Report prepared for Whangarei Heads Landcare Forum · 3.5 Freshwater wetlands 14 4. THREATS 15 4.1 Habitat loss and deterioration 15 4.2 Plant pests 15 4.3 Browsers 17 4.4 Predators

R.J. PIERCE G.W. COULTER H.G. MOODIE

MARCH 2002

Report prepared for Whangarei Heads Landcare Forum

ii WHANGAREI HEADS LANDCARE FORUM

PREFACE

The journey to Whangarei Heads from Whangarei involves travelling down the north side of the Whangarei Harbour and its last major harbour suburb of Onerahi, and on to thirty kilometres of Whangarei Heads Road which meanders its way past numerous inlets and tree-lined bays at the foot of hills covered in pasture or thick bush. The scenic drive includes magnificent landscapes of geological fascination, including Mount Manaia, which identifies the Whangarei district. This road leads to small harbourside communities, which cherish their surroundings. In recent times these communities have come to realise the need to identify their values and plan some long-term goals to sustain the natural character and ecology of the landscape for future generations.

The ‘stakeholders’ include residents, farmers, local iwi groups, local authority holdings, the Department of Conservation. It is in partnerships of all of these that the future goals can be established to manage the environment and all who enjoy its diversity, including very unique flora and fauna.

It is my belief that the communities in the Heads have a major role to play in voluntary activities and in seeking assistance from the regulatory authorities in the long-term sustainability of the environment they currently enjoy and want to preserve for future generations of residents and visitors, both national and international.

In this context there are, under the guidance of the Landcare Trust, seven very localised landcare groups actively working on a variety of projects – kiwi recovery, pest plant and pest animal control, bush and dune restoration. These have come into being and flourished mainly in the last three years.

In meeting together, these groups concluded that there was a need for good scientific information on the ecology of the area to enable them to formulate a long-term plan of linked projects to maximise the outcomes of their activities. This resource document is the product of that need.

Cr. Robin Lieffering Whangarei District Council

iii WHANGAREI HEADS LANDCARE FORUM

Consider the words of a 10-year-old primary school student who attends Parua Bay Primary School:

“What will happen without the sounds of the tui and other birds? What will become of our forests? These are some of the questions I wish to answer in my speech today.

Over the millions and millions of years there has been life on earth, plants, birds and animals have evolved together. Within New Zealand we have a number of bird species that live nowhere else. If an animal dies out, not only is the animal lost, but you lose part of the ecosystem and many other animals and trees could die.

The kiwi is already endangered, the moa extinct and tui and pigeons are close to being endangered. This is why I think it is important that we should preserve our native heritage.”

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WHANGAREI HEADS LANDCARE FORUM

CONTENTS

PREFACE (II)

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. PHYSICAL SETTING 2 2.1 Location and landscape 2 2.2 Climate and weather 4 2.3 Geology and soils 4 2.4 Human history 5

3. BIODIVERSITY VALUES 7 3.1 Forests and shrubland 7 3.2 Dunelands 10 3.3 Islands 12 3.4 Estuaries 13 3.5 Freshwater wetlands 14

4. THREATS 15 4.1 Habitat loss and deterioration 15 4.2 Plant pests 15 4.3 Browsers 17 4.4 Predators 18

5. CURRENT RESTORATION ACTIVITIES 21 5.1 Landcare and Other Community Initiatives 21 5.2 Restoration activities on Department of Conservation land 23 5.3 Restoration activities on Whangarei District Council land 24

6. RESTORATION OBJECTIVES 25

7. INTEGRATED RESTORATION INITIATIVES 30

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 32

REFERENCES 33

v WHANGAREI HEADS LANDCARE FORUM

APPENDICES

1. The management of our environment at Whangarei Heads 36 2. Birds of Whangarei Heads 40 3. Bats, reptiles, amphibians, freshwater fish and key invertebrates of

Whangarei Heads 44 4. Introduced mammals of Whangarei Heads 45 5. Plants of Whangarei Heads 46 6. Predator Control for the Recovery of Kiwi and other biota at

Whangarei Heads - A Landcare Forum Work Plan (Draft) 53 7. Glossary 57

COVER PICTURE: Special thanks to Manaia Photography for generously allowing us to use the magnificent cover shot of the Whangarei Heads area.

Wildland Consultants Ltd 2002

This report has been produced by Wildland Consultants Ltd for the Whangarei Heads Landcare Forum. Reproduction of this report is permitted and encouraged.

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1. INTRODUCTION

The craggy peaks of Manaia and Bream Head tower over the coastal environment of Whangarei Heads. They form part of a complex scene with which many Northlanders identify strongly. Prominent headlands, sandy beaches, sheltered estuaries, rolling bush and grass-covered hills add to one of the more spectacular coastal landscapes in New Zealand. In recognition of this physical diversity, the Whangarei Heads area is defined as “Outstanding” by the Proposed Coastal District Plan.

This variety of physical features has contributed towards a wide variety of habitats and a very high diversity of plant and animal species at Whangarei Heads. Recognition of its special qualities is reflected in the creation of a separate Ecological District (Manaia) for this area, the smallest and one of the most distinct ecological districts in Northland (Brook 1996). The Department of Conservation’s Northland Conservation Management Strategy (DOC 1999) also acknowledges the high biodiversity present by including it as one of Northland’s ten “special places”.

Biodiversity everywhere is under threat from many sources including plant and animal pests, population pressure and associated development. Many Landcare groups and other groups and organisations in the Whangarei Heads area are already striving to overcome the effects of plant and animal pests in order to maintain and enhance local biodiversity. Each of these programmes has its own set of objectives, but to date there has been limited communication and co-ordination between the groups. By improving information and resource sharing and co-ordinating the activities of the groups, these and other community initiatives will become more effective, not only locally, but throughout the Whangarei Heads landscape. Such an approach could provide workable models for other communities (Norton and Miller 2000).

The purpose of this resource document is to summarise existing information. It provides information for the Landcare Groups and Whangarei Heads community on the terrestrial biodiversity values of Whangarei Heads, the threats to them, and current restoration projects. It identifies potential opportunities for more integrated ecological restoration and future ways for better resourced and more effective restoration to occur.

The craggy volcanic remnants of Manaia.


2. PHYSICAL SETTING

2.1 Location and landscape

Whangarei Heads comprises an area of about 6,000 ha of spectacular coastal landscape. The area is essentially a peninsula, extending from Bream Head and Busby Head at the entrance to Whangarei harbour, north-west to Papakarahi (The Nook) on the harbour and north to the Kauri Mountain area. For the purposes of this exercise, the Taiharuru and Pataua Estuaries situated on the oceanic side of the peninsula are included for discussion (refer to Figure 1).

The physical diversity of this small area is immense. There are several mountain ranges and hills, many rocky headlands alternating with long sandy beaches and dunes, a harbour and two sheltered estuaries, many small offshore islands, rolling farmland and coastal settlements.

There are several prominent ranges, two of which (Bream Head and Manaia Ridge) dominate the area with several forest-clad peaks reaching over 400 m in altitude. Smaller but still prominent hills of 150-250 m elevation occur at Busby Head, Taurikura Ridge, Mt Aubrey, The Nook, Rangiuru and Kauri Mountain. Between these ranges and hills is mainly rolling hill country, much of it farmed.

Prominent headlands occur in the Pataua Island and Taiharuru area, Kauri Mountain, Bream Head, Busby Head, and at several sites in Whangarei Harbour, notably Reserve Point at the Nook. Between the headlands are often extensive sandy beaches and dunes, dominated by the 5 km long golden sands of Ocean Beach, and the intertidal flats and beaches of the harbour, plus the extensive tidal flats and mangroves of the Taiharuru and Pataua Estuaries. Much of the Bream Head and Busby Head coastline is characterised by rock or clay cliffs which rise from the sea to meet steep, forested hill slopes. Many islands dot the coastline, including the Bream Islands (Mauitaha and Guano Rock), plus Tarakanahi and Moturaki Islands at the south end of Ocean Beach; several islands at the mouth of the Taiharuru River; and several islands in Whangarei Harbour including The Frenchman, Calliope Island, High Island and Motukararo or Passage Island. Further offshore and outside the area are the Hen and Chickens Islands and Poor Knights Islands.

Reotahi/Urquhart Bay at Whangarei Heads.



Superimposed on this largely natural landscape is a cultural environment, comprising farmland in more gentle terrain, and coastal settlements in some of the bays. The main settlements in this area are Ocean Beach, Urquhart Bay, Taurikura, McGregor’s Bay, Little Munroe Bay, Reotahi, McLeod Bay, Taiharuru and Pataua. Other more diffuse communities occur throughout the area, including at The Nook, and subdivision growth is steadily increasing throughout the area.

2.2 Climate and weather

Whangarei Heads experiences a warm temperate climate with mild winters and warm summers. Average rainfall at nearby Onerahi is 1,500 mm and is relatively evenly spread throughout the year, but the winter months normally have significantly higher rainfall than summer months. Rainfall is also normally higher in La Nina years when cyclonic conditions bring frequent easterly and northerly rainfall. In El Nino years, cooler south-westerly conditions prevail which in summer can bring desiccating conditions to the area. The mild climate has enabled some predominantly tropical to subtropical plant groups (e.g. nikau palms and mangroves) to flourish locally.

2.3 Geology and soils

The geology and topography of an area largely dictates what ecosystems will be present. The rocks of Whangarei Heads are largely 20 million-year-old volcanic rocks of the Taurikura subgroup which intrude older sedimentary basement rocks (Isaac et al. 1994, Hayward et al. 2001). Manaia, Mt Aubrey and Bream Head were formed from separate eruptions near Motukararo Island and just off Busby Head, with erosion leaving prominent plugs of resistant lava. Intrusions of andesite and other volcanic rocks have meanwhile formed much of the hill country terrain of the Taurikura Ridge, and a band of hills from The Nook and Munro Bay east through Rangiuru to Kauri Mountain and the outer coast. Several sites are rated outstanding geological features including a lava flow at Reserve Point (The Nook) and a natural jetty at Taurikura Bay (New Zealand Geological Society).

The distinctive volcanic remnants of Manaia.


Soils of Whangarei Heads reflect this diversity of topography and rock type. They range from clay loams in the steeplands, through a range of loamy soils and clays of the rolling hill country, to sandy loams and sands of the lowlands. Steepland clay loams occur on the southern slopes of Bream Head, much of Manaia Ridge and the coastal flanks of Kauri Mountain, the latter of which includes stony clay loam. Soils of the rolling hill country include about ten types of clays and especially loams. Clay soils predominate at Kauri Mountain and Busby Head. A broad band of silt loams extends from Parua Bay east to the upper Taiharuru Estuary, and other patches of silt loam occur elsewhere in the area. Lowland soils include extensive clays and peaty soils behind the sands of Ocean Beach, and sands along the margins of the Taiharuru and Pataua Estuaries.

2.4 Human history

Tangata Whenua perspective - from Ngati Kahu Kaumatua/Kuia in conjunction with Waimarie Bruce.

Kaione (now known as Whangarei Heads or Bream Heads) is a sacred place of the Ngati Kahu Hapu, a sub-tribe of the former Ngai Tahuhu tribe and Nga Puhi.

Ngati Kahu mythology dates back to the time of void before light. At this time the nomadic Turehu, a mythical forest people who had great powers of the underworld, occupied the area and lived mainly around Hikurangi (now known as Manaia), until the arrival of Manaia, Te Kamo and other tupuna. The place was so plentiful with food that Manaia and others decided to settle there. The Turehu people told Manaia and his companions, they must leave.

Manaia also had great powers from his forefathers and was not about to listen to the mythical people. So Manaia and others decided to climb the sacred mountain of the Turehu, and when he reached the top of the summit he was so impressed with the view. He said, "as far as the eye can see, this is my domain". That alarmed the Turehu people who fled inland to a place called Hikurangi near Tangihua and Whatitiri. From that day on the Turehu people through their incantations fought Manaia and his followers with thunder, lightning and rain. Manaia protected himself from the Turehu people with his incantations from his forefathers. However, one day he was distracted by the affair of his wife with his slave. He was so enraged that he forgot to protect himself from the incantations of the Turehu people, who eventually succeeded in turning Manaia, his wife, children, pononga (slave), kuri (dog) and his followers into stone. They are to be seen scattered around the Whangarei Heads and in the harbour.

Other mythology states that when the six pointed stars of the heavens appear above Hikurangi (Manaia) the seals or teaho would gather at Motu Karoro (Passage Island) and powhiri the return of Rangi Korero (sperm whale) and Kauika (small whale) who

The natural jetty at Taurikura Bay.


would bring a message from the heavens to our people in Te Ahipupu-rangi (Whangarei Harbour). Whangarei-Tere-Nga-Paraoa is the moana (sea) located outside Motu Karoro and Poupou Whenua (Marsden Point). The name is in fact derived from the surfacing and submerging of Rangi Korero and Kauika (Whanga) and the expulsion of water and air (rei), floating of the foam (tere-nga-paraoa).

Kaione (Bream Head) refers to the foam (paraoa) drifting on to the onepu (sand). This was collected along the seashore by our ancestors, and used for medicinal purposes. Te Ahipupu-rangi derives its name from the ancestors burning their fires around the harbour on the arrival of Rangi Korero and Kauika. The smoke would spiral like the appearance on the pupu shell to the heavens to let them know that they had arrived.

