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RequirementsEngineering
Southern Methodist University
CSE 7316 – Chapter 4, Functional Details
Requirements abstraction (Davis)“If a company wishes to let a contract for a large softwaredevelopment project, it must define its needs in a sufficientlyabstract way that a solution is not pre-defined. The requirementsmust be written so that several contractors can bid for the contract,offering, perhaps, different ways of meeting the clientorganisation’s needs. Once a contract has been awarded, thecontractor must write a system definition for the client in moredetail so that the client understands and can validate what thesoftware will do. Both of these documents may be called therequirements document for the system.”
Types of requirement User requirements
Statements in natural language plus diagrams of the services the system provides and its operational constraints. Written for customers
System requirements A structured document setting out detailed
descriptions of the system services. Written as a contract between client and contractor
Software specification A detailed software description which can serve as a
basis for a design or implementation. Written for developers
Definitions and specifications
1. The software must provide a means of representing and1. accessing external files created by other tools.
1.1 The user should be provided with facilities to define the type of1.2 external files.1.2 Each external file type may have an associated tool which may be1.2 applied to the file.1.3 Each external file type may be represented as a specific icon on1.2 the user’s display.1.4 Facilities should be provided for the icon representing an1.2 external file type to be defined by the user.1.5 When a user selects an icon representing an external file, the1.2 effect of that selection is to apply the tool associated with the type of1.2 the external file to the file represented by the selected icon.
Requirements definition
Requirements specification
Requirements readers
Client managersSystem end-usersClient engineersContractor managersSystem architects
System end-usersClient engineersSystem architectsSoftware developers
Client engineers (perhaps)System architectsSoftware developers
User requirements
System requirements
Software designspecification
Functional and non-functional requirements Functional requirements
Statements of services the system should provide, how the system should react to particular inputs and how the system should behave in particular situations.
Non-functional requirements constraints on the services or functions offered by the
system such as timing constraints, constraints on the development process, standards, etc.
Domain requirements Requirements that come from the application domain of
the system and that reflect characteristics of that domain
Functional requirements
Describe functionality or system services Functional user requirements may be high-
level statements of what the system should do but functional system requirements should describe the system services in detail
Examples of functional requirements The user shall be able to search either all of the
initial set of databases or select a subset from it.
The system shall provide appropriate viewers for the user to read documents in the document store.
Every order shall be allocated a unique identifier (ORDER_ID) which the user shall be able to copy to the account’s permanent storage area.
Requirements imprecision
Problems arise when requirements are not precisely stated
Ambiguous requirements may be interpreted in different ways by developers and users
Consider the term ‘appropriate viewers’ User intention - special purpose viewer for each
different document type Developer interpretation - Provide a text viewer
that shows the contents of the document
Requirements completeness and consistency In principle requirements should be both
complete and consistent Complete
They should include descriptions of all facilities required
Consistent There should be no conflicts or contradictions in the
descriptions of the system facilities In practice, it is impossible to produce a complete
and consistent requirements document
Non-functional requirements Define system properties and constraints e.g.
reliability, response time and storage requirements. Constraints are I/O device capability, system representations, etc.
Process requirements may also be specified mandating a particular CASE system, programming language or development method
Non-functional requirements may be more critical than functional requirements. If these are not met, the system is useless
Non-functional requirement types
Performancerequirements
Spacerequirements
Usabilityrequirements
Efficiencyrequirements
Reliabilityrequirements
Portabilityrequirements
Interoperabilityrequirements
Ethicalrequirements
Legislativerequirements
Implementationrequirements
Standardsrequirements
Deliveryrequirements
Safetyrequirements
Privacyrequirements
Productrequirements
Organizationalrequirements
Externalrequirements
Non-functionalrequirements
Non-functional requirements examples
Product requirement 4.C.8 It shall be possible for all necessary communication
between the APSE and the user to be expressed in the standard Ada character set
Organisational requirement 9.3.2 The system development process and deliverable
documents shall conform to the process and deliverables defined in XYZCo-SP-STAN-95
External requirement 7.6.5 The system shall not disclose any personal
information about customers apart from their name and reference number to the operators of the system
Goals and requirements
A system goal The system should be easy to use by
experienced controllers and should be organised in such a way that user errors are minimised.
A verifiable non-functional requirement Experienced controllers shall be able to use all
the system functions after a total of two hours training. After this training, the average number of errors made by experienced users shall not exceed two per day.
