can sometimes make it possible to map reservoirquality and the distribution of oil and gas The main aims ofthis study are to extract more fault information from seismicdata by understanding and utilizing specific volumetricattributes (coherence and curvature) for enhancing structuralinterpretations from different case studies the Shushan Basin(Egypt) and Arkoma Basin (USA) Although each of theseseismic attributes is stand-alone tools and has produced

wonderful and reliable results for decades to solve geologicalproblems integrating results from these different attributeswith geological data adds an extra dimension towards solvinggeological problems

Shushan Basin (Egypt) which represents one of theMesozoic basins of the Western Desert provides rewardingbut difficult exploration opportunities This is because ofthe complex structural history (Figure 1) and exploration hasbeen almost exclusive for structural traps [1] Delineating thedetailed structural features affecting the Jurassic section usingthe available 3D seismic reflection data is extremely usefulbecause they are responsible for the processes controlling thehydrocarbon traps in the basin Faults and folds in ShushanBasin are very important controls on reservoir morphologyand fluid movement Identification of the fault types whichoccur in a particular reservoir is a vital step in defining

Hindawi Publishing CorporationInternational Journal of GeophysicsVolume 2014 Article ID 876180 11 pageshttpdxdoiorg1011552014876180

2 International Journal of Geophysics

UpperCretacousJurassic

EoceneLowerCretacous

PalaeozoicOligocene

Dep

th (ft

)

MatruhBasin

ShushanBasin

FaghurPlateau

Faghur-SiwaBasin

Abu Gharadig

S Abu Gharadig

GuindiBasin

NileDelta

Dahab-Mireir

NatrunBasin

0

10000

Mediterranean SeaN

Africa

Egypt

Nile Delta

Study area

0 30 60 90(km)

Figure 1 Location map of the Shushan Basin (Egypt)

reservoir geometry [2] In Jurassic several rift basins wereformed as a result of the rifting process that was caused bythe separation of North AfricaArabia plate from Europeanplate [1] Three basins were formed during Jurassic time inthe northern Western Desert [3] Natrun Basin the largestone is located at the northeast andMatruh Basinwith a northsouth trend was formed in the northwest The north-southtrend gives the Matruh Basin a possible northern marineconnection with the Tethys during the Early CretaceousThe third basin Shushan Basin was formed during LateKimmeridgian to southwest of the Matruh Basin

In Arkoma Basin (USA) (Figure 2) the processes respon-sible for the formation of faults and natural fractures inthe sedimentary cover are mainly controlled by the Pre-cambrian basement structures Intrasedimentary featuresincluding collapse features fractures and faults in the Violaand Ellenberger carbonates are related to the underlyingbasement structures in the basin [4 5] The main tectonicevents dominating the continental United States in the LateProterozoic and Phanerozoic were strongly influenced by thePrecambrian basement structures [6] Moreover during theformation of the Rocky Mountains the associated structureswere extremely influenced by severe deformation alongside

weakness zones in the basement The importance of thebasement structures arises also from hydrocarbon produc-tion from reservoirs in fractured basement [7] Hydrocarbonaccumulations may be found in the Lower Paleozoic stratain the Arkoma foreland basin buried underneath the thrustsheets of the Ouachita orogenic belt (Figure 2) [8]

2 Study Area

In Egypt the study area is located in the north-western part ofthe Western Desert about 50 km south of the Mediterraneancoast between latitudes 31∘021015840 and 31∘121015840N and longitudes26∘341015840 and 26∘451015840 E west of Qattara Depression It coversabout 455 km2 (Figure 1) The northern basins (MatruhShushan Dahab-Mireir and Natrun) initially formed as asingle rift perhaps during the Permo-Triassic which devel-oped into a pull-apart structure [9] Marine conditions arefirst recorded in the Jurassic and Cretaceous sequences Latertectonic events are presumed to have split the original basininto a series of smaller compartments

In USA the study area is located at the western partof Arkoma Basin in south Oklahoma and is bounded bythe Arbuckle uplift to the southwest (Figure 2) The area

International Journal of Geophysics 3

Oklahoma

Oklahoma Arkansas

Arkoma

Basin

Southern Oklahoma aulacogen

Choctaw Fault

Wichita uplift

Arbuckle uplift

Olney-Bromide faultTi-valley FaultA

B

Southern Arkoma fold beltFrontal Ouachita thrust-and-fold beltMain Ouachita allochthon

0(mi)

50

Study area

AUUSAAU

Arkansas

Figure 2 Location map of the Arkoma Basin (USA)

occupies part of the transition zone between Arkoma Basinand Ouachita orogenic belt The leading thrust of the Oua-chita orogenic belt Choctaw fault separates two differentstratigraphic and structural styles The deltaic strata of theUpper Atokan-Desmoinesian to the north of the fault aredeformed by broad folds and fewer faults The deep-waterturbidites and shallow-water carbonates of Morrowan-LowerAtoka to the south of the fault are dominated by isoclinal foldsand imbricate faults [10] The boundaries of the 3D seismicsurvey provided for this study are shown as green rectangle(Figure 2)

3 Geological Background

In Egypt the Mesozoic petroleum system is known to beactive in the Western Desert region [11ndash14] Mesozoic sourcerocks and reservoirs were deposited in the context of theNeo-Tethyan margins with trapping in both Jurassic tiltedfault blocks and Cretaceous inversion anticlinesThese inver-sion anticlines were the result of the compressive Senonianevent that inverted existing extensional grabens [15] Thebasement tectonic map (Figure 3) clearly shows major faultscrossing northern Egypt in an ENE-WSW direction withthe upthrown blocks forming nonprospective ridges and thelarge downdropped blocks forming the petroleum basins ofthe Western Desert [2] The North Western Desert was tec-tonically active during Jurassic and Cretaceous times [16] In

the Jurassic several rift basins formed as a result of the riftingthat was caused by the separation of North AfricaArabiaplate from European plate [1] Following the rifting processand during the Late Cretaceous the Syrian Arc systemdeveloped due to NW to NNW-SE to SSE shortening thataffected Egypt due to the close of Neotethys as a result of theconvergence between AfricanArabian and Eurasian platesThese forces led to the formation of folds of NE to ENE trendextending from Turkey through Egypt to NE Libya [2 17ndash19]The Syrian Arc folds were particularly documented in NorthSinai and North Western Desert [20ndash24] They are openplunging foldswith their axial trace trendingNE-SW to ENE-WSW The North Western Desert structure is dominated byfaultsmany of which can be identified from seismic and bore-hole data Some of the normal faults suffered strike slipmove-ments during part of their history Strike slip movementsseem to have affected the orientation of many of the fold axesThe strike slip movements were probably related to the lateralmovements which the African plate underwent during theJurassic (Sinistral) and Late Cretaceous (Dextral) [16]

In USA the Ouachita orogenic belt is divided into threeprovinces depending on their structural styles [25] (Figure2) These structural provinces include southern ArkomaBasin fold belt frontal Ouachita thrust-and-fold belt and theOuachita allochthonThe study area lies at the transition zonebetween the Arkoma Basin and the Ouachita orogenic beltand could also be associated with northwest trending faults


Kufra Basin

Libya

Jabal Dalma Baharia

uplift

0 30(km)

