Report of the Study on Women Empowerment - Final version

CHAPTER-ILITERACY AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT –

CONCEPTS AND ISSUES

1.0. Introduction

In recent times empowerment has become a widely used word, with the concept being applied in the spheres such as management and labor unions, health care and ecology, banking and education etc. Technically speaking, empowerment brings up the question of personal agency rather than reliance on intermediaries, one that links action to needs, and one that results in making significant collective change. It is also a concept that does not merely concern personal identity but brings out a broader analysis of human rights and social justice.

To gain a greater understanding of the concept, it might be helpful to look into its origins among popular movements. It emerged during the United States civil rights movements in 1960s, after substantial work took place in civil disobedience and voter registration efforts to attain democratic rights for Afro-Americans. Displeased with the pace and scope of the changes, several black leaders called for "black power," which they defined as: a call for black people in this country to unite, to recognize their heritage, to build a sense of community. It is a call for black people to begin to define their own goals, to link their own organizations, and to support those organizations (Carmichael and Hamilton, 1967, pp. 44).

Council for Social Development, Hyderabad 1

1.1. Women Empowerment: Concept

The concept of empowerment began to be applied within the women's movements in the mid 1970s. As the similarities among oppressed groups are considerable, the oppressed must themselves develop power for change to occur - power will not be given to them for ‘asking’. Applied to gender issues, the discussion of empowerment brings women into the political sphere, both private and public. Its international use probably began with the appearance of the book by Sen and Grown (1985).

The position of women including the developed societies has well-known manifestations: limited representation in the formal political system, a large share of the economy's informal sector and other types of labor with reduced financial rewards, almost exclusive responsibility for family and children, and the more subtle signs of narrow career aspirations and low self-esteem. Not infrequently, these characteristics are also manifested in unwanted pregnancies and wife-beating. Women in many societies have relied on "networks of reciprocal exchange" (Lomnitz, 1977) that provide information and assistance from family, friends, and neighbors to obtain basic services such as health, childcare, food, and even services such as loans and job procurement. These networks operate within all social classes, the poor as well as the elites (Lomnitz, 1977 and 1984). At one level, these informal networks constitute a valuable source of assistance for women. But at another level, these structures create mechanisms of social control through the maintenance of


notions of femininity and masculinity, and through deference to authoritarian, patriarchal rule. Though in most countries, including democratically advanced nations, legislation for gender equity and women's rights is well ahead of practice; this is just at a preliminary stage in India – with very few examples of partial success in some of the advanced states.

1.1.1. Empowerment Defined

Empowerment is a concept with multiple components. The International seminal held at UNESCO Institute of Education (1995) summarizes each of these dimensions and identify four components: cognitive, psychological, economic and political as identified and used to define empowerment. A summary of the seminar report suggest that the cognitive component includes the "women's understanding of their conditions of subordination and the causes of such conditions at both micro and macro levels of society. It involves acquiring new knowledge to create a different understanding of gender relations as well as destroying old beliefs that structure powerful gender ideologies."

The psychological component, on the other hand, includes the development of feelings that women can act upon to improve their condition. This means formation of the belief that they can succeed in change efforts." These two components are exemplified in Ms. Anita Dighe's (1995) paper on Nellore experience, where a literacy campaign contributed to the anti-drinking campaign. She writes that "women have picketed the arrack (local liquor), marched unitedly to the district collector's office and organized a "dharna" to ensure that auctions are not


allowed to take place, they have become strengthened in their conviction that it is only such united action that can bring any change". Thus the challenge here is to become to find ways to help the women to learn to listen to each other, to value each other, and so to strengthen their valuing of themselves and their own words.

The economic component "requires that women be able to engage in a productive activity that will allow them some degree of autonomy, no matter how small and hard to obtain at the beginning''. A case study by Ms. Lazo demonstrates how socio-economic aid (through granting of revolving funds, marketing assistance and product development) has helped in the setting up of micro-enterprises run by women. In contrast, Ms. Dighe's example stresses that while the cognitive and psychological components of empowerment are evident in the Nellore experience, the economic component might be more difficult to demonstrate as "income-generating activities, however, are difficult to implement because they are risky, time-consuming and hard to sustain".

The political component would encompass the "ability to organize and mobilize for change. Consequently, an empowerment process must involve not only individual awareness but collective awareness and collective action. The notion of collective action is fundamental to the aim of attaining social transformation". It follows from the above components that empowerment allows women to have choices, which in turn means relative strength and bargaining power for them. While it


is clear that women can be empowered individually, the feminist vision is one where women are able to articulate a collective voice and demonstrate collective strength and certainly a long term goal. These four components are interlinked and major emphasis of the present study is on ‘economic’ aspects which can empower women in different spheres of life – though other aspects have not completely been ignored.

1.1.2. Indicators of Women Empowerment

Understanding that empowerment is a complex issue with varying interpretations in different societal, national and cultural contexts. To mention a few: (a) At the level of the individual woman and her household:

1. Participation in crucial decision-making processes;2. Extent of sharing of domestic work by men;3. Extent to which a woman takes control of her reproductive

functions and decides on family size;4. Extent to which a woman is able to decide where the income

she has earned will be channeled to;5. Feeling and expression of pride and value in her work;6. Self-confidence and self-esteem; and 7. Ability to prevent violence.

(b) At the community and/or organizational level: 1. Existence of women's organizations;2. Allocation of funds to women and women's projects;3. Increased number of women leaders at village, district,

provincial and national levels;4. Involvement of women in the design, development and

application of technology;5. Participation in community programs, productive enterprises,

politics and arts;6. Involvement of women in non-traditional tasks; and increased

training programs for women; and7. Exercising her legal rights when necessary.

(c ) At the national level:


1. Awareness of her social and political rights;2. Integration of women in the general national development

plan;3. Existence of women's networks and publications;4. Extent to which women are officially visible and recognized;

and5. The degree to which the media take heed of women's issues.

1.1.3. Education and Women Empowerment

In terms of government policies on women's education, it is observed that while there is no explicit discrimination by gender in most places, neither is there a real commitment to provide sustainable programs for women. There is such a perceived gap between the rhetoric and policies of decision-makers that many of the women considered the policies as simply paying "lip service" to women's concerns. Even in developed countries, the proportion of resources that is being allocated to women's needs is small considering the many diverse needs of the women. The fact that many of the decision-makers are men also constrains their appreciation of these needs.

The actual working and living conditions of women also prevent many of them from meaningful participation in women's education programs/ projects. The increasing impoverishment of women makes it necessary for them to focus on income-generating activities simultaneous with the performance of household chores. This therefore limits their time and energy to get involved in education programs.

Many of the women that have been projected to be beneficiaries of development programs are illiterate, so the issue of literacy as a women's development concern is likewise a priority. In spite of


the above-mentioned problems, it is generally agreed that, in order to promote women's empowerment, it is necessary to create an environment that will allow women to participate in educational programs and share the benefits.

It is therefore necessary that while there is a need to set up specific education programs for women, there is also a necessity to develop forms of education that will sensitize people towards gender discrimination and will raise their acceptance of women's promotion. The discussion on the relationship between the women's movement and the different areas (peace, health, literacy) of involvement of the participants likewise raised the important issue of how feminist concerns are integrated in these. While a few women related the problems of doing so, others shared their successful strategies in mainstreaming. As the study deals with the concept of functional literacy, it is note worthy that a few lines on this aspect is mentioned.

Functional Literacy:

Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2000 defines literacy as “the ability to understand, use and reflect on written texts in order to achieve one's goals, to develop one's knowledge and potential, and to participate effectively in society." The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development defines functional literacy not as the ability to read and write but as "whether a person is able to understand and employ printed information in daily life, at home, at work and in the community". Thus functional literacy approach is a method used to teach people how to read well


enough to function in a complex society. Functional literacy incorporates reading materials that relate directly to community development and to teaching applicable or useful life skills.

1.2. Literacy programs in Andhra Pradesh One of the basic objectives of the government is to provide basic minimum level of education to the people. Though there has been repeated emphasis on this in various plans, during 1987-88 it was found that a major chunk of the adult population (nearly 80 million) within the age group of 15-35, were lacking basic education that are required for improving their quality of life. With a view to eradicate illiteracy among this segment of the population, the GoI launched National Literacy Mission (NLM) during 1988. The Government of AP has also joined hands with this mission by adopting massive approach through Total Literacy Campaign (TLC). This was followed by Post Literacy Program (PLP) and Continuing Education Program (CEP). As part of its commitment to make AP not just a literate state, but a knowledge society, the government’s primary goal since 2000 has not only been to increase overall literacy level, but also to intensify their existing livelihood skills through various literacy programs by the year 2005. This has led to a statewide massive community based literacy campaign called, Akshara Sankranthi program (ASP) which was launched during 2000. Andhra Pradesh is the only state in India that has moved beyond NLM visualized (5 years duration) Continuing Education (CE) to conceptualizing and institutional framework for lifelong learning by establishing a Community Learning Center (CLC) at village /


gram panchayat level. These centers i.e., CLC is visualized as nodal point for converging all activities of open schooling, libraries and CECs. In due course the government has taken several initiatives to link literacy with livelihood (e.g., Jana Sikshana Kendra at district level). Thus causality between literacy and livelihood is bidirectional.

1.3. Livelihood and Income Generating Activities

Before proceeding to the objectives of the study it is necessary that a distinction is made between livelihood and income generating activities.

Livelihood: Livelihood, in its simplest sense mean the knowledge, skills, and methods used to produce or obtain the food, water, clothing and shelter necessary for survival and well-being, whether the economy is subsistence, monetized, or a mixture of both. A livelihood can include more than one set of knowledge, skills, and methods. For instance, in an agrarian economy, a woman may earn her family’s livelihood by combining subsistence agriculture and horticulture on a small plot of land with remunerated labor on a neighbor’s land and with selling some of her produce as processed food in a local market. This is the most traditional meaning of livelihood, which has been used in this report. Thus according to Chambers R. and G. Conway (1992) “a livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (stores, resources, claims, and access) and activities required for a means of living: a livelihood is sustainable which can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable livelihood


opportunities for the next generation; and which contributes net benefits to other livelihoods at the local and global levels and in the long and short term. Income-generating activities: Because most economies are now monetized, the terms “income generating activities” and “income-generating projects” occur frequently in discussions of literacy projects and programs. They are not synonymous with “livelihood,” for the available literature suggests that they often—but do not always—generate only small incomes to supplement main livelihoods. Further, the literature gives the impression that, in most instances, income-generating activities do not involve much systematic training, in ways that courses of vocational and technical education would. Instead, a learning group usually seems to undertake an activity that is common, well known and established in the neighborhood and for which little additional instruction is given. In short, livelihoods and livelihood/occupational training are not quite synonymous with income-generating activities, even if the latter do require some training.

1.4. Objectives of the Present Study

Given this background, the present study aims to look at this relationship and derive lessons from “programs that have included livelihood skills as part of literacy education and programs that have included literacy skills as part of livelihood training”. The detailed objectives of the study are as follows:

Making a detailed review of the approaches that are being used in the adult literacy programs that have aimed at


empowering the women and the impact of these approaches on women empowerment in Andhra Pradesh.

To make a review of the lessons learnt through these approaches with respect to their management, implementation and resource requirements.

Measuring and analyzing the extent to which the local factors (social and economic) have an influence on women’s participation in the literacy programs.

To measure the extent to which the acquired literacy is helping the women to improve their socio-economic fall backs with and outside the family.

Whether the present participation level is helping them to strengthen their income generation activities and their participation in CBOs.

Whether the literacy and skill development programs (implemented in the recent past) is helping them to start and manage their enterprises.

Whether the women who participated in these types of programs are capable of utilizing their rights to participate in decentralization process.

Top find out the approaches that are likely to be most effective under prevailing conditions of Andhra Pradesh.

1.5. Organization of the Report:

The report is organized in the following lines: Chapter II gives a brief outline of the methodology and sampling that has been used for the study. Chapter III gives a brief review of the available literature where the national and international experiences on the five possible relationships between literacy and livelihood are described. The chapter uses the Roger’s


framework for this purpose. The findings of quantitative and qualitative studies are presented in Chapter IV. The penultimate chapter devoted for summary, conclusions, recommendations and limitations of the present study.


CHAPTER-IIMETHODOLOGY AND SAMPLING

2.1. Review of Literature

In order to understand the approaches, outcomes, impacts and management processes of the programs that have included livelihood skills as part of literacy education and the programs that have included literacy skills as part of livelihood training, a selected review of the studies (particularly in developing countries) is made. As there are few studies in India/AP, the information on all the above mentioned aspects is drawn from the developing countries literature. The methodology adopted for doing the review is Roger’s framework (World Bank Africa Region, 2002).

Rogers (1997) provides a convenient sub-categorization of the above mentioned two broad groups. According to Roger there are five possible relationships between the teaching of literacy and income-generation activities in adult literacy programmes:

1. Literacy in preparation for income-generation activities (rare): Literacy as a prerequisite or in preparation for training in livelihood or income-generation activities. That is, training in a livelihood is the longer-term aim, but people are encouraged not to start training in a livelihood, until they have first mastered reading, writing, and calculating sufficiently to cope with the operating


requirements of a livelihood, as well as with manuals and other literature. There is a connection and planned progression between the two, even if the literacy curriculum is independent of the livelihood training (for example, Women in Enterprise Development.

2. Literacy followed by separate income-generation activities (more common): Literacy followed by separate livelihood or income-generation activities. Here, learning literacy is regarded as a self-standing and worthwhile aim in itself and is undertaken first. Thereafter, training is offered in either livelihoods or some form of income-generating activity. There are no systematic connections between the two components.

3. Income-generation activities leading to literacy (very rare): Livelihood training or income-generation activities leading to literacy. In this sub-category, groups start out learning to develop a business, but come to recognize that their progress will be frustrated, unless they learn to calculate more comprehensively, record their incomes and outgoings and read their records. The content of the literacy and numeracy grows out of the livelihood and income generation.

4. Income-generation activities and literacy integrated (very, very rare): Livelihood and income-generation activities integrated with literacy. In this sub-category, training in a livelihood and instruction in literacy and numeracy begin


simultaneously, with the content of the literacy derived from or influenced by the livelihood.

5. Literacy and income-generation activities in parallel but separate (most common): Literacy and livelihood and income-generation activities in parallel but separate. Programs in this sub-category recognize the importance of both components, start both simultaneously, but omit to develop any systematic connections between them.

Attempts are made to put the present review under the above five categories.

Objectives 4-8 are being met by carrying out a primary quantitative survey coupled with qualitative methods such as Focus Group Discussions followed by selected Case studies. Secondary data from various sources are also collected to get an idea about the profile of the study area and other necessary information.

The sampling for the primary survey is done in the following manner:

Primary data: In order to get the information on the influence of local factors on the women participation in the literacy programs and other aspects that are mentioned in the proposed objectives, a primary survey was conducted on the selected SHG members. Following methods were followed to collect the primary information:

a. Interview of the selected SHG members through structured questionnaire


b. Focus group discussion with the SHG members (one for gram panchayat)

c. Case studies from the selected gram Panchayats

2.2. Sampling

In terms of geographical scope, the study is confined to the State of Andhra Pradesh where the DWCRA / SHG movement is very strong. Geographically and culturally the State has been divided into three regions – Telangana, Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema. On the basis of literacy levels of women, economic activities of thrift groups, livelihoods and stratification – one district from each region was selected. Warangal district from Telangana region, West Godavari district from Coastal Andhra region and Chittoor district from Rayalaseema region were selected for the purpose of present study. It must be noted that the selection of districts were made by following the criteria that was given in the proposal. The detail of the sampling frame is given below: Sample Design

Region District No. of Mand

als

No. of Gram

Panchayats

No. of

SHGs

No. of SHG

Women

Telangana Warangal 3 18 18 90Coastal Andhra

West Godavari

3 18 18 90

Rayalaseema

Chittoor 3 17* 18 90

Total 9 53 54 270* Even though it was proposed to take 18 Gram Panchayats in each of the three mandals, in one of the selected Mandals there were only 5 Continuing Education Centers (CECs). Therefore the information was collected from 5 Gram Panchayats only.


The criteria for selection of a SHG group is that all the members in the group should be involved in literacy programmes and involved in one or more training programmes on livelihoods. It was decided to include the SHGs which are 3 or more years older as it is expected that the younger SHGs might not have been involved in income generation activities as the gestation period between the training and the initiation of the activities is at least 3 years. For each panchayat one SHG is selected (the selection criteria is given below), in order to cover the proposed sample size. From each SHG 5 members were selected randomly in order to cover the proposed sample size. Detail of the steps followed in the sample selection process is described below:

Steps and Criteria followed for selection of sample

1.

State : Andhra Pradesh – Criteria DWCRA / SHG movement very strong

2.

Region : Three regions geographically – All the regions covered

3.

District : One district from each region – Criteria – Literacy levels of women economic activities of thrift groups, livelihoods and social stratification of the district

4.

Mandals : Three from each district – Criteria – (1) Continuous Education Centres, (2) Training Programmes organized through Continuous Education Centres

5.

Gram Panchayats

: Six from each Mandal where CEC Centres are there – Criteria same as above. In Palamaneru, there are 5 CECs, so 5 are selected and one more hamlet in Kolamasanapalle is covered to get required 90 SHG Members

6.

SHG Groups

: One from each Panchayat – Complete group should be involved in literacy programme


and training programmes for livelihoods (at least one) and doing the activity.

7.

SHG Members

: Five from each group, 90 for district should attend literacy programme. Should be a Member of SHG and presently doing the activity.

Method of purposive sampling was followed for the selection of Mandals and Gram Panchayats as the livelihood training was provided only in the selected Mandals. List of selected Mandals and Gram Panchayats is given in Annexure Table 1.


CHAPTER-IIIADULT LITERACY PROGRAM AND LIVELIHOOD –

EVIDENCES FROM LITERATURE

3.1. Introduction

Nearly 60 per cent of the populations in the developing and under developed world are victim of poverty. This can well be attributed to their lack of adequate knowledge on income generation skills, and more to say, lack of literacy. Adult education has been accepted as an important medium to tackle this issue. This opinion comes from the available literature around the globe. It has been experimented in different parts of the world that adult education coupled with skill development training is one of the successful strategies to address this issue. There have mainly been two strategies: (a) in some instances livelihood skills are being provided as a part of literacy education and in others (b) literacy skills are being a part of the livelihood training. The debate on whether livelihood should follow the literacy or vice versa is age old and it would be useful to pull out the instances of both the approaches and see the most effective ones. Present chapter makes an attempt to organize the available literature in the way just mentioned and give a brief summary of the approaches, their outcomes and the lessons learnt by different agencies in this regard. It is pertinent to note that the present review is not confined to the experiences of Andhra Pradesh, because of the simple reason that there is no available literature in this context. Therefore, an


attempt is made to review the international and national experiences and link it with the present experiences of Andhra Pradesh. As mentioned in Chapter II, Roger’s Framework is used for this purpose.

The review is restricted to the most under developed and some of the developing nations. Experiences have been drawn from Kenya, Uganda, Bangladesh, India, Philippines, Nepal, Ethiopia and Somaliland.


3.2. Review of experiences3.2.1. Uganda Experience

The government Functional Adult Literacy (FAL) program in Uganda is an example of literacy first. It incorporates training for livelihood skills into literacy instruction. This approach attempts to integrate livelihood training, income generation activities and literacy. The approach used is called integrated and covers three dimensions: (a) integration of subject matter (b) integration among service providers (c) integration of learning and life. The FAL comes under Ministry of Gender, Labor and Social Development.

Evaluation of FAL (1999)

In 1999 the ministry with the support from the World Bank commissioned an evaluation of this program. The main purpose was to compare and contrast the resource requirements and the effectiveness of the FAL approach and the Regenerated Freirean Literacy through Empowering Community Techniques (REFLECT). The evaluation analyzed effectiveness in two areas: (a) the attainment and retention of reading, writing arithmetic skills and (b) facilitating practical knowledge, attitude change and skills. Elements considered were: (a) the factors affecting performance in each of those area (b) quality of the materials (c) the extent of local commitment and (d) adequacy of monitoring and supervision. In the evaluation it was observed that the FAL graduates continue to attend the classes because of the opportunities offered through these classes to learn skills other


than literacy and numeracy. But the duration of training to instructors was inadequate.