Requirements measuresProperty MeasureSpeed Processed transactions/second
User/Event response timeScreen refresh time
Size K BytesNumber of RAM chips
Ease of use Training timeNumber of help frames
Reliability Mean time to failureProbability of unavailabilityRate of failure occurrenceAvailability
Robustness Time to restart after failurePercentage of events causing failureProbability of data corruption on failure
Portability Percentage of target dependent statementsNumber of target systems
Requirements interaction
Conflicts between different non-functional requirements are common in complex systems
Spacecraft system To minimise weight, the number of separate chips
in the system should be minimised To minimise power consumption, lower power
chips should be used However, using low power chips may mean that
more chips have to be used. Which is the most critical requirement?
Domain requirements
Derived from the application domain and describe system characteristics and features that reflect the domain
May be new functional requirements, constraints on existing requirements or define specific computations
If domain requirements are not satisfied, the system may be unworkable
Example domain requirements Library system
there shall be a standard user interface to all databases which shall be based on the Z39.50 standard.
Train protection system The deceleration of the train shall be computed as:
Dtrain = Dcontrol + Dgradient
where Dgradient is 9.81ms2 * compensated gradient/alpha and where the values of 9.81ms2
/alpha are known for different types of train.
Domain requirements problems Understandability
Requirements are expressed in the language of the application domain
This is often not understood by software engineers developing the system
Implicitness Domain specialists understand the area so well
that they do not think of making the domain requirements explicit
Documenting user requirements Should be understandable to system users
who don’t have detailed technical knowledge Use natural language, tables and diagrams some problems with NL
Precision vs lack of clarity Confusion - functional and non-functional
requirements tend to be mixed-up Amalgamation
Editor grid requirement2.6 Grid facilities To assist in the positioning of entities on a diagram, the user may turn on a grid in either centimetres or inches, via an option on the control panel. Initially, the grid is off. The grid may be turned on and off at any time during an editing session and can be toggled between inches and centimetres at any time. A grid option will be provided on the reduce-to-fit view but the number of grid lines shown will be reduced to avoid filling the smaller diagram with grid lines. Mixes three different kinds of requirement
• Conceptual functional requirement (the need for a grid)• Non-functional requirement (grid units)• Non-functional UI requirement (grid switching)
Structured presentation
.6 Grid facilities
.6.1 The editor shall provide a grid facility where a matrix ofhorizontal and vertical lines provide a background to theeditor window. This grid shall be a passive grid where thealignment of entities is the user's responsibility.Rationale: A grid helps the user to create a tidy diagram withwell-spaced entities. Although an active grid, where entities'snap-to' grid lines can be useful, the positioning is imprecise.The user is the best person to decide where entities should bepositioned.
Specification: ECLIPSE/WS/Tools/DE/FS Section 5.6
Detailed user requirement
3.5.1 Adding nodes to a design3.5.1.1 The editor shall provide a facility for users to add nodes of a
specified type to their design.3.5.1.2 The sequence of actions to add a node should be as follows:
1. The user should select the type of node to be added.2. The user should move the cursor to the approximate node position in the
diagram and indicate that the node symbol should be added at thatpoint.
3. The user should then drag the node symbol to its final position.
Rationale: The user is the best person to decide where to position a node on thediagram. This approach gives the user direct control over node typeselection and positioning.
Specification: ECLIPSE/WS/Tools/DE/FS. Section 3.5.1
Specifying system requirements
More detailed specifications of user requirements
NL structures are inadequate to structure system requirements Ambiguity Over-flexibility Lack of modularisation
Alternatives to NL specification
Structured natural language Design description languages - PDL or
psuedocode Graphical notation - UML, SADT Mathematical specifications - Z, Object Z,
VDM, CSP
Structured language specifications
A limited form of natural language may be used to express requirements
This removes some of the problems resulting from ambiguity and flexibility and imposes a degree of uniformity on a specification
Often best supported using a forms-based approach
Form-based node specification
ECLIPSE/Workstation/Tools/DE/FS/3.5.1
Function Add node
Description Adds a node to an existing design. The user selects the type of node, and its position.When added to the design, the node becomes the current selection. The user chooses the node position bymoving the cursor to the area where the node is added.
Inputs Node type, Node position, Design identifier.
Source Node type and Node position are input by the user, Design identifier from the database.
Outputs Design identifier.
Destination The design database. The design is committed to the database on completion of theoperation.
Requires Design graph rooted at input design identifier.