Other neighbouring Hapu identify closely with Ngati Kahu of the Whangarei Heads, including Te Waiariki and Te Parawhau. All have customary interest in the estates of Te Papa Atawhai (Department of Conservation) their "Treaty Partners" in the sustainable recovery of bio-diversity and eco-systems. It is important that the Whangarei Heads Landcare Forum develops good working relationships with local Iwi in achieving restoration objectives.

European settlers began arriving at Whangarei Heads in the middle of the 19th century with the first Whangarei Heads School and Post Office being opened in the 1850s. This period saw a dramatic change in the face of the land with much of the forest being developed into grazing and cropping lands. Kauri and other mature forest trees were removed from the slopes of Manaia and elsewhere in the early years of the 20th

century, with kauri logs being hauled into McLeod Bay and then rafted to Auckland for sale. At about this time, kauri gum was a local focus with 192 acres of land between Manaia and Ocean Beach being established as a kauri gum reserve for gum-digging (McManaway 1983).

This development laid the foundation for the economy of the area today. It is also noted, however, that the many areas of bush which remain in the area today are there courtesy of the foresight of the early settlers. Without these remnants, the biodiversity values of the area would currently be quite modest.

Lime kilns were established at McLeod Bay and Taurikura in the late 19th century, the latter of which was accompanied by spectacular excavation of the south end of Taurikura Bay. The opening of the Parua Bay butter factory in 1904 (later moved to Whangarei) would have ensured dairy farmers of a steady income, although some farmers opted to stay with sheep farming. Meanwhile, a freezing works for the slaughter of cattle and sheep was opened at Reotahi in 1912, but its life was cut short by a fire in 1921 (Reed 1956, McManaway 1983).

Throughout the period 1850s-1950s the combination of repeated burning, logging and grazing which was necessary for the early farmers to earn a living from their farmlands, impacted on the ecology of the surviving forests and other ecosystems in the area. European colonisation was also the beginning of a raft of introductions disastrous to the ecology of the area, such as Norway rats and cats which were established by about the beginning of the 19th century, and ship rats and stoats towards the end of the 19th century.


3. BIODIVERSITY VALUES

Biological diversity, or biodiversity, describes the richness, diversity and variability among all living organisms and ecosystems. To the public, it is often synonymous with our indigenous species and their protection. It is not an end point in itself, but rather a quality that ecological systems possess that provides it with benefits. (PCE 2001a).

Why is indigenous biodiversity important? Much of New Zealand’s indigenous flora and fauna is endemic – our ecosystems are unique in the world. They have evolved over the last 80 million years to deal with the conditions and climate of these islands, and they have developed a level of biological complexity and diversity that is not achieved by exotic species. In general indigenous ecosystems are more resilient than introduced species and are known to be better at protecting water and soil resources, nutrient storage and cycling, contributing to climate stability, and they are generally more resilient to changes.

Maintaining biodiversity, then, is important not only for the intrinsic values that species and habitats represent, but also because of the need to maintain healthy and functioning ecosystems to sustain all life. The inter-relatedness of ecosystems means that degradation of habitats and loss of species can and does have flow on effects to other ecosystems. For example loss of terrestrial habitat has significant effects on freshwater and marine ecosystems.

Despite human modification, the biodiversity values of the Whangarei Heads area are still very high and distinctive. This is a result of the diverse physical nature of the area, with topography, geology, soil and climate interacting to shape the extent and composition of the distinct ecosystems that are present. Key ecosystems in the area are forests and shrubland, dunelands, estuaries, freshwater wetlands, cliffs and rocky headlands, islands, and cultural “habitats” comprising farmland and communities.

Species richness is correspondingly high with an estimated 400+ plant species, 70+ bird species, one bat species, seven or more lizard species, and four or more native freshwater fish species (Appendix 1) and a plethora of invertebrates. Many of these species are classified as threatened species with Category A, B or C rankings, which indicate their priority for conservation action (Tisdall 1994). The main habitats of Whangarei Heads and their biota are summarised in the following sections.

3.1 Forests and shrubland

Over 2,600 ha of forest and shrubland occur in the Whangarei Heads area, with over 1000 ha of this being reserved or under covenant. The largest forested areas are at Bream Head (c.800 ha), Taurikura Ridge complex (c.300 ha), Manaia complex (c.700 ha), Kauri Mountain complex (c.500 ha), The Nook (c.200 ha), Mt Aubrey (c.100 ha) and McGregor’s Bush (c.100 ha). Different forest types include coastal broadleaf forest, kauri forest and kanuka forest. Some of the forest habitats are ranked as nationally important, with Bream Head being the highest quality coastal forest habitat


left in Northland. In addition, Bream Head and Manaia Ridge are the reserves of highest scientific value in Whangarei District (Clunie 1993).


The forests of Whangarei Heads contain more than 380 plant species with Manaia Ridge Scenic Reserve having about 370 species (Clunie 1993). Many rare or threatened species are present in the area including carmine rata, black maire, Pimelea tomentosa, Hebe “Whangarei”, and the daisy Celmisia adamsii var. rugulosa. In addition, a number of predominantly island species (rare on the mainland) are present, e.g. large-leaved milk tree, coastal maire, tawapou and parapara.

Privately owned lands and other reserves throughout the area also contain important forest remnants and rare species. For example the rare coastal tree tawapou and the

rare creeping herb Calystegia marginata occur on Mt Aubrey and important populations of Celmisia adamsii, Fuchsia procumbens and Olearia albida occur in private lands fringing Kauri Mountain (DoC SSBI). Many private lands have not been surveyed for their biodiversity values, so it is probable that several rare plant species remain undetected. Shrubland has often been under-rated in the past as “worthless scrub”, but biodiversity values are often very high there and include rare orchids, invertebrates and kiwi.

Some outstanding sequences of forest vegetation occur, e.g. at Bream Head, where zones from the rocky and sandy seashores extend through coastal broadleaf, high forest slopes, shrubland and finally rocky outcrops. In the Taiharuru and Pataua area, there are complete and rare sequences from estuarine mangrove forests, through saltmarsh, shrubland and forest habitats, little of it afforded statutory protection. These are important sequences which enable habitats to migrate with climate and sea-level changes.

About 15 native forest birds occur in forests of the Whangarei Heads area, including three threatened birds - the North Island kiwi (a category A threatened species with less than 100 individuals at Whangarei Heads), North Island kaka and New Zealand pigeon or kukupa (both Category B threatened species; Tisdall 1994). Kiwi and kukupa are increasing at one site (Bream Head) where appropriate pest management is occurring and the outcome being monitored. Kaka, red-crowned kakariki and bellbirds visit the Whangarei Heads area from the Hen and Chickens Islands and are expected to breed successfully if predator and rat control is adequate. North Island tomtits (pied tits) recolonised some Whangarei Heads forests during the 1990s, apparently as a result of improved linkages with source populations in forests near Whangarei.

Bats, probably long-tailed bats (Category B species) have been seen at Bream Head (DoC SSBI database) and could occur elsewhere where there are mature trees. At least six lizard species (four geckos and two skinks) occur in or on the edge of forests in the Whangarei Heads area (Appendix 1). The forest invertebrate fauna is extremely diverse and includes some species of snail and insect that may be unique to

A North Island tomtit (miromiro or pied tit).

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the area. Some of the megainvertebrates, e.g. giant weta, have been exterminated by rodents, but a colony of flax snails Placostylus hongii, a Category C threatened species, persists at Peach Cove.

3.2 Dunelands

Dunelands fringe the beaches at Ocean Beach and Pataua North areas, each of which is about 5 km in length. Despite their narrowness, dunelands support a distinctive plant and animal community, containing many threatened species. The dunes are typical in being shaped and reshaped by erosion and deposition of sand brought about by wind and sometimes water movement. They support a varied plant community, including the characteristic foredune plants Spinifex and Pingao. Pingao is a threatened species and is also of high cultural significance to tangata whenua as a resource for weaving. Other plants present include New Zealand iceplant, Pimelea arenaria, Muehlenbeckia complexa, Cassinia, pohutukawa, ngaio, and exotic grassy and woody plants including the weeds Smilax and moth-plant, the latter of which grows over Muehlenbeckia complexa.

A long-tailed bat.

Characteristic foredune plants, Spinifex and Pingao, at Ocean Beach.

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The exotic marram grass was planted for stabilisation of the dunes and continues to grow in the area. While it has been a very useful tool in stabilising the eroding dunes, experience elsewhere in the country shows that it tends to encourage the formation of very steep and unstable dunes which are inherently unstable. Accordingly marram

itself is often classed as a weed.

Animals of the Whangarei Heads dunelands include a number of coastal birds including the threatened New Zealand dotterel and variable oystercatcher, small numbers of which attempt to nest on the dunelands at Ocean Beach. Key sites for these shorebirds are where small steams meander through the dunes. New Zealand pipits are also frequently found in the dunes.

Shore skinks and possibly other lizards are likely to occur amongst debris and vegetation along the dunes and katipo spiders are also present in low numbers (Griffiths in prep.). This spider, once characteristic of New Zealand dunes, is in decline, but the precise causes are unknown.

Even though species lists are not high for dunelands compared with forest areas, they are important habitats for retaining the natural biodiversity of the Whangarei Heads area. They also perform important roles in buffering shrubland, wetland habitats and developed lands from the physical impacts of the ocean ranging from blasts of salt-laden wind to rising sea-levels.

3.3 Islands

The Whangarei Heads area is dotted with many small islands up to one kilometre offshore (refer to Figure 1). These small islands are extremely varied in their topography and vegetation cover. The Bream Islands and nearby Tarakanahi and Moturaka Islands support taupata, flax and New Zealand iceplant, whereas Motukararo (Passage) Island and Calliope Islands support pohutukawa-dominant forest of moderate diversity. Some additional forested islands in the Taiharuru area are owned and managed by local iwi.

High Island in Taurikura Bay.

Procters Beach features a large area of dunelands.

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Islands that are furthest from the mainland tend to have the more significant flora and fauna because they are the ones likely to be least impacted on by threats currently present on the mainland. Mauitaha, for example, has always been free of mammalian pests and supports a varied lizard and seabird fauna (Table 1), including many species that have disappeared from the mainland some time ago.

Some of the near-shore islands have nesting pairs of reef herons and colonies of white-fronted terns. Both are threatened species and are susceptible to rats and other predators, which might explain some of the sudden and conspicuous abandoning of tern colonies that often occurs. Other islands close to shore e.g. High Island and Tarakanahi, have weed problems due to high human use, while Calliope Island also has rabbits.

The islands are in different ownership and legal access varies. The Bream Islands are a Nature Reserve and any work there requires a permit to be obtained from the Department of Conservation.

Table 1: Biota of some offshore islands*

Island Owner/ Admin

Distance offshore

Dominant vegetation Significant fauna and flora

Mauitaha DoC Nature Reserve

1000 m Taupata, harakeke (flax), iceplant

McGregor’s skink, Pacific gecko, diving petrel, fluttering shearwater, blue penguin, Cook’s scurvy grass

Guano DoC Nature Reserve

900 m Taupata, harakeke

Blue penguin, fluttering shearwater, diving petrel

Tarakanahi and Moturaka

DoC Scenic Reserve

50-300 m Taupata, harakeke

White-fronted terns

Frenchman DoC Sc Res 50 m Taupata White-fronted tern, gulls Calliope DoC Sc Res 600 m Pohutukawa Orchids High Private 100 m Shrubland

and weeds Motukararo (Passage)

Northland Portcorp

150 m Pohutukawa Reef heron, Hibiscus aff. trionum

* Data primarily from Department of Conservation, Sites of Special Biological Interest.

3.4 Estuaries

The sheltered estuaries of Taiharuru and Pataua support extremely rich and productive biological communities, important for marine ecosystems and also as food baskets for many local people. Beyond these estuaries there are several fine examples of

Taiharuru estuary supports rich and productive biological

communities.

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habitat sequences where mangroves give way to saltmarsh, then shrubland and finally to lowland forest habitats and sometimes on to forested slopes as well. In some places these sequences also include freshwater wetlands, especially between saltmarsh and shrubland habitats. All habitat sequences and habitat mosaics are very important because they provide corridors for breeding and migrating species of fish, bird, reptile and invertebrate. The sequences also play an important role in buffering aquatic systems from the effects of pollution, sedimentation and other effects of landuse.

Significant fauna present in estuarine habitats include a variety of diadramous fish species (ones that move between marine and freshwater habitats), including giant bully (a regionally significant species) and two species of eels. Many bird species are present in estuaries, including four species of shags, two species of herons, six species of shorebirds, and kingfishers, all of which feed on fish and invertebrates during the low tide period. In nearby mangroves, banded rails feed on invertebrates among mangrove roots and in adjacent salt marshes.

3.5 Freshwater wetlands

Freshwater habitats in the Whangarei Heads area include a number of streams, swampland, ephemeral wetlands and ponds. The narrow width of the peninsula means that the many small streams flowing from the forested areas are small in size.