Livelihood first and literacy second: Case study of Rukungiri

The FAL program in Rukungiri is an example of literacy second. In Rukungiri the literacy program was implemented in 1996. There were already existing women groups who were engaged in different kinds of economic activities. Later, they realized that their progress was being frustrated, unless they learn to calculate comprehensively, record their incomes and outgoings and read their records. So literacy training was introduced into already existing women groups at their request which helped them to carryout their day to day activities smoothly. The instructors here were qualified with two years experience and rated high by the learners. In this case the instructors were selected by the learners but they were not able to arrange the resource persons from outside and unable to use teaching aids.

Literacy first and Livelihood second: Case study of from the Projects implemented by ADRA:

In some other parts of Ugand the FAL was sponsored by Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA). In this case ‘L’ stands for learning instead of literacy. The reason for using the word “learning” in place of “literacy” is that ADRA adopted a curriculum that was well beyond literacy and aimed at enabling poor women to develop better and sustainable livelihoods. It had originally taught only livelihood skills, but, later recognized that


without literacy and numeracy, the development of such skills is very restricted. Therefore ADRA offered a course in three stages: (a) the first stage, which is obligatory, involves learning to read, write, and calculate, with a particular emphasis on calculating accurately. For this stage, ADRA used the standard literacy texts provided by the government’s program, but it added exercises to help learners to understand more thoroughly what is involved in the processes of buying and selling in a business (b) in the second stage the learners were instructed on how to assess the feasibility of a project as any project requires to save a small amount of money (c) the final stage the learners were required to form “solidarity groups” of five members each, who trust each other enough to open a joint bank account, into which they pool their savings and from which they will manage any loans they take or make to each other. These three stages take up between nine and 12 months at the rate of six hours a week, or 250 to 300 hours in all. Once these three stages are completed, ADRA gave each of the groups micro loans of about US$30–60, repayable in installments over 16 weeks with an interest rate of four percent per quarter. The national FAL program, under which ADRA also falls, now enrolls more than 100,000 people annually—90 percent of them women. Though there is no systematic study that have been carried out to look at the success of the approach, ADRA argues that using literacy/numeracy explicitly to pave the way to loans and businesses seems to sustain perseverance in attending and completing the course as it was found by ADRA that the retention rate is around 80 percent in all classes. The instructors


used by ADRA were recruited by the participants themselves with some simple guidelines i.e., at least 18 years old, more literate than their prospective learners, fluent in the language used for instruction, respectable, and acceptable both to all the learners and to the local community leaders. The instructors were trained to teach not only literacy and numeracy but also livelihood and business skills. Their initial training was followed at intervals with refresher and further training. This is a notable instance of systematically forming instructors competent in two sets of skills. Remuneration of the instructors was provided by ADRA. A crucial component of ADRA’s strategy is organizational and institutional development which aimed at sustainable livelihood.

3.2.2. Bangladesh and Philippines

The Bangladesh Saptagram and the Philippine Women’s Enterprise Development Program offer training in a range of skills that enable women to enhance their livelihoods and incomes. However, since these skills involve the use of literacy and numeracy, both organizations required applicants to show that they can handle the course materials before admitting them to the course. In case the applicants are not able to do so, they were offered a six-month course on basic literacy and numeracy for their entry to the livelihood programs. Saptagram and its participants initially tried to use the reading materials used by other organizations. After doing so they felt that the course materials developed by other organizations do not fit to their need and they produced the reading/learning materials of their


own. It gives us a sense that the development of the course was demand driven. Both organizations report that more than 90 percent of their enrollees complete the course, after which nearly all of them register for training in an income-earning occupation. Both the organizations used trained and paid instructors for their courses. Both organizations deal with learners as individuals and not as groups. Therefore, although both organizations take care to consult local communities and authorities before they open new operations, they do not extend their reach to community, organizational, or institutional development, as ADRA.

3.2.3. WEEL, Nepal

In Nepal, the Women’s Economic Empowerment and Literacy program (WEEL) used the curriculum of the National Literacy Programme as preparation for training in savings, credit, business development, and management (but not in specific occupations). However, in order to emphasize the connection with livelihoods and, WEEL supplemented the content with 12 poster and discussion sessions on women’s roles, benefits of being in a group, and benefits of savings and credit. Its whole course takes 21 months in three phases: (a) the first is preparatory literacy and numeracy (b) the second focuses on savings, credit, and business management (c) the third requires only one group meeting per month to advance business and literacy skills. Initiated in 1994 and moving through careful preparatory phases, WEEL now combines income, food security, credit, micro-enterprise, and literacy/numeracy in its curriculum.


Nearly 3,000 initial enrollees were graduated. They have formed over 300 savings and credit groups and helped 100 already existing groups to learn literacy, numeracy, and more advanced topics like marketing. Its current enrollment has 10,000 women. Most are illiterate, but some are partly literate either from earlier literacy programs or from some years in primary school (Sherpa et al. 2001). WEEL has also entered underserved areas and formed new women’s groups. WEEL recognizes that this partial literacy makes some women reluctant to start from the beginning again. In response, it has developed a “bridging” course that helps women revive their skills and qualify themselves for training in savings and credit. Like ADRA, WEEL encourages its learners to select their own literacy instructors according to a few personal and educational criteria. It then trains and pays an honorarium to the people selected.

Unlike ADRA, WEEL does not train its literacy instructors as trainers either in particular livelihoods or in business identification and management. Instead, it trains personnel of the 25 participating NGOs to be the trainers in those skills. At the same time, it works to reduce the groups’ dependency on the NGOs in tasks that can be managed with adequate skills in literacy and numeracy. WEEL prefers to work with groups rather than individuals. Unlike ADRA it does not attempt to develop community institutions to support the groups, instead, its component of institutional development concerns.

3.2.4. SEIGYM, Somaliland


The Somaliland Education Initiative for Girls and Young Men (SEIGYM), supported by the Africa Educational Trust (AET), adopted an unique approach for its urban participants. It is mostly introducing the voucher system which can be redeemed for obtaining the training they want. To identify the people who could apply for vouchers, AET worked with the local committees to identify the eligible women. Then AET and the committee worked on fair and transparent selection procedures in that locality. Based on the agreed procedures, the committees take responsibility for working with the local community groups, women’s groups, and local authorities etc., to select the young people who would receive vouchers.

The vouchers are redeemed through a system of supervision and accountability. A local AET staff member monitors each “class” monthly. In the more remote areas, a local teacher or community worker is paid to do the monitoring, using an agreed procedure and reporting form. Voucher payments are then made against satisfactory performance.

As all the vocational and technical training on offer requires some school qualification, non-literate participants were given the freedom of locating and paying for instruction in literacy and numeracy before moving on to specifically livelihood training. There were two systems which is operational under this scheme: (a) in the first system, students could receive a voucher, which they could use to purchase education or training of their choice. The voucher was redeemable only through the Africa Educational Trust (AET) and only if AET inspected the training


provider and certified its standards. AET also provided training courses for alternative trainers, craftsmen, and women who wanted to run small training courses (such as carpenters, driving instructors, painters, tailors, nurses). This system worked best in the larger towns where there were craftsmen and women who wanted to provide the training and where there were enough students with vouchers to make it worth their while to run a course—usually 10 to 15 students for one particular subject (b) the second system, in effect outside the larger urban areas, also offered vouchers, but in addition, there were meetings and discussions with the students to ask what they wanted to purchase them. Based on this, AET then recruited local trainers to provide the course, paying them against the value of the vouchers. This worked best in the smaller towns and was also important when the majority of students wanted literacy and numeracy.

In many cases, local classes are organized and run by women’s groups, community groups, and youth groups in an area. In such cases, payment is made to the management of the group. For vocational courses, individual local trainers or craftspeople train small groups. Again, these are monitored and payment made against delivery. Although SEIGYM does not aim directly at institution or capacity-building beyond the skills and livelihoods of its learners, it is certainly an innovative approach in learning literacy/numeracy that is used for livelihood skill development.


3.2.5. WISE, Ethiopia

The Ethiopian Women In Self-Employment (WISE) program also focuses on training women to develop and manage businesses. It found that keeping proper track of orders, stock, and sales requires the abilities to read, write, and count. Therefore, WISE introduced a course to assist its members develop those skills. Berhanu (2001: 29) reports: “The Record Keeping module of the Business training requires that participants are able to read and write. In this regard the illiterate status of most of the women posed a problem. To solve the problem WISE launched a Literacy and Numeracy Skills improvement program scheduled during late afternoons. However, the program failed because of dropouts for various reasons, among which are, as stated by women themselves, lack of time, lack of interest, seeking allowance, sight problems and inability to see the advantages of being literate.”

Reflections from above six Case Studies:

All the programs discussed above address mainly very poor women and mostly rural communities. The major difference between them is that in case of Bangladesh, Philippine, Ethiopia and Somaliland the emphasis was on individual applicants, each on her own account, whereas ADRA in Uganda and WEEL in Nepal preferred to deal with groups of women who cooperate with each other in securing, managing, and enlarging the finances needed to develop businesses, as well as to meet other exigencies of life. However, almost all the programs mentioned above gives us some background on the approaches that were


used and inadequate evidence on the outcomes and impacts of these approaches. No mention has been made on the cost aspect, which happens to be one of the major components of implementation. However, this may be due to excessive government involvement in these programs. (Closson et al. 1997: 22).

3.3. Literacy followed by separate livelihood training or income-generation activities

This section considers instances where the literacy course is conducted by one organization, which then leaves the livelihood training to another or moves into income-generating activities unconnected to previous learning. Current observation in Kenya (Mwangi 2001) suggests that, while participants do indeed appreciate and come for such activities, a majority of instructors either implement them defectively or not at all. A substantial body of experience from many countries supports this perception. Observations by Lind (1986) in Zimbabwe; Rogers (1997) in Bangladesh, Egypt, India, and Kenya; Korboe (1998) in Ghana; and Okech and his team in Uganda (1999) all tend to the conclusion that the training and support available for livelihoods tends to be rudimentary and unsupported by services in business development and management. Although the training and income-generating activities may lead to slightly improved incomes for some of the participants, the outcomes seem to be generally disappointing.


It is recognized and suggested by most of the experts that literacy program that lead to training on livelihood offer a worthwhile option for policy makers, only when two conditions are satisfied.

1. First, the link between the literacy content and the livelihoods is clear (possibly some skills in reading, writing, and calculating are required as conditions for entry to livelihood training).

2. Second, the subsequent livelihood training or income generating activity must be of good quality with fully competent instruction. Also needed are the usual requisites of good materials, good support, and good administration. As for organization, it is worth noting that ADRA, Saptagram, WEEL, and SEIGYM have evidently used accumulated experience to put these requisites in place. Further, these are single organizations that do not depend on others for the actual implementation of their work. In that respect, they are unified commands, not coalitions of cooperating partners. They do not suffer from the problem of coordination and cooperation between organizations with different missions that is too often unreliable.

3.4. Livelihood training or Income-generation activities leading to literacy

This section reports some of the international experiences on the work that began with livelihood skills, then found that some degree of literacy and numeracy was necessary to develop the


skills further. The ADRA–FAL program in Uganda and the Ethiopia WISE as well as the Bangladesh Saptagram’s work, described in the first part of this chapter, is examples. They originally attempted to teach only livelihood skills, but found that the lack of literacy blocked their efforts. Saptagram’s participants actually requested literacy and numeracy instruction (Guttman 1994: 16).

3.4.1. The Rukungiri Women’s Groups: A somewhat similar experience occurred in the Rukungiri district of Uganda. Women’s groups had been well established there, with savings and credit schemes and engaged in traditional income-generating activities such as bee-keeping, poultry raising, basket weaving, and the like. In 1996, some of these groups asked to participate in the national Functional Adult Literacy (FAL) program, even though their members had on average attended primary school for five years. Focus group discussions with the members discovered that the groups wanted to strengthen their literacy skills to feel more confident in understanding loan agreements and managing their savings and credit accounts. After the FAL course, these women’s groups felt that, in addition to achieving their immediate aims, they had benefited from the functional literacy curriculum in unexpected ways. Some had used the idea of organic farming to start their own market gardens, which had enhanced both home consumption and domestic income through sales. Some had begun tree nurseries and had sold seedlings. A number had taken up fuel-saving stoves, which had reduced their need for firewood and released income for other purposes. Overall, nearly nine out of ten of the


women interviewed claimed to have started new income-generating work as a result of participating in the FAL program and that they had in consequence improved their conditions of living. An evaluation in 1999 (Okech et al. 2001) showed that the Rukungiri sample of FAL graduates scored highest in the national sample on complex comprehension and numeracy tests and that overall, respondents in Rukungiri were the most “modern,” particularly in the adoption of improved agricultural practices. As is customary with the FAL program, these women’s groups needed to find their own literacy instructors. Given the relatively high degree of schooling among their members, this had proved easy, and, as the instructors were themselves group members, teaching free of charge was no problem. The government’s community development staff arranged for the necessary training in how to teach the course, but they were unable to arrange for supplies of texts and other teaching materials. However, most of the women were able to buy their own, which suggests that they were poor, but not destitute.

In this instance of the Rukungiri women’s groups, the literacy effort was clearly strongly demand-driven, arising from a sharply felt need. Hence, there were apparently no problems about motivation, inappropriate curriculum, poor instruction, or unobtainable teaching and learning materials. As the 1999 evaluation confirmed, the outcomes were good. There can be no dispute that the Rukungiri women’s groups are an exceptional example of self selection and are not typical in either literacy programs or vocational education. Also, many, perhaps most, of them had a head start, in that they had already had some


primary schooling. Nevertheless, they do signal to policy makers that identifying groups whose activities could clearly benefit from numeracy and literacy—that is, “literacy second,” to use Rogers’ phrase—could raise the efficiency and effectiveness of training programs as well as lower the costs.

3.4.2. Animators and hand-pump technicians - Case study from IndiaAnother experience where groups came to realize that they needed literacy to fulfill their purposes occurred in the Banda district of India with an NGO in the women’s movement, Mahila Samakhya (Nirantar 1997). The experience included two groups of women with a common interest in women’s empowerment and betterment, but with different responsibilities. The behavior of the two groups towards literacy illustrated how carefully interests, motivations, and family circumstances need to be taken into account, even in considering livelihood training. One group of non-literate, poor village women from “untouchable” castes were trained as paid “awareness animators” in the employ of Mahila Samakhya, while another very similar group, were trained in the maintenance and repair of water hand pumps. Unlike the first group, the latter received no regular pay, but variable and not always reliable honoraria for their work from the villagers whose pumps they maintained. It soon became evident to both groups of women that they would be able to operate more effectively with the skills of literacy, so a special camp for intensive instruction of 180 hours (approximately three


weeks full-time) was organized with a specially tailored curriculum.

Although a majority of the awareness animators felt able to take part in the course, only a few pump technicians did. This is because of two reasons: First, the animators did not lose income from being absent from work, whereas the pump technicians did. In other words, the pump technicians faced a high opportunity cost. Second, whereas the animators needed to write quite frequently to a number of offices on a variety of topics, the pump technicians needed mainly to read their maintenance manuals occasionally, which they could usually manage through the schooled members of their families and friends. In other words, there was an inequality of need and hence an inequality of motivation. Also, the mastery of literacy after only 180 hours of instruction and practice was fragile for both groups, but more so for the pump technicians than for the animators. The reasons for this are not given.

Later follow-up found that the animators had for the most part been able to practice and improve their new skills through producing regular local broadsheets for their groups. In other words, they were doing their jobs more effectively, even though they might not have been earning any more money. In contrast, the pump technicians had not found much use for reading or writing and allowed their literacy skills to deteriorate, even though their performance as technicians remained satisfactory.


This experience seems to confirm the signal from Rukungiri: education designers who plan to insert literacy into livelihood training, should appreciate keenly that more the participants are convinced that the skills of literacy are indispensable to their work, productivity, and effectiveness, the more strongly they will be willing to undertake the necessary learning and to bear all the costs, in terms of time, effort, direct expenses, income foregone, inconvenience and other indirect costs.

The two cases just discussed highlight an important difference between programs that are government- led and standard across a country and those that are initiated by smaller organizations (NGOs or Groups). The Rukungiri women’s groups had to use and make the best of the standard FAL curriculum. In contrast, Mahila Samakhya rejected the standard local materials and developed its own to suit the interests of its learners more closely. This illustrates the flexibility and responsiveness that a small, client-centered organization can be more effective, compared to the relative rigidity of a larger, centrally-driven, and hierarchical program (the officials of Rukungiri district had neither the authority nor the resources to develop special materials for the women’s groups). The inference is that policies that aim to be client centered would need to devise frameworks that encourage the kind of responsiveness exhibited by Mahila Samakhya.


3.5. Integrated literacy and livelihood and income-generation activities

Among the first efforts to integrate occupational and literacy training were the curricula developed in UNESCO’s Experimental World Literacy Programme in the late 1960s and early 1970s. They included both agricultural livelihoods, like cotton farming in Iran, and waged employment in factories and urban centers. The evaluation (UNDP/UNESCO 1976) found that the experiences and outcomes had unfortunately not been sufficiently well recorded which could be used by educators and policy makers. More recently, in the 1990s, Rogers in his survey of Bangladesh, Egypt, India, and Kenya found that efforts to integrate livelihood and literacy training were very rare. However, some do exist.

3.5.1. Senegal - SODEFITEX

The first such program in the current intensive study comes from Senegal (Sall 2001) and concerns cotton farmers. The program in this study was initiated by SODEFITEX (Society for the Development of Textile Fibers) when, after nine years of existence, it decided in 1983 to open a literacy program for cotton producers. This decision was made when it was recognized that that literacy was one of the strongest limiting factors in modernizing cotton production, their distribution and marketing. In view of the scale of the problem—one estimate put the rate of illiteracy among the producers at more than 80 percent—SODEFITEX selected an interesting strategy. It aimed


first to train and make literate five members of each of its 1,740 producer associations (Associations de Base des Producteurs).

For the longer term, it aimed to enable at least one member in each of its 27,179 farming families to become sufficiently literate to take advantage of technological and management advances. In line with this approach, SODEFITEX organized classes and training for some 2,400 farmers per year between 1984 and 1999, reaching a total of 35,865 learners in the 15 years (5,908 of them were women). The specially designed curriculum comprises training in cotton production, and other aspects of agriculture and livestock raising, combined with literacy and numeracy derived from the requirements of these activities. The technical instructors were SODEFITEX employees. At first, the literacy instructors were also engaged from outside by SODEFITEX, at a ratio of approximately 25 learners per instructor. However, as farmers became literate, SODEFITEX began to select the more successful new “graduates” as literacy instructors, giving them the necessary training for the task. For the first six years, 1984–1989, SODEFITEX ran an eight-month literacy course, spread over two years. Finding that this pattern resulted in non-continuation with some participants and a loss of skills with others, SODEFITEX introduced what it called an intensive course on a trial basis in 1990 and 1991, then generalized it in 1992. This new pattern required participation over only four months in a single year, January to April, in the slack agricultural season, rather than the original eight months over two years. However, to offset the shortening, it required four hours a day, six days a week for 17 weeks—a total of 400


hours of tuition and practice. This pattern seems to suit the farmers and achieve its technical and literacy objectives, and it still prevailed in 2001. In addition to supplying learning materials worth US$10.00 per learner, SODEFITEX contracted with the Cotton Producer Groups for the learners to obtain loans for the various inputs required for production. There is thus immediate and continuing support to learn and to implement and practice what is learned.

In terms of livelihood results, SODEFITEX reports that producers, who had the training and mastered literacy /numeracy, showed six percent higher productivity than those who remained illiterate. It cannot be determined whether this outcome is due more to the technical content than to the literacy skills of the program. However, SODEFITEX believes a more important outcome of combining technical with literacy training is the emergence of producer organizations capable of (a) managing the commercialization of the cotton crops; (b) managing agricultural credit; and (c) serving the public interest through assuring food security and organizing village stores for veterinary medicines, agricultural inputs, and other supplies. These village teams have become an essential link for the rapid increase of production and incomes. For their part, the graduates of the training feel that the determining factor in their being able to take over increasing responsibilities from SODEFITEX is precisely the fact that they can now read, write, and calculate accurately. They are also aware that their growing ability to take responsibility for the affairs of their villages is due to their literacy. In effect, the pattern of training


fosters individual productivity, group responsibility, and eventually social responsibility. In other words, the SODEFITEX package starts with improving livelihood, then empowers people to “democratize” and take more control over local affairs.

