REPRESENTATION OF MALAYS AND MALAY

CULTURE IN THE FICTION OF LLOYD

FERNANDO AND CHE HUSNA AZHARI

BY

WAN NUR MADIHA BINTI RAMLAN

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for

the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English

Literary Studies)

Kuliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human

Sciences

International Islamic University Malaysia

JANUARY 2012

ii

ABSTRACT

In terms of demographics, Malaysia possesses such diversity with the multiple ethnic

groups that make up the population of the country. Malaysia is a country that promotes its

national diversity, unity, and harmony, and recently, the government has been promoting

similar values within the 1Malaysia concept, a formula that aims to “foster unity” among

the peoples of the country. However, the relationship between the dominant Malays and

other races has always been a sensitive and taboo subject, ever since the May 13 incident

in 1969, a sensitivity that far transcends the superficial image of harmony in the country.

The Malays, which make up roughly around 65% of the population, and their culture

would be the subject of this qualitative study. This paper investigates the representation of

the Malays and Malay culture in the body of Malaysian postcolonial literature in the

English language. The research will not only look at how the other ethnic groups

represent the Malays in literature, but this study also aims to investigate how the Malays

look at themselves. To achieve this aim, this study will examine a number of short stories

by Che Husna Azhari and Green is the Colour (1993) by Lloyd Fernando. Due to the

different ethnic backgrounds of these two writers, one being Malay and the other a non-

Malay, a certain balance and objectivity could be reached. The work of these writers

would supply sufficient evidence on the shaping of identity and representation of the

Malays. The premise of this study would centre upon representation, race and ethnicity,

nation and nationalism and the subaltern It is hoped that this study would allow for a

better understanding of how stereotyping and national identity are shaped in Malaysia, as

well as observe the aspirations and attempts, successful or otherwise, for national

integration as proposed by the 1Malaysia concept.

iii

خلاصة البحث

سكانل متعددة وجماعات عرقية متنوعة تشك كانية بثقافاتماليزيا من حيث التركيبة الستزخر ذلك البلاد. وتعزز الدولة في هذا التنوع العرقي إلى القومية والوحدة والانسجام الثقافي. من

هدف إلى "تعزيز ة بترويج تلك القيم في إطار مفهوم )ماليزيا واحدة(، وهو إطار يقامت الحكومالوحدة" بين جميع أطياف السكان. وعلى الرغم من ذلك، فإن العلاقة بين العرق الملايو والأعراق الأخرى دائما ما تشوبها الحساسية وبعض المحرمات الاجتماعية، لاسيما في الفترة التي

للبلاد . وقد تتجاوز هذه الحساسية الصورة السطحية التي رسمت3191مايو 31تلت حادثة لنشر الوئام والانسجام. لذلك تركز هذه الدراسة النوعية على ثقافة العرق الملايو الذي يشكل

تصوير الملايو وثقافتهم في الكيان الماليزي،في كيفية بالمائة من السكان. وتحقق هذه الدراسة 96لى النظر في كيفية في أدب فترة مابعد الاستعمار باللغة الإنجليزية. ولم يقتصر البحث ع وذلك

تصور الأعراق الأخرى للملايويين في الأدب، بل يهدف أيضا إلى التحقيق في كيفية تصور الملايويين لأنفسهم. ولتحقيق تلك الأهداف، يقوم البحث على دراسة عدد من القصص

للكاتب لويد فرناندو. "الأخضر لون"القصيرة التي كتبت بواسطة شي حسنة أزهري، وقصة اختيار تلك القصص للللفيات العرقية لكتابها، فالأولى ملايوية واآخخر غير ملايوي، ويأتي

تلك الأعمال بالشواهد وذلك يساعد على عملية التوازن والموضوعية في الطرح. وجسدت تشكيل التصور والهوية الملايوية. وتتركز الدراسة على فرضيات وهي التصور، والعرق، في الكافية

والقومية، والوطنية، والاتباع. وتتطلع الدراسة إلى تشكيل مفهوم أفضل في كيفية والطائفة، طلعات والمحاولات من تشكيل القوالب النمطية والهوية الوطنية بماليزيا، إضافة إلى مراقبة نجاح الت

ندماج الوطني على النحو المؤطر في مفهوم )ماليزيا واحدة(.عدمها في الا

iv

APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to

acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality,

as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Literary Studies).

