Report Writing

1

Planning Business Messages

In this age of mass information andcommunication, being able to writeclearly is fundamental to business success. Crucial decisions may depend on thewritten words in letters, reports and e-mails.

Understanding the composition process

Some of your tasks will be routine,needing little more than jotting a few

sentences down on paper or into an e-mail; others will be more complex requiring reflection, research, and careful document preparation.


The composition process varies with thesituation, the communicator and theorganization. So the various stages do notnecessarily occur in 1-2-3 order,

communicatorsoften jump back and forth from one stage toanother. The composition process may beviewed in 10 separate stages that fall into 3categories.


For your messages to be effective follow the 3 categories:

Well plannedWell organizedWell constructed


Planning:

Define purposeAnalyze audienceEstablish main ideaSelect channel and medium


Composing:

Organize messageFormulate messageSelect illustrations and details


Revising:

Edit messageRewrite messageProduce messageProof read


In some occasions the process of preparing a message is a team effort, with more than one person writing, this is called Collaborative Writing. For efforts of this type, the review and revision stages might be repeated several times.


In fact allocating your time properly is an important consideration, you need time for thoroughly planning, composing and revising your message. Roughly ½ the time should be used for planning, gathering material, a ¼ for composing and ¼ for revising.

Basic Writing Skills

Businesses spend millions of dollars every year correcting problems caused by poor writing.

Because people inside and outside your company rely on your written work, the ability to write a clear contract, memo, report or letter can greatly affect your personal productivity and the organization’s success

Common Pitfalls There are several common pitfalls that you should avoid

when writing: Large or uncommon words that draw the reader’s

attention away from the document’s information. Sexist or derogatory language that offends the reader. Ambiguous expressions that do not convey the

message effectively. Jargon that can make readers feel you are trying to

“talk over their heads”. Clichés that might seem unprofessional Inattention to details Contradicting statement that give confusing messages

Communication through writing

Communication through writing is helpful when providing information to several

individuals. Writing is beneficial when you have a large

amount of information that needs to be communicated.

When the information you want to share is difficult to understand, putting it in writing allows the reader to review it as often as needed.

Writing guidelines

When writing you should keep the following

guidelines in mind: Be specific: Direct language avoid potential

misunderstanding Remain focused: Concentrate on one point at a time

and give only information the reader needs. Relate obscure facts to known facts: Help the reader

understand your message by relating unfamiliar ideas to familiar ones.

Emphasize your main points: Use words, style and formatting to focus the reader’s attention on the main points of your message

Step 1: Planning to write

The first step of the writing process is planning what you will communicate.

Planning your messages enables you to outline exactly what you need to say.

It reduces the risk of sending unnecessary information.

The following steps will help you: Determine your purpose Analyze the reader Choose a style

Determine your purpose

Having a clear purpose helps you identify what information you want to share with the reader.

What you want the reader to learn from the message.

When developing the purpose of the message, consider: Contents Organization Style Tone Format

Determine your purpose

The purpose must be worthwhile, readers quickly disregard any information that does not seem important.

The purpose must be delivered at the right time. Make sure you deliver your message when the reader is able to view and understand the information with an open mind.

The purpose must be relevant to the organization, your document should reflect and reinforce your organization’s goals and mission.

Analyze the reader

Knowing your readers, their attitudes, and the type of information they need helps you write messages they can understand.

Analyzing your readers also enables you to address any skepticism, reluctance to change, or concerns they might have about the information.

You should also provide readers with information that is important to them. When writing to a large group, you should focus on a common interest.

Finding some common ground before approaching a subject enables you to avoid alienating any of your readers.

By anticipating probable reactions, you can address any doubts, fears, or uncertainties they may have about your purpose

Choose a writing style

Your writing should be appropriate to your purpose and audience. Over the last several years, business writing has become less rigid and more informal.

A formal style is appropriate for documents addressed to large audiences, long reports, or official documents.

An informal style is typically used in documents such as memos, letter reports, or brief e-mail messages addressed to individuals or small groups.

Organizing your thoughts

The second step of the writing process is to organize your thoughts.

Properly organizing your thoughts before writing enables you to communicate information in a systematic and logical format that will help the reader understand the message.