This experience of incorporating literacy into capacity-building and institutional development to sustain and enhance livelihoods recalls the similar effects generated by ADRA in Uganda, SEIGYM in Somaliland, and WEEL in Nepal. Vocational andLivelihood education policies should adapt and incorporate these successful aspects to reinforce and sustain the effects of education and training programs. For all its impressive success, the SODEFITEX experience, like ADRA’s, also sounds a warning not to expect too much of adult education and training.

3.5.2. WEP/Nepal

The second case in this sub-category, the Women’s Empowerment Program of Nepal (WEP/N), is particularly interesting, because it runs in the same country as WEEL and has similar objectives: (a) it aims to enable very poor women to identify, develop, and manage opportunities to improve their livelihoods and incomes (b) at the same time, it seeks to enable local NGOs to build their capacities to do likewise. It undertook a baseline study of the conditions of its prospective participants and their communities before it launched operations. Like WEEL, WEP/N is supported by an international NGO, PACT. Unlike WEEL, however, WEP/N does not teach literacy as a preparation or prerequisite for livelihood training, but combines the two from the start of the course. It does not use the national


literacy curriculum, as WEEL does. Instead, it has developed its own curriculum out of the vocabulary and practices of savings, credit, and micro-enterprise. Its booklets make a progressive series: “Our Group,” “Forming Our Village Bank,” “Grow Your Business with Credit,” “Micro-Enterprise,” and finally “Linkages” (CRI Consult 1999: 6–7).

This approach seems to respond to a lesson in the UNDP/UNESCO (1976: 159) critical assessment of the Experimental World Literacy Programme: “EWLP does offer evidence supporting the link between a problem-oriented curriculum, on the one hand, and results judged to be favorable, on the other… Analysis of all programmes that produced statistically significant socio-economic effects deemed to be positive led the Evaluation Unit attached to UNESCO’s Literacy Division to formulate the following hypothesis: ‘The more closely content focuses on problems actually encountered by workers in the course of their productive activity, the more effective the functional literacy programmes.’ Data selected from two projects (India and the United Republic of Tanzania) tend generally to confirm this hypothesis.” However, a further observation follows on the very next page to caution against an excessively narrow interpretation: “It may therefore be concluded that very high curricular specificity is not necessarily a sufficient precondition for success. A dynamic environment seems to be more conducive to success than a static one. The above- mentioned research concluded that functional literacy ‘brings about a change for the better on condition that it is associated with a process of genuine innovation (of a political, social or technical


nature) in which the participants are themselves involved.’ “By and large then: (a) relevant problem-based curricula seem to have produced results judged to be positive by EWLP when (b) subject matter was not necessarily narrowly, rigidly or mechanically specific in terms of the learners’ jobs, but when (c) it took into account a broader environment that was (d) characterized by true innovations that personally concerned the participants. “The more the content of the course takes into account the workers’ cultural environment, the more effective the functional literacy programme” (1976: 160).

Like WEEL, WEP/N works with local NGOs that work with groups of poor women rather than with individuals. The program has so far reached 6,500 groups with a total membership of some 130,000 poor women (many more than WEEL). The preliminary and provisional findings of the evaluation (Ashe & Parrott 2001) are that literacy rates in the groups have risen from 28 to nearly 80 percent, while the proportion of women in business has risen from 14 to 66 percent. Cumulative savings more than doubled between June 1999 and March 2001, from US$720,000 to US$1,600,000, while the number of members taking out loans during a six month period increased from 17,000 to 58,000. (Households with per capita incomes of less than US$162 per year make up 80 percent of the members.) At this point, the evaluation is tending to the overall conclusion that WEP/N’s approach is more effective than other strategies in accomplishing its objectives for establishing a sustainable savings and credit system without external micro-finance


institutions, encouraging soundly run micro-enterprises and imparting usable and permanent literacy and numeracy.

3.5.3. ACOPAM

The third program that integrates livelihood and literacy training was in existence for 21 years and ended in 1999. Based in Dakar, Senegal, it included several countries in West Africa. Although the governments of these countries were involved, the program was sponsored and promoted by the International Labour Office and the Norwegian government.

Its acronym was ACOPAM, which stood for the French title, “Appui associatif et coopératif aux Initiatives de Développement à la Base”. The final report (ILO 1999) cites 17 impact and case studies on which its conclusions are based.

ACOPAM aimed chiefly to help poor rural people, especially women, to improve their livelihoods and make more productive use of available resources. It also aimed to enable members of cooperative groups, again especially women, to gain fuller information about the state of their groups, to make their elected officers and employees more accountable to them, and to take more active part in the running and development of the cooperatives. It aimed, too, to help the elected officers carry out their obligations more effectively. In current parlance, ACOPAM was concerned with production, the environment, and empowerment.


Literacy—and even more, numeracy—were necessary for these purposes, and not only for the basic livelihoods themselves. Like WEP/N in Nepal, ACOPAM found that existing literacy instructional materials did not fit its purposes. Over the years, it developed no fewer than 22 of its own literacy curricula in several West African languages, all derived from the vocabularies and practices of crops, cooperatives, savings, credit, and micro-enterprise management and marketing. The instructional method combined straightforward technical content with an adaptation of Paolo Freire’s consciousness raising approach. As Millican (1990: 7) observes, “Literacy for self-management within cooperatives requires a combination of these two approaches; one that is both tied in to production and has the capacity to empower. Its importance is needed and recognized by the farmers themselves, which makes it potentially a powerful programme. It not only serves the administrative needs of production, but provides a framework for increasing agricultural knowledge and improving organizational skills.” As other programs have done, ACOPAM worked with local groups and encouraged them to recruit their own literacy instructors from among suitably qualified friends and neighbors, whom it then trained for the task and helped to remunerate. The technical instructors in agriculture, horticulture and cooperative management, however, were specialists recruited and paid by the program. Here, we may note that the UNDP/UNESCO (1976: 135) critical assessment of the Experimental World Literacy Program recorded, “… the impression that technicians who also taught the three R’s


achieved better overall results than most school teachers who instructed technical as well as three R subjects.”

Although the final report itself offers little quantitative data on reach, impact, or costs, it makes clear that the two decades of trial, review, and adaptation validated the strategy, methods, and materials that ACOPAM developed and used. The program succeeded in enabling large numbers of poor rural people, particularly women, to learn how to bring unused and new resources into production, to manage new production techniques for familiar crops, and to handle new crops and products to the considerable benefit of themselves and their families. It also enabled them to take more active, competent, and confident interest in their cooperative organizations and their day-to-day operations and financing.

3.6. Literacy and livelihood and income-generation activities in parallel but

separate

In several instances (international) it is observed that livelihood and literacy occurred most frequently as quite separate, almost divorced, components in the same programs.

3.6.1. Farmers’ Field Schools—Integrated pest and production management

This example not only covers a number of countries but also seems to be favored by a number of international organizations. It is the Farmers’ Field Schools with Integrated Production and Pest Management. The United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) in India and several other countries, World


Education Inc. in Nepal (2000), CARE International in Sri Lanka, and others have applied it and advocate its wider application.

A Farmers’ Field School for Integrated Production and Pest Management takes a group of farmers through an entire season of a crop, from soil preparation to harvest, storage, and marketing. It aims to help them optimally manage all the inputs in terms of nourishment, pest and disease control, and use of natural and manufactured aids. The farmers—men and women—continue to farm their own land throughout, but they observe a small plot that demonstrates externally recommended practice for comparison with local current practices. The observations and comparisons require close and detailed measurements and recording by each farmer, which means they require the farmers to be sufficiently literate and numerate to be able to take and record the measurements. The fact that the farmers see the need and want to participate in the program provides sufficient motivation to start learning the skills.

The farmers recruit their own suitably qualified instructors, and FAO contracts a suitably qualified organization to train and to support the selected people. Millican writes, “The introduction of literacy was here intended for very specific tasks, that of a move by the government to ‘responsibilize’ farmers, i.e. to make them responsible for the management of their own irrigation systems. There were specific tasks like income and management sheets, and forms for the maintenance and costs of looking after an irrigation pump, and management of a revolving fund that farmers had to learn to use.


3.6.2. Rangpur Dinajpur Rural Service (RDRS)

The second example of “parallel” learning with livelihoods on the one side and literacy and numeracy, on the other, comes from Bangladesh. The Rangpur Dinajpur Rural Service (RDRS) offers a package of livelihood skills, mainly in small-scale agricultural production; social knowledge, attitudes and practices; health practices; and literacy for the majority of its members, who have had less than five years of primary schooling (RDRS 1999). Its literacy course is general, in the sense of including a range of topics not necessarily related to any of the livelihoods in which it offers training. Its literacy instructors and its technical instructors are separate cadres. Although the evaluation report studied does not contain figures, RDRS nonetheless judges that it is effective in both literacy / numeracy and livelihoods. Once again, unfortunately, no information was available on costs for either of these two programs.

3.7. INFERENCES FROM THE ABOVE STUDIES

It is important to remember that the evidences reviewed are not particularly strong, so any inferences necessarily lack a solid empirical base and analytical rigor. This section broadly aims to provide more grist for the debate on how best to operationalize the concept of lifelong education within a frame of education for all, where “all” includes unschooled and non-literate adults.

1. Conditions of effectiveness: The first observation is obvious and examples from all five sub-categories of program signal that,


whether a program starts from Literacy/numeracy and includes some livelihood training, or starts with livelihood objectives and includes literacy/numeracy, it is likely to be successful in both sets of its immediate objectives, if it is well adapted to the interests and conditions of its participants and—equally important—well run. “Quality of the teaching—this was a major factor for the success of a class” (Crapper and others 1996: 79). Even the best run programs will suffer some inefficiency in terms of irregular attendance and dropout. Further, the longer-run outcomes will not always fulfill all the hopes of the planners and implementers.

2. Motivation: Second observation is that education and training programs for very poor adults would be wise to offer very clear, concrete, and immediate reasons to justify enrollment and ensure perseverance. New income-generating projects in the villages help attract more students to literacy and link it to their everyday activities. It is recognized that literacy, or lack of literacy, is only a part of people’s reality and that the reasons why people have not previously developed literacy skills are a complex interweaving of lack of educational opportunity, lack of exposure, gender, levels of poverty, culture, lack of self-confidence etc. To help develop literacy skills, particularly of those in poorest sectors of society, and particularly women in this group requires more than the establishing of classes and waiting for people to come. It requires a holistic approach to awareness raising and helping people manage the other challenges in their lives” (UKDFID 1999, chapter 8, section 4.1).


3. Leading from livelihoods: This observation, which follows reasonably from the second, is that programs that start from livelihood skills seem to stand a stronger chance of success. They can demonstrate an immediate reason for learning. In harmony with this observation, the present review draws the inference that incorporation of elements of livelihood training undeniably has the effect of raising the motivation of the learners and ensuring their faithful attendance at the literacy course. It gives a more utilitarian content to the business of training adults. This has been supported from various studies from Kenya (e.g., REFLECT) which included projects on horticultural production, tree nurseries, goat rearing, poultry keeping and basket weaving. These projects have tended to provide a critical binding action for the groups and their participation in the literacy program is noted to be high. This has also significantly improved the men’s participation rate in the literacy centres. (Mwangi 2001), “Literacy would help them keep proper records, calculate profits and use different measures correctly. One group observed that, if learners were taking practical subjects like animal husbandry, book keeping and child care, they would be more motivated to enroll.”

4. Livelihood leading: Organizations that are more concerned with livelihoods and other aspects of development seem to be better at designing and delivering effective combinations of livelihoods and literacy than organizations that are more focused on education. FAO, IFAD, and ILO are examples among the multilateral organizations, while for most NGOs, literacy and numeracy are only means to larger ends. They have all begun by


undertaking a socio-economic survey of the localities where they start work, and they often address organized groups in their localities. This observation implies that policy makers for vocational/livelihood education with literacy should consider operating through agencies, both governmental and non-governmental, that work with people in their actual livelihoods and employment, rather than through centers that purport to train for, but tend to be detached from, “the real world.”

5. Flexibility: In all the studies reviewed, the diversity of possibilities for improving established livelihoods and developing new ones appears so wide as to demand extreme flexibility, imagination, and resourcefulness. NGOs seem to have more flexibility than government agencies to respond to local and changing needs. Developers of national policy for vocational/ livelihood education should emphatically consider stronger–but not dominating or crippling—alliances with NGOs. At the same time, they should explore forms of government organization that would allow local offices the kind of wide, but accountable, discretion, which would enable them to develop the required flexibility. Further, evidences suggest that even the private sector might be induced to offer livelihood and literacy training for poor people in certain contexts. What the specific possibilities might be in operational terms will of course depend on specific localities and cultures.

6. Derivative literacy: The experiences of ACOPAM and SODEFITEX, along with a provisional comparison between WEP/N and WEEL in Nepal, hint that deriving literacy /


numeracy content from the livelihood skills in view and integrating it with the livelihood training from the very start seem more promising than either running the two components in parallel or using standard literacy materials to prepare people to train for livelihoods. This suggestion does not discount the experiences of the Rukungiri Women, ADRA, Saptagram, RDRS, and the Notre Dame Foundation, which all use literacy primers unrelated to livelihood content; it merely points to a possible further advantage in engaging the learners’ perseverance.

7. Savings and Credit: Livelihood-plus-literacy/numeracy programs can substantially reinforce their chances of success if they can start from or at least incorporate training in savings, credit, and business management, along with actual access to credit. Although ADRA and SODEFITEX provide the credit, WEP/N, WEEL, and other organizations demonstrate that it can be created among the very poor themselves, without the agency of a micro-finance institution.

8. Group approaches and negotiation: Again drawing on the experience of ADRA, ACOPAM, WEP/N, and WEEL, chances of success are also heightened by working with established groups of people who share a common purpose, rather than with individual applicants. In the absence of such groups, it would probably still be better to spend time identifying promising common purposes and to work on forming new purpose driven groups than to carry out the program with unconnected individuals. Experience seems to have produced a strengthening consensus that programs that are well negotiated with their


prospective learners in association with local authorities and leaders, are likely to be more effective than programs that are simply put on offer. Further, there is a longstanding consensus that teaching methods that encourage activity and interaction between participants and their instructor are more effective than those that leave the instructor with most of the action. However, it is important acknowledge observations that implementing the active methods is often beyond the competence and inclination of the instructors, and quite often it not to the taste of the learners themselves. Despite such non-modern attitudes and practices, appreciable learning can and often does occur.

9. Vouchers: There are very favorable early evaluations of the initiative by the Somaliland Education Initiative for Girls and Young Men to use vouchers as a means to give very poor people more power to negotiate what they learn and with whom they learn (Tomlinson 2001). That suggests the project merits further observation, particularly regarding its suitability for already established groups.

10. Time on task: The projects examined offer no decisive answer to how much time is needed to enable a person to become permanently or sustainably literate. Recall that the Mahila Samakhya experience found that 180 hours of tuition, even of intensive instruction, led only to fragile literacy skills. ADRA seems to be satisfied with 250 to 300 hours, whereas SODEFITEX arranges for 400 hours. To help clarify the issue, Medel-Añonuevo looked at four models of literacy and livelihood


programs in Nepal: Model 1 offered a 12 month literacy course, followed by a 3-month vocational course and the establishment of a community reading centre. Model 2 offered an 18-month course in 3 phases: first, a 9-month basic literacy and numeracy course, then, a 6-month course learning the livelihood skills (the functional phase), and finally, a 3-month course in actually generating and managing income. Model 3 offered simply a 6-month basic literacy course, then encouraged its learners to seek livelihood training from other sources. Model 4—which was most favored by practitioners—started with women’s saving and credit groups, encouraged the development of income generating activities, offered a 6-months basic literacy course, followed by either 3 months follow up in both literacy and income generation, or 6 months of more advanced training. The overall perceptions were that six months are insufficient for most men and women to develop satisfactory skills in reading, writing and calculating and that the need to link these skills with some form of income-generation was strong. Ignoring differences of language, alphabets, literateness of environment, and levels of previous or other literacy among the learners, it would seem safe to reckon that the minimum time for developing skills in literacy and numeracy adequate to support livelihood and other development is 360 hours, plus more hours of learning and practice. Beyond that minimum, the duration of courses would depend on the complexity of the livelihood skills to be learned or developed.

11. Cadres of instructors: The broad experience of income-generating projects suggests that arranging for two cadres of


instructors, one for livelihoods, the other for literacy, appears to be more prudent than relying on “generalist” literacy instructors to undertake livelihood instruction or income-generating activities in addition to teaching literacy and numeracy.

There is no argument about the need to train, support, and re-train the literacy instructors. However, there is weaker consensus about how they should be recompensed for their contributions. Most of the programs reviewed make it clear that most literacy instructors do not have much schooling themselves, are not in steady or waged employment, and are themselves among the poorer of their societies. Naturally, they appreciate being paid in cash or kind. Most of the programs examined in this paper do offer pay, some at modest, others at more generous levels. Overall, it seems that NGOs are more inclined than governments to offer regular pay, rather than occasional moral or material awards. A few other programs rely on the literacy instructors being pure volunteers, especially where they are recruited and selected by their own participants from among the local community. Overall, the broader trend appears to treat literacy instructors on a basis similar to livelihood specialists and to remunerate them for their efforts.

12. Costs: Very little information on gross or unit costs was found in the documentation available. However, on the basis of two programs, supplemented by inferences from observations, we believe that the unit costs of the programs we have studied are quite low. The Uganda FAL reckoned a unit cost of US$4–5 per person enrolled. All that can be observed here is that even


the highest estimate does not appear inordinate. That said, policy makers in vocational/ technical education need to bear in mind that, just as vocational /technical education in schools and colleges is always more costly than general education, so analogous education for adults in villages and shanty-towns will unavoidably be more costly than simple literacy programs. In the cases of SODEFITEX, WEEL and WEP/N which combine livelihood skills and the three R’s with training in savings, credit, and business management and development, considerably more is involved than simple literacy. In turn, teaching these skills will call for cadres of well-trained specialists, who will without doubt expect commensurate payment. Further, supporting them, as well as holding them to account—without necessarily employing them on a permanent basis—will require a soundly devised administrative structure.

13. Elements of cost: Although no specific suggestions are possible here, it may be helpful simply to supply a non-exhaustive list of program costs, without specifying how they are to be apportioned:

Learners: learning materials, learning supports like space, lighting, heating. Instructors for livelihoods and for savings, credit, business management and business development: (on the assumption that they already have expertise in these subjects): remuneration, travel, subsistence, instructional materials, initial training as instructors, refresher training. Instructors/facilitators for literacy/numeracy and also for rights, responsibilities, civic, health and other topics in demand:


remuneration, initial training, instructional and recording materials, refresher training.Specialists for identifying new business opportunities (on the assumption they already havethe expertise): remuneration, travel, subsistence.

Trainers/technical supporters (whether community-based, contracted or public personnel): remuneration, training, (initial and refresher), travel, subsistence.

Supporting administrative infrastructure (for production, storage, distribution, travel, payments).

Supporting infrastructure for monitoring (plus quality assurance in learning, attainments,application).

14. Financial Sustainability: Since the potential clientele for livelihood-with-literacy/numeracy programs is currently large, and likely to grow further for a long time, and given the perspective of continuous, life-long education, the issues of cost require a major consideration of its financial sustainability. Here, the policy maker needs to bear in mind that, even at fee- exacting universities, few, if any, students, however affluent, meet the full cost of their education. Tuition fees usually cover only a proportion of the full costs of tuition. Since programs that include basic literacy and numeracy always have as their major clients people who are among the poorest of the poor, they will require substantial subsidies from external sources, whether public or private. This holds true whatever the measures to minimize dependency and expectations of free handouts, and whatever the measures gradually to reduce subsidies and move to higher proportions of local self-finance. However, the poor are not homogeneous. They can range from the destitute, who need


a total subsidy, to those like the women who may be just above the poverty line but still able to contribute to the costs of their education. Further, from the cases studies reviewed in this chapter (WEEL and WEP/N) suggest that groups of even very poor women can in a relatively short time mobilize their own savings and begin to pay for what they want. Thus, the proportion of subsidy could in principle vary from group to group, and, for particular groups, from time to time. Operating with such sensitivity and flexibility could well be beyond the capacity of a single central authority. However, decentralized approaches that set minimum standards but permit local adjustments to accommodate local conditions, communities, or groups could be feasible.