Taiharuru Stream for instance, at 4 km from source to mangroves, is the longest stream in the area. However, local streams of only a few hundred metres in length, but which are well-vegetated, support banded kokopu (a threatened species), eels and bullies, including possibly the giant bully, which occurs in similar habitat in Parua Bay. Other stream fauna which occur in streams with high water quality are koura and

freshwater shrimp and a variety of insect larvae, molluscs and worms. The introduced golden bell frog also occurs in the area (Gill and Whitaker 1996). The decline of this species of frog in its native Australia raises the significance of the New Zealand populations.

Streams and ponds with dense growths of harakeke (flax), shrubs and raupo and other reed-beds, may also support a number of wetland birds including cryptic insectivorous swamp birds. Spotless crakes and fernbirds favour these dense habitats and occur in the Kauri Mountain Road wetland and in wetlands of the Pataua area, while the threatened Australasian bittern has been recorded in wetlands fringing Pataua Estuary. A number of shag, heron and waterfowl species frequent farm ponds and other water-bodies throughout the area.

A banded kokopu, a threatened native species.

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4. THREATS

The threats to biodiversity in the Whangarei Heads area are broadly similar to the range of threats facing biodiversity in Northland generally. However, the fragile nature of some of the Whangarei Heads ecosystems (e.g. coastal broadleaf forest, dunelands and islands), plus the sensitivity of some of the species (e.g. kiwi and kaka), means that the stakes are much higher and the commitment needs to be strong. Without concerted and co-ordinated effort, a biodiversity experience for future school excursions at Whangarei Heads might consist of the spectacle of a sparrow dodging a magpie attack as it carries a pampas flower to its nest in a prolific tangle of mothplant and Elaeagnus smothering the last pohutukawa in McLeod Bay! Specific threats are discussed below.

4.1 Habitat loss and deterioration

Although the Manaia and Bream Head forests provide the best examples of coastal forest left in Northland, they are only a tiny fraction of the former extent of this forest type. Similarly, wetlands cover less than 5% of their original extent in Northland (Ogle 1982). While we can be grateful that we have retained some of these natural areas, there is a danger of further loss and fragmentation of forest and shrubland habitat particularly through accidental fires and subdivision development.

In addition to habitat loss, the quality of habitats and their biota are often under threat from physical conditions, like the effects of wind, and encroaching plant and animal pests. This is commonly known as the “edge effect”, which is exacerbated in small and especially linear shaped habitats. Wetlands and narrow dunes are often choked with exotic grasses, while shrubland and forest edges are penetrated by Mexican devil, pampas and other weeds. In both cases natural processes of germination and growth of indigenous plants are impaired.

The larger and more interconnected habitats are, however, the less impact these factors will have. Smaller habitats are also vulnerable to pollution from human activities, e.g. septic tank overflows and possibly air pollution.

4.2 Plant pests

Northland has more environmental weeds than any other region in New Zealand due largely to the very climatic conditions that encourage good growth of bush. Whangarei Heads is over endowed with invasive species that can modify habitats and interfere with ecological processes. Important species currently known in the area and their environmental impacts are given in Table 2. Key threatening plant pests in

Mothplant flowers and seedpod.

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local forests are mothplant, mistflower, ginger and wilding pine. Forest edges and shrubland are exposed to a large number of additional plant pests, including pampas, Mexican daisy, Mexican devil, Elaeagnus, woolly nightshade, and prickly hakea, while roadsides can shelter privet, Japanese honeysuckle and others. The ultimate impact of some of these species, e.g. Mexican devil and woolly nightshade, are not fully known and possibly depend on site characteristics, e.g. whether soil will support tall canopy trees that can shade out these species. Collectively, however, plant pests are a huge threat to the indigenous biodiversity of Whangarei Heads.

Table 2: Some key environmental weeds of Whangarei Heads

Note: Species underlined are currently considered to be the most threatening. Data derived from discussions with staff of Department of Conservation, Northland Regional Council and Landcare Groups, particularly Peter Harding.

Species Habitat Locations Impact Elaeagnus

Forest edges, shrubland

Manaia, roadsides Dense stands smothering trees and preventing regeneration

Ginger species

Forest, shrubland

Manaia, Mt Aubrey Dense stands, preventing forest regeneration

Madeira vine

Shrubland, forest

Darch Point Reserve, Urquhart Bay, Taurikura

Smothers canopy

Mistflower

Forest, shrubland

Throughout Shade tolerant invader of forests

Mothplant

Forest, shrubland

Probably throughout Canopy collapse, serious dieback

Wilding pines

Forest, shrubland

Throughout Habitat modification, water depletion

Agapanthus Open areas Widespread Dense stands

Billy goat weed Forest, shrubland

Kauri Mountain Prevents regeneration

Chinese and tree privets

Shrubland, forest edge

Roadsides Dense stands

Japanese honeysuckle

Shrubland, forest edges

Roadsides Dense stands

Marram Dunelands Ocean Beach Provides some stability, but competes with Pingao,etc.

Mexican daisy Clearings Probably throughout Dense stands preventing regeneration of shrubland

Mexican devil Forest edges, shrubland

Throughout Dense stands slowing down or preventing shrub regeneration

Needle grass Grassland McLeod Bay area Prolific spreader Pampas Disturbed

ground Throughout Dense stands preventing

shrubland regeneration Prickly hakea Forest,

shrubland Roadsides, Manaia Dense stands, modifying forest

composition Smilax Dunelands,

islands Ocean Beach, Moturaka and Tarakanahi Islands, roadsides

Smothering effect preventing regeneration

Woolly nightshade Open forest, shrubland

The Nook and elsewhere

Dense stands, ultimate impact unknown

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Many other species have been planted as amenity plants in the area, e.g. exotic iceplant and cottonwood (tauhinu) at Ocean Beach, and Phoenix palms in different places, and have the potential to invade the ecosystem. Other weed species have the ability to arrive in the area via vehicles and plantings and their seeds can be carried by birds or the wind (Anon 2000).

4.3 Browsers

New Zealand once had a large number of indigenous browsing species that evolved with the vegetation, e.g. about 10 species of moa, New Zealand pigeon, kokako, parrots etc. Although moa may have encouraged divaricating plant communities to climax in some situations, their impact was negligible compared with the catastrophic impacts of browsing mammals that have subsequently been introduced (King 1990). Of these the most devastating are feral livestock (cattle, deer, goats, sheep and pigs; Parkes 2001), possums (Cowan 2001), and possibly hares and rabbits in some areas, while the true impacts of rats and mice are still largely unknown (Table 3).

Table 3: Impacts of browsers on forest health

Note: Y = known impact

Species Foliage Flowers Fruit Seeds/seedlings Possums Y Y Y Y Deer Y - - Y Goats Y - - Y Cattle Y - - Y Pigs - - - Y Sheep - - - Y Hare, rabbit - - - Y Rats - Y Y Y Mice - ? ? Y

Livestock, including feral animals, can have a huge impact on forest health, by removing seedlings and saplings of succulent species from large areas in a short time, and they can cause severe erosion and compaction of the ground (Parkes 2001). Livestock have now been excluded from Bream Head and access is also decreasing at other reserves. Feral goats were eradicated from Bream Head in the early 1990s and there is a farming ban in place on the northern buffers. Goats still occur in the Manaia Ridge and especially the Kauri Mountain areas where they are causing considerable impact on the forest understorey and regeneration levels.

Possums impact primarily on adult trees, with foliage, flowers and sometimes fruit of a large number of species being eaten (Cowan 2001). Many trees in the Whangarei Heads area such as kohekohe, pohutukawa, rata, towai and five-finger are very susceptible to possum browsing. Currently it is thought that these species require possum indices to be below about 5% residual trap catch in order to maintain growth and/or reproduction levels adequate to sustain populations (P. Whaley, Department of Conservation pers.comm). Loss of foliage also contributes to a lower volume of litter on the forest floor with consequential reductions in nutrient cycling (Cowan 2001).

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Current studies indicate some impact from rabbits and hares, and both can impact on plantings in areas being rehabilitated. Of the rats, kiore (present on some offshore islands) are known to impact on seedling establishment rates, but the effects of rodents present on the mainland are still unclear (Innes 2001).

Some mammalian browsers are also predators of fauna. Possums prey on birds’ eggs and nestlings and can have a big impact on the productivity of New Zealand pigeons (Cowan 2001) and probably kaka and other species. Again, reduction to low residual trap catch levels appears to be sufficient to reverse the declines of some species, particularly New Zealand pigeon (R. Pierce et al. unpub.). Small numbers of feral pigs occur in the Manaia Ridge and Kauri Mountain areas. They are omnivorous and are known to take kiwi and their eggs and large numbers of worms and land snails (McIlroy 2001).

4.4 Predators

Indigenous predators of New Zealand formerly included many bird species (eagles, goshawks, harrier, falcons, owls, rails, crows, etc) but no predatory mammals other than insectivorous bats. The introduction of several species of mammalian predators has been the prime cause of extinction on the New Zealand mainland of many species of birds, some bats, tuatara, lizards and large invertebrates such as giant weta. The main threat to the continued survival of threatened species such as kiwi, New Zealand pigeon, kaka, lizards, etc on the mainland, is that of mammalian predators.

There are about 11 mammalian predators occurring in the Whangarei Heads area. Of these, dogs, cats and rats and the three mustelids (ferret, stoat and weasel) probably have the greatest impact on sensitive species currently present (Table 4). They collectively impact on all stages of birds, including eggs, nestlings, juveniles and adults, and also on invertebrates and reptiles.

Possums can cause the defoliation and deaths of some trees.

Flax snails.

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Other species can also have significant impacts, e.g. possums on nesting kiwi, New Zealand pigeon and kaka; hedgehogs and mice on invertebrates; and pigs on kiwi and invertebrates. The true impacts of some of these species is still not properly known, e.g. recent studies of hedgehogs has shown that they can remove up to 1 kg of invertebrate biomass per hectare of forest per night, and so are potentially in competition with kiwi and other insectivorous species (Moss and Sanders 2001).

Table 4: Likely key predators of sensitive fauna at Whangarei Heads

Species Poss Must Cat Rat Dog Mice Hog Pig A. Species present now NI kiwi y Y Y ? Y ? y Blue penguin ? Y Y ? Y Reef heron ? Y Y Y Australasian bittern ? Y Y ? Y Crakes ? y Y Shorebirds Y Y Y Y Y Y White-fronted tern Y Y Y Y Y Kukupa (NZ pigeon) Y Y Y Y NI kaka Y Y Y ? Kakariki (red-crowned parakeet)

Y ? Y

NI tomtit ? Y Y NI fernbird ? ? Y Bellbird Y Y Tui ? ? ? Lizards Y Y Y Bats ? ? ? Macro-invertebrates Y Y Y Y Y Y Y B. Some potential introductions NI robin Y Y Y Y Whitehead ? ? Y NI kokako Y Y Y Y NI rifleman Y Y Stitchbird Y Y Y NI saddleback Y Y Y NZ falcon Y Y ? Y Little-spotted kiwi Y Y Y ? Y Northern tuatara Y Y Y Y Y ? ? Y

Note 1: Poss = possum, Must = mustelids (ferret, stoat, weasel), Hog = hedgehog. Note 2: Y = Yes, high impact: y = yes, but possibly low/lesser impact Note 3: Rats are ship rats and Norway rats Note 4: Data derived from Clapperton 2001, Cowan 2001, Gillies 2001, Innes 2001, King et al.

2001, McIlroy 2001, Moss and Sanders 2001, Ruscoe 2001 and other studies.

In order to protect and recover local animal diversity, a good understanding of the behaviour, ecology and especially control methods of each pest species is needed. For example, the recovery of kiwi across Whangarei Heads is likely to occur only if efficient mustelid and cat control is implemented and also if it is accompanied by responsible co-operation by dog owners. A single uncontrolled dog could get a taste for kiwi and very quickly undo all the good work of a predator control regime (Pierce

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and Sporle 1997). Increased subdivision has the potential to bring new pets (especially dogs and cats) into the Whangarei Heads area, which would seriously threaten the recovery of kiwi and shorebirds locally, unless appropriate controls on pets were taken. The risks of smaller predators, such as Argentine ants, getting further established in the area, are also likely to increase with increasing subdivision. Argentine ants can impact on ecological processes such as seed germination and eat some insect species out of existence.

A weasel. Stoats are bigger than weasels and have a black tip to the tail.

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5. CURRENT RESTORATION ACTIVITIES

5.1 Landcare and Other Community Initiatives

Over the past three years a number of community-based conservation initiatives have begun in the Whangarei Heads area. Many Landcare groups and other groups in the Whangarei Heads area are now working to protect and enhance the biodiversity values of their area. They are both addressing issues on private land, and supporting agencies with responsibilities on public land.

“Landcare” is a concept of the community taking ownership of issues, of the community developing solutions to those issues, and of the community taking action to carry out those solutions. This community involvement ensures that people with knowledge and responsibility for the land – those with the most power to make a difference – are involved and can come together to make a difference.

Landcare is all about action on the ground: Regular, everyday people who are voluntarily working together to look after their local environment. The outcomes of this Landcare ethic also include more cohesive communities and heightened

environmental awareness with active decision-making on a range of local matters – and action on the ground!

Members of each of the Landcare groups in the Whangarei Heads area are working in their own way, to address what they see as the key issues in ‘their back yard’. This autonomy to identify issues is important in motivating group members, and in maintaining their momentum to continue with projects. It is therefore vital that any future ‘action plan’ for the area take account of this autonomy, while providing an umbrella framework for future action.