Pre-condition The design is open and displayed on the user's screen.
Post-condition The design is unchanged apart from the addition of a node of the specified typeat the given position.
Side-effects None
Definition: ECLIPSE/Workstation/Tools/DE/RD/3.5.1
Requirements and design
In principle, requirements should state what the system should do and the design should describe how it does this
In practice, requirements and design are inseparable A system architecture may be designed to structure the
requirements The system may inter-operate with other systems that
generate design requirements The use of a specific design may be a domain
requirement
PDL-based requirements definition
Requirements may be defined operationally using a language like a programming language but with more flexibility of expression
Most appropriate in two situations Where an operation is specified as a sequence of
actions and the order is important When hardware and software interfaces have to be
specified
Part of an ATM specification
class ATM {// declarations herepublic static void main (String args[]) throws InvalidCard {
try {thisCard.read () ; // may throw InvalidCard exceptionpin = KeyPad.readPin () ; attempts = 1 ;while ( !thisCard.pin.equals (pin) & attempts < 4 )
{ pin = KeyPad.readPin () ; attempts = attempts + 1 ;}if (!thisCard.pin.equals (pin))
throw new InvalidCard ("Bad PIN");thisBalance = thisCard.getBalance () ;do { Screen.prompt (" Please select a service ") ;
service = Screen.touchKey () ;switch (service) {
case Services.withdrawalWithReceipt:receiptRequired = true ;
PDL disadvantages
PDL may not be sufficiently expressive to express the system functionality in an understandable way
Notation is only understandable to people with programming language knowledge
The requirement may be taken as a design specification rather than a model to help understand the system
Interface specification
Most systems must operate with other systems and the operating interfaces must be specified as part of the requirements
Three types of interface may have to be defined Procedural interfaces Data structures that are exchanged Data representations
Formal notations are an effective technique for interface specification
PDL interface description
interface PrintServer {
// defines an abstract printer server// requires: interface Printer, interface PrintDoc// provides: initialize, print, displayPrintQueue, cancelPrintJob, switchPrinter
void initialize ( Printer p ) ;void print ( Printer p, PrintDoc d ) ;void displayPrintQueue ( Printer p ) ;void cancelPrintJob (Printer p, PrintDoc d) ;void switchPrinter (Printer p1, Printer p2, PrintDoc d) ;
} //PrintServer
Users of a requirements document
Use the requirements todevelop validation tests forthe system
Use the requirementsdocument to plan a bid forthe system and to plan thesystem development process
Use the requirements tounderstand what system is tobe developed
System testengineers
Managers
System engineers
Specify the requirements andread them to check that theymeet their needs. Theyspecify changes to therequirements
System customers
Use the requirements to helpunderstand the system andthe relationships between itsparts
Systemmaintenance
engineers
Functional details
Focus has been on identifying functional details
More precision needed now Good intermediate work products UML based
Complex and simple functions
Makes sense to only describe semi complex functions
Must be able to distinguish non-obvious from obvious to save time
We have to live with tacit requirements
Tables and decision tables
Good for non-trivial sets of rules existing in the domain When is a deposit needed When is a supervisor signature needed When is a discount given
Can describe in programming language form but a table is better
Pros and cons
Good for describing business rules Customer can V & V Can be turned easily into program
Rules expressed as programs with loops or recursion are not suitable
State diagrams
Describes how a certain entity changes state as a result of various events
Can model the life cycle of any entity or group of entities with a state diagram
Use only for entities with complex behavior and several states
Pros and cons
Verification; state diagrams are an excellent basis for development and testing
Validation; huge state diagrams can get to be messy
Hard to distinguish from a DFD or activity diagram
State transition matrices
Another way to show state transitions Forces us to look at every combination of
state and event Good for resolving hard problems
Pros and cons
Good for checking that all situations and features have been covered
Can easily be converted into a program Can become too large and sparsely
populated (cells contain “not possible”)
Activity diagrams
Kind of like a traditional flow chart Expanded to show object flows and
concurrent flows Combines flow chart and DFD Swim lanes for actors