If the government of a poor, indebted country, in alliance with nongovernmental and community organizations, and people of good will and energy, aimed to make livelihood-with-literacy/numeracy education available to substantially larger proportions of poor people and to maintain long-term financial sustainability, following three steps could be of use: First, in addition to fiscal allocations, it would need to develop a mechanism to mobilize local voluntary contributions to a special fund or even network of funds (village or community); Second, it would need to form large-scale and long-term consortiums with international donors, both official and nongovernmental. Third, the government would need to persuade international lenders, like the World Bank, its regional counterpart, DFID and other international organizations that invest money in this direction.


15. Going to Scale: Normally, vocational and technical education policies are not associated with programs of mass education. Yet the numbers of very poor people working in livelihoods that could be made more productive pose the question whether education in livelihood-with-literacy/numeracy can be conceived in mass terms. Clearly, the cases that were presented in the above review reflect the recognition that larger scale programs are necessary and that strategies to achieve larger scales need to be devised. In the present review (SODEFITEX, WEEL and WEP/N), the initiative was taken very carefully and gradually by a relatively small agency at a very local level. Yet the strategy of gradualism has not demanded an inordinate amount of time to attain a significant scale.


CHAPTER-IVSALIENT FINDINGS

Section 1 – Findings from Quantitative Survey

and Secondary Information

4.1. Profile of the Study Area

A brief profile of the study districts is given in the following table. Literacy and work participation rate are two major indicators of social and economic development. In terms of literacy rate, Warangal seems to be far behind the other two districts.

Indicators Chittoor West Godavari

Warangal

Administrative divisions Number of Mandals Number of villages (inhabited) Area in Sq Km Number of HHs

366

150011252.23848607

446866

7742770429

551

100312846

729110

Population 2001Total Persons Male Female Rural UrbanPopulation Density (sq.km) 2001

374587518896901856185

78.3421.65

333

305263015377001514930

80.2619.74

499

324600416448951601109

80.819.2

253Sex Ratio 982 986 962 Caste distribution % SC population % ST Population

18.753.42

16.902.34

17.014.1

Literacy level (%) Male Female Overall

77.6255.7866.77

68.2961.0064.64

59.238.949.2

Classification by workersTotal workers (Main+Marginal)

175297939.057.75

141189738.18.14

156626639.39.00


Main workers (% of Popln) Marginal workers (% of Popln)Non workers (% of Popln)

53.20 53.76 51.7

Cultivators Agricultural Labors Household Industry Other workers

14.1116.811.8514.04

6.6229.171.239.12

13.612.01.612.1

Net area sown 26.9 56.6 31.8Number of SHGS 41033 68924* 33854Source: Hand Book of Statistics, (2005-06, West Godavari; 2004-05, Chittoor; 2005-06, Warangal Districts) * Tentative figures collected from DRDA, West Godavari.


This is evident from their work participation rate, which has important bearings with the occupation of the general population of the districts and also gives an indication on the other occupations (livelihood activities) the people are engaged in. Looking at the table, it is clear that the people in Warangal and Chittoor districts are more engaged in household activities compared to West Godavari. This gives an indication that West Godavari is comparatively developed than other two districts. This is further confirmed by taking the net area sown in West Godavari.

To be brief, among the sample districts, West Godavari comparatively more developed than other two districts.

4.2. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ABOUT THE RESPONDENTS 4.2.1. Respondents’ Profile:

Before going into the details of the profile of the respondents it is to be remembered that the Self Help Groups (SHG) that was included in the study were of at least 4 years or more. The basic reason for doing so was based on the assumption that the gestation period of any SHG to start / initiate any activity takes minimum of 2-3 years as there are several preliminary exercises that are to be carried out before the initiation of any activity. The activities of sample SHGs are described below.

Basic profile of the respondents such as age and sex distribution, religion, caste etc. is presented in Table 4.1. As mentioned in the sample frame, from each of the Gram Panchayats (GP), the total number of SHGs that were included in the study was 18 and


from each of the SHGs 5 members were interviewed. Thus the total number of respondents for each Mandal is 30. As far as the age distribution of the respondents in Chittoor district is concerned, most of the respondents were within the age group of 26-40, with the distribution varying across the sample blocks of the selected districts. The distribution remains almost same across all the districts. The mean age of the respondents was found to be 33 years, thus implying that most of the women were young households and capable of learning and entering into any livelihood activity. This further implies (supported by FGDs and Case studies) that they joined the SHGs after their marriage and the activities related to SHGs are in addition to their other household responsibilities. Almost all the respondents were Hindus with little representation of Christians and Muslims.

Table 4.1 : Profile of the Respondents

ParticularsChittoor West Godavari Warangal

TotalPalam aneru

Bangarupalemp

Renigunta

D. Tirumala

Undrajavaram

Undi SangamGudur DharmaSagar

AgeUpto 25 23.3 20.0 10.0 10.0 3.3 10.0 16.7 20.0 20.0 14.826-30 30.0 20.0 30.0 23.3 30.0 16.7 30.0 46.7 23.3 27.831-35 30.0 26.7 10.0 16.7 23.3 13.3 30.0 23.3 26.7 24.436-40 3.3 26.7 26.7 36.7 16.7 20.0 20.0 10.0 23.3 20.441-45 13.3 3.3 16.7 6.7 3.3 23.3 - - 3.3 7.846+ - 3.3 6.7 6.7 3.3 16.7 3.3 - 3.3 4.8ReligionHindu 100.0 90.0 100.0 76.7 93.3 100.0 96.7 93.3 100.0 94.4Muslim - 10.0 - - - - 3.3 6.7 - 2.2Christian - - - 13.3 6.7 - - - - 3.3CasteOC 13.3 30.0 20.0 - 50..0 36.7 3.3 6.7 - 17.8BC 46.7 26.7 63.3 10.0 43.3 63.3 63.3 43.3 56.7 46.3SC 33.3 36.7 13.3 90.0 6.7 - 33.3 13.3 43.3 30.0ST 6.7 6.7 3.3 - - - - 36.7 - 5.9Members in the HHUpto 5 86.7 80.0 83.3 93.3 100.0 80.0 86.7 86.7 83.3 86.76-9 13.3 20.0 16.7 6.7 - 20.0 13.3 13.3 16.7 13.3


Earning Members1 - 3.3 - - 3.3 10.0 - - 3.3 2.22 - 10.0 3.3 16.7 6.7 3.3 - 3.3 3.3 5.23 & Above 12.0 86.7 96.7 83.3 10.8 86.7 100.0 96.7 93.3 92.6Type of FamilyJoint 73.3 56.7 56.7 26.7 6.7 43.3 26.7 56.7 30.0 41.9Nuclear 26.7 43.3 43.3 73.3 93.3 56.7 73.3 43.3 70.0 58.1Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

Caste distribution of the respondents plays a major role in determining whether the literacy programs were targeted to some specific caste group. In our entire sample of 270 respondents there were only 16 scheduled tribes. Other backward classes constituted a major portion (46 per cent) followed by scheduled castes and other castes. However, there is little variation in the caste distribution across the blocks. At this point it is not clear whether the program was targeted to the BC villages or this result is due to purposive sampling as livelihood training was not provided to all the Gram Panchayats / villages where the literacy program is in place. This may also be due to defective implementation of the program.

Nearly 87 per cent of the respondents have a family size of 5 or more. The average household size was found to be 4.25. In most of the households the number of earning members in the family was found to be 3 or more. More earning members certainly have positive impact on the overall economic position of family. At the same time it is necessary to investigate the occupations of these households in order to have better understanding of the situation (Table 4.1 and Table 4.5).

4.2.2. Education


It is expected that that the education of the head of the household is one of the determining factors on whether the women of their respective families should participate in the adult education programs. As far as the education of the head of the household is concerned, by taking all the districts together, only 20 per cent of the head of the household were found to be having up to 10th standard and above. Though there is variation across the districts and mandals, a major chunk of them were only having primary education. This is one of the major reasons for low participation and high dropout rates in various literacy programs in Andhra Pradesh (Table 4.2).

Table 4.2: Education of the respondents & Head of the HH

Education

Chittoor West Godavari WarangalTotal

Palamaneru

Bangarupalem

Reni gunt

a

D. Tirumala

Undrajavaram

Undi Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

sagarHead of HHIlliterate 9.1 7.7 - 6.7 6.7 3.3 6.7 6.7 13.3 11.

1Primary 33.3 7.7 20.0 93.3 56.7 50.0 13.3 43.3 50.0 43.

0 Secondary 16.7 23.3 7.7 - 7.7 16.7 33.3 23.3 6.7 19.

3 High School 16.7 23.3 7.7 - 7.7 16.7 33.3 23.3 6.7 19.

3 Above 10 13.3 13.3 3.3 - - 16.7 16.7 23.3 20.0 19.

3 Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

4.2.3. Availability of basic amenities

Availability of basic facilities such as housing, sources of drinking water etc., has important bearings on the living standards of the respondent households – which indirectly imply their economic condition. Overall result indicates that around 39


per cent of the surveyed households had semi pucca houses and a slightly less (37 per cent) had pucca houses. However, the results vary across the sample mandals, with Dwaraka Tirumala and Undi Mandals of West Godavari district having nearly 40 per cent pucca houses. Similar is the case with Warangal district. Most of the houses were rated as ‘Good’ and ‘Average’ across the mandals of the districts. (Table 4.3).

It is to note that in most of the mandals the major drinking water source is either individual/community taps. This certainly gives good indication that the people are conscious about their health. On the other hand, though the households in most of the mandals had their own toilets, the practice of open defecation still dominates the entire scenario. It will certainly be interesting to see the correlation between the education of the head of the households and sources of drinking water. This is found to be 0.97, thus giving us an indication that the higher the education of the households, more they are conscious about their heath. At the same time the coefficient of correlation between the education of the head of the household and source of defecation was found to be 0.78. Similar conclusions could be drawn as far as the relationship between education and sanitary habits are concerned, though the degree of relationship was found to be low (Table 4.3).

4.2.4. Income and income flow characteristics

It is important to note that nearly 37 per cent of the respondents earned their income on daily basis, thus indicating that majority of the respondents were daily wage earners. No substantial


difference could be found across the mandals, except Bangarupalem of Chittoor and Sangam of Warangal, where there were 50 per cent or more falling under this category (Table 4.4). This almost matches when we look at

Table 4.3 : Housing, Infrastructure & Income of Respondents

Particulars

Chittoor West Godavari

Warangal

Total

Palama

neru

Bangarupalem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mal

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

Housing Pucca 50.0 50.0 36.

7 40.0 26.7 40.0 20.0 30.

0 36.7 36.7

Semi Pucca 26.7 26.7 16.

7 33.3 46.7 53.3 18.3 20.

0 60.0 38.5

Kutcha 23.3 23.3 46.7 26.7 26.7 6.7 16.7 50.

0 3.3 28.8

Housing ConditionV.Good - 3.3 - - 3.3 16.

7 10.0 10.0 3.3 5.2

Good 40.0 43.3 50.0 63.3 66.7 46.

7 20.0 20.0 30.0 42.

2 Average 56.7 36.7 40.

0 26.7 30.0 26.7 53.3 23.

3 53.3 38.5

Poor 3.3 16.7 10.0 6.7 - 10.

0 10.0 43.3 13.3 12.

6 V. Poor - - - 3.3 - - 6.7 3.3 - 1.5 Source of Drinking WaterIndividual Tap 16.7 23.3 5

0.0 53.3 3.3 73.3 60.0 - 50.

0 36.7

Community Tap 83.3 73.3 46.

7 46.7 3.3 16.7 30.0 40.

0 26.7 40.7

Hand Pump - 3.3 3.3 - 93.3 3.3 6.7 36.

7 16.7 18.1

Well - - - - - 3.3 3.3 23.3 6.7 4.1

Others - - - - - 3.3 - - - 0.4 Toilet FacilityIndividual 16.7 20.0 3.3 60.0 66.7 90.

0 36.7 20.0 26.7 37.

8 Public 3.3 13.3 16.

7 3.3 6.7 10.0 - - - 5.9

Open 80.0 66.7 80. 36.7 26.7 - 63.3 80. 73.3 56.


Defecation 0 0 3 Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

Table 4.4: Income Flow Characteristics

Particulars


Palama

neru

Bangarupalem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mal

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

Daily 20.0 50.0 23.3 33.3 40.0 43.

3 56.7 30.0 36.7 37.0

Weekly 50.0 3.3 16.7 56.7 26.7 10.

0 - - 6.7 18.9

Bi Weekly 6.7 33.3 6.7 - 3.3 - - 6.7 - 6.3Monthly - 13.3 33.

3 6.7 23.3 16.7 16.7 3.3 6.7 13.

3Quarterly - - 3.3 - - - - 3.3 3.3 1.1Annual - - 10.

0 3.3 3.3 - 13.3 43.3 13.3 9.6Irregular 23.3 - - - - 6.7 - - 30.0 6.7Annual IncomeUpto 6000 - 6.7 16.

7 6.7 - 3.3 30.0 6.7 46.7 13.0

6001-12000

100.0 80.0 33.

3 90.0 16.7 63.3 56.7 86.7 53.3 64.

412001-25000 - 13.3 50.

0 3.3 83.3 33.3 13.3 6.7 - 22.

6Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270


Table 4.5: Occupation of the Respondent & Main Earner

Occupation

Chittoor West Godavari Warangal TotalPalama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni gunt

a

D.Tiru

mala

Undrajavara

m

Undi Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

SagarOccupation of the RespondentsCultivation 26.

7 26.7 16.7 - - 30.0 6.7 6.7 20.0 14.8

Private Service - 3.3 - - - - - - - 0.4 Govt. Service - 3.3 3.3 6.7 - 3.3 3.3 - - 2.2 Small Business 6.7 20.0 10.0 3.3 40.0 20.

0 3.3 6.7 6.7 13.0 Animal Husbandry 3.3 13.3 23.3 - - - - 3.3 - 4.8 Agriculture Labour

26.7 20.0 33.3 76.7 50.0 33.

3 76.7 83.3 70.0 52.2 Other Daily Labour

16.7 3.3 6.7 10.0 3.3 13.

3 10.0 - - 7.0 Domestic Servant

20.0 6.7 - - 3.3 - - - - 3.3

Unemployed - 3.3 6.7 - - - - - - 1.1 Tailoring & Embroidery - - - 3.3 3.3 - - - 3.3 1.1 Occupation of the Main EarnerCultivation 23.

3 26.7 26.7 3.3 6.7 23.3 6.7 13.3 16.7 16.3 Private Service - 3.3 - - 10.

0 - 3.3 - - 1.9 Govt. Service - - 6.7 - - - 6.7 - - 1.5 Small Business

16.7 10.0 - 3.3 3.3 23.3 3.3 6.7 3.3 7.8

Large Business - - 6.7 - - 3.3 - - - 1.1 Animal Husbandry 3.3 - 6.7 3.3 - - - 3.3 - 1.9 Agriculture Labour

20.0 40.0 33.3 73.3 70.

0 40.0 70.0 70.0 80.0 55.2 Other Daily Labour

33.3 16.7 20.0 13.3 6.7 10.0 10.0 6.7 - 13.0

Domestic Servant 3.3 - - - - - - - - 0.4 Others - 3.3 - 3.3 3.3 - - - - 1.1

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270


Table 4.5 where the main occupation of the respondents is given. Out of only 16 respondents who had monthly income, a very few of them (6) are government servants, only 1 in the private service and another 9 domestic servants. However, once we look at the occupation of the respondents (Table 4.5), it clearly indicates that the respondents were mostly agricultural laborers and depend on cultivation of small pieces of land that they do have. The availability of household amenities can give us an indirect estimate of their annual income. During the present study this exercise was not carried out in detail to arrive at such estimates. They were asked direct question about their annual household income and majority (65 per cent) had annual income within 6000-12000. To summarize, our results do not show any mismatch between the respondents’ occupation, and annual income expressed by them. This argument is further strengthened when we look at the occupation of the head of the households (Table 4.5).

4.3. INFORMATION ABOUT SHG AND TRAININGS RECEIVED

4.3.1. Key players in SHG formation process

As mentioned earlier, majority of the SHGs that were taken for the present study were more than 2-3 years old. This was a deliberate selection process. As per the information from the respondents, the key player in the formation of SHG is the Government (58 per cent). It is pertinent to examine why the government has been the major key player in the formation of SHGs where as this is generally formed by NGOs? In this context


it is necessary that the DWCRA (Development of Women and Child in Rural Areas) is explained briefly.

As an initiative towards improving the socio economic status of the poor people (particularly the women) the government of India made a provision that 30 per cent of the Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP) beneficiaries should be women. This was pre conceived by the notion that the main earners of the family, who are basically men, do not spend their entire income on the family- rather a major portion of their income goes towards the liquors and other non family related activities. However, this 30 per cent reservation did not lead to expected results. Keeping this view in mind the GoI started DWCRA program as a sub scheme of IRDP during 1982-83. Initially it was started as a pilot project in 50 districts scattered around various states of the country. The program aimed at forming women groups (below poverty line) consisting of 15-20 members. Under this scheme the women were encouraged to save at least one rupee per day. This amount was proposed to be deposited in a bank in a joint account opened in the name of the group leader and one government representative appointed for the DWCRA program for the groups at the grass root level. The success of this program led to present SHG movement in Andhra Pradesh. That is the major reason of getting high responses on the government being a major player in the SHG movement. As the success of the SHGs was gaining a higher momentum, NABARD came forward with a pilot project which gave successful results. This has prompted other banks to come forward to give financial assistance to SHGs for carrying out


various income generation activities. On the other hand the banks also took initiatives for formation of Women SHGs. That is why many respondents have mentioned banks as the key player in the formation of their groups.

Table 4.6: Key Players in the formation of SHG

Formed by


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mala

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

NGO 30.0 60.0 - 3.3 - - - - - 10.4

GP - 23.3 - 6.7 56.7 - 26.7 3.3 - 13.0

Government 36.7 6.7 96.

7 86.7 26.7 40.0 56.7 66.7 100.

0 57.4

Bankers 33.3 10.0 3.3 3.3 16.7 60.0 16.7 30.0 - 19.

3 Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

4.3.2. Present activities of SHGsAlmost all the respondents were of the opinion that the present activities of SHGs are mostly managing themselves in various aspects related to their groups and microfinance. As far as the marketing of local products by DWCRA groups is concerned percentage of responses came down to 12 – these activities are more popular in Chittoor and West Godavari districts. Apart from the above activities, the most interesting aspect is that nearly 8 per cent of the total responses by SHG members were related to decentralize planning and local governance. This certainly indicates that the SHG members are being economically and politically empowered, thus indicating partial success of the movement. It must be noted that some of the SHGs were involved


in multiple activities. Therefore the number of responses under each category would not add up to 270 (Table 4.7).


Table 4.7: Present Activities – SHGsActivitie

s Chittoor West Godavari Warangal

Total

Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mala

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

SelfManagement

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270(40.5)

Micro-finance 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

270(40.5)

DWCRA – Marketing 4 13 5 8 24 9 - 13 1

77 (11.6)

Decentralized Planning 6 2 3 3 3 2 22 1 7

49 (7.4

)Total number of responses

70 75 68 71 87 71 82 74 68 666

* Due to multiple responses total number of responses will not add up to 270

4.3.3. Major Institutions promoting SHGsSHGs are usually involved in income generation activities and the support from the financial institutions play a key role on the way of their success. The financial institutions (banks) were found to be the principal support for majority of the SHGs. Apart from the financial institutions, support from the functionaries from DRDA, VELUGU (it means ‘light’ in Telugu) and NGOs was also expressed by some of the respondents. It must be mentioned that there are some programs e.g., Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK) where the financial assistance/operations are made through recognized NGOs. In this case the NGOs are given the total responsibility by the financial institutions for the distribution and collection of loan amount from SHGs. Gram Panchayats did not seem to have played a major role in supporting the activities of the SHGs (Table 4.8).


Table 4.8: Institutions promoting SHG ActivitiesInstituti

ons Chittoor West Godavari Warangal

Total

Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mala

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

NGOs15 4 - 17 - - - - -

36 (10.3)

Govt. Functionaries - 4 - 23 1 - 5 2 28

63 (18.1)

Gram Panchayats - - - 1 - - - 4 -

5 (1.4)

Banks24 25 30 28 29 30 30 21 28

245 (70.2)

Total number of responses 39 33 30 69 30 30 35 27 56

349(100.0)

* Due to multiple responses total number of responses will not add up to 270 4.4. ADULT LITERACY PROGRAMS IN THE STATE

4.4.1. Types of programs

In order to know the popularity of different adult literacy programs that were implemented in the state, the respondents were requested to name any adult literacy program that they have heard about. Among the most popularly known programs are Akshara Sankranthi and Akshara Bharathi, which was expressed by majority of the respondents. Some other names such as Akshara Mela, Akshara Deeksha etc. was also expressed by some of the respondents (Table 4.9).