60

Mediterranean Sea

Red Sea

N

Figure 3 Basement structure map of Egypt (modified from [2])

associated with the southern Oklahoma aulacogen [26 27]The central and northern parts of Arkoma Basin lie in thecontinental foreland province which has no compressionalstructures (Figure 4) Extensional faults due to the riftingof the southern margin of Laurentia during the Cambrianaffected the basement and the Early Paleozoic sedimen-tary cover [28] During the Early Atokan-Desmoinesian anenergetic stage of faulting dominated the platform rockssynchronously with the downwarping of the basin flank Thedeposition of theAtoka Formationwas associatedwith activeNE-SW striking faults that have downthrows to the southAs a result the basin subsidence and accumulation rates ofsediments accelerated [25]

4 Methodology

Seismic attributes are defined as specific quantities of geomet-ric kinematic dynamic or statistical features derived fromseismic data [29] In 2004 there were over 220 reportedseismic attributes and there are even more today A valuableseismic attribute is one that enhances geologic featuresincluding structural features like faults folds or depositionaland stratigraphic elements such as channels and lobes [30]It is important to select seismic attributes that will be mostuseful in exhibiting the features of interest in a specificseismic dataset For this reason one must be familiar with allaspects of the data (ie dip azimuth and acquisition para-meters) and geologic setting in order to select the attributesthat are likely to work best Perhaps the most widely usedattribute is coherence because of its fault detection ability [31]Another widely used attribute is curvature which is a recentaddition to the seismic attributes world Curvature focuses oncharacterizing structural geometry [32]

Coherence attribute is an edge detection attribute thathighlights geologic features that have abrupt boundaries Dueto its ability to image discontinuities coherence is appli-cable to many types of structural and stratigraphic eventsBahorich and Farmer (1995) described the coherence seismicattribute as ameasure and representation of the trace-to-trace

similarities of seismic reflections [33] Depending on a tracersquosneighboring waveform and amplitude likeness in the in-lineor cross-line directions the algorithm attempts to predict acenter trace value using an N-trace operator If the centraltrace value is predictable the area is coherent and a low valueis output where the area is incoherent or the central tracevalue is not predictable a high value is inserted The result isa dataset where nonpredictable values are highlighted againsta continuous background Therefore the display identifiesfaults fractures channels and other sharp-edged strati-graphic features because of the lateral changes in seismictraces that occur at these discontinuities [34 35] Many stud-ies demonstrate this attribute is capable of pinpointing faultsfractures channels and other types of geologic features [3031 33 34] For this reason the use of coherence in this studyexamines the previous interpretations of complex geologicalstructures in the Shushan Basin (Egypt) and Arkoma Basin(USA)

Coherence is a measure of the similarity between twodatasets The seismic coherence technique was first proposedby Bahorich and Farmer in 1995 [33] and in 1996 they appliedfor a patent entitled ldquosignal processing and prospectingmethodrdquo namely first generation coherence or C1 for short[36] In the C1 algorithm along in-line traces or cross-linetraces every time we take two traces data and then calculatethe coherence of these data Therefore the C1 algorithm isthe geometric mean of the coherent attributes of the second-order statistics of two adjacent in-line traces and two adjacentcross-line traces but its noise immunity is weak The secondgeneration coherence technology or C2 for short was firstproposed in 1998 [35] and in 1999 [37] the third generationcoherence algorithm or C3 for short was proposed [37]TheC3 method which was used in this study is the most accurateand robust among them [38] The algorithm is described asfollows In 3D seismic data data in a time window (119895 tracesand119873 samples) is taken to form a matrix119863

119863 =[[[[

[

1198891111988912sdot sdot sdot 119889

1119869

1198892111988922sdot sdot sdot 119889

2119869

d

11988911987311198891198732sdot sdot sdot 119889119873119869

]]]]

]

(1)

Its covariance matrix is 119864 = 119863119879119863 So the coherence iscalculated as

119862 =1205821

Tr (119864) (2)

where 1205821is the maximum eigenvalue of matrix 119864 and Tr(119864)

is the trace of matrix 119864Curvature attribute is similar to the coherence attribute

It reveals many of the same geologic features but it differsbecause it focuses on the geometric aspects of reflectors[31] Stewart and Podolski in 1998 were of the first to applycurvature analysis to seismic surfaces computing local slopesand estimating 3D shape [39] Where features occur theirpresence is recorded in multiple seismic traces By linkingseismic reflections on these traces a regional dip and azimuthis determined The newly created dataset consists of values


Lehi

gh

sync

line

Coa

l cou

nty

Atok

a cou

nty

Coa

lgat

ean

ticlin

e

Ti v

alle

y fa

ult-

Choc

taw

faul

t

IPbg

IPaIPa

IPa

IPa

IPa

IPw

IPw

PC

PC

COa

OsIPm

OsIPm

Ms

IPma IPbgIPsv IPh

ObDa

IPj

No vertical exaggeration0 5 10 15 20

0

5

NW SE

Camb-Ordo

Precambrian

Ordo-Miss

Atoka

Morrowan

Miss-Atoka

U Ordo-M Miss

U Mississippian

U Morrowan

Ouachita deep-water Facies(Ouachita Basin section)

Arbuckle Facies (Arkoma Basin

section)

Hartshorne Fm

McAlester Fm

Savanna Fm

Boggy Fm

A B

Figure 4 Structural cross section AB across Ouachita orogenic belt modified from [25]

indicating to what degree certain areas deviate from beingplanar [32 40] The result is a 3D attribute that highlightsseismic reflections of zero most-positive and most-negativecurvature Because this attribute removes regional dip itenables the emphasis of smaller-scale features like faultsfractures flexures and folds [40ndash42]This study uses volumecurvature to help identify complex geological structures inthe studied basins

Volume curvature attributes are computed much likehorizon curvature attributes Following the theory of horizoncurvature attributes given by Roberts (2001) [40] curvatureproperties can be defined in terms of the coefficients of asecond-order polynomial in 119909 and 119910 that locally approxi-mates the reflection surface 119911(119909 119910)

119911 (119909 119910) = 1198861199092

+ 1198871199102

+ 119888119909119910 + 119889119909 + 119890119910 + 119891 (3)

Coefficient 119891 is the depth of the surface at the origin 119909 = 0and 119910 = 0 It can be ignored as it has no influence oncurvature The other coefficients derive from first-order andsecond-order partial derivatives of the reflection surface 119911with respect to 119909 and 119910 With 120588

119909being the reflection slope

in the 119909 direction and 120588119910being the reflection slope in the 119910

direction these coefficients are listed as follows

119886 =1

2

1205972119911

1205971199092=1

2

120597120588119909

120597119909

119887 =1

2

1205972119911

1205971199102=1

2

120597120588119910

120597119910

119888 =1205972119911

120597119909120597119910=120597120588119909

120597119910=120597120588119910

120597119909

119889 =120597119911

120597119909= 120588119909

119890 =120597119911

120597119910= 120588119910

(4)

After obtaining the coefficients we can easily calculatethe curvatures such as the most-positive or most-negativecurvature the mean curvature the Gaussian curvature themaximum and minimum curvature and the dip curvatureThe maximum curvature attribute is very effective at delim-iting faults and fault geometries [40] A fault on this attributeis represented by the juxtaposition of positive curvaturevalues (red) and negative curvature values (blue) In additionthe curvature also defines the orientation of the faults aspositive curvature values represent the upthrown side andthe negative values the downthrown side of the fault Thealgorithm of the maximum curvature (119870max) is described asfollows