Staff members of the New Zealand Landcare Trust provide support and assistance to these Landcare groups. They have recently initiated the “Whangarei Heads Landcare Forum” which seeks to facilitate better co-ordination, information sharing and integration of effort within the area, to enhance the effectiveness of each individual group’s efforts. Indeed this report is prepared due to a need

The red-crowned kakariki is a frequent visitor from offshore islands where it breeds successfully in the absence of mammalian predators. These small native birds are sometimes confused with introduced rosellas.

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recognised by the forum for a comprehensive summary of ecological information relating to the area.

Landcare and other community groups in the area are currently addressing a number of issues on both privately owned and reserve land including:

Weed control

Possum, rat and mustelid control

Control of feral cats, and education of domestic cat and dog owners

Shooting of feral goats

Fencing of native bush areas

Replanting – native trees, pingao and Spinifex

Kiwi protection activities, including radio-tagging of kiwi, removal of eggs for incubation and their re-release, on private and reserve land.

Enhancement of recreational resources of the area

Education and networking via meetings, newsletters etc.

It should also be noted that many individuals are also working to protect and enhance the biodiversity values of their land. This may be by controlling weeds, possums or predators on their property, by ensuring that their dog is under control to protect kiwi in the vicinity, or by restoring native vegetation.

It is hoped that as awareness of issues grows, more people will become motivated to “do their bit” and protection will extend over a wider area.

A shore skink.

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Table 5: Current Landcare and other community restoration initiatives at Whangarei

Heads (as at February 2002)

Group/ Organisation

Papakarahi Whangarei Heads

Mt Aubrey

Pataua Te Whara Bream Head Restoration Committee

Taiharuru Conservation Area

Area Nook Peninsula (~ 300 ha)

Mt Aubrey, Darch Point, Mcleods

Mt Aubrey Pataua catchment

Bream Head Taiharuru (189 ha)

Weed control Yes Yes Yes No No Yes

Animal Control

Possums, mustelids, cats (Fenn and box traps, bait stations

Bait stations and Timms traps

No No Yes – Fenn and Timms traps

Possum and rat control, goat shooting, cats

Planting Yes Some – Reotahi Scenic Reserve

No Yes – coastal dune revegetation, developing a nursery.

No Yes

Education Yes – newsletters, public meeting road signs

Info spread via WHCA newsletter

Yes – newsletter, signage, displays, ecological ramble

Yes – liaison with private landowners

Flow of information between landowners

Other Kiwi monitoring – calls, transmitters

Track construction, WINZ workers

Tracks Promoted septic tank cleaning, river restoration, general enhancement

Kiwi monitoring, predator tracking

Fencing of bush from stock

Works with DOC DOC, WDC WDC NRC, WDC DOC DOC trappers

Resourced by NRC Environment Fund, PDCT, Transpower Landcare Trust Grant, sponsorship from Roswalls

WINZ, NRC, WDC

NRC DOC None at this stage

Objective Total ecosystem focus

Responds to local issues

Reserve restoration

Catchment focus

Support of Bream Head Mainland Island

Total ecosystem focus

5.2 Restoration activities on Department of Conservation land

The main focus of DoC resources in the Whangarei Heads area goes to the Bream Head Scenic Reserve, where significant and increasing effort has been put in over the past 10 years. This has included goat eradication in the early 1990s, sustained control of possums and key invasive weeds including (pampas, prickly hakea, wattle, apple of Sodom, Mexican daisy), forest bird monitoring and forest rehabilitation through planting programmes. More recently, predator control and release and monitoring of kiwi have got underway as part of the Whangarei Kiwi Sanctuary, and rat control and invertebrate monitoring is also underway.

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Funding constraints limit work at other DoC reserves at the Heads, but possums are being controlled to low levels at Manaia and they are being monitored annually along with vegetation. Some invasive weeds are being surveyed and controlled at Manaia, Kauri Mountain and Reotahi, the latter in conjunction with the local Landcare Group. Boundary fencing has been improved at several sites at Bream Head and Kauri Mountain. (K. Hawkins, pers.comm.)

5.3 Restoration activities on Whangarei District Council land

The management of the reserves and other areas owned by the WDC is largely summarised within the recently released Open Space Strategy. Here values of the area are identified to include conservation, recreation, landscape and culture and heritage. The support of the community in enhancing controlling weeds and pests, protecting the bush and providing walking tracks is acknowledged.

Current activities of relevance to this discussion centre around two areas. In the Mt Aubrey reserve wild ginger, wilding pines and pampas have been controlled, largely in conjunction with the local Landcare group. The Reotahi Scenic Reserve has similarly seen the control of flame trees, wilding pines and pampas, while much effort has gone in to development of a walkway and interpretative panels to the old freezing works site.

The proposal for development of a coastal walkway around the area will also have some impact on restoration activities on council-owned land in the area.

Department of Conservation staff with kiwi for release with the Papakarahi Landcare group.

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6. RESTORATION OBJECTIVES

There is obviously high interest within the Whangarei Heads area in enhancing local biodiversity values. A possible all encompassing vision could be ``to bring about the sustained recovery of ecosystems in the Whangarei Heads area and to ensure that there is a balance between retaining biodiversity values and achieving economic sustainability’’.

This report has summarised the ecological values of the area, threats to those values, and the work that is currently underway to enhance those values. It is appropriate therefore that some key objectives to meet the ecological restoration vision for Whangarei Heads be proposed.

Eight objectives have been chosen – it is not an exhaustive list, and it should not be assumed that they totally reflect the vision of the wider community. There are clear opportunities to develop integrated projects on the ground with local iwi, which would also ensure that protocols and procedures were acceptable to all concerned. However they serve to identify and focus on some key outcomes that are currently possible within the area. They are summarised in Table 6, and subsequently elaborated on below.

Table 6: Some objectives of Whangarei Heads Restoration

1. The flowering of pohutukawa is an annual spectacle at Whangarei Heads and other key plant species have high levels of flowering and fruiting

2. Forest regeneration is healthy throughout Whangarei Heads 3. Some former forested areas and habitat sequences and buffers are rehabilitated through

restoration planting and fencing 4. The shrill calls of kiwi can be heard nightly throughout Whangarei Heads 5. The morning chorus of bellbirds, robins and whiteheads and the chatter of kakariki and

screeching of kaka flocks returns to Whangarei Heads 6. The dunelands of Whangarei Heads become healthy and dynamic ecosystems 7. The freshwater ecosystems of Whangarei Heads sustain greater life 8. The islands of Whangarei Heads abound with seabirds, lizards and rare plants

Nesting penguins (karora) are vulnerable to ground predators such as cats, dogs and mustelids.

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Objective 1: The flowering of pohutukawa is an annual spectacle at Whangarei Heads and other key species have high levels of flowering and fruiting Explanation: The forest canopy processes of flowering and fruiting are sensitive to possum

browse with species such as kohekohe and pohutukawa and rata being particularly sensitive. The NZ pigeon, a pivotal seed disperser, is also susceptible to possum predation.

Requirements: Possum indices need to be kept below c. 5% residual trap catch. Methods: Possum control to < 5% RTC has been in place at Bream Head and Manaia Ridge

Scenic Reserve for several years. Several other sites, e.g. Taurikura, Mt Aubrey, The Nook and Kauri Mountain are periodically covered by Landcare Groups, DoC and NRC. There is a need to have a co-ordinated possum control programme throughout Whangarei Heads to achieve maximum benefits and slow-down possum reinvasion of the entire peninsula. Such co-ordination could come about by using a forum person to co-ordinate with other parties including DoC and NRC. Implement control of possums by methods acceptable to landowners and maintain control at buffers, reinvasion points and hotspots.

Monitoring: Co-ordinate with DoC and NRC (forum possum co-ordinator). Other benefits: New Zealand pigeon, kaka and some other birds, lizards and insects benefit from

improved food supply and reduced predation from possums. Seed dispersal improves and reduced light levels will limit some weeds (see objective 2).

Objective 2: Forest regeneration is healthy throughout Whangarei Heads Explanation: Invasive weeds such as mothplant, pampas and Mexican daisy smother

regenerating seedlings. Feral goats, pigs and wandering livestock also impact on regeneration rates through grazing seedlings and trampling the ground thereby encouraging runoff and erosion.

Requirements: Determine priority weeds and carry out co-ordinated control of these species. Encourage and train residents in weed hygiene and to be on the lookout for new weed pests. Control to very low levels, and ultimately eradicate, goats and pigs (to date eradication of these species is achieved at Bream Head only). Where possible, fence off important bush areas from livestock. Note that the increased diversity of birds in areas of rat control (Objective 5) will also bring benefits of improved nutrient levels, pollination and seed dispersal. Significant recovery of seabirds (bringing with them additional nutrients for the soil), would however, require intensive predator control (see objectives 4 and 5).

Methods: For priority weeds determine cost-effective methods that are also environmentally acceptable (refer NRC, DoC publications). Care will be required to ensure that further weeds do not become established in treated areas. This may require some revegetation with native species. Eliminate feral goats and pigs by shooting and advocate against further releases and investigate possibilities for agreements for buffer zones as occurs at Bream Head.

Monitoring: Plan for co-ordinated surveillance of new weeds and monitoring of existing infestations of weeds and browsing mammals (refer (NRC, DoC). Monitoring of target pests and appropriate indigenous tree and shrub species is desirable.

Other benefits: Improved native ground cover will increase moisture retaining capacity of soil and facilitate the recovery of invertebrate species. Local control of aerial dispersing weeds will reduced the weed source polluting other areas downwind, including the Poor Knights and Hen and Chickens Nature Reserves. Water quality will improve in the lower catchments (see Objective 7) and estuarine/harbour waters.

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Objective 3: Some former forested areas and habitat sequences and buffers are rehabilitated through restoration planting and fencing Explanation: Forest and shrubland has been removed from much of the Whangarei Heads area

resulting in fragmentation and increased vulnerability of remnant areas of bush, and reduced dispersal capabilities of indigenous plant and animal species.

Requirements: Achieving linkages (corridors and/or stepping stones) between existing forested and shrubland areas and buffers around them. Maintain or rehabilitate linkages along habitat sequences, e.g. reconnecting mangrove, saltmarsh, wetland, shrubland and forest habitat around the Taiharuru and Pataua Estuaries.

Methods: Determine areas that are a priority for restoration and evaluate the plant community required, e.g. wetland, shrubland, treeland habitats and species composition. Talk with landowners to determine whether rehabilitation is viable and if so plan the approach, e.g. sources of plant material, labour and follow-up management and monitoring.

Monitoring: Survival of plantings and habitat viability. Other benefits: Increased dispersal and recolonisation capabilities of plants and animals including

forest fauna such as kiwi (see Objective 4) and lizards, and wetland birds such as fernbirds. Protection of wetland habitats is gained, including maintenance of water quality and quantity and consequent benefits to freshwater life (Objective 7).

Objective 4: The shrill calls of kiwi can be heard nightly throughout Whangarei Heads Explanation: Kiwi probably number less than 100 at Whangarei Heads and are likely to be

steadily declining throughout most of the area due to the impacts of dogs and other predators (stoats and cats kill most kiwi chicks, whereas ferrets and dogs kill mainly subadult and adult kiwi). Kiwi are currently being managed at Bream Head and at The Nook, and over time birds will disperse from these managed areas to other sites. If predators are controlled throughout the area the Whangarei Heads population would recover to a viable population of 500–1,000 individuals or more and provide a source of birds for other restoration areas.

Requirements: Stop predators killing kiwi. Methods: Control feral cats and mustelids at strategic (e.g. stream banks, ecotones) and

convenient sites throughout Whangarei Heads. Advocate for better control of domestic pet behaviour. Provide creches for the vulnerable chick stage (at e.g. Motuora, Limestone Islands, The Nook) until such a time as predator and pet impact are negligible at Whangarei Heads.

Monitoring: Call count indices carried out annually in June. Some radiotelemetry will also be needed.

Other benefits: Kaka and kukupa will begin to breed successfully at Bream Head, Manaia and possibly elsewhere, especially if possums are also controlled. Nesting penguins, seabirds, and shorebirds will also benefit and recover at mainland sites and on the near shore islands (see Objectives 6 and 8). Bream Head will be well buffered from predator reinvasion (see Objective 5). Ripple effects may need to be addressed in sensitive areas.

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Objective 5: The morning chorus of bellbirds, robins and whiteheads, the chatter of kakariki and screeching of kaka flocks returns to Whangarei Heads Explanation: Many small forest birds disappeared from mainland Northland after the arrival of

rats and mustelids in the late 19th century, but they survive on islands or in diminishing numbers elsewhere on the mainland. These included kakariki, bellbirds and saddlebacks which persist on the Hen and Chickens Islands, rifleman (nearest birds currently surviving in Warawara Forest, Northland), stitchbirds (surviving on Little Barrier Island), robins, whiteheads and long-tailed cuckoos (surviving on Little Barrier Island and in some central North Island forests and currently passing through Whangarei Heads on migration). Some of these birds (kaka, kakariki and bellbird) are attempting to recolonise Whangarei Heads naturally, but have so far been unsuccessful, probably because of inadequate predator control. Some species of seabirds also disappeared from the mainland, probably through the combined impacts of rats and other predators.

Requirements: Mustelid and cat control year round and rat control to about 2-3% tracking indices (i.e. no more than 2-3 rats detected for every 100 tracking tunnels put out) during the bird breeding season.