Table 4.9: Adult Literacy Programmes

Particulars


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mala

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

Akshara Tapsyam

30 30 30 7 11 8 7 2 -125

(18.1)


Akshara Sankranthi

23 24 25 17 14 16 30 30 30209 (30.2)

Akshara Bharathi

22 29 30 24 22 23 27 29 30236 (34.1)

Akshara Deeksha - - - 4 13 6 - - -

23 (3.3)

Akshara Vanitha - - - 20 20 12 - - -

52 (7.5)

Akshara Mahila - - - 10 3 6 - - -

19 (2.7)

Akshara Mala - - - 3 - 6 - - -

9 (1.3)

100 per cent Literacy

12 5 - - - - 1 1 -19

(2.7)

Total number of responses

87 88 85 85 83 77 65 62 60692 (100.0)

* Due to multiple responses total number of responses will not add up to 270

4.4.1. Effectiveness of literacy programs As mentioned earlier, the government India set up National Literacy Mission (NLM) to provide literacy to the illiterates, particularly illiterate women. Total Literacy Campaign (TLC), Post Literacy Programs (PLP) and continuing education program (CEP) are three phased design and implemented in most of the states. TLC is considered as basic literacy program for reading, writing and numerical abilities among the illiterate women. The other two programs (PLP and CEP) are literacy programs aiming at providing basic skills to the women for income generation activities. Probably the state of Andhra Pradesh was one among the leading states who specifically designed a program named as Akshara Sankranthi incorporating some of the more appropriate topics of NLM for rural women so as to enable them to participate in development activities. This program emphasized


on refreshing the knowledge of neo-literate women in literacy as well as livelihood skills and thereby preparing them for income generation activities.

No doubt, the program in Andhra Pradesh was highly ambitious. It is quite unfortunate that the implementation of the program, specifically at district level was extremely poor, thus acting as major hindrance to achieve its targeted goals. Feedback from the district level officials gives us a clear indication that lack of interest of district as well as state level machineries jeopardized the entire program implementation. The extent was unimaginable – with only 2 – 3 per cent of the SHGs received the training on livelihood skills. This was confirmed during the phase of field testing and reconfirmed from the District Education Officers (DEO). This forced us to change the sampling method – we changed from the method of systematic random sampling to purposive sampling, where the trainings were imparted. Given these drawbacks, we interpret the results in the following paragraphs.

4.4.2. Training Agencies involved in training

As mentioned in the methodology, Roger’s framework is used for the analysis of our results. The groups were provided training at four levels. The first level was training on group formation, self help concepts, team building and leadership, book keeping, credit management and communication skills. We will look at each aspect individually. As per our findings, for all the topics in Level-1, the trainings were provided mostly by government


agencies, followed by combined effort of government and NGOs and banks. However, NGOs and banks also played vital roles in the entire training process. The results are not surprising if we look at the DWCRA movement which was initiated by the government (Annexure Tables A1- A7). However, during our field visits it was observed that most of the SHG members were lacking in communication, thus implying less emphasis on the training on communication skills.

The second level of training (Level-2) was provided on information and knowledge on government programs, community participation, skill up gradation and income generation activities, importance of literacy to girl child and marketing skills. In this case, the government agencies and NGOs played key roles in the training process (Annexure Tables B1-B5). Although the tables do not explicitly imply anything about the lack of training on any of the aspects, our own observation gives us a strong feeling that many SHGs were not properly trained on marketing skills. In some instances it was requested by the respondents that special training programs need to be arranged on this aspect on an immediate basis.

The third level of training consisted of the topics like – importance of health, nutrition and education to the children, awareness on sanitation and personal hygiene, awareness on environment and energy conservation and water harvesting. In this case, the Government and NGOs played vital role in the knowledge transformation process. It is also noted that the


training on water harvesting was not imparted to nearly 20 per cent of the respondents. This has happened in two blocks of Chittoor, 2 blocks of Warangal and one block of West Godavari. The major reason for this is lack of proper monitoring and supervision and lack of awareness of the trainers on these aspects of training (Annexure Tables C1-C4). Results were almost similar when we look at the fourth level of training which emphasized on- planning for self employment, group lending schemes, non-formal and rural economy and marketing skills (Annexure Tables D1-D4). It was also noted that importance on non-formal and rural economy and marketing skills were grossly lacking. 4.4.3. Time of imparting the training

It would be interesting to look at the results related to this aspect as it gives an indication on whether these trainings were imparted in appropriate time. In an ideal situation the initiation of the activities should follow the training. It is interesting to note that nearly 70 per cent of the SHG members received these trainings after the initiation of their activities. In this case, one can doubt the impact and effectiveness of these training programs on the activities carried out by SHGs. Putting in Roger’s framework, this comes under relationship 2 i.e., “Literacy followed by separate income generation activities” . No systematic linkage between the two activities could be found here.

A well designed program will always have the training component followed by the program implementation. However,


in our case there are several SHGs which are 5 or more years old. It could be presumed that the older SHGs would have received training (may not be through Akshara Sankranthi) through other sources like NGOs/Banks etc. It would have been more useful if the present literacy program could have concentrated on the SHGs which are relatively new and do not have adequate knowledge and strength to carryout their activities. Table 4.10 reveals the fact that only 20 per cent of the SHGs received the trainings before the initiation of the activities, where as 70 per cent received trainings after the initiation. It is therefore necessary that the appropriate SHGs are identified for this program to have optimal benefits. Furthermore, the older SHGs will not gain much from these training programs. Given this context, the results presented in Annexure have high chance of being skewed towards older SHGs.

Table 4.10: Time of Training Programs Conducted

Topics Level-4

Chittoor West Godavari Warangal Total

Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni gunta

D.Tiru

mala

Undrajavara

m

Undi Sangam

Gudur Dharma

SagarAfter the initiation of SHG activities

50.0 50.0 56.

7 40.0 63.3 80.0 90.0 93.3 100.

0 69.3 Before the initiation of


SHG activities

46.7 36.7 23.

3 56.7 - 6.7 - 6.7 - 19.6

In between the two 3.3 13.3 20.

0 3.3 36.7 13.3 10.0 - - 11.1 Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

4.5. UTILIZATION OF LITERACY SKILLS ON LIVELIHOODS

During the literacy programs the SHGs were imparted training on various aspects that would improve their livelihood. Table 4.11 gives the details of the areas of livelihoods in which the literacy skills were used. It could be observed that the trainings were used in few areas of livelihood activities such as tailoring, dairy, petty business and preparation of surf, shampoo, phenol etc., The skills like ‘measurement and accounts’ were found to be used in case of all the activities just mentioned. Even if we know that the skills on measurement and accounts are necessary for each and every activity, it is surprising to note that only 44 per cent of the respondents were using these skills. It is necessary to mention that at Continuing Education Centers (CECs) some books are kept on quality management of different items. These are mostly meant for the neo-literates. Though these books are supposed to be read and followed in order to maintain product quality. Unfortunately it was also found that majority (86 per cent) of the neo-literates are not using the books.

As a result, they are not being able to maintain product quality, which ultimately affects the marketability of the products. Training on milk production and cattle rearing was only used by 14 per cent of the respondents. As mentioned earlier, training on


marketing skills are extremely poor, thus needs special attention. Apart from several other reasons, two of them are noteworthy: (a) the SHG members are not being able to link the literacy skills in their livelihood activities (b) lack of linkage between the District Adult Education department and other departments imparting livelihood trainings (Table 4.11).

4.5.1. Impact of Livelihood trainings on Income Generation

It would be interesting to note the areas where the livelihood trainings have practically helped the SHGs to improve their income generation activities. It is noted that nearly 56 per cent of the respondents were conscious about the quality and were able to do the same for their products. This helped them to compete with the similar products in the market and strengthened their income. However, it is to be noted that apart from livelihood trainings there are some other activities such as marketing and monitoring & supervision by the government officials that play vital roles in strengthening the income generation. As mentioned earlier, these aspects were not given due importance during the trainings. As a result the training programs on other aspects (as mentioned in Table 4.12) show insignificant impact on income generation activities (Table 4.12).

The findings from Table 4.12 are well substantiated with the results from Table 4.13 where the extent of impact of training programs is presented. As could be seen from Table 4.13, only 29 per cent of the respondents were expressed the impact of livelihood program to be “very high”.


Table 4.11: Use of Literacy program on LivelihoodAreas Chittoor West Godavari Warangal

Total

Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni gunt

a

D.Tiru

mala

Undra

javaram

Undi Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

Measurement & Accounts 60.0 33.3 43.3 53.3 - 33.3 30.0 80.0 63.3 44.1 Milk Production 20.0 30.0 33.3 6.7 - - - - 3.3 10.4 Quality Goods 3.3 33.3 13.3 30.0 - - 33.3 - 10.0 13.7 Cattle Rearing 16.7 3.3 10.0 - - - - - - 3.3 Marketing Economy - - - 10.0 - - - - - 1.1 Technical Preparation & Economy - - - - 100.0 66.7 36.7 16.7 23.3 2.7 Horticulture - - - - - - - 3.3 - 0.3

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270Table 4.12 : Areas where training on livelihood skills

impactedincome generation activities

Areas Chittoor West Godavari Warangal Total

Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni gunta

D.Tiru

mala

Undrajavara

m

Undi Sangam

Gudur Dharma

SagarSkill Development 36.7 6.7 33.3 6.7 3.3 3.3 - - 3.3 11.

1 Quality goods 23.3 36.7 33.3 36.

7 40.0 33.3

100.0 96.7 96.7 55.

2 Proper accts & records 33.3 10.0 23.3 40.

0 - - - - - 11.9

Health of Cattle - 40.0 3.3 - - - - - - 4.8 Measurements - 6.7 - - 3.3 - - - - 1.1 Economy & Marketing - - 6.7 16.

7 53.3 63.3 - - - 15.

6 Qualitative Cultivation

- - - - - - - 3.3 - 0.3

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270


Table 4.13: Extent of impact of livelihood training programs

on income generation

Extent of

impact


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni gunta

D.Tiru

mala

Undrajavara

m

Undi Sangam

Gudur Dharma

SagarHigh 6.7 6.7 10.0 23.

3 - 26.7 96.7 40.0 53.3 29.

2 Above Average 13.3 46.7 73.3 63.

3 -40.0 3.3 36.7 36.7 34.

8 Average 20.0 46.7 16.7 13.

3 96.7 33.3 - 20.0 10.0 28.

5 Below Average 60.0 - - - 3.3 - - 3.3 - 7.4

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

4.6. TEACHING OF LITERACY AND INCOME GENERATION – RELATIONSHIP

As mentioned earlier, the study used Roger’s Framework to find out the relationship between teaching of literacy and income generation activities. All the five possible relationships are examined on a four point scale- starting from highly agree to disagree- and the results are summarized in Table 4.14.

Proposition 1: “Literacy program is perquisite in preparation for training in livelihood and income generation activities”, though was not disagreed by any of the respondents, the responses are not so encouraging - as nearly 66 per cent of the respondents “agreed” with this proposition. The major reason for this is that there are several literacy programs in the state since 1988. This has made the respondents to understand the importance of such programs. However, the linkage between livelihood and literacy is of recent origin and started from Continuing Education and Akshara Sankranthi programs. That is


the reason for 66 per cent of the respondents just “agreed” when they were asked for giving their opinion on the first proposition. This can be substantiated with the case studies (Given in the last section of this chapter).

Proposition 2: The respondents were then asked to react on the second proposition: “Literacy program should be followed by separate income generation activity”. In other words, unless the people are thorough with the fundamentals of literacy, they will not be able to manage income generation programs. Our result indicates that 77 per cent of the respondents “agreed” with this view. The major reasons for this is that at present the income generation (i.e., Livelihood) programs are being implemented through Continuing Education Centers (CECs). In order to bring a linkage between literacy and livelihood, the beneficiaries of the CECs (i.e., neo-literates) are being sent to various livelihood training programs organized by various agencies at the district level. As a result, the beneficiaries of the literacy program will be able to utilize their literacy skills for learning the livelihood skills and ultimately improving their income generation activities.

Proposition 3: As a reaction to the statement “Income generation activities leading to literacy”, 82 per cent of the respondents reacted positively. It was observed in the field that women engaged in diary activities went for the literacy programs out of necessities arising in the way of their day to day business operations. Though this is rare as per Roger’s framework, there are several instances (see case studies) where


the literacy was felt necessary after the initiation of the income generation activities.

Proposition 4: “Income generation activities and literacy are integrated”: Nearly 80 per cent of the respondents agreed with this statement. However, this type of responses is obvious as most of the respondents were unable to link up the literacy with income generation activities and were not aware about the present activities that are going on under various livelihood schemes implemented by various agencies.

Table 4.14: Opinion of the following topics on experience

Topics Level-4


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni gunta

D.Tiru

mala

Undrajavara

m

Undi Sangam

Gudur Dharma

Sagara. Literacy program is perquisite in preparation for training in livelihood and income generation activitiesHighly agree 23.3 23.3 63.3 46.

7 - 60.0 46.7 30.0 3.3 33.

0 Agree 76.7 76.7 36.7 53.

3 100.

0 30.0 53.3 70.0 96.7 65.

9 Partially agree - - - - - 10.

0 - - - 1.0 Disagree - - - - - - - - - -b Literacy program should be followed by separate income generation activityHighly agree 10.0 6.7 20.0 13.

3 - 30.0 33.3 40.0 3.3 17.

5 Agree 90.0 90.0 73.3 70.

0 100.

0 56.7 66.7 56.7 90.0 77.

0 Partially agree - 3.3 6.7 6.7 - 10.

0 - 3.3 - 3.3 Disagree - - - 10.

0 - 3.3 - - 6.7 2.2 c Income generation activities leading to literacyHighly agree 6.7 6.7 6.7 20.

0 - 23.3 30.0 33.3 3.3 14.

4 Agree 93.3 93.3 93.3 80.

0 100.

0 56.7 70.0 56.7 96.7 82.

2 Partially - - - - - 20. - 10.0 - 3.3


agree 0 Disagree - - - - - - - - - -d Income generation activities and literacy are integrated Highly agree 20.0 3.3 3.3 20.

0 - 20.0 26.7 36.7 3.3 14.

8 Agree 80.0 90.0 93.3 76.

7 100.

0 53.3 73.3 56.7 96.7 80.

0 Partially agree - 6.7 3.3 3.3 - 20.

0 - 6.7 - 4.4 Disagree - - - - - 6.7 - - - 0.7 e Literacy and income generation activity in parallel but separateHighly agree 3.3 3.3 6.7 6.7 - 10.

0 13.3 13.3 3.3 6.7 Agree 30.0 83.3 86.7 70.

0 100.

0 43.3 53.3 36.7 60.0 62.

6 Partially agree - 13.3 3.3 13.

3 - 10.0 3.3 10.0 20.0 8.1

Disagree 66.7 - 3.3 10.

0 - 36.7 30.0 40.0 16.7 22.

6 Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

Proposition 5: “Literacy and income generation activity in parallel but separate”: Only 63 percent of the respondents agreed with this statement. The major reason for this is that the earlier literacy programs were concentrating only on fundamentals of literacy. There were several livelihood programs which were implemented during those periods (1988 onwards). At that point of time women were attending the livelihood programs organized by government and other agencies. In recent times also there are several livelihood programs by various agencies. In both the instances there has not been any systematic linkage between the two components.

4.7. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN ANDHRA PRADESH

Literacy and livelihood are expected to have positive impact on the life style and progressiveness of women. This ultimately leads to their self empowerment at different spheres of their life


e.g., economic, political, and social. Thus literacy and livelihood training has a direct relationship and improvement of one leads to the other. The process outcome of these activities is the change of their attitude and thinking process. In order to capture this component, respondents were asked to react on various statements related to their day to day life that are major determinants of their empowerment. Through this exercise we tried to understand the extent of their empowerment at individual as well as the community level.

Individual level: At individual level the women were asked to react on the aspects such as sharing of domestic work by men, decision making on their own earned income etc., Findings are presented in Table 4.15. One can observe that in almost all the cases (90-99 percent) the respondents were of the opinion that the domestic work should be shared by men and they should have adequate freedom in making major decisions in their families. Similar results were obtained in relation to their freedom on spending their earned income and preventing violence in their families. These aspects would automatically lead to their self confidence and being proud for their work.

Community level: Empowerment of women at community level was assessed by asking the respondents to react on the aspects such as their interest on getting together and forming an organization, asking for allocating more funds for the men groups, giving higher importance to male leadership and their dominance in political participation (i.e., PRIs). Interestingly it was observed that almost all of the respondents were in favor of women coming together and forming the groups. As far as their


reaction on higher male participation on political sphere is concerned, only 44 per cent came forward to tell that women should play a major role. Given the present male dominated society, the results are not so surprising. Even after the literacy program, they do not seem to be averting to their societal and community responsibilities. Similar is the case when we asked to react on more allocation of funds to the projects related to men. Reactions on other aspects are given in Table 4.16.

The above analysis gives an overall impression that at the individual level the women are more sensitive to empowerment issues (described above) in comparison to their empowerment at community level. This certainly needs the attention of government as well as women groups in the state. Possibly, training will be one of the components which need to be incorporated in formal and informal education system.

Table 4.15: Empowerment Issues (Individual Level)Topic

s Chittoor West Godavari Warangal

Total

Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mala

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

a Domestic Work should be shared by menAgree 100.0 93.3 96.7 93.3 100.0 83.

3 76.7 100.0 100.0 93.

7 Disagree - 6.7 3.3 6.7 - 16.

7 23.3 - - 6.3 b Women should have control on the decision on familyAgree 100.0 83.3 100.

0 86.7 100.0 86.7 96.7 96.7 100.0 94.

4 Disagree - 16.7 - 13.3 - 13.

3 3.3 3.3 - 5.6 c Women should be given freedom to take decision on their earned incomeAgree 100.0 80.0 100.

0 96.7 100.0 86.7 100.0 96.7 100.0 95.

6 Disagree - 20.0 - 3.3 - 13.

3 - 3.3 - 4.4 d Women should feel pride and value for their workAgree 100.0 93.3 100.

0 100.

0 100.0 86.7 96.7 93.3 96.7 96.

3


Disagree - 6.7 - - - 13.

3 3.3 6.7 3.3 3.7 e Women should have adequate self confidence esteemAgree 100.0 96.7 100.

0 100.

0 100.0 96.7 100.0 93.3 100.0 98.

5 Disagree - 3.3 - - - 3.3 - 6.7 - 1.5 f Women should be capable of preventing violenceAgree 100.0 93.3 100.

0 100.

0 100.0 100.0 90.0 96.7 100.0 97.

8 Disagree - 6.7 - - - - 10.0 3.3 - 2.2 g Women should be able to take decision on marriage and education of the girl childAgree 100.0 93.3 100.

0 100.

0 100.0 100.0 100.0 96.7 100.0 98.

9 Disagree - 6.7 - - - - - 3.3 - 1.1 Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

Table 4.16: Empowerment Issues (Organizational / Community Level)

Topics Chittoor West Godavari Warangal Total

Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni gunta

D.Tiru

mala

Undrajavara

m

Undi Sangam

Gudur Dharma

Sagara Women should come together and form their organizationsAgree 100.

0 93.3 100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

99.3

Disagree - 6.7 - - - - - - - 0.7 b More funds should be allocated for the projects related to manAgree 30.0 46.7 50.0 83.

3 50.0 43.3 46.7 80.0 70.0 55.

6 Disagree 70.0 53.3 50.0 16.

7 50.0 56.7 53.3 20.0 30.0 44.

4 c There should be increased number of men leader at all levelsAgree 40.0 46.7 36.7 66.

7 50.0 70.0 43.3 86.7 70.0 56.

7 Disagree 60.0 53.3 63.3 33.

3 50.0 30.0 56.7 13.3 30.0 43.

3 d Women involvement in design and application of technologyAgree 100.

0 76.7 100.0

93.3

100.0

83.3 96.7 93.3 100.

0 93.7

Disagree - 23.3 - 6.7 - 16.

7 3.3 6.7 - 6.3 e Men should participate in community programs, productive enterprises and PRIsAgree 100.

0 80.0 96.7 90.0 93.3 96.

7 73.3 96.7 100.0

91.9


Disagree - 20.0 3.3 10.