119870max = 119870119898 + radic1198701198982 minus 119870119892 (5)


X

Z

0

0

Anticline

SynclineFault

Channel Sag Bump+++

+

++

+

minusminusminus

minus

minusminus

minus

Figure 5 Sign convention for curvature attributes Positive cur-vature reveals anticlines and reflection bumps negative curvaturereveals synclines and reflection sags

where 119870119898is Mean curvature and 119870

119892is Gaussian curvature

[43]

119870119898=119886 (1 + 1198902) minus 119888119889119890 + 119887 (1 + 1198892)

(1 + 1198892 + 1198902)32

119870119892=4119886119887 minus 1198882

(1 + 1198892 + 1198902)2

(6)

The most-positive curvatures (and the most-negative cur-vatures) are easily related to geologic structures and aremost useful in delineating faults fracture flexures and folds[41] They can provide a more detailed and less ambiguousattribute for defining subtle lineaments related to regional orlocal stresses than the other curvature attributes [44] Theformulae of the most-positive curvature (119870pos) and the most-negative curvature (119870neg) are listed as follows

119870pos = (119886 + 119887) + radic(119886 minus 119887)2

+ 1198882

119870neg = (119886 + 119887) minus radic(119886 minus 119887)2

+ 1198882

(7)

Most-positive curvature records the most positive rate ofchange of the reflection dip and azimuth It highlightsldquofrownsrdquo in seismic reflections or reflection bumps It isclosely related to Most-negative curvature which highlightsldquosmilesrdquo or reflection sags Normal faults often exhibit posi-tive curvature on the up-thrown side and negative curvatureon the down-thrown side The sign convention employed forcurvature attributes is illustrated in Figure 5

Volumetric curvature attributes computed from 3D seis-mic data are powerful tools in the prediction of fracturesfaults and other stratigraphic features [44 45] Initial cur-vature applications were limited to picked 3D seismic hori-zons Horizon-based curvature is limited not only by theinterpreterrsquos ability to pick events but also by the existenceof horizons of interest at the appropriate level in 3D seismicdata volumes Horizon picking can be a challenging task indata sets contaminated with noise and where rock interfacesdo not exhibit a consistent impedance contrast amenableto human interpretation [45] To address this issue Al-Dossary and Marfurt (2006) generated volumetric estimates

of curvature from volumetric estimates of reflector dip andazimuth [41]

Corendering coherence and curvature volumes allow us tosee the correlation of discontinuities with the correspond-ing seismic signatures Many studies give the impressionthat curvature is superior to discontinuity for all purposesHowever for routine mapping of faults and channels dis-continuity is consistently more interpretable than curvaturewhether derived from seismic data or their amplitudes [46]Amplitude change is often better as well Curvature revealsfiner detail than other attributes but the significance isunclear Therefore 3D volume rendering is one form ofvisualization that involves opacity control to view the featuresof interest ldquoinsiderdquo the 3D volume [47] A judicious choiceof opacity applied to edge-sensitive attribute subvolumessuch as curvature or coherence corendered with the seismicamplitude volume can both accelerate and lend confidence tothe interpretation of complex structure and stratigraphy

5 3D Seismic Data and Seismic Attributes

51 Shushan Basin (Egypt) The seismic data acquisitionprogrammed for Badr Petroleum Company (BAPETCO) inthe study area initially comprised a 3D seismic survey gridof 455 km2 of surface coverage with 400 km2 full-fold of thesubsurface coverage Because of the role faults often play inthe entrapment of hydrocarbons in the Shushan Basin thetechniques for finding and mapping faults have considerableimportance The study area is highly faulted The faultsaffecting the time zone of interest need to be interpreted toreveal the geologic history of the area and allowhorizon picksas well as to help in predicting what sort of hydrocarbontraps may be present in the area Where discontinuities arewell defined the position of the fault trace may be highlyevident on the record sections event to someone entirelyinexperienced in seismic interpretation All the interpretedfaults through the seismic sections are extensional normalfaults that generally form grabens and half grabens thatextend throughout the study area (Figure 6) The length ofthese fault planes varies from more than 6 kilometers tominor faults with lengths of few hundreds of meters Theirvertical extensions (in the time axis) vary from approximately200ms to about 2500ms for major faults Figure 6 shows twosystems of normal faults one group dipping to the right andthe other to the left Throws are indicated quite clearly bythe displacement of the more conspicuous reflections Thestudy area is controlled by NE-SW NNW-SSE faults whichare being intersected anddisplaced by amajor E-W transversefault Most of these faults are throwing to the northwest andsoutheast and make a pattern of grabens and horsts

Seismic attributes (Figures 7 and 8) such as coherence andcurvature that highlight discontinuities in the seismic dataare useful for illuminating the complex geological structuresin the study area Figures 7(a) and 7(b) show amplitude andcoherence attribute Coherence attribute accentuates part ofthe amplitude volume where there are discontinuities in theamplitude field These occur where there are faults and thehorizon amplitudes are discontinuous due to rock deforma-tion Discontinuities also occur where channel boundaries


0 2 4 6(km)

SW NE0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

Am

p

+

minus

(a) Uninterpreted seismic line

0

0 2 4 6(km)

SW NE

Tim

e (m

s)

Am

p

Middle jurassicKhatabaUpper SafaLower Safa

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

+

minus

(b) Interpreted seismic line

Figure 6 (a) Uninterpreted seismic line and (b) interpreted seismic line in SW-SE direction showing a complex structural pattern in theShushan Basin (Egypt)

Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(a) Amplitude

Low

High

FaultChannel

(b) Coherence

Figure 7 (a) Amplitude and (b) coherence attributes showing complex structure (faults and channel) in time slice 1950ms

interrupt horizons and these are also well imaged by coher-ence attribute The coherence images clearly reveal faultsand channel features (Figure 7(b)) Volumetric curvatureattribute shows high values where horizons are bent ratherthan broken (Figure 8) Figures 8(a) 8(b) and 8(c) showmaximum curvature (119870max) most-positive curvature (119870pos)and most-negative curvature (119870neg) Curvature attribute atdiscontinuities does not need yield predictable results buttypically horizons are bent prior to breaking at faults socurvature attribute may well pick out a fault For examplecurvature attribute calculated in the region of a low thrownormal fault will show high positive curvature at the edgeof the footwall coupled with high negative curvature at theedge of the hanging wall This characteristic pair of highpositive and negative curvatures can be used to interpretlow throw faults At channel boundaries curvature may havehigh positive values at the levees and negative values inthe thalweg Not all channels result in negative curvatureanomalies The feature in Figures 8 9 and 10 clearly appearsto be a channel on the coherence image but appears asa positive curvature anomaly along the channel axis Thisanomaly is due to differential compaction over a sand-filledchannel incised in a shale matrix resulting in a local high

52 Arkoma Basin (USA) The 3D seismic survey is locatedat the westernmost part of Arkoma Basin Oklahoma and itwas acquired primarily for imaging the Hunton Limestoneand Woodford Shale (Figure 2) Initially we interpreted themain faults to recognize the dominant structural styles andwe picked the tops of the basement Timbered Hill Group