Logically organizing your thoughts provides: Your main point will be emphasized and properly supported with

evidence You can identify areas where you lack information You save the reader’s time by providing information in a clear

and easy to follow format

Organizing a written outline

You need to: State the main topic: Immediately identifying your

intentions keeps the reader focused on the main points of the document.

Explain how you will present the information: Briefly explaining at the outset how your message is presented helps the reader follow your train of thoughts through the document. Listing the items you need to discuss in a systematic, logical, and sequential manner allows the reader to identify your reasons for sending the message

Include all your evidence: Supporting your ideas with solid evidence will help the reader understand why you are sending the message.

Defining your purpose

Business messages, in general, have a purpose:

To informTo persuadeTo collaborate

Defining your purposeTo inform: is to let other departments

know about, for example, sales figuresTo persuade: To convince others of

the need to implement something new.

To collaborate: To help others, maybe, develop a new system

How to test your purpose

Once you have established your purpose, stop for a moment and think if:The purpose is realisticThe right timeIf you are the right person to deliver the messageIf the purpose is acceptable to the management

Is the purpose realistic?Most people resist change. So if your

purpose involves a radical shift in action or attitude you will do better if you go slowly.

Instead of suggesting your whole program at once, consider proposing the first step.

View your message as the beginning of a learning

process.

Is it the right time?

An idea that is unacceptable when profits are down, may easily win approval when business improves. If an organization is undergoing changes of some sort, you may want to defer your message until things stabilize and people can concentrate on your ideas.

Is the right person delivering the message

Some people have more leverage in an organization than others do. Even though you may have done all the work yourself, your boss may have a better chance of accomplishing results because of his status.

If stakes are high and you lack experience or confidence, you may want to play a supporting role rather than take the lead

Is the purpose acceptable to the organization

As a representative of your company, you are obliged to work towards the organization goals.

Your message should reflect the organization

priorities and ideas.

Analyzing your audience

Take a good look at your intended audience:Who are the membersWhat are their attitudesWhat do they need to knowThe answer to these questions will indicate

something about the material you need tocover and how to cover it.

Develop your audience profile

Ask yourself some key questions about your audience:

Who are they?What is their possible reaction to your

message?How much do they already know about the

subject?What

Determine audience size and composition

Oral presentations are affected by the size of audience, so is written communication, it is also affected by the diversity of backgrounds and interests.

You need to look for the common denominator that ties them together.

Be sure to include a variety of information that touches on everyone’s area of interest

Identify the primary audience

When you are sending your message to many persons, try to identify those who are most important to your purpose.

If you can reach the decision makers, the other members will fall in place.

Estimate probable reaction

If you are expecting a favorable answer, you can be straightforward about stating your conclusions and recommendations. On the other hand, if you are not sure, you may have to

introduce your recommendations more gradually and provide more proof.

Define the audience level of understanding

If you and your audience share the same background, they will understand your

material without difficulties, if not you willhave to decide how much you need to

educate them. The trick is to provide the information they

need without making them feel ignorant.

Define your relationship with the

audienceIf you do not know them, you will needto gain their confidence before you canwin them to your point of view. If youare communicating with a familiargroup, your credibility has already beenestablished so you can get down tobusiness immediately.

Satisfy your audience’s information need

The key to effective communication isdetermining your reader’s need andthen responding to them. You do thatby telling people what they need toknow in terms that are meaningful tothem. A good message answers all theaudience questions.

Find out what the audience wants to

knowIn many cases the information neededis readily apparent, however, somepeople aren’t particularly good attelling you what they want, you need toguess, so when you are getting a vaguerequest for information try to pin itdown to a specific point.

Anticipate unstated questions

Try to think of information that youraudience may not even be aware of.Imagine, a new person has joined yourcompany and you are writing a letter towelcome them, what could you add toanticipate any questions this personmight have?

Provide all the required information

Once you have defined the need, becertain to satisfy them completely.Try the journalists methods, check tosee if your message answers: who,what, where, when, why and how.

Be sure the information is correct

There is no point in answering all thequestions if the information is not correct.Check things before making a writtencommitment, especially if you are writing tosomeone outside the company. If you

supplywrong information make sure to correct itimmediately, your honesty will beappreciated

Emphasize ideas of greatest interest

When you are deciding on how to respond, remember that some points will be of greater interest and importance than others. Remember that your main goal as a business

communicator is to tell your audience what they need to know.