0 6.7 3.3 26.7 3.3 - 8.1 f Women should be trained in important aspects of social, political and economic lifeAgree 100.

0 83.3 100.0

100.0

100.0

86.7 96.7 96.7 100.

0 95.9

Disagree - 16.7 - - - 13.

3 3.3 3.3 - 4.1 g Women should be able to express her legal rights when necessaryAgree 100.

0 96.7 100.0

90.0

100.0

96.7 96.7 96.7 100.

0 97.4

Disagree - 3.3 - 10.

0 - 3.3 3.3 3.3 - 5.6 Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

4.7.1. Areas and extent of Empowerment Now it would be interesting to look at the results of the study relating extent of women empowerment in the state of Andhra Pradesh. This is analyzed by taking into account various areas of operation. So far as the strengthening of income generation activities by women is concerned, nearly 54 per cent of the respondents were of the opinion that literacy and skill development programs have helped in strengthening the income generation to a large extent. Similar responses were obtained when they were asked about their participation in Community Bases Organizations. As far as the concept of starting and managing an enterprise goes, the literacy and skill development programs do not seem to have as much impact as it was for income generation and participation in CBOs. Though it is difficult to draw any concrete conclusion in this regard without any other supporting information, it can still be concluded that skills on opening an enterprise and managing the enterprises in general has not been a key component in literacy program. It may be possible that the reported figure for both (41 per cent


each) may be due to other livelihood training programs prevailing in the district and probably a part of the livelihood program of the government. Similar results are found for the women participation in decentralized planning (Table 4.17).

Table 4.17 : Areas and extent to which the literacy and skill development programs have influenced different

aspects related to women empowerment


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni gunta

D.Tiru

mala

Undrajavara

m

Undi Sangam

Gudur Dharma

Sagara Strengthening income generationTo a large extent 83.3 43.3 63.3 43.

3 - 50.0 90.0 40.0 73.3 54.

1 Upto some extent 16.7 56.7 36.7 56.

7 83.3 40.0 10.0 56.7 16.7 42.

6 Not at all - - - - 16.7 10.

1 - 3.3 - 3.3 b Participation in CBOsTo a large extent 86.7 66.7 16.7 73.

3 - 40.0 90.0 43.3 73.3 55.

6 Upto some extent 13.3 33.3 73.3 23.

3 90.0 60.0 10.0 50.0 16.7 42.

2 Not at all - - - 3.3 10.1 - - 6.7 - 2.2 c Starting the enterprise of their ownTo a large extent

50.0 40.0 20.0 16.7 - 33.

3 90.0 43.3 70.0 41.5

Upto some extent

50.0 60.0 73.3 76.7 56.7 76.

7 10.0 53.3 16.7 51.5

Not at all - - 6.7 6.7 43.3 - - 3.3 3.3 7.0 d Managing their enterpriseTo a large extent

60.0 33.3 16.7 30.0 - 16.

7 90.0 43.3 70.0 41.1

Upto some extent

23.3 63.3 80.0 76.7 50.0 66.

7 10.0 53.3 23.3 48.5


Not at all 16.7 3.3 3.3 3.3 50.0 6.7 - 3.3 6.7 10.

4 e Participation in decentralized planningTo a large extent

76.7 20.0 13.3 76.7 - 20.

0 86.7 50.0 76.7 45.6

Upto some extent

33.3 73.3 83.3 23.3 56.7 63.

3 13.3 46.7 16.7 45.6

Not at all - 6.7 3.3 - 43.3 16.

7 - 3.3 6.7 8.9 Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

4.7.2. Appropriateness of the present approach in addressing women issues

In addition to above information on empowerment, an attempt was made in order to get an idea about the system / approaches that are in place and to investigate whether the present approaches are appropriate and adequate enough to address the women issues in Andhra Pradesh. Out of total 270 respondents, 78.5 per cent responded positively and rest of them (21.5 per cent) was negative. Among those who expressed that the present approach is adequate, cited various reasons in support of their opinion. Nearly 12.3 per cent of the respondents (each) expressed that the due to the present attempts by the government there is better coordination between the government and NGOs and the women are empowered on various aspects. Only 7 per cent of the respondents were of the opinion that the present approach has led to skill development (Table 4.18a).

Among those who felt the present approach to be inappropriate cited various reasons in support of their argument. Most frequently cited response was related to lack of availability of


necessary logistics and infrequent use of reading materials. (Table 4.18b).

Table 4.18(a) : Appropriateness of the present approach in addressing women issues in Andhra Pradesh (Who

told Yes)Topics Chittoor West Godavari Warangal

Total

Palama

neru

Bangarupalem

Reni gunta

D.Tiru

mala

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma Sagar

Suffi. No. of Prgs & Encour. 6.7 11.5 6.7 29.2 3.6 33.3 11.1 3.5 7.4 11.3Neo-literates are getting prior. in trg 6.7 3.8 20.0 16.7 17.8 6.7 11.1 6.8 11.1 11.8Coordi. between litrates 6.7 - 13.3 16.7 10.7 20.0 22.3 10.4 14.8 11.8Govt. NGOs working together 20.0 7.7

20.0 4.1 3.6 6.7 11.1 20.6 7.4 12.3

Women are empowered 13.3 27.0 10.0 8.3 21.4 6.7 - 10.4 11.1 12.3No. of Prgs increased 13.3 3.8 13.3 8.3 3.6 13.2 11.1 10.4 11.1 9.4Dec. making power increasing 13.3 7.7 10.0 4.1 3.6 6.7 5.5 6.8 11.1 7.5Changes in Socio-Eco in women 20.0 7.7 3.3 12.6 - 6.7 11.1 10.4 11.1 8.5Ability to Interact with off. - 30.8 3.3 - - - 11.1 13.8 11.1 8.5Skill Devpt. - - - - 35.7 - 5.5 6.8 3.7 6.6

Total 15 26 30 24 28 15 18 29 27 212

Table 4.18 (b) : Appropriateness of the present approach in addressing women issues in Andhra Pradesh (Who told

No)


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni gunta

D.Tiru

mala

Undrajavara

m

Undi Sangam

Gudur Dharma

SagarReading Books 20.0 - - - 50.0 - 16.7 100.

0 33.3 13.8

Lack of Books for Skill Devpt trg

46.7 - - 16.7 50.0 33.

3 8.3 - - 25.8

Lit. Prgs & Trg are not parallel

6.7 - - 33.3 - 6.7 8.3 - 33.3 10.

3No Coord. - - - - 33. - 6.7 - - - 5.2


Lit.& Skill. Devpt

3

No instruments

13.2 - - 16.7 - 20.

0 25.0 - - 15.5

Lack of tech. Books

6.7 - - - - - 8.3 - - 3.4

Skills in Mgt. 6.7 - - - - - 8.3 - - 3.4Lack of Books for Skill Devpt

- 25.0 - - - - 8.3 - 33.3 5.2

Create awareness

- 50.0 - - - - 8.3 - - 5.2

Not Rec. prgs - 25.0 - - - 33.

3 8.3 - - 12.1

Total 15 4 - 6 2 15 12 1 3 58

4.8. MAJOR PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH LITERACY PROGRAM

Any development program, whatsoever it may be, will have its advantages and disadvantages. In order to have an understanding about the overall program implementation and the associated problems, the respondents were asked to choose one among all the possible responses, which they thought to be most important. Therefore we had one response from each of the respondents. Among the problems mentioned by the respondents, improper timing and place occupied highest position. Upon enquiry it was found that the timings are not set as per the convenient of the beneficiaries. Therefore it is suggested that the government people should have a common agreement with the groups about the timings of the training. As far as the location is concerned there are several factors such as distance from the village (within and outside), locality (whether located at a place where SC/ST communities stay) etc., need to


be taken into consideration. The next important problem is associated with the instructors/ trainers i.e., poor communication and training skills (22 per cent). Apart from this the problems like lack of power supply, inadequate logistics, lack of monitoring and supervision etc., were also expressed by some of the respondents (Table 4.19).

No doubt that the suggestions would be in the similar lines with the identified problems. Most of the participants (21 per cent) suggested simple teaching as one of the solutions to the problem. This is followed by the suggestions like; lighting facilities, adequate books, appropriate monitoring and evaluation system. Though assessment of training needs is one of the important aspects of training, it is really surprising to note that only 1 per cent of the respondents expressed this as a solution to the problem (Annexure Table E).

Table 4.19 : Major problems associated with the programme


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni gunta

D.Tirumala

Undrajavara

m

Undi Sangam

Gudur Dharma

SagarIn adequate Books & material

- 3.3 20.0 - - 23.3 43.3 13.3 46.7 16.7 Irregularity of instructors

3.3 10.0 - 16.7 - 20.0 - 3.3 6.7 6.7

Lack of program monitoring 46.7 13.3 3.3 - - 20.0 23.3 10.0 10.0 14.1 Trg provided by the inst.s

3.3 16.7 53.3 20.0 - 10.0 20.0 53.3 16.7 21.5

Lack of


power supply 16.7 20.0 20.0 56.7 - 6.7 13.3 16.7 3.3 17.0 Improper timing and place 30.0 36.7 3.3 6.7 100.

0 20.0 - 3.3 16.7 24.1 Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

Opinion of the respondents on low participation in literacy programs:

In an usual situation for any woman domestic work occupies the highest priority compared to other engagements. Thus the women are left with little time for the activities related to literacy training. This was expressed as one of the major constraints as 32 per cent of the responses were related to this. It is also pertinent to note that most of the people in lower socio economic class would like to have immediate earnings through wage labor i.e., agricultural and non agricultural. Given this scenario a major chunk of the respondents viewed that women are engaged in such type of activities which leads to their low participation in literacy programs (supported by 22 per cent of the total responses). Poor health condition of women was found to be another constraint as 15 per cent of the responses were on this aspect. Furthermore, as our society is male dominated and moreover, in the family, the elders play key role in making decisions on whether the females should participate in literacy training, it is implicit that the peer group pressure also plays a major role in this context. This was expressed by some of the SHG members Table 4.20.

Table 4.20 : Major obstacles in attending the literacy program


Obstacles


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni gunta

D.Tiru

mala

Undrajavara

m

Undi Sangam

Gudur Dharma

SagarHouse Work 30 18 21 19 11 20 28 16 28

191 (31.8)

Economic condition

3 6 24 17 10 12 18 14 27 131 (21.8)

Health condition 10 4 23 3 17 5 1 2 22

87 (14.5)

Location 12 5 - 7 - 13 2 6 18 63

(10.5)

Caste 20 1 - - - 10 8 - 1 40

(6.7)

Religion 9 1 - - - 8 1 - -19

(3.2)

Decision on peer group - - - 1 - 22 22 19 5

69 (11.5)

Total 84 35 68 47 38 90 80 57 101 600

In addition to above, the respondents were asked to identify the key areas where skill development could be included as part of the literacy program. We have organized these areas on the basis of their priority. As could be seen from Table 4.21, the training on planning their activities occupies as the top priority (33 per cent of the total responses) as this is the basic component necessary to initiate any activity related to income generation. The respondents also felt that technical and entrepreneurial activities needs to be integrated as most of the people are lacking technical skills on various aspects (30 per cent of the responses). It is pertinent to note that the promotion of gender awareness was recognized as one of the key areas as most of the activities can be done by both males and females.


Table 4.21: Major areas where skill development can be included as a part of literacy

Areas Chittoor West Godavari WarangalTotal

Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni gunta

D.Tiru

mala

Undra

javaram

Undi Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

Promotion of gender awareness 5 3 9 5 - 5 17 3 20

67 (14.2)

Lessons on health and nutrition 19 12 6 7 9 18 9 8 19

107 (22.6)

Integration of technical, entrepreneurial

5 4 14 11 18 28 20 23 18

141 (29.8)

Provision of planning and thinking skills

23 15 11 14 26 17 19 17 16

158 (33.4)

Total number of responses 52 34 40 37 53 68 65 51 73 473


Section - II

Findings from Qualitative Survey (Focus Group Discussions and Case Studies)

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS – MAJOR POINTS

Focus group discussions were held in each Gram Panchayat (GP), covering 53 GPs in total. The findings presented here are consolidated Mandal wise. Therefore in the report we have 9 case studies (each for one Mandal).

FGD 1Palamaneru Mandal, Chittoor District – Consolidated report of

5 GPS

Key observations: The average size of the group is 22.

1. Women in this mandal are familiar with the literacy programs named Akshara Tapasman, Akshara Sankranthi and Akshara Bharathi.

2. As part of the livelihood activity, a tailoring centre was started four years back in Palamaneru Gram Panchayat. Now embroidery classes are going on in the Centre. Even though the tailoring unit was started along with the literacy programme the participants do not find any relationship


between the literacy and the activities related to tailoring center. The tailoring unit has also members other than neo-literates. The exchange of knowledge here is through educated women in the unit for tailoring purpose.

3. Even though some literature is available in CEC library on tailoring, nobody reads those books, nor does the Prerak motivate the visitors to read the books. This is common for any activity of livelihood in the Mandal.

4. Even though weights and measurements are taught in literacy programmes very few are using the literacy skills.

5. The main gap in literacy is theoretical approach. Neither the skills are reoriented during livelihood programmes nor are the learners looking back to what they have learned. Very few are able to tell about the measurements which they learned in literacy programme and their utility in tailoring along with writing the accounts. Similar is the case with other livelihood program like dairy development.

6. The time gap between livelihood programme and literacy programme is more for many livelihood programmes.

7. Few people doing petty business are able to maintain their accounts on their own. They are able to write their accounts on books. After the development of dairy the women have to maintain books for accounts. So the women involved in dairy and supplying the milk to the dairy units developed skills in writing and basic arithmetic like adding and subtraction, etc.

8. The status of women is improved. Some women became Members of Panchayati, Education Council in the villages.

9. The Self Help Group approach helped the women in group formation and improving their livelihoods. Here also the role of literacy programme is negligible.


10. Even from the training programmes also, all the women in a group are not attending and women are attending different programmes in a group. So common literacy programmes will be helpful in the initial stage, later literacy should go according to the activity and needs of women. For this, activity wise regrouping of women and orientation is required.

11. Most of the group members suggested that the utilization of CECs in the village is quite limited which clearly indicates that most women in the groups are either not aware of the availability of CECs or are not interested in using them. In the opinion of the group members, livelihood and related literacy should go parallel and literacy should be integrated with livelihood programmes.

FGD 2Bangarupalem Mandal, Chittoor District – Consolidated

for 6 GPs

Key observations: The average size of the group is 25. 1. Women here are familiar with most of the literacy programs in

Andhra Pradesh. 2. In Thumbapalem village two tribal women are trained in literacy

skills (Literacy first) like weights and measurements. The women here mainly depend on forest produce collection and selling to DRDA and in market. At present these women are helping the other women in the village.

3. Women who are in petty trade and hotels are the fewer users of literacy skills. They are utilizing the literacy skills to the optimum level.

4. So far as the tailoring is concerned, most of the groups opined that, there is


no direct relation between literacy programme and tailoring as few of them told that the measurements learned during literacy helped them in their activity.

5. Women in the groups mentioned that literacy is necessary for livelihoods but linkage and appropriate application of the skills of literacy is essential. For this, instead of making them separate, literacy should be first before the livelihood training.

6. Some of the groups also gave the opinion that the literacy programmes become strengthened and useful if the course is directed towards the required activity where the examples can be drawn from the existing activities which makes learning more interesting.

7. Most of the groups felt that literacy programmes are theoretical and therefore practical orientation is required.

8. Though some literature on livelihoods is available in CEC Centres, neither the Prerak, nor the women know about the books. This is mostly because of the location and other factors like, caste, etc. Most of the women expressed that they do not attend the centers because of the reasons just mentioned. They were of the opinion that the women who are engaged in livelihood activities and visiting the Centres should be oriented about the existing literature on livelihoods. For this the Preraks should be first oriented with livelihood programmes.

9. Groups were of the opinion that the livelihood programmes are now gaining momentum through literacy Centers. So the various livelihood programmes organized by different departments should


be integrated with respective and relevant literacy through the existing CECs and Sub-Centres.

10. Information on successful women who are benefited by literacy programmes should be provided and canvassed through the Centres. The experiences of those women in livelihoods with literacy will not only provide guidance but new ideas to the women.

11. Information on livelihoods is not properly reaching at grassroot level even though women organizations are increasing innumerable in number. Availability of literature on livelihoods and proper dissemination and discussion will also improve the applicability of literacy skills to livelihoods.

12. As far as the drawback of the present system goes, lack of incentive system to Preraks was mentioned the important one. The groups were also of the opinion that the Preraks with multiple skills are useful for literacy programmes to integrate literacy with livelihood. In addition, the involvement of NGOs on integrating literacy with livelihoods is another way to progress.

13. Supervision and monitoring are also inadequate in livelihood training programmes. The Preraks should also involve in livelihood programmes to substantiate functional literacy.

FGD 3Renigunta Mandal, Chittoor District – Consolidated for 6 GPs


The average size of the group is 23 and the number of gram panchayats is six.Key Observations: 1. Awareness is more on literacy programmes among the women as

most of the groups expressed that after literacy programmes, they are able to maintain the bank accounts for their groups and manage their own business.

2. In Venkatapuram village, the SC women who used to collect stones from the hillocks for making chalks are now purchasing them from wholesale dealers and selling them at Tirupathi to retail traders. They could learn about the risks that are involved in going to hillocks through the literacy programs.

3. As per the opinion of the groups livelihoods programme through CEC is gradually gaining momentum through the literacy programs.

4. The group members feel, though the NGOs also involved in providing training about dairying in few villages, their involvement is negligible in linking livelihoods with literacy.

5. Most of the women were of the opinion that the method of teaching is traditional and examples with practical application with local temples will be useful.

6. Prior to the training on livelihood, literacy requirement in the livelihood programs should be discussed in the CEC and the women should be encouraged to discuss their experiences and difficulties in livelihood programmes at the CECs. Most of the women were aware about the availability of training materials at the district level. They were of the opinion that the same should be made available at CECs.


7. Instead of starting new literacy programme, strengthening the existing programmes with evaluation and monitoring will be of better use to the women.

8. Literacy should be continuous starting before the training of livelihood programme and continued till the activity gets stability through follow up.

FGD 4Warangal – Sangam Mandal (Consolidated for 6 GPs)

Key observations: The average size of the group is 25 1. Almost all the groups have adequate knowledge about the literacy

programs in the Mandal. 2. Most of the women in groups were of the opinion that livelihood

programmes are not directly attached to literacy programmes.3. Few women told that along with literacy programmes, they learned

tailoring, dairy development and mushroom cultivation. Mushroom cultivation is learned through others in this Mandal who learned as a part of literacy programme.

4. Literacy has helped the women in better management of their homes. The calculations that they learnt through literacy helps them a lot in their daily activities.

5. Literacy programmes helped the women more in dairy development and petty trade. Groups were of the opinion that, though tailoring requires skills like measurement; there is no practical orientation from literacy. Very few women said that the


measurement skills they learned in literacy were applied while learning tailoring

6. Some women complained that the training on dairy development is given by NGOs/dairy development units. In literacy also few programmes are organized by Government veterinary doctors. But they are meant for men only.

7. Few books are available on livelihood activities like dairy but most of them do not read them. Even the Preraks in many Centres do not know the contents of the books.

8. Groups expressed that the Preraks should be first oriented with the literature and livelihood activities.

9. In many Centres women were not reading the books as they do not visit the centers frequently. The member of women visiting the Centre are also very less.

10. Many women mentioned that there is no proper monitoring in the livelihood programmes.

11. Coordination is necessary between ZSS and the departments organizing livelihood programmes.

12. There is improvement in the social status of women due to the through the literacy and livelihood programs. The women are empowered economically self help groups movements.

13. Many women expressed that in self help groups educated women are looking after the credit management accounts / an educated woman in the village is engaged for the same. The woman engaged for managing the account is paid some honorarium.

14. The groups also expressed that as SHGs they had some training on women health, nutrition, family planning, etc. The same is repeated in literacy programme. There is no continuity from one to other and both are independent programmes.


15. There is no coordination between literacy and livelihood programmes by other departments which will help in continuity of the skills.

16. Now livelihood programmes through CECs are gaining momentum. Mushroom cultivation, tailoring units are proposed in several panchayats for which women in literacy programmes are forming into groups.

17. The women receiving training are getting certificates from the concerned training programmes. But there is no linkage between other departments to get financial assistance to take up the livelihood activity.