Woodford Shale and Caney Shale horizons We generatedvolumetric attributes including coherence and curvatures

The vertical seismic section XX1015840 shows reactivation of thenormal faults as compressional ones (Figure 10) A principlerift (normal) fault (F1) may be reactivated as a high anglereverse fault due to the Late Paleozoic compressional tec-tonism In Oklahoma zones of weakness in the continentalcrust that developed during the Proterozoic were reactivatedtwice These zones were reactivated during the Cambrianrift resulting in NW striking normal faults which werereactivated again as oblique strike slip faults during the LatePaleozoic time A number of high angles thrust faults wererecognized dominating the older strata close to the Choctawfault In the Arbuckle uplift area southwest of the studyarea the Cambrian rift-related rhyolitic rocks are exposed inthe hanging wall of the Washita Valley thrust fault and theOrdovician carbonates are exposed in the footwall SimilarlyF2 represents a minor normal fault that was reactivated as areverse one

Figures 11 12 and 13 show the power of the seismicattributes in enhancing and optimizing the seismic interpre-tation process The time slice through the seismic amplitudeshows a little clear image of the complex structural signatureof the area of the intensive deformation (Figure 11(a)) Onthe other hand the time slice through the coherence volumeenhances the occurrence of the faults (low coherent trends)as dark lineaments and shows the highly deformed rocks asdark zones (Figure 11(b)) Note that there are no significantcoherence anomalies for folds The coherence is not able todistinguish the upthrows from the downthrows or anticlines


Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(a) 119870max

Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(b) 119870pos

Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(c) 119870neg

Figure 8 (a) Maximum curvature (119870max) (b) most-positive curvature (119870pos) and (c) most-negative curvature (119870neg) exhibiting faults andchannel with differential compaction

Fault Channel

(a)

Fault Channel

(b)

Fault Channel

(c)

Figure 9 Corendering coherence (50 opacity) with (a) maximum curvature (119870max) (b) most-positive curvature (119870pos) and (c) most-negative curvature (119870neg) showing complex structure (faults and channel) in time slice 1950ms Note that the correlation of channel edgesseen on coherence obtained by corendering the three image

0 2 4 6 8 10(km)

N SN

Am

p

+

minus

0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

X998400

X


0 2 4 6 8 10(km)

N S

Basement

Woodford

Timbered hill GP

Caney

Late paleozoic

F1

F3

F2

X

Am

p

+

minus

0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

X998400


Figure 10 (a) Uninterpreted seismic line XX1015840 and (b) interpreted seismic line XX1015840 showing an area of intensive deformation where somebasement normal faults were reactivated as reverse faults (F1 and F2)


Negative

Positive

F3Syncline Anticline

F2

F1

(a) Amplitude

Low

High


F2

F1

(b) Coherence

Figure 11 (a) Amplitude and (b) coherence attributes showing interpreted faults (F1 F2 and F3) and folds Note that there are no significantcoherence anomalies for folds

Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(a) 119870max

Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(b) 119870pos

Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(c) 119870neg

Figure 12 (a) Maximum curvature (119870max) (b) most-positive curvature (119870pos) and (c) most-negative curvature (119870neg) showing anticlinal andsyncline feature Minimum curvature features (blue) delineate the two limbs of the anticline fold while maximum curvature (red) delineatesthe axial plane


F2

F1

(a)


F2

F1

(b)


F2

F1

(c)

Figure 13 Interpreted faults (F1 F2 and F3) and folds delineated by corendering coherence (50 opacity) with (a) maximum curvature(119870max) (b) most-positive curvature (119870pos) and (c) most-negative curvature (119870neg)


from synclines while the curvature shows the anticlines andupthrows as red color and synclines and downthrows as bluecolor (Figure 12) Volumetric curvature attributes indicate abetter focusing of the folds features as compared with ampli-tude and coherence Figure 13 shows corendering coherence(50 opacity) with (a)maximum curvature (119870max) (b)most-positive curvature (119870pos) and (c) most-negative curvature(119870neg) where the coherence (low values in black) most-positive curvature (high values in red) and most-negativecurvature (high negative values in blue) attributes are coren-dered with the seismic volume in a strat cube Notice howin one single composite display it is possible to interpret thechange in thewaveformdiscontinuities (black) the upthrownedges of the fault blocks (red) and the downthrown sides ofthe fault blocks (blue)

6 Conclusions

Seismic data interpretation is a primary method of viewingand mapping subsurface geologic features making inter-pretation of structure and stratigraphy possible away fromwell control One of the greatest strengths of 3D seismicis the dense regular sampling of data over the regions ofinterest providing images that accurately represent the arealextent of the structural features The fundamental seismicdata type is amplitude data but seismic attributes (generatedfrom amplitude) can reveal characteristics not easily seen inamplitude data itself This paper aims to aid in developingunderstandings of 3D interpretation techniques Integratingdifferent types of attributes is particularly important to betterstructural mapping It is possible to analyze both the pickedhorizons and the seismic trace data themselves to lookfor lateral discontinuity When seismic amplitude changesassociated with the features of interest are not noticeable onvertical sections horizontal time or horizon slices extremelyyield distinctive patterns that are clearly recognizable Amongthe various seismic attributes available for characterizingcomplex geological structures (faults folds and channels)3D coherence and curvature attributes have proven to beuseful Volumetric coherence and curvature attributes havebeen used for the detection of complex geological structuresin the Shushan Basin (Egypt) and Arkoma Basin (USA)

Both coherence and curvature attributes can detect faultsand channels in Shushan Basin (Egypt) Coherence attributecan be calculated over relatively long time window to createvery precise images of faults in plan view When used inthis fashion it becomes a detailed qualitative indicator offaults and their position This allows interpreters to pickthem quickly without anguishing over the precise position asthey may do when using amplitude data alone Volumetriccurvature attributes indicate a better focusing of the folds fea-tures as compared with amplitude and coherence Curvatureattributes produce qualitative measures of folds in ArkomaBasin (USA) and are typically calculated over the interval of asingle wavelet Curvature attributes aremore likely to usefullyindicate regions of folding or subseismic faulting The use ofboth coherence and curvature attributes for detailed struc-tural interpretation illuminates different features of faultsfolding and stratigraphic features Corendering volumetric

curvature with coherence provides a particularly powerfultool and greatly aid 3D seismic interpretation by providing anaccurate perspective of subsurface complex structure features(faults folds and channels)

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to express their gratitude to the EgyptianGeneral PetroleumCorporation (EGPC) andBadr PetroleumCompany (BAPETCO) Cairo Egypt for their approval andpermission to use the material for study They like alsoto thank the CGG Veritas and PABLO ENERGY II LLCUSA for providing the Arkoma Basin seismic data Theythank Schlumberger for furnishing the Petrel software forthe seismic attributes analysis They thank the editor and theanonymous reviewers for their constructive comments andsuggestions which helped them to improve the paper

References

[1] J C Dolson M V Shann S Matbouly C Harwood R Rashedand H Hammouda ldquoThe petroleum potential of Egyptrdquo AAPGMemoir vol 74 pp 453ndash482 2001

[2] W Meshref ldquoTectonic framework of global tectonicsrdquo in TheGeology of Egypt R Said Ed pp 439ndash449 AA BalkemaRotterdam The Netherlands 1990