Methods: Approach should be to support species re-establishment at Bream Head first, because this is currently the only site with intensive predator control and imminent rat control. From the experience gained during those operations, subsequently work to expand the range of birds into other parts of Whangarei Heads through natural dispersal along corridors or translocations to adequately managed sites. Management of rats is continually being refined nationally with various approaches achieving good results, including grid trapping and poisoning.

Monitoring: Standard rodent tracking is needed to measure rodent abundance. Birds can be monitored by five-minute counts in spring and/or by individually colour-banding released birds.

Other benefits: Rat control in forests will benefit many other animals including lizards, snails and other invertebrates, New Zealand pigeons and other resident forest birds and seabirds. Germination rates of plants (Objective 1 and 2) would increase directly through rat control and indirectly through increased nutrients provided by recolonising seabirds.

Objective 6: The dunelands of Whangarei Heads become healthy and dynamic ecosystems Explanation: Dunelands and their biota are under siege from the sea on one side and the effects

of development on the other, e.g. grazing regimes, building development and other vegetation clearance and pest encroachment. Consequently, the lush pingao- and spinifex-dominated dunes of the past are now a shadow of their former glory, while characteristic dune fauna, such as the New Zealand dotterel and katipo spider, are in decline. The typical stabilisation sequence used in the past, which involved planting marram grass for initial stabilisation, followed by lupins and further regeneration, is no longer possible due to a fungal disease present in lupins since the 1970s. Extensive work on techniques for the re-establishment of spinifex and pingao has been carried out by the Forest Research Institute, and these are now viable options for stabilisation of dune systems.

Requirements: Ensure controls on development are in place, restore native vegetation, control weed and animal pests to low levels, monitor recovery of dunelands and key indicator species.

Methods: Consult with neighbouring farmers whose farms depend on the stability of the dune areas. Work with the WDC to achieve recognition of values and better protection from development. Application of fertiliser to existing plants to encourage growth. Continue nursery approach and planting regimes with genetic sourcing appropriate for area, and identify opportunities for further expansion. Control invasive weeds e.g. Smilax, and control predators and browsers by best

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current practise and work with the public and neighbouring landowners to minimise impacts on plantings and threatened shorebirds.

Monitoring: Establishment and growth of plantings, overall habitat health, plant pest levels, productivity of shorebirds.

Other benefits: Protection of farm land and habitat behind dunes from flooding and erosion, restoration models for other areas, reduced weed and predator invasion of other habitats, e.g. Bream Head and offshore islands.

Objective 7: The freshwater ecosystems of Whangarei Heads sustain greater life Explanation: The streams and other wetlands of Whangarei Heads are modified to varying

degrees, but many offer excellent opportunities for restoring water quality and quantity and freshwater life.

Requirements: Determine existing values, threats and opportunities of key streams etc and consult with owners and iwi to determine viability of restoration, then develop appropriate plans for restoration.

Methods: Survey wetlands and their biota; plan specific restoration objectives e.g. protect or restore buffers by appropriate planting and provide for fish passage.

Monitoring: Monitor restoration outcome, e.g. vegetation, fish, bird responses. Other benefits: Improved water quality and quantity. Improved riparian corridors for terrestrial

species.

Objective 8: Island ecosystems abound with birds, lizards and rare plants Explanation: Currently, most local islands are accessed by plant and animal pests which

drastically alter indigenous biota, e.g. seabirds and lizards suffer heavily through rats and other predators gaining access and plant communities are modified by weeds and rabbits. Eradication of key pests and subsequent surveillance would result in many of these islands becoming important sites for biodiversity.

Requirements: Eradication of pests and appropriate buffering and contingencies put in place to intercept re-invading animals.

Methods: With island owners, develop appropriate plans to survey plant and animal pests present; plan and implement key eradications using appropriate techniques, e.g. anticoagulant rat poison or trapping, weed specific control measures; maintain methods of pest detection and elimination e.g., regular weed surveillance, rat poison in tinfoil and buffering control of e.g. rats, predators and weeds on the mainland.

Monitoring: Monitor weeds and animal pests; monitor indigenous biota and their productivity and/or survival, e.g. numbers of juvenile terns and herons. Monitor for ripple effects, e.g. increases in pest snails after rodent removal, mouse survival and increase after rat removal.

Other benefits: More “kahawai birds” (white-fronted terns) as indicators for fishermen.

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7. INTEGRATED RESTORATION INITIATIVES

Although groups working by themselves can achieve good objectives locally, they can be that much more effective if they work collaboratively with other groups and relevant agencies to ensure their efforts are effective across all of Whangarei Heads. An example would be the recovery of kiwi. If kiwi are protected from predators in only one or two parts of Whangarei Heads, all other kiwi (including dispersing juveniles) will be killed by predators. Spreading the predator-control net more widely will ensure that kiwi and other species recover throughout the area. Another example is weed control for forest recovery, which will be more effective on a wider scale.

It is fortunate that we are able to note evidence of a strong environmental awareness within the wider community, and that the major agencies with responsibilities in this area (Department of Conservation, Whangarei District Council, and Northland Regional Council) welcome community participation on planning and management.

For restoration activities in the Whangarei Heads area to proceed effectively, it is vital that there be regular and meaningful communication between the community and these agencies.

There is a need for co-ordinated planning and implementation of specific tasks. The establishment of the Whangarei Heads Landcare Forum, and the support of the NZ Landcare Trust should go some way to facilitate this co-ordination.

Input from members of each landcare group and the wider community is required to formulate an action plan based around the restoration objectives proposed in Section 6. Priorities must be established that reflect the interests and aims of the community.

Once these priorities are established, and within the ‘umbrella’ of the Landcare Forum, it would be ideal if a local “co-ordinator” or “facilitator” was responsible for each of the restoration objectives. For example, a co-ordinator for kiwi recovery at Whangarei Heads would be responsible for developing an overall work plan in conjunction with the Whangarei Heads Landcare Forum, iwi and outside specialists (particularly from DoC), applying for funding, implementing management and monitoring, and reporting on outcomes as required by the funding body, all on behalf of the Forum. An example of such a work plan is given in Appendix 6.

The waters off Whangarei Heads support a wide variety of sea birds, some of which could recolonise at managed sites on the mainland.

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Whangarei Heads is a remarkable area. Despite the impacts of human activities over centuries much biodiversity remains. A vision of the future of the Heads is rapidly evolving in which natural features will be maintained and enhanced. Great progress has been made to date. It is now important to maintain the momentum, and move on.

Successful restoration of the Whangarei Heads area requires meaningful communication between groups.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank members of the Whangarei Heads Landcare Forum who requested a document of this nature in the first place, and for their ongoing input into its production; Peter Harding and Karel and Robin Lieffering, who assisted particularly with planning for the document; Wendy Holland and Willie Shaw (Wildland Consultants Ltd) for technical editing; Barbara Carr for helping to make the words flow; Donna Russell for making our words so attractive; Waimarie Bruce of Ngati Kahu and Mitai Kawiti of Waiariki for sharing their extensive knowledge and history of the area; staff of Department of Conservation, Ngati Wai Trust Board, Northland Regional Council, Whangarei District Council and Fred Brook for specialist comments and other assistance, including mapping (DoC and NRC) and provision of photographs for the document (DoC, WDC, Donna Russell); Pacific Development and Conservation Trust and Transpower Landcare Trust Grants Fund for funding this project; and Whangarei District Council for covering printing costs.

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REFERENCES

Anon 2000: National Surveillance pest plants. Published by Northland, East Coast,

Wellington and Southland Regional Councils.

Bream Head (Te Whara) Scenic Reserve Operational Plan 2001-2005: Department of Conservation, Whangarei.

Brook F. 1996: Ecological Districts of Northland. Unpublished report. Department of Conservation, Whangarei.

Clapperton K. 2001: Advances in New Zealand mammalogy: feral ferret. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 31: 185-203.

Clunie N.M.U. 1993: The Whangarei Area of Central Northland Scenic Reserves, Biological Survey of Reserves Series, Department of Conservation, Wellington.

Cowan P.E. 2001: Advances in New Zealand mammalogy 1990-2000: Brush-tail possum. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 31: 15-29.

Department of Conservation 1998: Restoring the dawn chorus. Department of Conservation strategic plan, Wellington.

Department of Conservation 1999: Conservation Management Strategy for Northland 1999-2009. Department of Conservation, Whangarei.

Department of Conservation (undated): Sites of Special Biological Significance (SSBI) Database, Department of Conservation, Whangarei.

Department of Conservation 2001: Bream Head (Te Whara) Scenic Reserve Operational Plan 2001-2005: Department of Conservation, Whangarei.

Gartner D.; G.W. Coulter (in press): Partnerships in lake management: The Taupo Experiment. Journal Lakes and Reservoirs: Research and Management. Blackwell.

Gartner D. and G.W. Coulter (in press): Partnerships in lake management: The Taupo experiment. World Lakes Congress, Japan, November 2001.

Gill B.; Whitaker T. 1996: New Zealand frogs and reptiles. Auckland, David Bateman.

Gillies C. 2001: Advances in New Zealand mammalogy: house cat. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 31: 205-218.

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Griffiths J. in prep: Distribution and abundance of Latrodectus atritus Urquhart 1889

(Aranaea: Therididae) in northern New Zealand. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

Hayward B.W.; Black P.M.; Smith I.E.M.; Balance P.F. 2001: K-Ar ages of early Miocene arc-type volcanoes in Northern New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 44: 285-311.

Heather B.D.; Robertson H.A. 2000: The field guide to the birds of New Zealand, revised edition. Auckland, Viking.

Innes J. 2001: Advances in New Zealand mammalogy 1990-2000: European rats Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 31: 111-125.

Isaac M.J.; Herzer R.H.; Brook F.J.; Hayward B.W. 1994: Cretaceous and Cenozoic sedimentary basins of Northland, New Zealand. Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences Monograph 8, Lower Hutt, New Zealand.

King C.M. 1990: The Handbook of New Zealand Mammals. Auckland, New Zealand, Oxford University Press. 600 p.

King C.M.; Griffiths K.; Murphy E.C. 2001: Advances in New Zealand mammalogy 1990-2000. Stoat and weasel. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 31: 165-183.

McIlroy J.C. 2001: Advances in New Zealand mammalogy 1990-2000: feral pig. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 31: 225-231.

McManaway D.1983: Whangarei Heads: 125 years. Whangarei, Kamo Print.

Miller P.J.; Pierce R.J. 1995. Distribution and decline of North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli) in Northland. Notornis 42: 201-211.

Ministerial Advisory Committee 2000: Ministerial Advisory Committee on biodiversity and private land. Final report. Ministry for the Environment, Wellington.

Moss K.; Sanders M. 2001: Advances in New Zealand mammalogy 1990-2000: hedgehog. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 31: 31-42.

New Zealand Geological Society: The New Zealand Geopreservation Inventory of the Joint Earth Sciences Societies.

Northland Regional Council 1998: Pest Management Strategies. Northland Regional Council, Whangarei.

Norton D.A.; Miller C.J. 2000: Some issues and options for the conservation of native biodiversity in rural New Zealand. Ecological Management and Restoration 1: 26-34.

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Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment 2001: Managing change in paradise:

Sustainable development in peri-urban areas. Commission for the Environment, Wellington.

Parkes J. 2001: Advances in New Zealand mammalogy 1990-2000: feral livestock. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 31: 233-241.

Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment 2001a: Weaving resilience into our working lands: Future roles for native plants on private land. Parliamentary Commission for the Environment, Wellington, June 2001.

Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment 2001b: Managing Change in Paradise: Sustainable Development in Peri-urban Areas. Parliamentary Commission for the Environment, Wellington, June 2001.

Pierce R.J.; Atkinson R.; Smith E. 1993: Changes in bird numbers in six Northland forests 1979-1993. Notornis 40: 285-293.

Pierce R.J.; Sporle W. 1997. Causes of kiwi mortality in Northland: Conservation Advisory Science Notes No. 169. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

Pierce R.J.; Westbrooke I.M. in press. Call count responses of North Island brown kiwi to different levels of management in Northland, New Zealand. Biological Conservation.

Reed A.H. 1956: The story of Northland. Auckland, Reed.

Ruscoe W.A. 2001: Advances in New Zealand mammalogy: house mouse. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 31: 127-134.

Saunders A. 2000: A review of Department of Conservation mainland restoration projects and recommendations for further action. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

Tisdall C. 1994: Setting priorities for the conservation of New Zealand’s threatened plants and animals. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

Turbott E.G. 1990: Checklist of the birds of New Zealand and Ross Dependency, Antarctica. Auckland, Random Century.

Whangarei District Council 2001: Open spaces - special places: Open space strategy report. Whangarei District Council, Whangarei.

Whangarei Heads Newsletter (September 2001): Newsletter of the Whangarei Heads Citizens’ Association Inc.

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APPENDIX 1

THE MANAGEMENT OF OUR ENVIRONMENT AT WHANGAREI HEADS

By Dr George Coulter (an ecologist experienced in ecosystem management)

This appendix seeks to encourage people to consider our environment within three contexts:

The natural environment

The human environment

The planning environment

1. The Natural Environment

Whangarei Heads is a remarkable area, with spectacular landscape of distinctive character, great variety of natural habitats and unusual biological richness. Despite the impacts of human activities in the past, much original biodiversity still remains in the reserves and on private land.