Your 1st draft

What does the audience want to know?What do they need to know?Have I provided all desired and

necessary information?Is the information accurate?Have I emphasized the information of

interest?

Satisfy your audience’s motivational need

Some types of messages, particularlypersuasive messages and bad news, areintended to motivate people to changetheir beliefs or behavior. Rely mainlyon reason to win your audience to yourpoint of view, but do not overlook theirunderlying emotions.

Satisfy your audience’s practical needs

Remember that your audience:May have a little timeMay be distractedMay give your message a low priorityPresenting the required information ina convenient formal will help themunderstand and accept your message

Establishing the main idea

Regardless of an issue’s complexity,one central point sums up everything.This is your theme, your main idea.Everything else in the message eithersupports this point or demonstrates itsimplication. A topic and the main ideaare different.

The topic and the main idea

The topic is the broad subject of the message.The main idea makes a statement about thetopic, it provides a rationale, explains yourpurpose in terms that the audience can accept.The main idea has to strike a response, it hasto motivate people to do what you want bylinking your purpose to their own.

Prewriting techniquesIdentifying the main idea often requirescreativity. The best approach is tobrainstorm, letting your mind wander overthe possibilities and testing variousalternatives against your purpose, youraudience and the facts at your disposal.Some of the prewriting approaches are:

Techniques to establish the main idea

Storyteller’s tourRandom listFCR worksheetJournalist approachQuestions and answer chain

Storyteller’s tour

Pretend that you just run into a friendin the street, and you are giving him anoverview of what you have been doinglately, focus on your main point, explainyour reasons, your major points, yourrationale and the implications.

Random listOn a clean sheet of paper listeverything that pops into your head inrelation to your message, study the list, sortthem into groups, look for commondenominators. Regardless of whatcategories finally emerge, the sortingprocess will help you sift through yourthoughts.

FCR worksheetIf your subject involves the solution toa problem you might want to use an FCRworksheet to help you visualizebetween your:(f) Findings(c) Conclusions(r) Recommendation

Journalistic approach

For informational approach, thejournalistic approach might be the best.The answer to six questions:Who, what, where, when, why and who,should clarify the main idea.

Question and answer chain

Ask yourself, what is the audience mainquestion? What do they need to know?Examine your answers to these questions,what additional questions emerge? Followthe chain of questions and answers until youhave replied to every conceivable questionsthat might occur.

Limit the scope

The main idea should be geared to thelength of the message. Although youmay have to adjust your message to

fitthe time or space available, don’tchange the number of major points.

Business Letters

Headings Date Inside address Salutation Letter body Closing Signature block

Headings

Also called the letterhead, this part of the letter is placed along the left and starts about 13 lines from the top of the page.

It includes your organization name, full address, and telephone number.

This is pre printed stationery

Date

Place the date two lines below the heading.

When writing dates, start with the full name of the month, then the day in numerals, followed by a comma, and then the year.

Inside address This identifies the letter’s recipient. You should place the inside address two lines

below the date. Always address the reader as Mr. or Ms. Specify the reader’s position or title after their

name. If you do not know the name of the person to

whom you are writing, address it to the relevant department or a specific position within the department.

Salutation

The salutation should be placed two lines below the inside address.

It should include the recipient’s name followed by a colon.

If you do not know the name of the reader, the proper salutation is “To Whom It May Concern”.

Letter body

This part contains your message, and begins two lines below the salutation.

Most letters are single spaced with a double space between each paragraph for clarity.

Closing

The closing should be two lines below the body of the letter.

Traditional letter closings include, sincerely, and cordially.

Ideally the closing should reflect your relationship with the leader.

Signature block

This part of the letter contains your signature, and your typed name.

To make room for your signature, leave three blank lines between the closing and your typed name.

If you include your company’s name, it should be in capital letters.

Attention Line

This can be used when you only know the last name of the letter’s recipient, or you want to direct the letter to a position title or a department.

Place it two lines below the inside address, or immediately following the company’s name in the inside address

Subject Line

This line briefly informs the reader of the subject of the message and usually follows the salutation.

You can also place the subject line at the very top of the first page or immediately before the salutation.