……..…………..……………

M.A. Quayum Abdussalam

Supervisor

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to

acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality,

as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (English Literary Studies).

…….…………..……………

Ghulam-Sarwar Yousof

Examiner

This dissertation was submitted to the Department of English Language and Literature

and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human

Sciences (English Literary Studies).

…….…………..……………

Zahariah Pilus

Head, Department of English

Language and Literature

This dissertation was submitted to the Kuliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and

Human Sciences and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of

Master of Human Sciences (English Literary Studies).

.………………..……………

Badri Najib Zubir

Dean, Kuliyyah of Islamic

Revealed Knowledge and

Human Sciences (KIRKHS)

v

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except where

otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted

as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Wan Nur Madiha binti Ramlan

Signature: ……………………………….. Date: ………………………

vi

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND

AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED

RESEARCH

Copyright © 2012 by Wan Nur Madiha binti Ramlan. All rights reserved.

REPRESENTATION OF MALAYS AND MALAY CULTURE IN THE

FICTION OF LLOYD FERNANDO AND CHE HUSNA AZHARI

I hereby affirm that The International Islamic University of Malaysia (IIUM) hold

all rights in the copyright of this Work and henceforth any reproduction or use in

any form or by means whatsoever is prohibited without the written consent of

IIUM. No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by means, electronic, mechanical,

photocopying recording, or otherwise without prior written permission of the

copyright holder.

Affirmed by Wan Nur Madiha binti Ramlan.

…………………………… ……………….

Signature Date

vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The realisation of this thesis would not have been possible without the support of many

people, and therefore I would like to take this opportunity to say thank you. Firstly, I

would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. Dr. M.A. Quayum whose

encouragement, guidance and support enabled me to grasp a better understanding of the

subject. To my parents, Ramlan Abdul Aziz and Nasibah Mohd. Ali, I am ever grateful for

the unwavering love, support and wisdom they provided me throughout this trying albeit

rewarding experience. Special thanks to all my friends who, over the years, have become

my personal group of critics as well as cheerleaders. To my best friend, Zanirah Wahab,

your friendship and infectious personality provided me with the energy and inspiration to

forge ahead and complete this thesis. I am also indebted to the staff of the Department of

English Language and Literature (DELL), IIUM for all the assistance they provided me

during the course of my study. Lastly, my deepest gratitude is reserved for Allah S.W.T.

for giving me the strength to persevere. Without His aid, I would not have been able to

face and overcome the many challenges that I have experienced throughout my life.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………. ii

Abstract in Arabic………………………………………………………………. iii

Approval Page…………………………………………………………………… iv

Declaration Page ………………………………………………………………... v

Copyright Page …………………………………………………………………. vi

Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………. vii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………. 1

1.1. Background of Study……………………………………………………….

1.1.1 Introduction………………………………………………… 1

1.1.2 Malaysia’s Multiculturalism and the History of the

Malays………………………………………………….........

2

1.2 Statement of Problem……………………………………………………….. 8

1.3. 1.3 Objectives of the Study……………………………………………………… 11

1.4 Significance of the Study……………………………………………………. 12

1.5 Scope of the Study…………………………………………………………. 13

1.6 Literature Review…………………………………………………………… 14

1.7 Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………..

1.7.1 Theory of Representation, Signs and the Creation of Myths 17

1.8 Research Methodology……………………………………………………… 21

1.9 Organisation of Chapters……………………………………………………. 22

CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ………………………….. 24

2.1 Representation ……………………………………………………………… 25

2.2 Nation and Nationalism …………….……………………………………… 34

2.3 The Issue of the Other: Edward Said’s Orientalism………………………… 38

2.4 Race and Ethnicity………….………………………………………………. 40

2.5 Concluding Comments…….………………………………………………… 43

CHAPTER 3: LLOYD FERNANDO…………………………………..……. 45

3.1 The Author and His Novel…………………………………………………... 45

3.2 Love, Acceptance and Awareness…………………………………...……… 49

3.3 Islam, Spirituality and Corruption………………………………………..…. 54

3.4 Self/Other in Malaysian Culture……….......................................................... 61

3.5 A Representation of Malay Culture………………………………………..... 70

3.5.1 The Kampung and Rural Area………………………………... 70

3.5.2 Language…………………………………………………...…. 72

3.6 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………..… 75

CHAPTER 4: CHE HUSNA AZHARI……………………………………….. 78

4.1 Che Husna Azhari and Her Fiction………………………………………….. 78

4.2 Religion and Tradition: The Malay-Muslim Dilemma…………………….. 81

4.2.2 Islam and Malays………………………………………...…… 82

4.2.3 ‘Adat and Malays…………………………………...………… 85

4.3 Sense of Community…..…………………………………………………… 91

4.4 Kelantanese- Malays as Subalterns ………………………………………… 95

4.5 Conclusion……………………………………………………………...…… 100

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION………………………………………………… 105

BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………… 115

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

1.1.1 Introduction

Representation is an aspect of life that is essential to our understanding of not only