These natural assets go along with a high potential to restore biodiversity. Being a peninsula, the Heads has the advantage of a large measure of ecological isolation, which makes conservation more feasible and cost-effective (eg. the control of predators and weeds; reintroduction of threatened species). We are lucky to have such a jewel to conserve, and lucky that the physical features of the area help to make it possible.

However, we need to move beyond the notion of prioritised reserves and begin to look across the landscape at the variety of habitats (and land uses) represented. This means envisaging the reserves and public and private lands (and sea) in our area as an ecological system. It follows that to make the most of the protected parts, they should be connected wherever possible by ‘corridors’ that will enable wildlife to move between them. Extending natural habitats in this way has many advantages in enabling higher overall biodiversity and development of the populations of different wild species.

Obviously, the restoration of natural conditions around the Heads is likely to be uneven. Partly this is due to habitat unevenness and partly also to factors of isolation or proneness to disturbance from human activities. So we may expect gradients in wildlife abundance. The reserve of ‘mainland island’ status at Bream Head should represent a relatively rich area, especially when restoration plans come fully into effect, but there is no reason why the Manaia or Kauri Mountain reserves should not sustain high biodiversity too, and even the smaller reserves.

But we need to recognise that conserving the bit of bush nearby has limitations however well we may do it. A merely neighbourhood approach is not as effective as a wider one. Though people tend to be best motivated to work voluntarily together

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when concerned with their own “back yard”, the action of group efforts will be more effective if done in an awareness of neighbouring efforts, and if possible cooperatively. For example, predator control becomes more difficult in a locality next to one where possums, stoats and rats are relatively uncontrolled. Similarly, the progeny of kiwi released in a suitable environment may disperse to unmanaged areas where predators are numerous and be killed off.

Within the Heads, areas of high biodiversity and any wildlife ‘corridors’ between them, will need regimes of careful management balancing ecological requirements with other uses – be they productive, recreational, or social.

2. The Human Environment

In general, what do we mean by “conservation”? The word covers a wide range of approaches at different places. In some of them, ecological considerations are predominant involving complete protection from human influences – for example, in the Poor Knights or Hen & Chickens Islands. On the other hand, we have lived-in places, where all kinds of activities go on but at the same time natural resources are protected. Take, for example, one of NZ’s tourist hotspots - Lake Taupo. The lake is intimately connected with human activities and land exploitation which affect its quality, so great care has to be taken to keep the water clear and attractive. Natural values as well as economic gain depend on careful management. In this case, management methods are being developed largely from a social perspective, setting goals on the basis of community values (Gartner & Coulter; in press).

Most conservation approaches involve some balance between ecological considerations and human use. At the Whangarei Heads, both aspects must shape any realistic plan. This being a lived-in area, management with a social perspective is vital. Social issues themselves are far from simple, but must somehow be reconciled with environmental values. The pressures of accelerating human activity are additional to the threats posed by animal pests and invasive weeds. Nowhere is remote any longer. The very values which make an area a special one, are often those which attract pressure for subdivision and development - that potentially cause decline or loss of those values. Additionally, there are pressures from the booming tourist industry.

In a recent paper on six case-studies of places in New Zealand with high natural and scenic character which are undergoing very heavy impacts from development, three are close to Auckland; - Waitakere Ranges, Waiheke Island and North Beach/Okura (Commission for the Environment, 2001). It is not hard to predict that similarly outstanding areas just a little further from Auckland, are next in line: The more outstanding an area, the more intense the pressure on it becomes.

Experience worldwide indicates that in an actively changing society ‘conservation for conservation’s sake’ doesn’t work. Relying on people to become involved in the conservation of nature simply for its intrinsic value is generally not sufficient motivation to ensure satisfactory outcomes. Incentives for involvement in conservation must often include developing the potential for residents to benefit

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materially; for example, from the recreation industry or eco-tourism. Internationally, it has been found that ecotourism and recreation can be good partners for conservation.

3. The Planning Environment

Planning

In considering ecological and conservation opportunities for the Whangarei Heads, we must take into account the present ‘planning environment’. The future for natural restoration here is dependent on right planning decisions, and therefore is quite fragile.

The best intentions and actions of the wider community are of no value without a supportive framework of good district and regional plans. These control what activities may be carried out on the land and coastal water. If activities are inappropriate, they can impact negatively on conservation. To secure windows of time and opportunity necessary to carry out long-term nature restoration, there needs to be adequate provision written into planning documents.

But planning is not enough by itself. However excellent the programmes of the agencies responsible for reserves and restoration (DoC, District and Regional Councils), it is a fact they are underfunded to meet the mounting pace of change and the needs of an area under development pressure. Most important is that the Heads community, should be able secure its own vision of the direction it wants to go in the next 10 years. Otherwise, it is likely local preferences will be overwhelmed by economic forces driven from outside the District. The current District-wide Coastal Structure Planning exercise should result in changes to the District Plan that reflect the voice of the community.

Fortunately, there is growing interest in the principle of community-based strategic planning for sustainable development. Indeed, Councils and others responsible for setting policy and developing rules for protection of biodiversity are increasingly acknowledging a need to engage the community in ‘participatory consultation’.

These expressions are in line with the current trend of policy at all levels of government to encourage the concept of community participation (“bottom up approach”). The old method of confusing consultation with persuasion (“marketing”) is no longer sufficient. Councils are acknowledging that they need to access new solutions – the current ‘tool box’ of solutions needs to be expanded. And that expansion requires the input of the community. The bottom-up approach is gaining increasing acceptance.

Development of a Community Vision

In the case-studies of special environments under heavy development pressures, mentioned above, it has been observed (Comm. Env. 2001, p52) :

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“where the existing community is able to give expression to what it values, the processes that are important to it, and how it would like to see the area develop in the future, there has been some success in managing change and promoting sustainable development”

A vision for the environment for at least the next 10 - 20 years is necessary to provide continuity. Continuity of policy is essential in order to deal with the many short-term expedients which arise, as well as the opportunism of special-interest groups. Such actions tend to have cumulative effects that prevent long-term plans from being realised. In particular, continuity helps to solve the major issue of inevitable change in land use, so that it occurs without loss of the natural character and ‘sense of place’ valued by the community.

Not surprisingly, it has been found that not all communities are capable of formulating a fully agreed vision. To allow opinion to develop properly there needs in the first place to be regular communication - between citizens, officials and specialists. Furthermore, if communities are really to participate directly in a genuine partnership, then mechanisms must be created so that individuals can see themselves as able to contribute. It should be recognised that we may not need consensus on every issue (unlikely in any case) for progress to be made.

It is strongly suggested that the future of the Heads depends largely on community motivation and effort.

The community has shown its commitment to the area by supporting the establishment of six Landcare groups within the past three years. Further, it has been the chief objective of the Manaia Vision Project founded during 2001, to formulate a community viewpoint, with the realisation of course that development of this is an ongoing process. Results of enquiries indicate that a great majority of the Heads community is concerned for natural values and supports the landcare ethic. The challenge now is to maintain this commitment and sustain enthusiasm and continue to make real conservation achievements.

Independent local community effort happens naturally - this indeed appears how the six Whangarei Heads Landcare groups developed. They have many objectives and activities in common. Likewise, management goals are probably similar in the reserves of the Heads run by statutory agencies, but it is not clear to what extent their activities are coordinated or where there is scope for the public to participate. Only recently, has there been much attempt to try and see conservation in the Heads as an integrated picture.

This document is one outcome. Management of our natural environment obviously needs a collaborative approach. It should combine social as well as ecological perspectives. Especially, it should be driven by the community and implemented in cooperation with the established agencies.

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APPENDIX 2

BIRDS OF WHANGAREI HEADS

Nomenclature follows Heather and Robertson (2000).

* = introduced. Common name Scientific Name Maori name Overall status

North Island kiwi Apteryx mantelli kiwi Less than 100 birds in forest of Bream Head, Taurikura, Manaia, The Nook and Kauri Mtn

Flesh-footed shearwater

Puffinus carneipes Common offshore; breeds at Hen and Chickens

Fluttering shearwater

Puffinus gavia pakaha Common offshore; breeds at Bream Islands and Chickens

Buller’s shearwater

Puffinus bulleri Common offshore; breeds only at Poor Knights

NI little shearwater

Puffinus assimilis haurakiensis

Uncommon offshore; breeds at hen and Chickens

Southern diving petrel

Pelecanoides urinatrix

kuaka Common offshore; breeds at Bream Islands, Hen and Chickens and Poor Knights

Fairy prion Pachyptila turtur titi-wainui Common offshore; breeds at Poor Knights

Pycroft’s petrel Pterodroma pycrofti

Rare offshore; breeds at Hen and Chickens

Grey-faced petrel Pterodroma macroptera

oi Common offshore; breeds at Hen and Chickens

White-faced storm petrel

Pelagadroma marina

takahikare-moana

Common offshore; breeds at Poor Knights

Blue penguin Eudyptula minor karora Uncommon resident; breeds in crevices and caves along rocky coastline and islands

Australasian gannet

Morus serrator takapu Common offshore; breeds at Sugarloaf and Pinnacles

Black shag Phalacrocorax carbo

kawau Uncommon visitor

Pied shag Phalacrocorax varius

karuhiruhi Common resident; breeds in coastal tall trees and mangroves

Little black shag Phalacrocorax sulcirostris

Common resident

Little shag Phalacrocorax melanoleucos

kawaupaka Common resident

White-faced heron

Ardea novaehollandiae

Common resident

Reef heron Egretta sacra matuku moana

Rare resident; breeds in caves of coastline and islands

Australasian bittern

Botaurus poiciloptilus

matuka Rare resident or visitor to wetlands of the Pataua – Taiharuru area

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Common name Scientific Name Maori name Overall status

Black swan* Cygnus atratus Uncommon visitor

Paradise shelduck

Tadorna variegata putangitangi Common resident

Mallard* Anas platyrhynchos

Common resident

Grey duck Anas superciliosa parera Rare resident

Australasian harrier

Circus approximans

kahu Common resident

Brown quail* Synoicus ypsilophorus

Uncommon resident

California quail* Callipepla californica

Common resident

Pheasant* Phasianus colchicus

Common resident

Banded rail Rallus philippensis Moho-pereru Resident in mangroves

Spotless crake Porzana tabuensis puweto Resident in freshwater wetlands

Pukeko Porphyrio porphyrio

pukeko Common resident

South Island pied oystercatcher

Haematopus ostralegus

torea Common visitor to harbour and estuaries

Variable oystercatcher

Haematopus unicolor

torea Uncommon resident; attempts to breed on Ocean Beach and Smuggler’s Bay

Spur-winged plover

Vanellus miles Common resident

Northern New Zealand dotterel

Charadrius obscurus aquilonius

tuturiwhatu Rare resident; attempts to breed on Ocean Beach

Banded dotterel Charadrius bicinctus

tuturiwhatu Visitor to estuaries during late summer to winter

Pied stilt Himantopus himantopus

poaka Uncommon resident; breeds in flooded pasture

Bar-tailed godwit Limosa lapponica kuaka Seasonal (mainly summer) visitor to estuaries

Arctic skua Stercorarius parasiticus

Uncommon summer-autumn visitor

Southern black-backed gull

Larus dominicanus

karoro Common resident

Red-billed gull Larus novaehollandiae

tarapunga Common resident; breeds on coastal islands, e.g. the Frenchman

Caspian tern Sterna caspia taranui Uncommon resident; breeds in upper Whangarei Harbour

White-fronted tern

Sterna striata tara Common resident; breeds on islands e.g. the Frenchman

New Zealand pigeon

Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae

kukupa Uncommon resident; increasing at Bream Head

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Rock pigeon* Columba livia Uncommon visitor

Barbary dove* Streptopelia rsoeogrisea

Locally common in Urquhart Bay and Taurikura

NI kaka Nestor meridionalis septentrionalis

kaka Uncommon but increasing visitor (possibly resident) to Manaia and especially Bream Head

Red-crowned parakeet

Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae

kakariki Uncommon visitor to Bream Head and Manaia

Eastern rosella* Platycercus eximius

Uncommon resident

Shining cuckoo Chrysococcyx lucidus

pipiwharauroa

Common spring-summer visitor; parasitises grey warbler nests

Long-tailed cuckoo

Eudynamis taitensis

koekoea Uncommon visitor, usually in late summer during northern migration; parasitises whitehead nests

Morepork Ninox novaseelandiae

ruru Common resident

New Zealand Kingfisher

Halcyon sancta kotare Common resident

Skylark* Alauda arvensis Common resident

Welcome swallow

Hirundo tahitica Common resident

New Zealand pipit

Anthus novaeseelandiae

pihoihoi Common resident

Dunnock* Prunella modularis Common breeding resident

NI fernbird Bowdleria punctata vealeae

matata Uncommon resident in wetlands and shrublands

Grey warbler Gerygone igata riroriro Common resident

Fantail Rhipidura fuliginosa

Common resident

NI tomtit (pied tit) Petroica macrocephala toitoi

miromiro Uncommon resident at Bream Head and Kauri Mountain; recent colonist

Song thrush* Turdus philomelos Common resident

Blackbird* Turdus merula Common resident

Silvereye Zosterops lateralis tahou Common breeding resident

Bellbird Anthornis melanura

korimako Uncommon visitor from islands, probably Hen and Chickens

Tui Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae

tui Common resident

Yellowhammer* Emberiza citrinella Common resident

Chaffinch* Fringilla coelebs Common resident

Greenfinch* Carduelis chloris Common resident

Goldfinch* Carduelis carduelis

Common resident

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Redpoll* Carduelis flammea Uncommon autumn and winter visitor