18. Most of the women expressed that they are not interested in pure literacy programmes as there are already number of programmes of similar nature.

19. As far as the constraints are concerned, the groups expressed that the timings for livelihood programmes should be planned according to the convenience of women. The leisure time varies among women who are engaged in different works. The time should be convenient to a group of 15 to 20 women. Moreover the trainings should be organized in the respective gram panchayats.

FGD 5Warangal, Gudur mandal (Consolidated for 6 GPs)


Key observations: The average size of the group is twenty.1. This is a tribal Mandal in the Warangal District. As most of the

women are busy in their household activities, very few of them learned preparation of Zandubalm, Shampoo and Candle-making through literacy programmes.

2. Some of the groups of this mandal expressed that few of them learned tailoring and dairy development while the literacy programmes are going on. But those activities are not connected with literacy programmes.

3. It was expressed by most of the groups that the income generation activities were learnt through the literacy programs. At the same time the groups also gave the conflicting opinion that the literacy centers do not have adequate literature on carrying out the activities. Some groups were of the opinion that the trainings are imparted through Preraks. At the same time, there was conflicting opinion that the use of literacy in the preparation of the above items is quite limited. Discussion with the groups coupled with our field observation clarified that the literacy and livelihood programs in the mandal were running in parallel.

4. It was also observed that the most of the group participants in the mandal were unable to continue the livelihood programme due to non-availability of raw material and marketing facilities. Therefore they were of the opinion that the selection of any livelihood


programme should be on the basis of the availability of raw material and marketing.

5. Participants felt that the empowerment in the Mandal is only restricted to providing skills without any use.

6. The extent of empowerment is only realized to the extent where women are organizing into groups and fighting against liquor.

7. The NGO activities are negligible and many villages are deprived of NGO activities.

8. As per the groups SHG movement is good but there is no linkage between literacy programmes and livelihood programmes. Even the livelihood programmes of SHGs, even the tribal development programmes have no linkage with literacy.

9. At present, through literacy Centres training for livelihood programmes are becoming popular. Mushroom cultivation as well as tailoring is gaining momentum in the block. The groups suggested that proper planning at this stage will help the sustainability of skills learned in literacy programmes.

10. In some areas the Preraks are trained in the preparation like shampoo, zandubalm, etc., but they have not reached the neo-literates.

11. There is no follow-up on how far the literacy skills are useful and used in livelihood programmes.


FGD 6Warangal, Dharmasagar Mandal (Consolidated for 6 GPs)

Key observations: The average size of the group is twenty three - 1. In most part of the Mandal, the activities like tailoring; mushroom

cultivation; preparation of surf, phenol, zandubalm, candle and bleaching powder are the livelihood programmes attached to literacy Centres.

2. None of these programmes have any correlation with literacy except they are through literacy Centres.

3. The purpose of organizing the livelihoods through literacy centres is not clearly understood by the Preraks or the people.

4. Except mushroom cultivation the other programmes are not that much actively progressing. Recently the ZSS is taking some initiative to sell the above products through DWCRA bazars.

5. Through this Mandal mushroom cultivation is spreading more to the neighboring Mandals of the districts and even other parts of the State.

6. According to groups if marketing spreads, then there is need for applying literacy skills in mushroom cultivation where the activities like record keeping and accounting arise. Now it is early and training stage.

7. Tailoring is an activity where skills are required for its management. Only educated women in the Centre are able to tell the importance of literacy but the neo-literates are not conscious about it.

8. One observation in the mandal is that the women are able to calculate their petty requirements in mind spelling out through mouth. They are not using a pencil and paper.


9. The thinking is not going beyond reading, writing and doing arithmetic. The real applicability of these in life are neither practically demonstrated, nor the cases of successful women presented in the literacy classes. The ignorance is high that the women don’t know what is happening in literacy programmes in neighboring villages.

10. Cooperation should be obtained from Gram Samakhyas to integrate literacy into women livelihood programmes. Therefore these two activities should go side by side but both are separate.

FGD 7West Godavari, Dwaraka Tirumala Mandal (Consolidated for 6

GPS)

Key observations: The average size of the group was twenty five1. In this mandal the livelihood programs like Tailoring, embroidery, petty

business management are connected with literacy. In addition, the women learned other livelihood skills like dairy, broomstick making and leaf plate making with other Government departments.

2. In petty trade, hawkers, small hotels are using their literacy skills in accounts.

3. In tailoring and embroidery, there is no connection between literacy and livelihood programmes. The programmes on livelihoods are organized through CECs. There is no application of literacy skills in tailoring and embroidery. The educated in the training unit (because it is open to all along with neo-literates) are helping the neo-literates and educating them in the functional aspects. There is no interference of Preraks in terms of follow up of literacy skills or brushing up the literacy skills once again. Instead of utility of the literacy skills, the livelihood programmes are becoming motivators for literacy.

4. The orientation of livelihood programme is totally different from literacy. There is no reference of earlier skills learned. The women are not even following the available literature on livelihoods in the Centres. Even the


Preraks are not having complete knowledge on the contents of given books to the Centre by the Government.

5. Women are considering literacy and livelihood programmes as separate programmes. The connection between the two is not clearly explained to them. In traditional occupation like dairy the literacy skills are used by the women to some extent.

6. Time gap between literacy programme and livelihood programme is more. The existing CECs are only libraries and there is no follow up for illiterates or dropouts at many places. Even though SHG movement is growing fast, there is no interaction in terms of literacy.

7. Since women are meeting during different programs (literacy and livelihood programmes) and also SHG meetings, changes have come in their ideology in terms of girls’ education, employment, marriage. They are empowered to make decisions in the family as well as in the group.

8. Some women became ward members, sarpanches and members in some CBOs.

9. Coordination between different departments is necessary to integrate the literacy skills into livelihood programmes.

FGD 8West Godavari, Undrajavaram mandal: (Consolidated for 6 GPs)

Key observations: The average size of the group is twenty three. 1. This is a developed Mandal in West Godavari district. Awareness is

more on literacy. Surf making and odomus making are the livelihood programmes attached directly to literacy programmes.

2. Most of the group members in this block expressed that it is only from CEC stage that the livelihood programmes are proposed in literacy.


3. There is a wide time gap between early literacy programmes and present livelihood programmes.

4. Livelihood programmes and literacy programmes should go parallel so that functional literacy becomes more appropriate.

5. The literature available in the Centres is not properly followed by women nor do the Preraks have a thorough knowledge on the available literature.

6. Many livelihood programmes are different from the programmes available in the form of books. Therefore the participants felt that prior availability of books/materials in the Centres will help understanding of the subject before coming to training programme.

7. For many programmes only Preraks are trained and the livelihood programmes have yet to reach the neo-literates.

8. Even in giving training on livelihoods, the Preraks are not discussing about the earlier skills imparted in literacy programmes.

9. The other livelihood programmes are independent and don’t have any interaction with literacy programmes.

10. Odomus preparation helped the women a lot because it is a delta area and problems are more due to mosquitoes. Now it is planned in a way to get proper market for the production.

11. Women learned about surf preparation but due to non-availability of raw material and problems in marketing the products they have stopped these activities

12. As far as the problems associated with the literacy program is concerned, the major problem in the mandal was found to be lack of incentive system to Preraks. In addition, appropriate time and place and regular follow ups are major hindrances to the program.

FGD 9West Godavari, Undi mandal (Consolidated for 6 GPs)


Key observations: The average size of the group is twenty five. 1. This mandal is also a developed mandal in West Godavari.

Awareness on literacy is more in this area. Tailoring and embroidery, surf, shampoo and zandubalm preparations are the programmes of livelihood through literacy centres.

2. The groups were of the opinion that, in practice, applicability of literacy skills in the above programmes is quite limited. Very few women mentioned that in measurements and accounts the literacy skills are useful in tailoring.

3. It was mentioned by many of the group participants that most of the livelihood programmes are in training stage in many places only Preraks are trained.

4. At present, the CECs are maintained like libraries. No literacy is being imparted to dropouts on illiterates.

5. Most of the women in the villages are not reading the available materials at the centers. Timings, location, caste and Preraks (whether male or female) play major role in utilization of the services provided at CECs.

6. There are livelihood programs by the other departments. As per the opinion of groups, other departments organizing livelihood programmes should consider literacy as a necessary component. Qualified neo-literates should be given training in livelihood programmes.

7. Any livelihood programme should start with related literacy skills first and the next should be the training on livelihood as the participants felt that programmes are running without any necessity of literacy skills.

8. Akshara Sankranthi could not achieve the desired success. Even in SHGs also educated women are not interested to impart literacy to illiterates is the group.


9. Incentives may help the Preraks and learners in better learning and involvement.


CASE STUDIES Case Study - 1

Should literacy program be a pre-requisite to training in livelihood and income generation activities ?

A case study from Palamaneru Mandal, Chittoor

Sukanya, 24 years old, live in a remote village named Mandipeta Kothuru, of Palamaneru Mandal in Chittoor district. She belongs to a poor scheduled caste family where almost all the members are illiterate. Her husband is an agricultural laborer. She did not have any formal or informal education till the time she attended literacy programs implemented by the Government of Andhra Pradesh. Being motivated by the organizers of the program she participated in TLC, PLP and CEP and presently she is going to the CEC regularly. In addition to attending the literacy programs she also attended a training program on tailoring which was organized by JSS (expand JSS). Now with small financial help from SGH she has opened a tailoring shop in her own village and earns good money for her family. She openly accepts that the literacy program was instrumental for her in entering into her tailoring business. During her training on literacy she learnt writing and numerical skills which are quite useful in maintaining her own records. With the present knowledge she has been able to run her business successfully. This is a typical case where the literacy program helped preparing for training in livelihood. As per her view “literacy is a pre requisite for sustainable livelihood and income generation activities”. However, she acknowledges that all these were possible due to strong support from her family members.

Case Study - 2Blessing in Disguise

Case Study of Chilakamma, Chittoor

Chilakamma 25 years, of Thumbapalem village in Chittoor district belongs to a poor ST family. Almost all the members of her family were deprived of basic education. Basic livelihood of her family was to collect minor forest products and sell them to DRDA. The income so generated was insufficient to feed her family. She remembers several instances when she had to spend days with hunger. Being from a illiterate family neither she knew about the literacy programs in their village, nor did she take any interest till the Prerak in her village explained her about the literacy programs and the consequent benefits out of it. May be this was a blessing in disguise for her. Being motivated by the Prerak she first attended the literacy classes and subsequently DRDA gave a special training to her on weights and measurements. In addition DRDA also provided her with a balance and weights. At present she is in charge of sales, taking measurements of the products collected by other ST women in the village. In addition she is also looking after the accounts and other records of the group members in her village. She gets fairly good remuneration for her job. This has motivated her to send their children to the school. As per her opinion, her basic literacy skills helped her in the livelihood training provided by DRDA and taking care of the entire village.


The first two case studies comes under the category of Literacy first.

Case Study 3:Literacy and Livelihood – Should Literacy come first?

Case study of Venkatlaxmi, West Godavari

Venkatlaxmi, 45 years, belongs to a backward class of Mortha village, Undrajavaram mandal of West Godavari district. With her leadership skills she is a leader of a SHG. Basically she is illiterate. She maintains her family with the income that she gets through the activities such as cloth business, vegetable vending, working as a laborer in card board factory, selling the eggs etc. She has been doing all these activities since many years, that too without any basic education. She did not understand the importance of literacy till she started attending literacy classes organized under literacy programs. She openly accepts that there are several instances in past where she was cheated by her customers because of her lack of numerical ability. She strongly feels that literacy programs should come first followed by income generation activities but at the same time accepts that it is better to have literacy along with the livelihood training. This is a typical example of Literacy second.

Case Study 4Income generation activities Leading to literacy:

Case study of Sarasamma from Kolmanasapalli village

Sarasamma, 30 years, SC, a resident of Kolmanasapalli (H/W), Palamaneru Mandal, Chittoor is engaged in dairying since her childhood as this happens to be the traditional occupation of her family. Being from a poor SC family, she did not have the advantage of getting basic education, though she had interest in achieving some level of literacy. Her inspiration of learning for literacy came from her present need, as she was not able to maintain her business properly without basic numerical abilities. All these factors motivated her to join in literacy programs and presently she has acquired the necessary skilled to run her business smoothly. Subsequently, she also got training from JERSY dairy, which is a private agency from Bireddipalli Mandal. She purchased two cows with the help of SHG. She says that she is selling the milk to the dairy @Rs7/- per liter and gets paid bimonthly. The literacy / getting training in literacy helped her in calculating the accounts, writing the daily record and cross verifying the expenditure. At present she is capable of doing simple arithmetic calculations without the use of pen and paper. She opines that her learning was due to the circumstances that she faced in maintaining proper records. Thus the income generation activity has led her to learn basic literacy.


Case Study 5 Literacy and Income generation: Should they be integrated?

Case study of Laxmi Devi from Mogali Venkatgiri

Laxmi Devi, 37, BC, lives in Mogali Venkatagiri village of Bangarupalu Mandal, Chittoor belongs to a poor family. She is basically illiterate. For her livelihood, she has opened a hotel by the road side of her village where she sells snack in morning and evening. Initially there were very few customers and she did not have any problem in collecting money from them. Gradually her business grew and more number of customers started to come. This made her to feel that writing and numerical skills are now necessary are there are many customers who pay her once in a week. She expressed her problem to her other friends, who suggested to attend the literacy classes. In the mean time she came across with one of the Preraks in her village who motivated her to attend literacy classes regularly. Presently she is able to maintain her records and run her business smoothly. There is no problem for her in maintaining the records. According to her, through she could learn her livelihood without ant literacy, it is necessary that some element of literacy should be included in livelihood, whether livelihood is through training / a separate from training. In her opinion, it is not necessary that the skill development training is a necessary, rather literacy and skill development should be parallel, though they may be separate activities.

Case Study 6 Literacy Skills are no pre-requisite for livelihood

Case study of Dhanalaxmi, Village Devinenivarigudem

Dhanalaxmi, 39, SC, lives in Devinenivarigudem village of Dwaraka Tirumala Mandal, Chittoor. She is completely illiterate. An interesting thing about her is that she is engaged in various income generating activities for her livelihood. She is involved in – brick making (individual activity), mixture packing and selling (SHG activity) etc. She attended the literacy program and acquired literacy skills. Being an illiterate woman, she is not able to distinguish between livelihood and income generation. According to her, one can have skills in various areas and have her income fromdifferent sources. In her observation, women attending to literacy programs are engaged in different income generation activities and the skill requirement for each of these activities are different. Even though fundamentals are required, in her opinion, the literacy skills are not important on needed lilivelihods of the women attending the literacy programs. Hence there is a need for integrating literacy with livelihood and neo-literate women should be selected on the basis of women engaged in similar livelihoods. Women having more skill on certain aspects should be grouped together and trainings are imparted to them on those aspects.


Case Study 7Literacy and livelihood activities Parallel, but separate

Case study of Ramanamma from Palamaneru

Ramanamma, 24, SC, lives in Palamaneru village, of the same Mandal, Chittoor. She came to this village 8 years back after her marriage. She is a school dropout (from class 1) at her native place before her marriage. From her childhood she was interested in vocational education. After her marriage she attended adult literacy programs and at present she is attending the CEC also. Two years back she had an opportunity to get training on tailoring, a livelihood program organized by ZSS. At present she is earning her livelihood from tailoring. With the income generated through her business, she has purchased a second hand machine taking the financial assistance from SHG. She feels that there is a lot of time gap between literacy and livelihood programs. The teaching methods followed under livelihood training sessions are completely different from what is followed under literacy program. Even though in literacy programs some thing was taught on measurements and other numerical abilities, there is no mechanism by which the trainees are made to remember their earlier skills learnt or the instructor of the livelihood program has interest to discuss again about them. In her opinion literacy and livelihood activities are parallel but separate. In her opinion these two programs are separate as she did not find any linkage between them.

Case study 8Literacy and Livelihood training should be separate: Case study of Susheela

from Venkatapuram Village

Susheela, 29, SC, lives in Venkatapuram village of Renugunda Mandal, Chittoor. Previously she was a chalkstone (from which chalks are made) vender. One day, she along with other villagers went to nearby forest for digging the stone. She can not forget the day when there was a land slide and some of her close friend dies in the incident. She describes herself as lucky as she could escape from that. From that day onwards she does not go to those sides. But how she maintained her livelihood? It was literacy program which helped her. After attending the literacy programs she along with other women in the village stopped going to collect the stones and presently they purchase them locally from wholesale dealers and sell them to local venders at Tirupati. After joining the literacy program she along with others got LIC accident insurance policy. Now a tailoring center is proposed by ZSS with the help of JSS and she plans to join in it. According to her even though the literacy is a basic requirement for livelihood, they should go separately. Sufficient skills are required in literacy then only the livelihood activity can be managed effectively.


Case Study 9Literacy is a pre requisite for livelihood Case study of Pushpa, Dharma Sagar

Pushpa Leela, 26, BC, lives in Dharma Sagar village of Warangal. She is a school dropout (2nd class). She continued in literacy programmes and acquired literacy skills. When the adult education department started giving training in tailoring, she joined the programme. Now she is able to earn for her family. Her family is a poor family and their main occupation is agricultural labour. She also learned making of Shampoo, Phenyl and Zandu Balm as part of livelihood programme. Due to lack of availability of raw material and marketing facilities, she is unable to prepare these items either for her domestic consumption or income generation. In her opinion since she is trained in fundamentals of literacy and numerical abilities she is able to follow the livelihood programme. She strongly believes that literacy programme is a prerequisite in preparation for training in livelihood programme.

Case Study 10Literacy program should be followed by separate income generation activity

Case study of Laxmi, Mudrai Village

Vidya Laxmi, 35, BC is a resident of Mudrai village of Sangam Mandal, Warangal. She is basically an illiterate woman with only one acre of dry land for their family. The family depends on rain for cultivation. Since the income is less from agriculture, the family members are mainly occupied in agricultural labour. Motivated by a local Prerak, she joined the literacy programmes and acquired literacy skills. She learned the mushroom cultivation from the same Prerak as livelihood programme. She is able to educate her two daughters. There is no marketing problem and purchasers come to the villagers to purchase mushrooms. Vidya Laxmi mentioned that livelihood programme should be selected by the neoliterates and should not go to a livelihood programme as they are given by education department. Literacy programme helped in many things of life and environment. Livelihood should be a separate programme a selective programme depending on the local knowledge and knowledge acquired from literacy. Literacy programme should be followed by separate income generation activity.


Although 53 case studies were conducted on 10 of them could be presented here. Below we present a summary of case studies and how many of them fall under each of the categories mentioned by Roger.

ROGER’S FRAMEWORK FOR SELECTED DISTRICTS

Sl. No.

Roger’s Framework

Chittoor West Godavari Warangal TotalPalam

a neruBangarupale

m

Reni-gunta

D.Tirumala

Undrajavara

m

Undi Sangam

Gudur Dharma Sagar

1. Literacy programme is a prerequisite for training in livelihood and income generation activities

2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 15(28.3)

2. Literacy programme should be followed by separate income generation activity

1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 15(28.3)

3. Income generation activities leading to literacy

1 1 2 1 1 1 2 - 1 10(18.8)

4. Income generation activity and literacy are integrated

- 1 - - - - - - - 1(1.9)

5. Literacy and income generation activity in parallel but separate

1 1 2 2 2 1 - 2 ` 12(22.6)

Total 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 53(100)



Chapter-V

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The present research made an attempt to study the level of Women Empowerment in the state of Andhra Pradesh by examining the existing linkages between the literacy programs with the livelihood that are existent in the state of Andhra Pradesh. In view of the non availability of literature in this area, the study attempted to draw the inferences from the available literature in the developing world. The inferences drawn from the other developing countries were tested and verified with the use of primary and secondary data collected from three districts of the state of Andhra Pradesh. The data so collected were fitted in Roger’s (2002) framework in order to find the existing relationship between literacy and livelihood in the state and some inferences on women empowerment were drawn. The findings of the study indicate that there is a well established relationship between literacy and livelihood. It goes beyond doubt to say that these two variables are found to be interlinked in various instances and in various ways.

In Andhra Pradesh, livelihood as a part of literacy training was introduced during 1998 along with the Continuing Education Program (CEP). During the program the neo-literates were imparted training on various livelihood skills. Akshara Sankranthi program was then implemented during the year


2000, where the focus was to train the SHG members (may be neo literates / drop outs from the school) on various livelihood skills. It is, therefore, pertinent to note that livelihood as part of literacy program is recent in origin.