ourselves, but of other objects, people, and situations around us. It allows us to take into

account both sense and social environment. It is a process that is highly multi-faceted and

has the profound ability to create and maintain our perception towards reality through the

use of symbolism and signs and is very much infused with the relation between self, self-

other, and object (Jovchelovitch, 13). No more is representation viewed as a mirror of

the world due to its consideration towards the issues and state of affairs relative to

components that make up the representing system. What is important concerning

representation is that it involves the state of perception, and it is this state that awareness

in correlation to a particular focus that would be the heart of any representational study.

In the study of literature, representation has been used to approach literary works

from a multitude of theories that include Marxism, feminism as well as postcolonialism.

Through postcolonial theory, representation is used to analyse the relationship between

the “One” and “Other” of a society or community. In regards to Malaysian literature in

English, representation has been used to analyse several facets that include gender

studies, urban spaces and cultural communities. The investigation of cultural

communities in Malaysian literature in English has touched upon representation of the

2

Chinese, Indians, as well as the Orang Asli. Interestingly enough, there is a gap when it

comes to studies pertaining to representation of the Malays and studies related to the

culture of any community, an aspect that I will discuss further in the literature review

section of this thesis.

Using the theory of representation, I choose to study how Malays and their culture

are projected in Malaysian literature in English, specifically fiction. Although Malaysia’s

multiculturalism is a boon to the country, relationship between Malays and other ethnic

communities is never a smooth one and that factor has piqued my interest in regards to

Malay representation. Therefore, to embark on this endeavour requires an understanding

of the relationship between the many ethnic groups in the country and this will be

discussed in detail as the discussion unfolds.

1.1.2 Malaysia’s multiculturalism and the history of the Malays

As a young country that possesses multiethnic and multicultural diversities, Malaysia is

confronted with the reality that the very elements that constitute her wealth, would also

present many obstacles for her process of nation-building. This comes as no surprise as

homogeneous countries also face similar problems in regards to nation-building, but for a

country like Malaysia, these challenges would be greater amplified due to such diversity.

To deal with these obstacles, the current Prime Minister of Malaysia, Dato’ Sri Najib Tun

Razak, has proposed a new blueprint aptly called “1Malaysia”; a public relations

campaign dedicated to promote positive relations among its people and consolidate the

unity between them. Through the “1Malaysia” plan, the Prime Minister hopes that it

would become a medium of dialogue for Malaysians to be more united while exploring

3

their identity, purpose and direction (1Malaysia, 2010.) The Prime Minister believes that

this could be achieved by adhering to the eight values proposed in the plan; perseverance,

a culture of excellence, acceptance, loyalty, education, humility, integrity, as well as

meritocracy.

In Malaysia however, discussion of ethnic relations remains a sensitive issue. Most

dialogues are limited to ones which are deemed “safe” and non-threatening to the security

and stability of the country. This unofficial blanket on the issue is chiefly the result of the

Sino-Malay violence that erupted on 13 May 1969, when the initial politically-driven

confrontations between Malays and the Chinese (and at some point, the Indians) turned

bloody. Today, Malaysia’s attitude towards the relationship between the country’s ethnic

groups is heavily influenced by what happened 42 years ago, as portion of the national

policy reflects the need of preventive measures to avoid racial incitement. Incidentally,

these policies also cemented the position of Malays in the country. The irony however,

lies in the fact that policies that were amended to ensure the country’s stability, have also

paved way for the troubles surrounding ethnic relations in the country to be ignored and

become deeply rooted.

Criticism of this social contract has been raised throughout the years from several

parties, local and abroad, but these however, were met with much chagrin and outcry

primarily from the United Malays National Organization (UMNO) and the Malay press.