[3] S Moussa ldquoEvolution of the sedimentary basins of northwestern desert of Egyptrdquo in Proceedings of the EGPC 8th Petro-leum Exploration and Production Conference pp 1ndash22 CairoEgypt 1986

[4] E C Sullivan K J Marfurt A Lacazette and M AmmermanldquoApplication of new seismic attributes to collapse chimneys inthe Fort Worth Basinrdquo Geophysics vol 71 no 4 pp B111ndashB1192006

[5] O O Elebiju G R Keller and K J Marfurt ldquoInvestigation oflinks between precambrian basement structure and paleozoicstrata in the Fort Worth basin Texas USA using high-resolution aeromagnetic (HRAM) data and seismic attributesrdquoGeophysics vol 75 no 4 pp B157ndashB168 2010

[6] P Sims R Saltus and E Anderson ldquoPreliminary Precambrianbasement structure map of the continental United Statemdashaninterpretation of geologic and aeromagnetic datardquo United StatesGeological Survey Open-File Report 2005-1029 2005

[7] A Sircar ldquoHydrocarbon production from fractured basementformationsrdquo Current Science vol 87 no 2 pp 147ndash151 2004

[8] G Keller ldquoSome thoughts on the structure and evolution of theOuachita MountainsndashArkoma basin regionrdquo Oklahoma Geo-logy Notes vol 69 pp 4ndash12 2009

[9] M Abdel Halim and M Moussad ldquoWestern desert oil and gasfields (a comprehensive overview)rdquo in Proceedings of the 11thPetroleum Exploration and Production Conference (EPGC rsquo92)p 432 Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation Cairo Egypt1992

[10] N Suneson ldquoStructural interpretations of the Arkoma Basin-Ouachita Mountains transition zone Southeastern OklahomardquoCircular-OklahomaGeological Survey vol 97 pp 259ndash263 1995


[11] P R May ldquoThe Eastern Mediterranean Mesozoic basin evolu-tion and oil habitatrdquo American Association of Petroleum Geo-logists Bulletin vol 75 no 7 pp 1215ndash1232 1991

[12] A Hegazy ldquoWestern Desert oil and gas fields (a comprehensiveoverview)rdquo in Proceedings of the 11th Petroleum Exploration andProduction Conference (EGPC rsquo92) Cairo Egypt 1992

[13] J Dolson M Shann and R Rashed ldquoThe petroleum potentialof Egyptrdquo in Proceedings of the 2nd Wallace E Pratt MemorialConference ldquoPetroleum Provinces of the 21st Centuryrdquo p 37 SanDiego Calif USA 2000

[14] M Younes andM Bek ldquoAlamein basin hydrocarbon potentialsnorthern Western Desert Egyptrdquo in Proceedings of the AAPGAnnual Convention pp 11ndash14 Salt Lake City Utah USA 2003

[15] M Ayyad and M Darwish ldquoSyrian Arc structures a unifyingmodel of inverted basins and hydrocarbon occurrences inNorth Egyptrdquo in Proceedings of the 13th Petroleum Explorationand Production Conference (EGPC rsquo96) pp 40ndash59 Cairo Egypt1996

[16] G Hantar ldquoNorth western desertrdquo in The Geology of Egypt RSaid Ed pp 293ndash319 AA Balkema Rotterdam The Nether-lands 1990

[17] N Sultan and M Halim ldquoTectonic framework of NorthernWestern Desert Egypt and its effect on hydrocarbon accumu-lationsrdquo in Proceedings of the EGPC 9th Petroleum Explorationand Production Conference pp 1ndash19 Cairo Egypt 1988

[18] R Guiraud ldquoMesozoic rifting and basin inversion along thenorthern African Tethyan margin an overviewrdquo GeologicalSociety of London vol 132 no 1 pp 217ndash229 1998

[19] I M Hussein and A M A Abd-Allah ldquoTectonic evolution ofthe northeastern part of the African continentalmargin EgyptrdquoJournal of African Earth Sciences vol 33 no 1 pp 49ndash68 2001

[20] A Shata ldquoNew light on the structural development of thewestern desert of Egyptrdquo Bulletin of Institute Desert Egypt vol6 pp 117ndash157 1953

[21] A Shata ldquoStructural development of the Sinai PeninsulaEgyptrdquo Bulletin of the Institute of Desert of Egypt vol 6 no 2pp 117ndash157 1956

[22] M I Youssef ldquoStructural pattern of Egypt and its interpreta-tionrdquo AAPG Bulletin vol 52 no 4 pp 601ndash614 1968

[23] E M El Shazly ldquoThe geology of the Egyptian regionrdquo in TheOcean Basins and Margins pp 379ndash444 Springer New YorkNY USA 1978

[24] G Sestini ldquoTectonic and sedimentary history of the NEAfricanmargin (Egypt-Libya)rdquo Geological Society vol 17 pp 161ndash1751984

[25] J Arbenz ldquoStructural framework of the Ouachita Mountainsrdquoin Stratigraphic and Structural Evolution of the Ouachita Moun-tains andArkomaBasin SoutheasternOklahoma andWest-Cen-tral Arkansas Applications to Petroleum Exploration N Sune-son Ed vol 112A pp 1ndash40OklahomaGeological Survey 2008

[26] G R Keller E G Lidiak W J Hinze and L W Braile ldquoTherole of rifting in the tectonic development of the midcontinentUSArdquo Tectonophysics vol 94 no 1ndash4 pp 391ndash412 1983

[27] G RandyKeller andR A Stephenson ldquoThe southern oklahomaand dniepr-donets aulacogens a comparative analysisrdquoMemoirof the Geological Society of America vol 200 pp 127ndash143 2007

[28] W A Thomas ldquoEvolution of Appalachian-Ouachita salientsand recesses from reentrants and promontories in the continen-tal marginrdquo American Journal of Science vol 277 no 10 pp1233ndash1278 1977

[29] C L Liner Elements of 3D Seismology PennWell Books TulsaOkla USA 2nd edition 2004

[30] S Chopra and K J Marfurt ldquoSeismic attributesmdasha historicalperspectiverdquo Geophysics vol 70 no 5 article 3SO 2005

[31] S Chopra and K Marfurt ldquoSeismic attributesmdasha promising aidfor geolo gic predictionrdquo Canadian Society of Exploration Geo-physicists (CSEG) Recorder vol 31 pp 110ndash120 2006

[32] M E Sigismondi and J C Soldo ldquoCurvature attributes andseismic interpretation case studies from Argentina basinsrdquoTheLeading Edge vol 22 no 11 pp 1122ndash1126 2003

[33] M Bahorich and S Farmer ldquo3-D seismic discontinuity for faultsand stratigraphic features the coherence cuberdquo The LeadingEdge vol 14 no 10 pp 1053ndash1058 1995

[34] S Chopra ldquoCoherence cube and beyondrdquo First Break vol 20no 1 pp 27ndash33 2002

[35] K J Marfurt R L Kirlin S L Farmer and M S Bahorichldquo3-D seismic attributes using a semblance-based coherencyalgorithmrdquo Geophysics vol 63 no 4 pp 1150ndash1165 1998

[36] M Bahorich and S Farmer ldquoMethod of seismic signal process-ing and explorationrdquo US Patent no 5563949 October 1996