House sparrow* Passer domesticus

Common resident

Starling* Sturnus vulgaris Common resident

Indian myna* Acridotheres tristis Common resident

White-backed magpie*

Gymnorhina tibicen hypoleuca

Common resident

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APPENDIX 3

BATS, REPTILES, AMPHIBIANS, FRESHWATER FISH AND KEY INVERTEBRATES OF WHANGAREI HEADS

* = introduced

Common name Scientific Name Maori name Overall status Long-tailed bat Chalinolobus

tuberculatus pekapeka Forested areas with mature trees; 1990s

sightings at Peach Cove Shore skink Oligosoma smithi Coastal habitats, including Ocean Beach Ornate skink Cyclodina ornata Forested areas McGregor’s skink Cyclodina

mcgregori Bream Islands Nature Reserve

Green gecko Naultinus e. elegans

Shrubland

Pacific gecko Hoplodactylus pacificus

Coastal habitats including the Bream Islands

Common gecko H maculatus Coastal and forest habitats Forest gecko H granulatus Forest habitats Golden bell frog* Littoria aurea Coastal wetlands Long-finned eel Anguilla

dieffenbachia tuna Streams and ponds

Short-finned eel A australis tuna Streams and ponds Banded kokopu Galaxias

fasciatus inanga Forested streams and pools

Common bully Gobiomorphus cotidianus

Streams and ponds

Giant bully G gobioides Coastal forested streams Mosquitofish* Gambusia affinis Streams, ponds Freshwater crayfish

Paranephrops planifrons

koura Streams

Flax snail Placostylus hongii

pupuharakeke Peach Cove

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APPENDIX 4

INTRODUCED MAMMALS OF WHANGAREI HEADS

Common name

Scientific name Status and impact

Brushtail possum

Trichosurus vulpecula Common in forest, shrubland and pasture. High impact on many tree species and some birds e.g. NZ pigeon

Hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus Common in open country and open forest. High impact on nesting shorebirds and suspected impact on invertebrates

Brown hare Lepus europaeus Common in open country and forest edges. Impact on plants likely but poorly known

Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus Common in open country and forest edges. Impact on some plant species

Ship rat Rattus rattus Very common in forest and shrubland. Impact on birds’ eggs and young, lizards and invertebrates e.g. Placostylus. A good tree climber.

Norway rat Rattus norvegicus Common in wetlands, seashores and around buildings. Impact on shorebird’s eggs, lizards and invertebrates.

House mouse Mus musculus Very common throughout. Impacts on invertebrates and plants likely but unknown.

Dog Canis familiaris Unsupervised and stray dogs kill kiwi and damage or prey on shorebird eggs and chicks.

Ferret Mustela furo Uncommon in area but present in forest and open country (two trapped over 12 months at Bream Head, P Graham pers. comm.). Kill kiwi and other birds.

Stoat Mustela erminea Common throughout the area. Kill kiwi chicks and other birds including threatened shorebirds.

Weasel Mustela nivalis Moderately common throughout the area. The smallest of the introduced mustelids, they kill birds, their eggs and young, and lizards and insects.

House cat Felis catus Moderately common throughout the area. Kill kiwi and other threatened birds including shorebirds.

Feral pig Sus scrofa Present in Manaia and Kauri Mountain. Damage to forest floor and regeneration often extensive, and can kill kiwi.

Feral goat Capra hircus Present on Manaia and Kauri Mountain. Extensive damage to shrubs.

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APPENDIX 5

PLANTS OF WHANGAREI HEADS (From Clunie 1993, DoC SSBI database and Pierce et al. 2001)

GYMNOSPERMS

Species name Common name Habitat and locations Agathis australis kauri Forest throughout Dacrydium cuppressinum rimu Forest throughout Dacrycarpus dacrydioides kahikatea Forest throughout Phyllocladus trichomanoides tanekaha Forest throughout Podocarpus hallii Hall’s totara Forest P. totara totara Throughout Prumnopitys ferruginea miro Forest throughout P. taxifolia matai Forest

ANGIOSPERMS

Trees, shrubs and trailing plants

Species name Common name Habitat and locations Alectryon excelsus titoki Forest Alseuosmia banksii Kauri Mountain forest Alseuosmia macrophylla Bream Head, Manaia A. x quercifolia Forest Beilschmiedia tarairi taraire Forest throughout B. tawa tawa Forest throughout B. tawa x tarairi tawaroa Forest Brachyglottis kirkii Kauri Mountain B. repanda rangiora Forest throughout Calystegia soldanella Shore bindweed Bream Head C. tuguriorum Bream Head C. marginata Mt Aubrey Carmichaelia aligera Broom Kauri Mtn Carmichaelia australis Broom Bream Head Carpodetus serratus putaputaweta Throughout Clematis cunninghamii Bream Head C. foetida Bream Head C. paniculata Clematis Throughout Coprosma arborea mamangi Throughout C. areolata Throughout C. grandifolia kanono Throughout C. lucida Shining karamu Throughout C. macrocarpa Throughout C. repens taupata Throughout C. propinqua Coastal C. rhamnoides Throughout C. rigida Bream Head C. robusta karamu Throughout C. spathulata Throughout Coriaria arborea tutu Throughout Corokia buddleioides korokia Bream Head

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Species name Common name Habitat and locations Corynocarpus laevigatus karaka Throughout Cyathodes juniperina agg. mingimingi Throughout Dracophyllum latifolium neinei Bream Head Dysoxylum spectabile kohekohe Throughout Elaeocarpus dentatus hinau Bream Head Entelea arborescens whau Bream Head Fuchsia excorticata Fuchsia, kotukutuku Bream Head F. procumbens Prostrate fuchsia Bream Head, Kauri Mtn Geniostoma rupestre hangehange Throughout Griselinia lucida puka Throughout Hebe bollonsii Bream Head H. macrocarpa Bream Head H. parviflora Bream Head H. salicifolia Throughout H. stricta Throughout H. “Whangarei” Manaia, Bream Head Hedycarya arborea Pigeonwood Throughout Helichrysum lanceolatum niniao Bream Head Hibiscus diversifolius Throughout H. aff. trionum Throughout Hoheria populnea houhere Throughout Knightia excelsa rewarewa Throughout Kunzea ericoides kanuka Throughout Laurelia novae-zelandiae pukatea Bream Head Leptospermum scoparium manuka Throughout Leucopogon fasciculatus mingimingi Throughout L. fraseri Bream Head Litsea calicaris mangeao Bream Head Lophomyrtus bullata ramarama Bream Head Macropiper excelsum kawakawa Throughout Melicope simplex Bream Head M. ternata wharangi Throughout Melicytus macrophyllus Large-leaved mahoe Bream Head, Manaia M. micranthus Small-leaved mahoe Throughout M. ramiflorus mahoe Throughout Metrosideros carminea Carmine rata Manaia M. diffusa Throughout M. excelsa pohutukawa Throughout M. fulgens Throughout M. perforata Throughout M. robusta Northern rata Throughout Mida salicifolia Willow-leaved maire Throughout Meuhlenbeckia complexa pohuehue Coastal Myoporum laetum ngaio Coastal Myrsine australis mapou Throughout M. salicina toro Bream Head Nestegis apetala Coastal maire Bream Head N. cunninghamii Black maire Throughout N. lanceolata Narrow-leaved maire Throughout Olearia albida Kauri Mtn O. furfuracea Throughout O. rani heketara Throughout Parsonsia capsularis Native jasmine Bream Head P. heterophylla Native jasmine Throughout Phebalium nudum mairehau Bream Head Pimelea arenaria Sand daphne Coastal

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Species name Common name Habitat and locations P. prostrata Bream Head P. tomentosa Bream Head Pisonia brunoniana parapara Bream Head Pittosporum crassifolium karo Coastal P. ellipticum Bream Head P. eugenioides Lemonwood, tarata Throughout P tenuifolium kohuhu Throughout P. umbellatum Bream Head P. virgatum Bream Head Pouteria costata tawapou Bream Head Pomaderris phylicaefolia Throughout Pseudopanax arboreus Five-finger Throughout P. crassifolius Lancewood Throughout P. lessonii houpara Throughout P. crassifolius x lessoni Bream Head Pseudowintera axillaris Throughout Quintinia serrata tawherowhero Bream Head Rhabdothamnus solandri taurepo Throughout Rubus australis Bush lawyer Throughout R. cissoides Bush lawyer Throughout R. squarrosus Bush lawyer Bream Head R. schmidelioides Bush lawyer Kauri Mtn Schefflera digitata pate Throughout Sophora microphylla kowhai Throughout S. tetraptera kowhai Throughout Streblus banksii Large-leaved milk tree Bream Head S. heterophyllus Small-leaved milk tree Throughout Toronia toru toru Throughout Urtica ferox ongaonga Bream Head

DICOTYLEDONOUS HERBS

Species name Common name Habitat and locations Apium prostratum Native celery Celmisia adamsii var. rugulosa Native daisy Bream Head, Manaia, Kauri

Mtn Centella uniflora Dichondra repens Mercury Bay weed Disphyma australe New Zealand iceplant Euphorbia glauca shore spurge Geranium homeanum Euchiton audax E. delicatum E. gymnocephalum Gonocarpus incanus Haloragis erecta Hydrocotyle elongata H. novae-zeelandiae Lepidium oleraceum Cook' scurvy grass, nau Linum monogynum Lobelia anceps Shore Lobelia Nertera setulosa Oxalis exilis Peperomia urvilleana wharanui Ranunculus reflexus

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Species name Common name Habitat and locations Rorippa divaricata Coastal cress Samolus repens Sea primrose Sarcocornia quinqueflora Glasswort Scandia rosaefolia Native angelica Senecio minimus S. scaberulus Sicyos australi mawhai Sonchus kirkii puwha Stellaria decipiens Wahlenbergia gracilis

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS TREES, SHRUBS, AND TRAILING PLANTS.

Species name Common name Habitat and locations Cordyline australis Cabbage tree, ti kouka C. banksii Forest cabbage tree Freycinetia baueriana kiekie Rhopalostylus sapida nikau Ripogonum scandens Supplejack

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS HERBS, ORCHIDS, AND GRASSES

Species name Common name Habitat and locations Acianthus sinclairii Arthropodium cirratum renga lily Astelia banksii A. solandri A. trinervia Kauri grass Austrofestuca littoralis Sand tussock Baumea juncea Baumea tenax Bulbophyllum pygmaeum Carex flagellifera C. lambertiana C. ochrosaccus C. cf. raoulii C. spinirostris C. virgata Collospermum hastatum Perching lily Cortaderia splendens toetoe Cyperus ustulatus Giant umbrella sedge Dianella nigra NZ blueberry, turutu Drymoanthus adversus Earina mucronata peka-a-waka Echinopogon ovatus hare's tail grass Eleocharis acuta Gahnia lacera G. pauciflora G. setifolia Isachne globosa Swamp millet Isolepis cernua I. nodosa Juncus australis J. gregiflorus J. usitatus Lachnogrostin billardierei

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Species name Common name Habitat and locations Lepidosperma laterale Sword sedge Libertia grandiflora New Zealand iris Microlaena avenacea Bush rice grass M. polynoda M. stipoides Morelotia affinis Oplismenus imbecillis Phormium tenax harakeke, flax Poa anceps Rytidosperma gracile Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani Lake clubrush Schoenus brevifolius S. maschalinus S. tendo Thelymitra longifolia Typha orientalis raupo Uncinia banksii U. uncinata Hook sedge U. zotovii Hook sedge Winika cunninghamii

NATIVE FERNS AND FERN ALLIES

Species name Common name Habitat and locations Adiantum aethiopicum Maidenhair fern A. cunninghamii Common maidenhair fern A. diaphanum A. fulvum Black maidenhair fern A. hispidulum Rosy maidenhair fern Anarthopteris lanceolata Lance fern Asplenium bulbiferum Hen and chickens fern A. flaccidum Hanging spleenwort A. lamprophyllum A. oblongifolium Shining spleenwort A. polyodon Sickle spleenwort Blechnum novae-zelandiae kiokio B. chambersii nini B. filiforme Thread fern B. fraseri Hard fern B. membranaceum Cheilanthes distans Ctenopteris heterophylla Cyathea dealbata ponga C. medullaris mamaku Dicksonia squarrosa wheki Doodia australis Rasp fern Histipoteris incisa Water fern Hymenophyllum demissum Filmy fern H. dilatatum Filmy fern H. flexuosum Filmy fern H. rarum Filmy fern H. revolutum Filmy fern H. sanguinolentum Filmy fern Lastreopsis hispida Hairy fern l. microsora L. velutina Velvet fern