Consequently, this imposition on such exchanges has led to the birth of a series of

Barthesian myths such as stereotypes, archetypes, and prejudices in regards to the

perception that Malaysians have towards one another. Through these stereotypes and

4

prejudices, the projection of a particular group relies heavily on a warped and clouded

understanding of another.

According to Syed Husin Ali in his book Ethnic Relations in Malaysia: Harmony

and Conflict (2008), ethnic relations in Malaysia are unique because the relationship in

Malaysia is founded upon the majority-minority paradigm. This paradigm is characterised

by the dominance of the majority over the minority. In Malaysia’s case, Malays form the

majority in terms of demography with an estimate 60.3% of the country’s population in

2010 (“Population” Department of Statistics Malaysia) and at the same time, Malays are

dominant in national politics. Therefore, it will be interesting to observe how the

dominant group of the populace is projected and represented and it would be noteworthy

to examine the position of Malays and their interaction with other ethnic groups as this

will also uncover the malady of the Malays.

Intellectual pursuit of all things “Melayu” roughly started during the 19th

century,

when the British were interested to record and learn about Malays. What came out of this

was the establishment of a branch of scholarship dubbed ‘Malayistics’ (Andaya, 2004), or

known today as ‘Malay Studies’, although some have pointed out that this endeavour was

least likely pursued due to the want of cultural understanding. Despite the argument over

the motivation of the British, Malay studies saw a steady growth of productivity and

interest, especially the origins of Malays. In relation, the concern over the origin of

Malays had scholars proposing a number of different theories that would explain their

appearance in the region. In the article “The Search of the ‘Origins’ of Melayu” (2004),

Leonard Y. Andaya begins the discussion on “Melayu” by charting its origins from an

5

area in modern day Taiwan, where Proto-Austronesian speakers resided around

4000BCE.

Another historical reference pointing to the existence of a Malay community could

be found in the historical records of China, where it specifies a kingdom north of

Srivijaya and referred to is as “Malayu”, which in the 680s became part of the Srivijaya

Empire. Anthony Reid in his article “Melayu as a Source of Modern Diverse Identities”

stresses that even in Malay-language documents, references to the origin of “Melayu” is

very obscure. Reid also explains that the the only few references of “Melayu” in the

Malay Annals are of a small river in Jambi called “Malayu”, adjectives used for royalty,

and references to local custom.

During the Melaka sultanate, the Melakans and the Malays were differentiated by

the terms “Orang Melaka” and “Orang Melayu”, which are found in many instances

throughout historical sources, but after Melaka became a Muslim kingdom in 1414, the

two terms were used interchangeably. This fact suggests that the Malays were different

form the Melakans, either in terms of geography or social status. Today, Malays

belonging to a group called “Bumiputera”, or “sons of the soil.” However, this term is

also used to classify people of indigenous ethnicity in the country such as the Orang Asli,

Kadazan, Iban, Bidayuh and other various tribes.

There is a diverse range of communities which make up the Malays, such as the

Kelantanese Malays in the Northern part of Peninsula Malaysia, the Banjar Malays in

East Malaysia, and the Minangkabau descendants in Negri Sembilan. However, most

people today holds the notion that Malays are members of one specific ethnic group, and

this is established through the Malayness of its members. To “masuk Melayu” or to

6

“enter the Malay ethnicity” means more than just a simple initiation process due to a

number of requirements that was established to define the group. Article 160 of the

Federal Constitution of Malaysia states that Malay means:

A person who professes the religion of Islam, habitually speaks the Malay

language, conforms to Malay custom and

(a) was before Merdeka Day born in the Federation or in Singapore or born

of both parents of whom was born in the Federation or Singapore, or was on

that day domiciled in the Federation or in Singapore; or

(b) is the issue of such as person

(Article 160 of the Federal Constitution of Malaysia)

Accordingly, the requirements that define ‘Malay’ are in reality free from any ethnic

basis, as cited above, with the most important constituent being their conviction to the

Islamic faith. If we were to follow this definition of “Malay”, it would be understood that

Malays who convert to other faiths would no longer hold the privilege to be called so.

The Constitution’s definition of a Malay is to put it simply as very problematic, as

demonstrated by the Lina Joy case in 2006, where the latter’s request to change the

details on her national identification card after her conversion to Christianity, was met

with much difficulty due to the conflict that arose in the Civil Court and the Syariah

Court (Barry, 2009). This exhibits that the integral part of Malay identity is very much

entrenched more in Islam than being ethnically Malay.