[37] K J Marfurt V Sudhaker A Gersztenkorn K D Crawfordand S E Nissen ldquoCoherency calculations in the presence ofstructural diprdquo Geophysics vol 64 no 1 pp 104ndash111 1999

[38] A Gersztenkorn and K J Marfurt ldquoEigenstructure-basedcoherence computations as an aid to 3-D structural and strati-graphic mappingrdquo Geophysics vol 64 no 5 pp 1468ndash14791999

[39] S Stewart and R Podolski ldquoCurvature analysis of gridded geo-logical surfacesrdquo Geological Society vol 127 no 1 pp 133ndash1471998

[40] A Roberts ldquoCurvature attributes and their application to 3Dinterpreted horizonsrdquo First Break vol 19 no 2 pp 85ndash100 2001

[41] S Al-Dossary and K J Marfurt ldquo3D volumetric multispectralestimates of reflector curvature and rotationrdquo Geophysics vol71 no 5 pp P41ndashP51 2006

[42] S Chopra and K J Marfurt ldquoEmerging and future trends inseismic attributesrdquo Leading Edge vol 27 no 3 pp 298ndash3182008

[43] K Rektorys ldquoDifferential geometryrdquo in Survey of ApplicableMathematics chapter 9 pp 298ndash373 MIT Press CambridgeMass USA Iliffe Books London UK 1969

[44] S Chopra and K J Marfurt ldquoVolumetric curvature attributesadd value to 3D seismic data interpretationrdquoThe Leading Edgevol 26 no 7 pp 856ndash867 2007

[45] S Chopra and K J Marfurt ldquoIntegration of coherence andvolumetric curvature imagesrdquo The Leading Edge vol 29 no 9pp 1092ndash1107 2010

[46] A Barnes ldquoIs curvature overratedrdquo First Break vol 32 no 6pp 65ndash69 2014

[47] S Chopra and K J Marfurt ldquoDetecting stratigraphie featuresvia crossplotting of seismic discontinuity attributes and theirvolume visualizationrdquo Leading Edge vol 28 no 12 pp 1422ndash1426 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

ClimatologyJournal of

EcologyInternational Journal of


EarthquakesJournal of


Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Applied ampEnvironmentalSoil Science

Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Geophysics

OceanographyInternational Journal of


Journal of Computational Environmental SciencesHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal ofPetroleum Engineering


GeochemistryHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

Atmospheric SciencesInternational Journal of


OceanographyHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Advances in


MineralogyInternational Journal of


MeteorologyAdvances in

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Paleontology JournalHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

ScientificaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014


Geological ResearchJournal of


Geology Advances in


UpperCretacousJurassic

EoceneLowerCretacous

PalaeozoicOligocene

Dep

th (ft

)

MatruhBasin

ShushanBasin

FaghurPlateau

Faghur-SiwaBasin

Abu Gharadig

S Abu Gharadig

GuindiBasin

NileDelta

Dahab-Mireir

NatrunBasin

0

10000

Mediterranean SeaN

Africa

Egypt

Nile Delta

Study area

0 30 60 90(km)

Figure 1 Location map of the Shushan Basin (Egypt)

reservoir geometry [2] In Jurassic several rift basins wereformed as a result of the rifting process that was caused bythe separation of North AfricaArabia plate from Europeanplate [1] Three basins were formed during Jurassic time inthe northern Western Desert [3] Natrun Basin the largestone is located at the northeast andMatruh Basinwith a northsouth trend was formed in the northwest The north-southtrend gives the Matruh Basin a possible northern marineconnection with the Tethys during the Early CretaceousThe third basin Shushan Basin was formed during LateKimmeridgian to southwest of the Matruh Basin

In Arkoma Basin (USA) (Figure 2) the processes respon-sible for the formation of faults and natural fractures inthe sedimentary cover are mainly controlled by the Pre-cambrian basement structures Intrasedimentary featuresincluding collapse features fractures and faults in the Violaand Ellenberger carbonates are related to the underlyingbasement structures in the basin [4 5] The main tectonicevents dominating the continental United States in the LateProterozoic and Phanerozoic were strongly influenced by thePrecambrian basement structures [6] Moreover during theformation of the Rocky Mountains the associated structureswere extremely influenced by severe deformation alongside

weakness zones in the basement The importance of thebasement structures arises also from hydrocarbon produc-tion from reservoirs in fractured basement [7] Hydrocarbonaccumulations may be found in the Lower Paleozoic stratain the Arkoma foreland basin buried underneath the thrustsheets of the Ouachita orogenic belt (Figure 2) [8]

2 Study Area

In Egypt the study area is located in the north-western part ofthe Western Desert about 50 km south of the Mediterraneancoast between latitudes 31∘021015840 and 31∘121015840N and longitudes26∘341015840 and 26∘451015840 E west of Qattara Depression It coversabout 455 km2 (Figure 1) The northern basins (MatruhShushan Dahab-Mireir and Natrun) initially formed as asingle rift perhaps during the Permo-Triassic which devel-oped into a pull-apart structure [9] Marine conditions arefirst recorded in the Jurassic and Cretaceous sequences Latertectonic events are presumed to have split the original basininto a series of smaller compartments

In USA the study area is located at the western partof Arkoma Basin in south Oklahoma and is bounded bythe Arbuckle uplift to the southwest (Figure 2) The area


Oklahoma

Oklahoma Arkansas

Arkoma

Basin


Choctaw Fault

Wichita uplift

Arbuckle uplift


B


0(mi)

50

Study area

AUUSAAU

Arkansas








Kufra Basin

Libya

Jabal Dalma Baharia

uplift

0 30(km)

60

Mediterranean Sea

Red Sea

N



4 Methodology





119863 =[[[[

[

1198891111988912sdot sdot sdot 119889

1119869

1198892111988922sdot sdot sdot 119889

2119869

d

11988911987311198891198732sdot sdot sdot 119889119873119869

]]]]

]

(1)


119862 =1205821

Tr (119864) (2)





Lehi

gh

sync

line

Coa

l cou

nty

Atok

a cou

nty

Coa

lgat

ean

ticlin

e

Ti v

alle

y fa

ult-

Choc

taw

faul

t

IPbg

IPaIPa

IPa

IPa

IPa

IPw

IPw

PC

PC

COa

OsIPm

OsIPm

Ms

IPma IPbgIPsv IPh

ObDa

IPj


0

5

NW SE

Camb-Ordo

Precambrian

Ordo-Miss

Atoka

Morrowan

Miss-Atoka

U Ordo-M Miss

U Mississippian

U Morrowan



section)

Hartshorne Fm

McAlester Fm

Savanna Fm

Boggy Fm

A B




119911 (119909 119910) = 1198861199092

+ 1198871199102

+ 119888119909119910 + 119889119909 + 119890119910 + 119891 (3)





119886 =1

2

1205972119911

1205971199092=1

2

120597120588119909

120597119909

119887 =1

2

1205972119911

1205971199102=1

2

120597120588119910

120597119910

119888 =1205972119911

120597119909120597119910=120597120588119909

120597119910=120597120588119910

120597119909

119889 =120597119911

120597119909= 120588119909

119890 =120597119911

120597119910= 120588119910

(4)


119870max = 119870119898 + radic1198701198982 minus 119870119892 (5)


X

Z

0

0

Anticline

SynclineFault

Channel Sag Bump+++

+

++

+

minusminusminus

minus

minusminus

minus




[43]