Pros
Good for designing new activities into the domain
Specifying communication between technical components
Outlining the internal structure of large programs
Validation – most customers can read and understand them
Cons
Poor at describing the actual data communication between actors Combine with data expressions
Take a lot of space Flow chart may be messy and unstructured
from a programming point of view
Class diagram
Static class diagram is an extension to the E/R model Each class stores behavior as well as data
UML allows more precision than the crows feet representation
Relationship is called an association
Pros
Widely used, must know about them Class diagrams are useful in designing the
inner workings of the product but be careful with business objects
Cons
In business applications class modeling with operations is not suitable for requirements
Use it as if it were a data model and gloss over the operations
Sequence diagrams
Show how objects communicate by means of messages
Shows sequences graphically with time running down the diagram
An event is the message where the initiative starts
Message is some data sent from a sender to a receiver
Pros and cons
Widely used and designer should know about them
Correspond closely to use cases using a graphical instead of textual description
Can be used as design level requirements for technical interfaces as well as user interfaces
Models: Analysis/DesignModels: Analysis/DesignAdditional DiagramsAdditional Diagrams
Sequence Diagrams
Activity Diagrams
Decision Tree
Models: Textual Models: Textual ScenarioScenarioScenarios
You can write a textual specification of a scenario
A scenario for the Change Machine State use case appears below
1. The Operator informs a Machine that the Machine should changeits state to “off”
2. The Machine sets its state to the new state
3. The Machine logs the state change with the Log
4. The Log creates the appropriate Log Entry(The Machine was not previously in the running state, so thesuccessor machines need not be informed)
ScenariosYou can write a textual specification of a scenario
A scenario for the Change Machine State use case appears below
1. The Operator informs a Machine that the Machine should changeits state to “off”
2. The Machine sets its state to the new state
3. The Machine logs the state change with the Log
4. The Log creates the appropriate Log Entry(The Machine was not previously in the running state, so thesuccessor machines need not be informed)
Models: Sequence Models: Sequence DiagramDiagram
Models: Sequence Models: Sequence DiagramDiagram
Developing Sequence DiagramsYou can “walk through” your use cases to develop sequence diagrams
• You first identify all of the scenarios for each use caseA scenario is one execution path through a use case
• You then draw a sequence diagram for each scenarioA sequence diagram describes how objects interact in one scenario
(As you do this, you might discover additional features your class diagram must have)
Developing Sequence DiagramsYou can “walk through” your use cases to develop sequence diagrams
• You first identify all of the scenarios for each use caseA scenario is one execution path through a use case
• You then draw a sequence diagram for each scenarioA sequence diagram describes how objects interact in one scenario
(As you do this, you might discover additional features your class diagram must have)
Models: Sequence Diagram - Models: Sequence Diagram - Example ElevatorExample Elevator
A Sequence diagram shows the explicitsequence of messages suitable formodeling a real-time system.
Models: Activity DiagramModels: Activity Diagram
A Use case presents a static view of system functionality
Activity diagrams depict a workflow view of activities
An activity diagram “flowcharts” the steps in the use case
Models: Activity Diagram Models: Activity Diagram Example ElevatorExample Elevator
Floor Button Pressed Controller Detects Floor Button Pressed
Elevator Moves to Floor
Elevator Door Open
Passenger GetsIn
No Passengar Presses Floor ButtonYes
Elevator Door Closes
Elevator Moves to Selected Floor
Elevator Door Opens
Passenger GetsOut
Yes
No
Models: Activity Diagram Models: Activity Diagram ExampleExample
FindBeverage
Put Coffeein Filter
Put Filterin Machine
Turn OnMachine
BrewCoffee
PourCoffee
Add Waterto Reservoir
GetCups
Get Canof Cola
DrinkBeverage
[no cola][no coffee]
[found cola][found coffee]
^coffeePot.TurnOn
light goes out
Start
Activity
JoinEnd
Branch
Guard
Merge
Fork
UML Distilled, Fowler, Martin and Kendall Scott, Addison-Wesley,1997, page 130.
UML Distilled, Fowler, Martin and Kendall Scott, Addison-Wesley,1997, page 130.
Models: SA Decision TreeModels: SA Decision Tree
is userAuthorized?
is userAuthorized?
is chemical
hazardous?
is chemical
hazardous?
is chemicalavailable?
is chemicalavailable?
is usertrained?
is usertrained?