Additionally, as important as the history of the Malays is the history of Malaysia’s

multiculturalism. The arrival of Chinese and Indians to the Malay Peninsula was first

recorded centuries ago when during the 2nd

century CE, Indians were already using

Kedah, or then known as Kataha in Sankrit, as a trading route (Andaya, 2008). Moreover,

the many Hindu kingdoms that were established in the peninsula, such as the remnants of

7

the Bujang Valley kingdom and the Hindu influences on Malay customs are evidence of

the early arrival of Indians.

Following the arrival of Indians in the region, the Chinese also made their way to

the peninsula some time during the 15th

century when Melaka hosted Admiral Cheng Ho

and his fleet on a stop-over during one of his expeditions. Through Admiral Cheng Ho,

Melaka established a political relationship with China’s Ming Dynasty, in exchange for

annual tribute to the Emperor. Simultaneously, Melaka was also ensured of their safety

with China agreeing to provide aid lest attacks by rival kingdoms were to take place. In

subsequent years, a large number of Chinese came to settle in Melaka in an area dubbed

“Bukit Cina’ or “Chinese Hill”.

Despite the early arrivals of Chinese and Indians to the region, none of these

arrivals had a considerable influence on the topography of the land. Nevertheless,

Malaysia’s multicultural setting today is very much attributed to British economic and

labour efforts during the 19th

century. Recognizing the peninsula’s potential for rubber

plantations, its natural wealth, as well as the discovery of tin, the Chinese were brought in

by the British and Malay chiefs (Kuhn, 2008:85) to toil in their mines, and Indians

(Singh, 2008:152) as indentured labourers to assist with Malaya’s agriculture. This influx

of workers to the peninsula changed the face of the country and coupled together with the

indigenous tribes and the settlement of Malays, Chinese and Indians, diversity was

established in Malaysian society. Judith Nagata in her book, Malaysian Mosaic (1979)

explains that this ethnic tapestry in Malaysia has resulted in the foundations of local

politics and other aspects of Malaysian life to be heavily based on communalism and

ethnicity. Therefore, parties such as the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO),

8

the Malayan Chinese Association (MCA), and the Malayan Indian Congress (MIC) exist

due to the emphasis on ethnicity.

Regardless of the diversity, issues pertaining to ethnicity still linger within the

threads of society, and these produce tension in Malaysian society and hamper efforts for

better interracial relationships. Writers who are affected by it and are sensitive and

conscious of such stirrings in their society have explored this tension in their writings.

Although much scholarship is done on the literature concerning the issue, much is

explored on how this has affected the image of the “other” in Malaysian postcolonial

literature. Taking a page from that book, this thesis will explore a similar area, but the

focus now shifts to how the majority, in this case Malays and Malay culture, are

represented in Malaysian postcolonial literature, particularly English-language fiction.

Representation of Malays according to Zawiyah Yahya, in her article “Portrayal of the

Malay in Novels in English written by Malaysian and Singaporean writers” (1986), has

been lacking in postcolonial Malaysian English-language fiction, both in terms of

quantity as well as quality.

Thus, for the purpose of this thesis, the works of Lloyd Fernando and Che Husna

Azhari are selected for the process of exploring how Malays are characterised as this

thesis suggests that the fiction of these two writers would provide an insightful endeavor

on Malay literary representation.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Through this thesis, I intend to explore how Malays and their mores, traditions, and

customs are portrayed and how this representation is discussed in the fiction of Lloyd

9

Fernando and Che Husna Azhari. Largely due to the fact that this area of study has not

been explored, this research would present a significant perspective on the issue of

representation. Moreover, a comparison between authors of different backgrounds, such

as that of Lloyd Fernando and Che Husna Azhari, would give us a fresh outlook on

literary representation and allows us to value the scholarship on postcolonial Malaysian

literature.

My argument will be centred upon Lloyd Fernando’s novel Green is the Colour

(1993) and two volumes of short stories by Che Husna Azhari: Melor in Perspective

(1993) and The Rambutan Orchard (1993) and how their contributions have provided us

with another angle on understanding Malaysian English-language literature. Using these

stories as markers, it would aid the research to exemplify and clarify the points that will

be presented in this thesis. Although it may be argued that the genres of the works by

these two writers are different, other factors have been taken into account in the selection

process. In order to observe the issue holistically, the best option is to gather works of

fiction from writers of different ethnicity, faith, and gender as to provide variety, as well

as potential objectivity to the study.