Subject lines are usually aligned with the left margin, but they can also be centered

Writing direct requests

For direct requests:State the request or main ideaGive necessary detailsClose with a cordial request for a

specific action

Writing direct requestsWhen you are making a direct request you maybe tempted to begin with a personalintroduction. This type of beginning is usually amistake. The essence of the message, thespecific request, is buried, and may get lost. Abetter way to organize a direct request is tostate what you want in the first sentence ortwo and let the explanation follow.

Writing direct requestsThe tone of your initial request is important.Instead of demanding, soften your requestwith words such as (please) and (I would

appreciate).The middle part of the request usuallyexplains the original request. Suchamplifying details will help your audiencefulfill your request correctly.

Writing direct requestsIn the middle section:Call attention to how the reader will

benefit from granting your request.Give details of your request.Ask the more important question, then

ask related, more specific questions.Use numbered lists if requesting

several items or answers.

Writing direct requestsWhen preparing questions:Ask only questions that relate to your

main request.Don’t ask for information you can find

yourselfMake your question open-ended and

objective.Deal with only one topic in each question

Writing direct requestClose your letter with two important

elements:1. A request for specific response, with time

limit, if it applies.2. An expression of appreciation or goodwill.3. Information about how you can be

reached.

Requesting routine information and action

When making a routine request, state:What you want to knowWhy do you want to know itWhy it is in the reader’s interest to help you.Exactly what do you want the reader to do

as result of reading your request for action?


Despite their simple organization, routine requests deserve a tactful touch. The potential for creating a positive impression is second only to

the risk of causing ill will through badly chosen words and/or discourteous tone.


When writing a routine request, keepthe purpose of your message in mind. Askyourself what you want recipients tounderstand or do as a result of reading themessage. As you prepare the request,remember that even the briefest note cancreate confusion and hard feelings.

Writing persuasive messages

To write persuasive messages you can consider four strategic elements:1. Needs and appeals2. Emotion and logic3. Credibility4. Semantic


Needs and appeals: Everyone’s needs differ, therefore, you need to analyze the members of your audience and then construct a message that appeals to their needs.

Emotion and logic: Emotional reactions may result when an audience’s need are overlooked. Not even the best crafted, most reasonable message will persuade someone who is emotionally unable to accept it. Emotion and logic together are more powerful than either alone.


Credibility: Your credibility is your capability of being believed because you are reliable and worthy of confidence. Enhance your credibility by supplying evidence that is objective and specific. Other ways of gaining credibility include the following:


1. Being enthusiastic2. Being objective3. Being sincere4. Being an expert5. Having good intentions6. Being trustworthy


Semantics: Semantics is concerned with the meaning of words and other symbols. The words you chose to state your message say much more than their dictionary meaning, for instance, useful, beneficial and advantageous may be considered synonyms. Yet these three words are not interchangeable.


He suggested a useful compromise. (The compromise allowed the parties to get to work)

He suggested a beneficial compromise. (The compromise not only resolved the conflict but also had a positive effect)

He suggested and advantageous compromise. (The compromise benefited his company more than it benefited the other party)

Organizing persuasive messages

Persuasion requires what is called theAIDA plan:AttentionInterestDesireAction


Attention: Convince the audience that you have something interesting to say.

Interest: Explain how your message relates to your audience. Continue the theme you started with, painting a more detailed picture.


Desire: In the desire phase you back up your claims and, thereby, increase your audience’s willingness to take the action you will suggest.

Action: The secret of the action phase is to make the action easy.

Reports and ProposalsReports and proposals are generallylonger and more formal than lettersand memos, and they have morecomponents. They also tend to bemore formal. The organization, styleand tone influences reports andproposals.

Proposals

At its core, a proposal is a document offering a service or a product to a client.

The purpose of a proposal is to demonstrate to a client that you are the best company to answer their needs or solve their problems.

What is a proposal?

Because the basic purpose of proposals is to sell your product or service.

Proposals can greatly benefit your company by generating the business your organization needs to compete and succeed in the market.

If an external party writes a proposal, the group is considered a vendor.

If an employee writes it, he is considered a member of the organization who has identified a way to improve the company in some way.

Types of proposals

Informal proposalsFormal proposalsExternal proposalsInternal proposalsSolicited proposalsUnsolicited proposals

Informal proposals

They are relatively short documents, ranging from one to four pages in length, and are often submitted as a memo or letter.