119870119898=119886 (1 + 1198902) minus 119888119889119890 + 119887 (1 + 1198892)

(1 + 1198892 + 1198902)32

119870119892=4119886119887 minus 1198882

(1 + 1198892 + 1198902)2

(6)


119870pos = (119886 + 119887) + radic(119886 minus 119887)2

+ 1198882


+ 1198882

(7)









0 2 4 6(km)

SW NE0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

Am

p

+

minus


0

0 2 4 6(km)

SW NE

Tim

e (m

s)

Am

p


minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

+

minus



Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(a) Amplitude

Low

High

FaultChannel

(b) Coherence








Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(a) 119870max

Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(b) 119870pos

Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(c) 119870neg


Fault Channel

(a)

Fault Channel

(b)

Fault Channel

(c)


0 2 4 6 8 10(km)

N SN

Am

p

+

minus

0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

X998400

X


0 2 4 6 8 10(km)

N S

Basement

Woodford

Timbered hill GP

Caney

Late paleozoic

F1

F3

F2

X

Am

p

+

minus

0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

X998400




Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(a) Amplitude

Low

High


F2

F1

(b) Coherence


Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(a) 119870max

Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(b) 119870pos

Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(c) 119870neg



F2

F1

(a)


F2

F1

(b)


F2

F1

(c)




6 Conclusions






Acknowledgments


References


























































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in


Oklahoma

Oklahoma Arkansas

Arkoma

Basin


Choctaw Fault

Wichita uplift

Arbuckle uplift


B


0(mi)

50

Study area

AUUSAAU

Arkansas








Kufra Basin

Libya

Jabal Dalma Baharia

uplift

0 30(km)

60

Mediterranean Sea

Red Sea

N



4 Methodology





119863 =[[[[

[

1198891111988912sdot sdot sdot 119889

1119869

1198892111988922sdot sdot sdot 119889

2119869

d

11988911987311198891198732sdot sdot sdot 119889119873119869

]]]]

]

(1)


119862 =1205821

Tr (119864) (2)





Lehi

gh

sync

line

Coa

l cou

nty

Atok

a cou

nty

Coa

lgat

ean

ticlin

e

Ti v

alle

y fa

ult-

Choc

taw

faul

t

IPbg

IPaIPa

IPa

IPa

IPa

IPw

IPw

PC

PC

COa

OsIPm

OsIPm

Ms

IPma IPbgIPsv IPh

ObDa

IPj


0

5

NW SE

Camb-Ordo

Precambrian

Ordo-Miss

Atoka

Morrowan

Miss-Atoka

U Ordo-M Miss

U Mississippian

U Morrowan



section)

Hartshorne Fm

McAlester Fm

Savanna Fm

Boggy Fm

A B




119911 (119909 119910) = 1198861199092

+ 1198871199102

+ 119888119909119910 + 119889119909 + 119890119910 + 119891 (3)





119886 =1

2

1205972119911

1205971199092=1

2

120597120588119909

120597119909

119887 =1

2

1205972119911

1205971199102=1

2

120597120588119910

120597119910

119888 =1205972119911

120597119909120597119910=120597120588119909

120597119910=120597120588119910

120597119909

119889 =120597119911

120597119909= 120588119909

119890 =120597119911

120597119910= 120588119910

(4)


119870max = 119870119898 + radic1198701198982 minus 119870119892 (5)


X

Z

0

0

Anticline

SynclineFault

Channel Sag Bump+++

+

++

+

minusminusminus

minus

minusminus

minus




[43]

119870119898=119886 (1 + 1198902) minus 119888119889119890 + 119887 (1 + 1198892)

(1 + 1198892 + 1198902)32

119870119892=4119886119887 minus 1198882

(1 + 1198892 + 1198902)2

(6)


119870pos = (119886 + 119887) + radic(119886 minus 119887)2

+ 1198882


+ 1198882

(7)









0 2 4 6(km)

SW NE0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

Am

p

+

minus


0

0 2 4 6(km)

SW NE

Tim

e (m

s)

Am

p


minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

+

minus



Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(a) Amplitude

Low

High

FaultChannel

(b) Coherence








Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(a) 119870max

Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(b) 119870pos

Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(c) 119870neg


Fault Channel

(a)

Fault Channel

(b)

Fault Channel

(c)


0 2 4 6 8 10(km)

N SN

Am

p

+

minus

0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

X998400

X


0 2 4 6 8 10(km)

N S

Basement

Woodford

Timbered hill GP

Caney

Late paleozoic

F1

F3

F2

X

Am

p

+

minus

0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

X998400




Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(a) Amplitude

Low

High


F2

F1

(b) Coherence


Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(a) 119870max

Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(b) 119870pos

Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(c) 119870neg



F2

F1

(a)


F2

F1

(b)


F2

F1

(c)




6 Conclusions






Acknowledgments


References


























































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in


Kufra Basin

Libya

Jabal Dalma Baharia

uplift

0 30(km)

60

Mediterranean Sea

Red Sea

N



4 Methodology





119863 =[[[[

[

1198891111988912sdot sdot sdot 119889

1119869

1198892111988922sdot sdot sdot 119889

2119869

d

11988911987311198891198732sdot sdot sdot 119889119873119869

]]]]

]

(1)


119862 =1205821

Tr (119864) (2)





Lehi

gh

sync

line

Coa

l cou

nty

Atok

a cou

nty

Coa

lgat

ean

ticlin

e

Ti v

alle

y fa

ult-

Choc

taw

faul

t

IPbg

IPaIPa

IPa

IPa

IPa

IPw

IPw

PC

PC

COa

OsIPm

OsIPm

Ms

IPma IPbgIPsv IPh

ObDa

IPj


0

5

NW SE

Camb-Ordo

Precambrian

Ordo-Miss

Atoka

Morrowan

Miss-Atoka

U Ordo-M Miss

U Mississippian

U Morrowan



section)

Hartshorne Fm

McAlester Fm

Savanna Fm

Boggy Fm

A B




119911 (119909 119910) = 1198861199092

+ 1198871199102

+ 119888119909119910 + 119889119909 + 119890119910 + 119891 (3)





119886 =1

2

1205972119911

1205971199092=1

2

120597120588119909

120597119909

119887 =1

2

1205972119911

1205971199102=1

2

120597120588119910

120597119910

119888 =1205972119911

120597119909120597119910=120597120588119909

120597119910=120597120588119910

120597119909

119889 =120597119911

120597119909= 120588119909

119890 =120597119911

120597119910= 120588119910

(4)


119870max = 119870119898 + radic1198701198982 minus 119870119892 (5)


X

Z

0

0

Anticline

SynclineFault

Channel Sag Bump+++

+

++

+

minusminusminus

minus

minusminus

minus




[43]

119870119898=119886 (1 + 1198902) minus 119888119889119890 + 119887 (1 + 1198892)

(1 + 1198892 + 1198902)32

119870119892=4119886119887 minus 1198882

(1 + 1198892 + 1198902)2

(6)


119870pos = (119886 + 119887) + radic(119886 minus 119887)2

+ 1198882


+ 1198882

(7)









0 2 4 6(km)

SW NE0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

Am

p

+

minus


0

0 2 4 6(km)

SW NE

Tim

e (m

s)