The inclusion of Lloyd Fernando’s novel Green is the Colour (1993) in this study is

not an arbitrary choice. Fernando’s novel will be used due to his inclusion and portrayal

of many types of Malay characters, as well as the significant amount of allusions to

elements of Malay culture. Set during the aftermath of the May 13 riots in Malaysia, the

novel focuses on the lives of a group of individuals who struggle to make sense of their

reality amidst chaos and confusion. With no shortage of Malay characters, this novel is

10

ideal because the characterisation of Malay characters is solid and effectual for the focus

of this thesis.

Being Kelantanese Malay, Che Husna Azhari’s short stories will bring to the table

another perspective on Malay representation, as we are allowed to observe how the writer

projects the image of her community, as well as her culture. The first collection of short

stories that we will be studying in this thesis is Melor in Perspective (1993); this

collection illustrates the life of a small rural community in Kelantan. The second volume

of short stories, The Rambutan Orchard (1993), follows a similar pattern and depicts the

adolescent memories of a woman, set in an unspecificed rural locale. It is interesting to

note that these volumes mainly focus on Malays and rarely address characters outside the

community. The works of these two writers will be analysed by investigating the

portrayal of Malay characters in their story. These characters will be scrutinised by

inspecting their speech patterns, clothing, movement, social interaction and other

behaviour patterns which are culturally-induced.

As both writers deal with the issue of Malay representation in their own unique way

and despite the differences of their background and approaches, their works are key in

understanding the different perspectives on ethnic relations in Malaysia and shed more

light on identity formation in Malaysia, especially towards the development of its

national identity.

Also important to the context of this research is the understanding of the progress

and state of English-language writing in Malaysia. Through better comprehension of the

evolution of Malaysian literature, it will draw attention to how the Malaysian social

11

milieu and its language policies have impinged on and affect the writings of these two

writers.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

For this thesis, I have chosen the works of Lloyd Fernando and Che Husna Azhari, as

suggests of the research, in order to firmly grasp an understanding of the different

experiences and perspectives of writers in relation to Malays and Malay culture. Through

their interaction with Malays and living in a society that is largely populated by them, the

experiences of these two writers are useful to establish the portrayal of Malays and the

projection of Malay culture. Having migrated to Singapore (and then Malaysia) from Sri

Lanka when he was 12, it can be said that Lloyd Fernando was a true Malaysian, with a

deep love for the country he has come to know as home. Despite the challenges he has

countered being a Malaysian, as well as writing in English, Fernando braved through

them to advocate the issues that were close to his heart. His love and concern for

Malaysia, as well as his understanding of Malays and Malay culture, are reasons why his

work is selected for this research.

Likewise, Che Husna Azhari possesses a deep connection and familiarity with her

Kelantanese-Malay heritage and her immediate community. This would be a touchstone

for comparing her projection of Kelantanese Malays as well as Malays outside that group.

The thesis will therefore include several important works by scholars pertaining to

representation, culture, and identity politics and how these areas of study are utilised for a

contextual understanding of the works of Fernando and Che Husna. The primary

objectives of this research are:

12

(i) To observe and analyse how Malays and Malay culture are represented in

Malaysian fiction in English by both non-Malays and Malays of other sub-cultures.

(ii) To shed light on the current cultural milieu in Malaysia and to see whether a

dichotomy exists in the country’s cultural scene.

(iii) To scrutinize how works of fiction by the selected writers contribute to a cultural

understanding and the strengthening of ethnic ties in the country.

It is the chief aim of this thesis to achieve these objectives by the end of this

discussion by substantiating the analysis of the works of Fernando and Che Husna with

the works of critics specialising in postcolonial and sociological studies. Simultaneously,

this work will also provide leverage for further expansion on the scholarship done on

English-language literature in Malaysia as literature plays a role in reflecting the lives of

the members of a society, its history, its joys and its ills.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Although the study of representation is not particularly new, it is imperative to many

disciplines such as sociology, psychology, politics, as well as history. In the field of

sociology for example, the study of representation deals with the crisis and traditions of

representation in different societies, while in politics, proportional representation is used

to assess how political power is divided. Parallel with the development of these issues in

other disciplines, representation as a point of discussion in literature has been utilised in

other works such as gender representation and minority representation. However, this

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research differs in three aspects: (i) it analyses the representation of a major group, in this

context, Malays, (ii) it takes into account how culture is represented, and (iii) it considers

every aspect of the subject matter to highlight Malay representation.