Informal proposals are often used for internal purposes and do not use detailed segmentation.

Although formal and informal proposals are used for different purposes, they both contain the same basic information.

The primary focus is on what you can do for the client.

Formal proposals

These are usually longer than informal proposals.Formal proposals are segmented, and include a

variety of elements, including:Cover letterTable of contentsExecutive summary.

Formal proposals also require a formal style of writing.

External proposals

Are sent to parties outside the organization such as clients or potential clients.

They are also sent to recruit the help or assistance of other organization for projects and others.

Internal proposals

They are sent to parties within your organization.

For example, your employer might ask for new product ideas or suggestions for organizational changes.

Business plans proposals are a common type of internal proposals.

Solicited proposals

They come from clients who have a need or problem that they would like to address.

Proposals written in response to “Request for Proposals” are considered solicited proposals.

Unsolicited proposals

These are sent to potential clients to initiate contact and generate business.

A common example is a brief sales letter pitching a new product or service.

For example, if you have developed a solution to a problem within your organization, you might send an internal, unsolicited proposal to upper management.

Purposes of proposals

Proposals are often used to compare vendors and determine the quality of the product or service and its suitability.

After the best vendor for the project is identified, they are hired for the job.

The key to writing a competitive proposal is to align your competitive edge with your client’s organization goals.

Letter proposal components

Four things you need to take into consideration: Introduce yourself Identify the client’s need or problemPresent your planBriefly outline the benefits of the plan

Body of a letter proposal

Identify the steps you will take to complete the project.

Identify the amount of time it will take to complete the project.

Identify how much it will cost to complete the project.

Include specific technical issues

Closing of a letter proposal

Compare the cost and benefitsOffer your credentialsMotivate your client to take action

Structuring formal proposals

Formal reports are long reports consisting of several sections.

These reports are much more detailed than letter proposals.

Components of formal proposals

The sections that you must include in a formal proposal are:

Cover letterTitle page Table of contentsExecutive summaryBodyAppendix

Title page

In a short report this may simply be the front cover. In a long one it could also include Terms of Reference, Table of Contents and so on.

Table of contents

When creating the table of contents, you should make it as easy to read as possible.

You want the client to be able to access any areas of your proposal easily.

A well developed table of contents provides the client with the road map that they need

Summary

Give a clear and very concise account of the main points, main conclusions and main recommendations.

Keep it very short, a few percent of the total length. Some people, especially senior managers, may not read anything else so write as if it were a stand-alone document. It isn’t but for some people it might as well be.

Keep it brief and free from jargon so that anyone can understand it and get the main points.

Write it last, but do not copy and paste from the report itself; that rarely works well.

Introduction.

This is the first part of the report proper. Use it to paint the background to ‘the problem’ and to show the reader why the report is important to them. Give your terms of reference (if not in the Title Section) and explain how the details that follow are arranged. Write it in plain English.

Main Body.This is the heart of your report, the

facts. It will probably have several sections or sub-sections each with its own subtitle.

It is unique to your report and will describe what you discovered about ‘the problem’

Conclusions.

Present the logical conclusions of your investigation of ‘the problem’.

Bring it all together and maybe offer options for the way forward. Many people will read this section.

Write it in plain English.

Recommendations.

What do you suggest should be done? Don’t be shy; you did the work so

state your recommendations in order of priority, and in plain English.

Appendices.

Put the heavy details here, the information that only specialists are likely to want to see.

As a guide, if some detail is essential to your argument then include it in the main body, if it merely supports the argument then it could go in an appendix.

Short and long reports?Although business reports serve hundreds of

purposes, six basic uses are common:

1. To monitor and control operations2. To implement policies and procedures3. To comply with regulatory requirements4. To obtain new business or funding5. To document client work6. To guide decisions

What makes a good report?