Am

p


minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

+

minus



Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(a) Amplitude

Low

High

FaultChannel

(b) Coherence








Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(a) 119870max

Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(b) 119870pos

Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(c) 119870neg


Fault Channel

(a)

Fault Channel

(b)

Fault Channel

(c)


0 2 4 6 8 10(km)

N SN

Am

p

+

minus

0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

X998400

X


0 2 4 6 8 10(km)

N S

Basement

Woodford

Timbered hill GP

Caney

Late paleozoic

F1

F3

F2

X

Am

p

+

minus

0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

X998400




Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(a) Amplitude

Low

High


F2

F1

(b) Coherence


Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(a) 119870max

Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(b) 119870pos

Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(c) 119870neg



F2

F1

(a)


F2

F1

(b)


F2

F1

(c)




6 Conclusions






Acknowledgments


References


























































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in


Lehi

gh

sync

line

Coa

l cou

nty

Atok

a cou

nty

Coa

lgat

ean

ticlin

e

Ti v

alle

y fa

ult-

Choc

taw

faul

t

IPbg

IPaIPa

IPa

IPa

IPa

IPw

IPw

PC

PC

COa

OsIPm

OsIPm

Ms

IPma IPbgIPsv IPh

ObDa

IPj


0

5

NW SE

Camb-Ordo

Precambrian

Ordo-Miss

Atoka

Morrowan

Miss-Atoka

U Ordo-M Miss

U Mississippian

U Morrowan



section)

Hartshorne Fm

McAlester Fm

Savanna Fm

Boggy Fm

A B




119911 (119909 119910) = 1198861199092

+ 1198871199102

+ 119888119909119910 + 119889119909 + 119890119910 + 119891 (3)





119886 =1

2

1205972119911

1205971199092=1

2

120597120588119909

120597119909

119887 =1

2

1205972119911

1205971199102=1

2

120597120588119910

120597119910

119888 =1205972119911

120597119909120597119910=120597120588119909

120597119910=120597120588119910

120597119909

119889 =120597119911

120597119909= 120588119909

119890 =120597119911

120597119910= 120588119910

(4)


119870max = 119870119898 + radic1198701198982 minus 119870119892 (5)


X

Z

0

0

Anticline

SynclineFault

Channel Sag Bump+++

+

++

+

minusminusminus

minus

minusminus

minus




[43]

119870119898=119886 (1 + 1198902) minus 119888119889119890 + 119887 (1 + 1198892)

(1 + 1198892 + 1198902)32

119870119892=4119886119887 minus 1198882

(1 + 1198892 + 1198902)2

(6)


119870pos = (119886 + 119887) + radic(119886 minus 119887)2

+ 1198882


+ 1198882

(7)









0 2 4 6(km)

SW NE0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

Am

p

+

minus


0

0 2 4 6(km)

SW NE

Tim

e (m

s)

Am

p


minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

+

minus



Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(a) Amplitude

Low

High

FaultChannel

(b) Coherence








Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(a) 119870max

Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(b) 119870pos

Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(c) 119870neg


Fault Channel

(a)

Fault Channel

(b)

Fault Channel

(c)


0 2 4 6 8 10(km)

N SN

Am

p

+

minus

0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

X998400

X


0 2 4 6 8 10(km)

N S

Basement

Woodford

Timbered hill GP

Caney

Late paleozoic

F1

F3

F2

X

Am

p

+

minus

0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

X998400




Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(a) Amplitude

Low

High


F2

F1

(b) Coherence


Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(a) 119870max

Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(b) 119870pos

Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(c) 119870neg



F2

F1

(a)


F2

F1

(b)


F2

F1

(c)




6 Conclusions






Acknowledgments


References


























































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in


X

Z

0

0

Anticline

SynclineFault

Channel Sag Bump+++

+

++

+

minusminusminus

minus

minusminus

minus




[43]

119870119898=119886 (1 + 1198902) minus 119888119889119890 + 119887 (1 + 1198892)

(1 + 1198892 + 1198902)32

119870119892=4119886119887 minus 1198882

(1 + 1198892 + 1198902)2

(6)


119870pos = (119886 + 119887) + radic(119886 minus 119887)2

+ 1198882


+ 1198882

(7)









0 2 4 6(km)

SW NE0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

Am

p

+

minus


0

0 2 4 6(km)

SW NE

Tim

e (m

s)

Am

p


minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

+

minus



Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(a) Amplitude

Low

High

FaultChannel

(b) Coherence








Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(a) 119870max

Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(b) 119870pos

Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(c) 119870neg


Fault Channel

(a)

Fault Channel

(b)

Fault Channel

(c)


0 2 4 6 8 10(km)

N SN

Am

p

+

minus

0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

X998400

X


0 2 4 6 8 10(km)

N S

Basement

Woodford

Timbered hill GP

Caney

Late paleozoic

F1

F3

F2

X

Am

p

+

minus

0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

X998400




Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(a) Amplitude

Low

High


F2

F1

(b) Coherence


Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(a) 119870max

Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(b) 119870pos

Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(c) 119870neg



F2

F1

(a)


F2

F1

(b)


F2

F1

(c)




6 Conclusions






Acknowledgments


References


























































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in


0 2 4 6(km)

SW NE0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

Am

p

+

minus


0

0 2 4 6(km)

SW NE

Tim

e (m

s)

Am

p


minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

+

minus



Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(a) Amplitude

Low

High

FaultChannel

(b) Coherence








Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(a) 119870max

Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(b) 119870pos

Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(c) 119870neg


Fault Channel

(a)

Fault Channel

(b)

Fault Channel

(c)


0 2 4 6 8 10(km)

N SN

Am

p

+

minus

0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

X998400

X


0 2 4 6 8 10(km)

N S

Basement

Woodford

Timbered hill GP

Caney

Late paleozoic

F1

F3

F2

X

Am

p

+

minus

0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

X998400




Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(a) Amplitude

Low

High


F2

F1

(b) Coherence


Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(a) 119870max

Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(b) 119870pos

Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(c) 119870neg



F2

F1

(a)


F2

F1

(b)


F2

F1

(c)




6 Conclusions






Acknowledgments


References


























































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in


Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(a) 119870max

Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(b) 119870pos

Negative

Positive

Fault Channel

(c) 119870neg


Fault Channel

(a)

Fault Channel

(b)

Fault Channel

(c)


0 2 4 6 8 10(km)

N SN

Am

p

+

minus

0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

X998400

X


0 2 4 6 8 10(km)

N S

Basement

Woodford

Timbered hill GP

Caney

Late paleozoic

F1

F3

F2

X

Am

p

+

minus

0

Tim

e (m

s)

minus500

minus1000

minus1500

minus2000

minus2500

minus3000

X998400




Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(a) Amplitude

Low

High


F2

F1

(b) Coherence


Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(a) 119870max

Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(b) 119870pos

Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(c) 119870neg



F2

F1

(a)


F2

F1

(b)


F2

F1

(c)




6 Conclusions






Acknowledgments


References


























































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in


Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(a) Amplitude

Low

High


F2

F1

(b) Coherence


Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(a) 119870max

Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(b) 119870pos

Negative

Positive


F2

F1

(c) 119870neg



F2

F1

(a)


F2

F1

(b)


F2

F1

(c)




6 Conclusions






Acknowledgments


References


























































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in



6 Conclusions






Acknowledgments


References


























































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in
















































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in










Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in

Documents

Research Article Diacritical Seismic Signatures for