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Species name Common name Habitat and locations Leptopteris hymenophylloides Lindsaea linearis Lycopodium deuterodensum Lygodium articulatum mangemange Pellaea rotundifolia Button fern Microsorum pustulatum Hounds-tongue fern Pneumatopteris pennigera Gully fern Polystichum richardii Common shield fern Pteridium esculentum Bracken Pteris comans Coastal brake P. tremula Shaking brake Pyrrosia eleagnifolia Leather-leaf fern Tmesipteris sigmatifolia Trichomanes endlicherianum T. reniforme Kidney fern

E. EXOTIC SEED-BEARING PLANTS Dicotyledonous trees shrubs and trailing plants (incomplete list).

Species name Common name Habitat and locations Solanum linnaeanum Ulex europaeus Gorse

DICOTYLEDONOUS HERBS

Species name Common name Habitat and locations Acaena novae-zealandiae Ageratina adenophora Mexican devil A. riparia Mistflower Anagallis arvensis Scarlet pimpernel Araujia sericifera Mothplant Atriplex sp. Carduus tenuiflorus Winged thistle Cirsium vulgare Scotch thistle Conyza albida Fleabane Crepis capillaris Hawksbeard Erigeron karvinskianus Mexican daisy Euphorbia peplus Milkweed Galium aparine Cleavers Gamochaeta spicata Cudweed Lapsana communis Leontodon taraxacoides Linum bienne L. trigynum Lotus pedunculatus Lotus Patrentucellia viscosa Tarweed Plantago lanceolata Narrow-leaved plantain Polygonum sp. Prunella vulgaris Selfheal Ranunculus repens Creeping buttercup Rumex conglomeratus Dock Sagina procumbens Pear wort Senecio bipinnatisectus Fireweed S. diascides Sonchus oleraceus Sow thistle

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Species name Common name Habitat and locations Stellaria media Chickweed Taraxacum officinale Dandelion Trifolium repens White clover T. scabrum T, subterraneum Verbena bonariensis Purple-top

MONOCOTYLEDONS

Species name Common name Habitat and locations Agrostis capillaris Browntop Anthoxanthum odoratum Sweet vernal Axonopus odoratum Bromus mollis Carex divulsa C. longebrachiata Australian sedge Cortaderia selloana Pampas Cynodon dactylon Couch grass Cyperus brevifolius C. congestus Dactylis glomeratis Cocksfoot Deschampsia flexuosa Holcus lanatus Yorkshire fog Juncus bufonius Toadrush J. effusus Soft rush J. tenuis Trackrush Lolium perenne Perennial ryegrass Paspalum dilatatum Paspalum Pennisetum clandestinum Kikuyu Rytidosperma racemosusm Sporobolus africanus Ratstail Stenotaphrum secundatum Buffalo grass Vulpa bromoides

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APPENDIX 6

PREDATOR CONTROL FOR THE RECOVERY OF KIWI AND OTHER BIOTA AT WHANGAREI HEADS - A LANDCARE FORUM

WORK PLAN (DRAFT)

BACKGROUND

The recovery of kiwi at Whangarei Heads is a key objective of the Whangarei Heads Landcare Forum. This objective supports the current work of Department of Conservation at Bream Head (DoC 2001) and by the Papakarahi Landcare Group at The Nook. The Forum document identifies the need for more integrated predator control across the Heads to not only buffer the two existing management sites, but also achieve the recovery of this endangered species throughout forested parts of the areas. This document outlines a proposal to achieve that goal.

North Island brown kiwi are declining due primarily to predation by introduced mammalian predators. The key predators are stoats and cats which kill chicks, and dogs and ferrets which kill kiwi of all age classes. In areas where predator control and advocacy have been implemented there have been significant recoveries of kiwi in a short time (Pierce and Westbrooke in press).

KIWI DISTRIBUTION AT WHANGAREI HEADS

Kiwi are found in most forest and shrubland areas at Whangarei Heads. Call count surveys in June 2001 identified a total of more than 30 pairs of kiwi at Bream Head, Taurikura Ridge forested area, Manaia Ridge Scenic Reserve and adjacent forest areas, The Nook and Kauri Mountain Scenic Reserve and adjacent forested areas. Concentrations of kiwi were identified at Bream Head, the eastern side of Manaia Ridge, The Nook and the southern slopes of Kauri Mountain. Follow-up work suggests that the eastern and northern Kauri Mountain areas are also likely to support many birds. More complete surveys planned for May-June 2002 are likely to reveal additional birds.

STRATEGIC APPROACH

Two approaches to predator control are planned:

1. Control of small predators (mustelids and feral cats across Whangarei Heads)

2. Advocate for kiwi needs to be recognised by pet owners and council.

1. Control of small predators

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By trapping at key and representative sites across Whangarei Heads, it will be possible to greatly reduce the numbers of mustelids and cats in the entire area. It should be possible to eradicate ferrets (which have large home ranges of 2-5 km in length) from all but the reinvasion points to the north. Cats and especially stoats have smaller home ranges and are more common but difficult to control than are ferrets. Young stoats begin dispersing in late spring (November) and over the next few months have severe impacts on kiwi chicks. The best we can hope for in the medium term is to control cats and stoats to sufficiently low levels that their impacts on kiwi chicks is greatly diminished. Trapping will also serve to buffer Bream Head from significant reinvasion. Other biota, such as NZ pigeons and shorebirds, will also benefit from this trapping.

2. Pets

Pet dogs and to a lesser extent pet cats have a severe impact on kiwi throughout Northland. By advocating for pet owners to recognise kiwi needs and act responsibly, there should be less predation taking place. Options for zoning pet restrictions, as has occurred elsewhere in Northland, should also be explored.

METHODS

1. Predator control

Predator control will take the form of Fenn trapping for mustelids and multi-trapping techniques for cats – boxes, cages and Timms traps prevailing. Traps will be placed in key areas where landowners are supportive of predator control. They will be operated by designated members of the Forum with experience or training in trapping. Because of the wide-ranging behaviour of ferrets in particular, it is not a prerequisite for these traps to be operated actually in kiwi areas, but trapping is likely to be most effective in and around kiwi areas. It is anticipated that most trappers will operate primarily on their patch or neighbouring lands, but it would also be possible to roster trapping of larger parcels of land such as in the Manaia Ridge area. Key target areas initially are The Nook, Kauri Mountain, Manaia, Taurikura Ridge and the northern edges of Bream Head.

Sites used for trapping will be on likely hunting pathways, e.g. stream banks, beside culverts, bush edges, ridges, etc and particularly where several different features join, e.g. a driveway, stream and fence line. Results from current trapping at Bream Head by the Department of Conservation will be helpful in the selection of sites. Traps will be baited primarily with rabbit meat, particularly salted rabbit meat, replaced as necessary.

Training sessions and other briefings will be held regularly. There may also be opportunity to work in with field staff of the Department of Conservation to ensure good quality control is maintained. Details of all predators trapped will be entered on datasheets and specimens made available to Departmental staff where possible. Details recorded will be species, sex, age and weight if known and details of trap site (map reference, habitat type) and bait type.

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2. Advocacy

Public awareness of the plight of kiwi and their vulnerability to the household dog and cat will be raised through a sustained advocacy campaign. The essential messages will be for dogs and cats to be kept under control at all times in kiwi areas. These messages will be delivered through newsletters, letter drops, signage, and personal contact with landowners throughout the area. Other possibilities for better pet controls will also be explored through the community and District Council.

MONITORING

Records will be kept of predator sign and sightings, particularly in areas that are trapped. The outcome for kiwi will be monitored primarily by call count over the years – annual monitoring sites will be located at Bream Head, Taurikura Ridge, Manaia, The Nook, and Kauri Mountain. Kiwi telemetry will also be undertaken by the Department at Bream Head and at The Nook.

CO-ORDINATOR AND OPERATORS

An overall co-ordinator for kiwi recovery at Whangarei Heads will oversee activities and liaise with DoC and other kiwi recovery stakeholders. Currently the co-ordinator is Dr Ray Pierce. Operators will include members of individual landcare groups and private landowners and other volunteers.

HEALTH AND SAFETY

Operators will liaise directly with the kiwi co-ordinator. They will be trained in trapping procedures and receive regular refresher sessions with DoC trappers. Signs will depict trapping areas.

DATA AND REPORTING

Trap sites will be mapped by the co-ordinator and standard predator trapping forms will be completed by operators during each check of traps. A grid-based database of kiwi reports will be kept. Kiwi population trends will be determined by call-count monitoring which will take place in May-June each year. Baseline monitoring took place in 2001.

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BUDGET

Year 1

Fenn traps – 200 (100 sites) @ $20 4,000 Fenn trap covers @ $20 2,000 Timms Traps - 50 @ $31 1,550 Cage/box traps - 20 @ $60 1,200 Petrol vouchers 300 Bait/ammunition 300 Project co-ordination/supervision 4,000

______

Total (incl. GST) $13,350 ______

Year 2 and ongoing

$5000/annum

Note: These prices involve the best local deals from DoC and NRC.

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APPENDIX 7

GLOSSARY

Andesite Light grey, fine-crystallised volcanic rock.

Biodiversity The diversity of plant and animal life in an area, including the habitats, species that are present and their genetic make-up.

Buffer An area - normally adjacent to a very sensitive area - that can absorb the impact of a negative force (example = trapping reinvading predators on private lands adjoining Bream Head).

Climax vegetation The approximate endpoint for vegetation succession, e.g. old growth forest succeeds shrubland and secondary forest.

Corridor Narrow tongue of habitat, e.g. shrubland that links two larger areas. If corridor is discontinuous, the term “stepping stones” is used.

Covenant Voluntary agreement that ensures legal protection for a habitat.

Creche Relatively secure area (e.g. island or fenced area) where young birds, e.g. kiwi chicks, can be temporarily kept until they are big enough to be released into a larger and less secure area.

Cryptic Retiring or difficult to see, e.g. some swamp birds including spotless crakes.

Diadromous Migrating between freshwater and salt-water habitats.

Divaricating Plants, e.g. many Coprosmas, that have twigs branching off more or less at right angles to stems.

Ecological District An area of land where the landforms and habitats are distinct from the adjoining area(s), e.g. Manaia Ecological District is distinct from Whangarei ED to the north.

Ecological process Important natural processes that affect ecosystem functioning, e.g. flowering, fertilisation, seed dispersal, germination, nutrient cycling.

Ecological restoration The restoring of one or more of the ecological processes above.

Ecology The study of organisms in relation to their environment.

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Ecosystem All living and non-living components of a defined area and the

relationships between them.

Ecotone The edge between two or more distinct habitats.

El nino A climatic phase where the southern oscillations dominate to contribute prevailing south-westerlies in northern New Zealand. C.f. la nina where cyclonic conditions prevail.

Endemic Plants or animals confined to a specific area, e.g. kiwi are unique to NZ.

Eradicate To completely remove (a pest) from an area (e.g. goats have been eradicated from Bream Head), c.f. “sustained control” where the pest is still present but at lower and less impacting densities than previously present.

Habitat The environment of a particular individual or species.

Habitat mosaic An area of several interconnecting habitats.

Habitat sequence An intergrading sequence of different habitat types, e.g. mangroves giving way to saltmarsh, shrubland, forest.

Indigenous Native to an area, but not necessarily endemic. For example, a Caspian tern is indigenous (native) to NZ, but not endemic, because it also occurs overseas. C.f. kiwi (see endemic).

Invertebrate An animal without an internal skeleton, e.g. insects (6 legs), arachnids (8 legs), molluscs, worms and crustaceans.

Lagomorph Rabbit or hare

Loam A permeable, easily crumbled soil of different particle sizes.

Megainvertebrate Very large invertebrate, e.g. giant weta, kauri snail.

Mesozoic A period of time from about 225 to 65 million years ago.

Mustelid Member of the carnivorous family Mustellidae, including the ferret, stoat and weasel introduced to New Zealand.

Omnivorous Feeding on plant and animal matter.

Radio-telemetry Remote detection of animal by attaching a known-frequency radio transmitter and monitoring periodically.

Rehabilitation The reconstruction of a habitat type through planting (c.f. ecological restoration).

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Residual trap catch A measure of the number of pest animals (e.g. possums) present in

an area usually expressed as a % and based on animals caught divided by number of traps multiplied by nights of trapping. (See also tracking index).

Ripple effect A type of side-effect in a management regime where the reduction of one or more pest species could become an advantage to other potentially problematical pest species.

Rodent Mouse or rat.

Terrestrial On land.

Threatened A plant or animal considered to be at risk of extinction. DoC recognise four main categories (A, B, C and O) with A being highest risk (includes NI brown kiwi), B and C lesser risks, and O being species that are threatened but also occur overseas.

Tracking index A measure of the number of pest animals (usually rodents) present in an area usually expressed as a % and based on animals detected using sensitive tracking paper in a tunnel.

Translocate To shift a plant or animal species to a new or former site, e.g. an objective is to translocate robins and other birds to Whangarei Heads. If the species formerly occurred at the site (which is normally the case) then the translocation can be referred to as a reintroduction of the species.

Understorey A general term to include shrubs etc below a forest canopy.

Volcanic intrusion Projection of molten rock (magma) into existing rocks.

The crimson flowers of the pohutukawa, a tree which grows in the Whangarei Heads area.

Documents

Report prepared for Whangarei Heads Landcare Forum · 3.5 Freshwater wetlands 14 4. THREATS 15 4.1 Habitat loss and deterioration 15 4.2 Plant pests 15 4.3 Browsers 17 4.4 Predators