The goal in developing a report is to makethe information as clear and convenient aspossible. Although reports vary widely inpurpose and often in the audience they arewritten for, all good reports have threeThings in common, accuracy, good judgment, and format


1. Accuracy: The first thing a business report writer must learn is how to tell the truth. Unfortunately, telling the truth is not always a simple matter. We all see reality a little differently and describe it in a unique way. The following guidelines help limit the distortions caused by differences in perception:


Describe facts or events in concrete terms.Report all relevant facts.Put the facts into perspectiveGive evidence for your conclusionPresent only objective evidence and

verifiable conclusions.Keep your personal biases in check


2. Good judgment: Do not include anything in a report that might jeopardize you or your organization. Keep “politics” out of your reports, provide a clear, direct accounting of the facts. Audiences like five things in a report:


1. Getting the main idea at the beginning of the report

2. Seeing the facts3. Receiving the whole story4. Reading language they can understand5. Learning something that will make their

jobs easier.


3. Format and style: Before you begin writing, select a format, a style and an organization that reflect the audience’s needs. When making decisions about the format, style and organization of a report, consider its:


1. Origin2. Subject3. Timing4. Distribution5. Purpose6. Probable reception


1. Origin: Who initiated the report? Where is it coming from? Which department is sending it out?

2. What subject does the report cover? The subject of a report affects its content, vocabulary and format.


4. When is the report prepared? Routine reports are submitted on a recurring basis, (daily, weekly, etc..), they require less introductory and transitional material than do special reports that deal with unique situations.


5. Where is the report being sent? Internal reports are generally less formal than external reports. Many internal reports, especially those under 10 pages, are written in a memo format. External reports, on the other hand, should be in a letter format or manuscript format.


6. Why is the report being prepared? Informational reports focus on facts, and are usually organized around subtopics. Analytical reports include analysis, interpretation, conclusions and recommendations.


7. How receptive is the reader? When the reader is likely to agree with the content of the report, the material is presented in direct order, starting with the main idea. If the reader may have reservations about the report, the material is present in indirect order , starting with the details and leading to the main idea.


As you can see, the origin, subject, timing, distribution, purpose andprobable reception of a report havequite an impact on its format, style andorganization.

Planning short reports

Three elements influence the format and length of your report:

- Your audience- Your purpose- Subject


Deciding on format and length: If you are preparing aperiodic status report, for example, you will probablyfollow a standard pattern that enables the reader toquickly compare results from one reporting periodto the next. The more routine the report, the lessflexibility you have on deciding format and length.Otherwise, you need to use what will help your audienceknowing what they need to know in a format that’s easyfor them to use.


When selecting a format you have fouroptions:Preprinted formsLetterMemoManuscript


The length of the report: This usuallydepends on your subject, the purposeand your relationship with theaudience.

Establishing a basic structure

In addition to deciding on a format and length, you have to decide on the basicstructure of your report, this involvesthree issues:1. What information will you include?2. What approach is best?3. What method of subdivision will you use?

What information will you include

Your report should answer the audience’s key questions. Your objective is to answer all questions in the order that makes the most sense.

The main question is usually the reason why you have been asked to write this report.

The next step is to determine what additional questions your audience is likely to ask based on your answer to the main question.

What approach is best?

Audience attitude is the basis fordecisions. When the audience isconsidered receptive or open minded,use the direct approach. The directapproach gives readers the main ideafirst, saving time and making thereport easier to understand.

What approach is best?If your audience is skeptical or hostile,you may want to use the indirect order,introducing the complete findings andsupporting details before the conclusion.The indirect approach withholds the mainidea until later in the report, helpingovercome resistance.

Developing structural clues

Four tools are particularly useful for giving

readers a sense of the overall structure ofyour document and for keeping them ontrack as they read:The openingHeadings and listsSmooth transitionEnding

The openingA good opening accomplishes three things:Introduces the subject of the reportIndicates why the subject is importantGives readers a preview of the main

ideas and the order in which they will be covered

Headings and listsA heading is a brief title at the startof a section within a report, alerting readersto the contents of the sections that follows.Headings are useful markers for clarifyingthe framework of a report. They visuallyindicate the shift from one idea to the next.

Transitions

Such phrases as to continue analysis,on the other hand, and an additionalconcept are a type of structural clue.Those are examples of transitions,words and phrases that tie ideastogether within a report and keepreaders moving along the right track.

The endingResearch shows that the ending or thefinal part of the report leaves a strongand lasting impression. Use the endingto emphasize the main objective ofyour message. The ending ties up allpieces and remind readers how thepieces fit together.

Documents

Report Writing