rejectrequest
rejectrequest accept
request
acceptrequest
acceptrequest
acceptrequest
rejectrequest
rejectrequest
rejectrequest
rejectrequest
nononono
nono
nono
yesyes
yesyes
yesyes
yesyes
User interfaces with state machines
“Constructing the User Interface with State Charts” by Ian HorrocksPublisher: Addison-Wesley Professional; 1st edition (January 17, 1999) ASIN: 0201342782
Event-driven software
Large systems usually have control passed from one subroutine to another
User interface software is event driven Objects programmed to respond to events using
event handlers Developer cannot anticipate order or events
Top down control
Event-Action Paradigm
An event supplied by a user determines the sequence of actions that is executed by the software
Example; word processor; user event supplied to one object can affect the state of another
Example; saving a document; when an event is supplied to a user interface object, actions executed can vary
Event-Action Paradigm
Another example; business application used to display data about customers; data displayed in a user interface object can affect the state and behavior of other user interface objects
Bottom up approach
Because of event-action paradigm, most UI SW is constructed bottom up
Event handlers built up gradually Needs information shared between objects
Calculator application
Problems with this approach
No abstract view of software Event handlers using global variables SW is not object oriented Contexts are not explicit Difficult to get SW to work correctly Difficult to enhance software
User Interface Control Model (UCM) UI objects must be coordinated to work
together as a whole Control should be centralized Event handlers forward user events to the
right objects Control objects send messages to model
objects (store long term info)
Event handlers in a UI app
UCM architecture
Tabbing between objects
Issues with UCM
Creating control objects that are easy to understand requires a powerful design notation
Problem is that each control object will be constructed from a set of global variables that can be accessed and updated
Event-state-action paradigm
Events that a user supplies cause the software to move from one state to another and the state defines the set of possible events that a user can supply
States not made explicit in the UI code State based approach to UI design
Event driven UI
Design notation for control layer objects Control layer philosophy is that UI as a whole
moves from one state to another
CD player UI
Writing specs
Forces developers to make assumptions about many aspects of a UI behavior
Others believe development of prototypes should replace natural language specs
Another approach is to produce a model
State diagram
Table form (STD matrix)
Table form (contd)
Table form
UCM architecture for CD player
Public methods of CD player
Use of state machines
Application like the CD player is controlling an electrical device
State machine controlling the UI objects and not the CD player itself
Can represent state machines in many ways
CD player UI
UCM architecture for CD player
Basic STD
More accurate model of CD player
STD capturing extra requirements
Actions and state transitions
Extended STD
Extended behavior
More complicated STD
Object behavior
More behavior
Extra behavior
FSM and the control of UI objects FSM cannot model UI objects without being
extended # states increases rapidly with only a modest
rise in system complexity Many duplicated states and events STD can be large and difficult to read STD are not scalable
Statecharts
Harel proposed extension to STD called state charts
Rich and expressive notation that allows complex systems to be specified concisely and at different levels of abstraction
Used widely
CD player example
Two high level states the CD player can be in CD not in machine CD in machine
Notation like STD with a few obvious differences
High level CD behavior
More substates
Closing the CD drawer
CD stopped and paused
Adding “Paused” behavior
History mechanism
Conclusion
Natural language spec of CD player composed of many basic fragments of information
Statecharts better than STDs in UI spec # states in a statechart rises in proportion to the complexity
of the system Statecharts avoid duplication Hierarchical structure
Statecharts; the behavioral language for user interfaces
Data Flow Models
Data-flow models
Show the processing steps as data flows through a system
Intrinsic part of many analysis methods Simple and intuitive notation that customers
can understand Show end-to-end processing of data
Order processing DFD
Completeorder form
Orderdetails +
blankorder form
Valida teorder
Recordorder
Send tosupplier
Adjustavailablebudget
Budgetfile
Ordersfile
Completedorder form
Signedorder form
Signedorder form
Checked andsigned order
+ ordernotification
Orderamount
+ accountdetails
Signedorder form
Orderdetails
Data-flow diagrams
May be used to show processing at different levels of abstraction from fairly abstract to fairly detailed
May also be used for architectural description showing data interchange between the sub-systems making up the system
Not a good way to describe system interfaces
Equipment procurement DFD
Get costestimates
Acceptdelivery ofequipment
Checkdelivered
items
Validatespecification
Specifyequipmentrequired
Choosesupplier
Placeequipment
order
Installequipment
Findsuppliers
Supplierdatabase
Acceptdelivered
equipment
Equipmentdatabase
Equipmentspec.
Checkedspec.
Deliverynote
Deliverynote
Ordernotification
Installationinstructions
Installationacceptance
Equipmentdetails
Checked andsigned order form
Orderdetails +
Blank orderform
Spec. +supplier +estimate
SupplierlistEquipment
spec.
Software Engineering Theory and PracticeShari Lawrence Pfleeger and Joanne M Atlee