This thesis will also pay attention to how the idea of “Malayness” is played out in

the works of both writers and through the diverse selection of the works, genres, and of

the writers’ background where this would hopefully be achieved. Thus, the study would

contribute greatly to the advancement of criticism on not only Malaysian English-

language literature, but also to the study of postcolonial literature in the region,

particularly concerning the study of fiction.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This thesis will explore the issue of representation in respect to Malays and Malay culture

in Lloyd Fernando’s novel Green is the Colour (1993) and Che Husna Azhari’s Melor in

Perspective (1993) and The Rambutan Orchard (1993). The stories have been carefully

chosen not only to reflect diversity, but also to aim for complete objectivity concerning

the findings of the study. Due to a large number of shorts stories in both volumes of Che

Husna’s short stories, some of the prospective short stories are as follow:

(a) Melor in Perspective (1993)

(i) “Mariah”

(ii) “The Country Doctor”

(iii) “Of Bunga Telur and Bally Shoes”

(iv) “Mek Teh, Mother Andam”

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(b) The Rambutan Orchard (1993)

(i) “The Mascot

1.6 LITERATURE REVIEW

The development of Malaysian Anglophone literature picked up momentum during the

1950s and after more than half a century later, Malaysian writers are able to produce a

significant number of literary works in all genres of literature despite the difficulties that

arise from a rigid language policy, as well as lack of appreciation for non-Malay

literature. Unfortunately, not the same could be said about the state of criticism on

Malaysian Anglophone literature as the momentum only started to pick up during the

second half of the 1990s. Today, there are only a relatively small number of critics and

scholars who are pursuing research in this area.

One of these people is Mohammad A. Quayum, an academic who has published

extensively in the field of Malaysian Anglophone literature. Although he does not deal

entirely with Malaysian literature, his works concerning the multiple issues inherent in

Malaysian literature could be considered a touchstone for Malaysian literature and its

criticism. In his article “Self-refashioning a Plural Society: Dialogism and Syncretism in

Malaysian Post-colonial Literature”, published in the New Zealand Journal of Asian

Studies, he explores five different novels and their writer’s stand and different approaches

on reconciling differences and the use of dialogism as the best option for the process of

forming a nation. The books that he has co-authored/edited such as Malaysian Literature

in English: A Critical Reader (2001), One Sky Many Horizons: Studies in Malaysian

Literature in English (2007) and Writing a Nation: Essays on Malaysian Literature

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(2008) have covered different aspects and areas of study concerning Malaysian literature

in English through the collection of different articles from prominent critics such as

Faridah Abdul Manaf, Koh Tai Ann, Wong Soak Koon and Peter Wicks. However, the

primary focus of this thesis has yet to be explored in these books and therefore, it is of the

benefit of Malaysian literary criticism to address the theme of Malay representation. The

end product of this research would assist us to have a clearer picture on the psyche of

Malaysian society comparative to the creation of a national identity.

Another scholar who has a keen interest on the same area of study is Zawiyah

Yahya. Her article “Portrayal of the Malay in Novels in English Written in English by

Malaysian and Singaporean Writers” (1986), has addressed an aspect similar to the focus

of this thesis. Her article comments on how Malay characters are often projected as flat

characters who are “faceless, nameless, voiceless, and characterless” (87). While she

argues for a more dynamic representation of Malays, she also acknowledges a few

exceptions to this case: Sabran in Lloyd Fernando’s Scorpion Orchid (1976) and Rahim

in Mohd. Tajuddin’s The Price Has Been High (1984). Additionally, Zawiyah’s article

also comments on the literary and sociological images of Malays and she explains that

when constructing a Malay character in literature, non-Malay writers should take into

careful consideration the socio-cultural world of their character as stereotypes such as

poverty, idleness, dedication, and penchant for all things melodramatic, which are the

usual fare for the representation of Malays in many works. However, Zawiyah’s article is

limited to the portrayal of Malays in novels, whereas Malay characters in other literary

genres such as the short story are not explored. Moreover, due to her focus on writers

from two different countries, Zawiyah keeps her commentary on the malaise of Malay