On the other hand, if we look at the DWCRA and consequent SHG movement in the state, it is evident that the livelihood programs were started much before. It is therefore evident that during the trainings on livelihood, the SHGs must have been provided with some kind of training on literacy in order to maintain their day to day activities. Therefore the situation of “Literacy as a part of the livelihood program” dominates the entire situation.

The findings of the study support this phenomenon. Putting in Roger’s framework, our quantitative findings support the 2nd, 4th

and 5th relationship between literacy and income generation, though 4th relationship is very uncommon. Results from the FGDs give strong evidence in support of 5th, 1st and 2nd

relationships. From the case studies we get all type of relationships, except 2nd one. Apart from these relationships the study also attempted to draw certain inferences on the level of empowerment in Andhra Pradesh. It was found that the extent of empowerment at individual level is higher compared to the same at community level. This gives us an impression that as the women are economically empowered, they are able to take several decisions at individual level. The major reason for this empowerment could be attributed to the livelihood programs.


Given this scenario, it seems that the relationship between literacy and income generation is bidirectional in Andhra Pradesh. Given this bidirectional relationship, it is difficult to attribute whether literacy programs have led to women empowerment or the existing livelihood programs. It is therefore strongly recommended that the literacy and livelihood departments (i.e.., Adult education and other rural development departments) work together. This would help minimizing the individual efforts, thus bringing integration between the two. Apart from this recommendation, the study would like to bring the further recommendations which may be useful for the policy makers:

1. The adult education policy should assess what would be needed in particular localities to ensure an environment that would enable training in particular livelihoods actually to result in higher productivity, incomes, and well being.

2. The vocational education policy should pursue a strategy of decentralization and capacity-nurturing that will permit resourceful responses to local actual and potential patterns of livelihood.

3. The adult education policy should provide for courses that combine savings and credit training with negotiated livelihood content and literacy/numeracy content derived from, but not limited to, the vocabulary of the livelihood.

4. The fourth recommendation is twofold. First, to ensure that the “average” adult learner masters literacy and numeracy


sufficiently well to use them in support and development of a livelihood, the literacy component of a livelihood course should offer at least 360 hours of instruction and practice (the livelihood and business components will of course require additional appropriate time). Second, to help optimize perseverance, completion, and retention of learning, the course should be offered in a single session or term, if at all practicable.

5. The fifth recommendation is again twofold. First, adult education policy should provide for two cadres of instructors: livelihood instructors and literacy instructors. While neither should be a permanent cadre, their patterns of recruitment, training, and support can differ from each other. Second, both cadres should be remunerated for the instruction they give.

6. The sixth recommendation is that adult education policy for non-literate poor adults should promote active, participatory, and interactive forms of instruction and learning in both livelihood and literacy components of training.

7. The seventh recommendation is merely that adult education policy makers support further research on the issue of costs, which has frequently been ignored.

8. The eighth recommendation is that countries form local alliances of government, non-governmental and community agencies, and energetic people of good will to (a) raise local


fiscal and voluntary finance, (b) form appropriate consortiums with external donors and (c) attract resources from international lenders.

9. The ninth recommendation is that strategies of capacity-building, decentralization and gradualism govern the process of going to scale, with due attention to local infrastructure, natural and other resources, norms, and institutions.

10. The tenth recommendation is that any review of adult education policy should exert itself to identify, locate, and capitalize on the empirical experience and expertise that those organizations and others like them must have accumulated in their work in Andhra Pradesh, and elsewhere; and make it more readily accessible than this study has found it.

Limitations:

The qualitative exercises like gender analysis, need assessment and risk assessment would help in bringing further insights to the present study. It is therefore suggested that the future researchers should undertake these exercises for deeper understanding of women issues in the state.


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****ANNEXURES

Annexure 1 List of selected Mandals and Gram Panchayats included in

the study

Region District Mandal Gram PanchayatRayalaseema Chittoor Palamaneru Palamaneru Palamaneru Kolamasanapalle Palamaneru Bayyappagaripalle Palamaneru T. Vadduru Palamaneru Pengaragunta Bangarupalem Mogili Venkatagiri Bangarupalem Gunthur Bangarupalem Thumbapalem Bangarupalem Thumbakuppam Bangarupalem Sadakuppam Bangarupalem Kallurupalli Renigunta Kotramangalam


Region District Mandal Gram Panchayat Renigunta G. Palem Renigunta Guttivaripalli Renigunta Karkambadi Renigunta Venkatapuram Renigunta ReniguntaAndhra West Godavari Dwaraka Tirumala Ramannagudem Dwaraka Tirumala Timmapuram Dwaraka Tirumala Tirumalampalem Dwaraka Tirumala G. Kothapalle Dwaraka Tirumala Narayanapuram Dwaraka Tirumala Kodigudem Undrajavaram Mortha Undrajavaram Velagathuru Undrajavaram Undrajavaram Undrajavaram Palangi Undrajavaram Chivatam Undrajavaram Karrevari Savaram Undi Panduwa Undi Undi Undi Arthamuru Undi NRP Agraharam Undi Pedapulleru Undi Yendagandi

Region District Mandal Gram PanchayatTelengana Warangal Sangam Nallaballi Sangam Narlavai Sangam Mondrai Sangam Timmapuram Sangam Kuntapalli Sangam Chintalapalli Gudur Gudur Gudur Ramula Thanda Gudur Ayodhyapuram Gudur Teegalavani Gudur Muccherla Gudur Bollepalle Dharmasagar Pedapendyala Dharmasagar Tatikayala Dharmasagar Rayagudem Dharmasagar Kyatampalli Dharmasagar Mupparam Dharmasagar Somadevarapalli


Table A1: Information on different levels of training as part of livelihood skills – Group Formation

Topics Level-

1


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mal

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

By Govt. Agencies

- 30.0 100.0 20.0 80.0 26.

7 86.7 80.0 50.0 52.6

By NGOs 16.7 53.3 - - - - 3.3 - - 8.1

By Banks & Fin. Inst. Only

- - - - - - - 10.0 - 1.1

By Govt. & NGOs

83.3 3.3 - 80.0 - 40.0 - - - 23.

0

By Govt. & Banks

- - - - 20.0 33.3 10.0 10.0 50.0 13.

7

By all the agencies

- 13.3 - - - - - - - 1.5

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

Table A2: Information on different levels of training as part of livelihood skills – Concept of SHG

Topics Level-

1


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mal

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

By 13.3 26.7 80. 20.0 80.0 26. 86.7 70.0 50.0 50.


Govt. Agencies

0 7 4

By NGOs - 6.7 - - - - 3.3 10.0 - 2.2


- 66.7 - - - 16.7 - 10.0 - 10.

4

By Govt. & NGOs

70.0 - - 80.0 - 40.0 - - - 21.

1

By Bank & NGOs - - 16.

7 - - - - - - 1.9

By Govt. & Banks

16.7 - 3.3 - 20.0 16.7 10.0 10.0 50.0 38

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

Table A3: Information on different levels of training as part of livelihood skills – Team Building and Leadership

Topics Level-

1


Palama

neru

Bangarupalem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mal

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

By Govt. Agencies

3.3 33.3 80.0 20.0 80.0 10.

0 86.7 70.0 50.0 48.1

By NGOs 13.3 20.0 - - - - 3.3 13.3 - 5.6


- 3.3 - - - - - 6.7 - 1.1

By Govt. & NGOs

70.0 - - 80.0 - 40.0 - - - 21.

1

By Bank &

13.3 36.7 - - - - - - - 5.6


NGOsBy Govt. & Banks

- - - - 20.0 50.0 10.0 10.0 50.0 15.

6

By all the agencies

- 6.7 20.0 - - - - - - 3.0

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

Table A4: Information on different levels of trainingas part of livelihood skills – Group Dynamics

Topics Level-

1


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mal

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

By Govt. Agencies

- 30.0 83.3 20.0 80.0 10.

0 86.7 70.0 50.0 47.8

By NGOs - 10.0 - - - - 3.3 10.0 - 2.6


- - - - - 16.7 - 10.0 - 3.0

By Govt. & NGOs

83.3 20.0 - 80.0 - 40.0 - - - 24.

8


7 - - - - - - 1.9

By Govt. & Banks

3.3 - - - 20.0 33.3 10.0 10.0 50.0 14.

1

By all the agencies

13.3 40.0 - - - - - - - 5.9


Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

Table A5: Information on different levels of trainingas part of livelihood skills – Book Keeping

Topics Level-1


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mal

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

By Govt. Agencies 16.7 26.7 83.

3 20.0 80.0 10.0 86.7 70.0 50.0 49.

3 By NGOs - 66.7 - - - - 3.3 - - 77.

8 By Banks & Fin. Inst. Only

3.3 - - - - - - 10.0 - 1.5

By Govt. & NGOs 70.0 - - 80.0 - 40.

0 - - - 21.1


7 - - - - - - 1.9

By Govt. & Banks 10.0 - - - 20.0 50.

0 10.0 10.0 50.0 16.7

By all the agencies - 6.7 - - - - - 10.0 - 1.9

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

Table A6: Information on different levels of trainingas part of livelihood skills – Credit Management

Topics Level-1

Chittoor West Godavari Warangal TotalPalam

aneru

Bangaru

palem

Reni gunta

D.Tirumal

Undrajavara

m

Undi Sangam

Gudur Dharma

SagarBy Govt. Agencies - 33.3 83.3 20.0 80.0 23.3 86.7 66.7 50.0 49.3

By NGOs - 30.0 - - - - 3.3 10.0 - 4.8 By Banks & Fin. Inst. Only

6.7 - 16.7 - - 16.7 - 10.0 - 5.6

By Govt. & NGOs

70.0 13.3 - 80.0 - 40.0 - - - 22.6

By Govt. 20. 16.7 - - 20.0 20.0 10.0 10.0 50.0 16.3


& Banks 0 By all the agencies 3.3 6.7 - - - - - 3.3 - 1.5

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

Table A7: Information on different levels of trainingas part of livelihood skills – Communication Skills

Topics Level-1

Chittoor West Godavari Warangal TotalPala

maneru

Bangaru

palem

Reni gunta

D.Tirumal

Undrajavara

m

Undi Sangam

Gudur Dharma

SagarBy Govt. Agencies

13.3 30.0 83.3 20.0 80.0 43.3 83.3 66.7 50.0 52.2

By NGOs 6.7 40.0 - - - - 3.3 3.3 - 5.9 By Banks & Fin. Inst. Only

- 13.3 - - - - - 6.7 - 2.2

By Govt. & NGOs

73.3 - - 80.0 - 13.3 - - - 18.5

By Govt. & Banks 3.3 - - - 16.7 16.7 10.0 20.0 50.0 13.0

By all the agencies 3.3 16.7 16.7 - 3.3 26.7 3.3 3.3 - 8.1

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270


Level 2 - Training

Table B1: Information on different levels of trainingas part of livelihood skills – Information & knowledge on Government

Programmes

Topics Level-

2


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mal

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

By Govt. Agencies

- 46.7 96.7 20.0 96.7 43.

3 73.3 80.0 70.0 58.5

By NGOs 16.7 - - - - - 3.3 3.3 - 2.6


- 26.7 - - - - - - - 3.0

By Govt. & NGOs

83.3 3.3 - 80.0 - 40.0 - - - 23.

0

By Govt. & Banks

- - - - - 16.7 10.0 10.0 30.0 7.4

By all the agencies

- 16.7 3.3 - 3.3 - 3.3 - - 3.0

Not Indicated

- 6.7 - - - - 10.0 6.7 - 2.6

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

Table B2: Information on different levels of trainingas part of livelihood skills – Community Participation

Topics Level-

2


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mal

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

By Govt.

- 30.0 83. 20.0 100.0 43. 86.7 76.7 70.0 56.


Agencies 3 3 7

By NGOs 13.3 20.0 - - - - 3.3 10.0 - 5.2


- 6.7 - - - - - 3.3 - 1.1

By Govt. & NGOs

86.7 23.3 - 80.0 - 40.0 - - - 2.6

By Govt. & Banks

- - - - - 16.7 10.0 6.7 30.0 7.0

By all the agencies

- 16.7 16.7 - - - - - - 3.7

Not Indicated

- 3.3 - - - - - 3.3 - 0.7

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270Table B3: Information on different levels of training

as part of livelihood skills – Skill up gradation and Income generation

Topics Level-

2


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mal

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

By Govt. Agencies

- 30.0 83.3 20.0 100.0 26.

7 80.0 73.3 70.0 53.7

By NGOs - 3.3 - - - - 3.3 10.0 - 51.

9 By Banks & Fin. Inst. Only

3.3 - - - - 16.7 - 3.3 - 2.6

By Govt. & NGOs

83.3 33.3 - 80.0 - 40.0 - - - 26.

3


By Govt. & Banks

13.3 33.3 16.7 - - 16.

7 10.0 6.7 30.0 14.1

Not Indicated

- - - - - - 6.7 6.7 - 1.5

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

Table B4: Information on different levels of trainingas part of livelihood skills – Importance of Girl Literacy

Topics Level-

2


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mal

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

By Govt. Agencies

16.7 46.7 100.0 20.0 100.0 26.

7 86.7 86.7 70.0 61.5

By NGOs - 36.7 - - - - 3.3 - - 4.4


- 3.3 - - - 16.7 - 3.3 - 2.6

By Govt. & NGOs

83.3 10.0 - 80.0 - 40.0 - - - 23.

7

By Govt. & Banks

- - - - - 16.7 10.0 6.7 30.0 7.0

Not Indicated

- 3.3 - - - - - 3.3 - 0.7

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

Table B5: Information on different levels of trainingas part of livelihood skills – Marketing Skills


Topics Level-

2


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mal

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

By Govt. Agencies

13.3 30.0 83.3 20.0 100.0 26.

7 66.7 70.0 70.0 53.3

By NGOs 3.3 30.0 - - - - 3.3 13.3 - 5.6


- 16.7 - - - - - - - 1.9

By Govt. & NGOs

83.3 16.7 - 80.0 - 16.7 - - - 2.2

By Govt. & Banks

- - - - - 16.7 10.0 10.0 30.0 7.4

By all the agencies

- - 16.7 - - 16.

7 - - - 3.7

Not Indicated

- 6.7 - - - 23.3 20.0 6.7 - 6.3

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

Level 3 Training

Table C1: Information on different levels of trainingas part of livelihood skills – Importance of health and nutrition

Topics Level-

3


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mal

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

By Govt. Agencies

10.0 36.7 76.7 20.0 100.0 43.

3 70.0 86.7 53.3 58.1

By - 13.3 - - - - 6.7 6.7 - 3.0


NGOsBy Banks & Fin. Inst. Only

- 3.3 - - - - - 3.3 - 0.7

By Govt. & NGOs

80.0 16.7 23.3 73.3 - 40.

0 - - - 25.9

By Govt. & Banks

- - - - - - 10.0 3.3 46.7 6.7

By all the agencies

6.7 - - - - 16.7 - - - 2.6

Not Indicated

3.3 3.3 - 6.7 - - 13.3 - - 3.0

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270Table C2: Information on different levels of training

as part of livelihood skills – Awareness on sanitation and personal hygiene

Topics

Level-3


Palama

neru

Bangarupalem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mal

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

By Govt. Agencies

16.7 80.0 76.7

20.0

100.0

60.0 86.7 80.0 53.3 63.

7

By NGOs - - - - - - 3.3 13.3 - 1.9

By Govt. & NGOs

83.3 3.3 23.3 80.0 - 40.

0 - - - 25.6

By Govt. & Banks

- - - - - - 10.0 3.3 46.7 6.7

Not Indicated

- 16.7 - - - - - 3.3 - 2.2

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270


Table C3: Information on different levels of trainingas part of livelihood skills – Awareness on environment and Energy

conservations

Topics

Level-3


Palama

neru

Bangarupalem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mal

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

By Govt. Agencies

16.7 70.0 83.3 20.0 100.

0 43.3 70.0 83.3 53.3 60.

0

By NGOs - 3.3 - - - 3.3 3.3 6.7 - 1.9


- - - - - - - 3.3 - 0.3

By Govt. & NGOs

83.3 - - 80.0 - 40.0 - - - 22.

6

By Govt. & Banks

- - 16.7 - - - 10.0 3.3 46.7 8.5

By all the agencies

- - - - - 13.3 - - - 1.5

Not Indicated

- 26.7 - - - - 16.7 3.3 - 5.2

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270


Table C4: Information on different levels of trainingas part of livelihood skills – Water Harvesting

Topics Level-

3


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mal

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

By Govt. Agencies

13.3 46.7 83.3 16.7 100.0 33.

3 73.3 66.7 53.3 54.4

By NGOs - 10.0 - - - 6.7 3.3 - - 2.2


- - - - - - - 3.3 - 0.3

By Govt. & NGOs

60.0 - 16.7 60.0 - 13.

3 - - - 16.7

By Govt. & Banks

- - - - - - 10.0 - 46.7 6.3

By all the agencies

- 6.7 - - - - - - - 0.7

Not Indicated

26.7 33.3 - 23.3 - 43.3 13.3 30.0 - 19.

3

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

Level 4 Training Table D1: Information on different levels of training

as part of livelihood skills – Planning for Self Employment

Topics Level-

4


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mal

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

By Govt. Agencies

20.0 30.0 83.3

20.0 100.0 43.

3 76.7 76.7 43.3 54.8


By NGOs - 16.7 16.

7 3.3 - - 3.3 3.3 - 4.8


- 3.3 - - - - 3.3 6.7 - 1.5

By Govt. & NGOs

80.0 - - 76.7 - 40.0 - - - 21.

9

By Bank & NGOs - 16.7 - - - 16.

7 - - - 3.7

By Govt. & Banks

- 16.7 - - - - 10.0 10.0 56.7 10.4

Not Indicated

- 16.7 - - - - 6.7 3.3 - 3.0

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

Table D2: Information on different levels of trainingas part of livelihood skills – Group lending schemes

Topics Level-

4


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mal

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

By Govt. Agencies

20.0 30.0 83.3 20.0 76.7 40.

0 76.7 70.0 43.3 51.1

By NGOs - 3.3 - - - - 3.3 10.0 - 1.9


- 33.3 16.7 - - 13.

3 10.0 3.3 - 8.5

By Govt. & NGOs

80.0 - - 76.7 - 40.0 - - - 21.

9

By Bank & NGOs 80.0 - - 80.0 - 33.

3 - - - 21.5

By Govt. & Banks

- 33.3 - - 23.3 - 10.0 10.0 56.7 14.8


Not Indicated

- - - - - 13.3 - 6.7 - 2.2

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270

Table D3: Information on different levels of trainingas part of livelihood skills – Non-formal and Rural Economy

Topics Level-

4


Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni

gunta

D.Tiru

mal

Undra

javaram

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma

Sagar

By Govt. Agencies

20.0 46.7 83.3 20.0 100.0 40.

0 60.0 73.3 43.3 54.1

By NGOs - 3.3 - - - 3.3 3.3 10.0 - 2.2


- 16.7 - - - 3.3 3.3 3.3 - 3.0

By Govt. & NGOs

80.0 - 16.7 80.0 - 6.7 - - - 20.

4

By Bank & NGOs - 3.3 - - - - - - - 0.3

By Govt. & Banks

- 3.3 - - - - 10.0 6.7 56.7 8.5

By all the agencies

- 13.3 - - - - - - - 1.5

Not Indicated

- 13.3 - - - 46.7 23.3 6.7 - 10.

0

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270Table D4: Information on different levels of training

as part of livelihood skills – Marketing Skills

Topics Level-

4

Chittoor West Godavari Warangal TotalPala

maBangaru

Reni

D.Tiru

Undra

Undi

Sangam

Gudur

Dharma


neru palem gunta

mala javaram

Sagar

By Govt. Agencies

16.7 26.7 83.3 20.0 100.0 23.

3 56.7 70.0 43.3 48.9

By NGOs 63.3 6.7 - - - - 3.3 - - 8.1


- - - - - - 3.3 13.3 - 1.9

By Govt. & NGOs

13.3 33.3 - 80.0 - 6.7 - - - 14.8

By Bank & NGOs - 6.7 - - - - - - - 0.7

By Govt. & Banks

- - - - - - 10.0 6.7 56.7 8.1

By all the agencies

- 16.7 16.7 - - 16.

7 - - - 5.6

Not Indicated

6.7 10.0 - - - 53.3 26.7 10.0 - 11.

9

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270


Table E: Suggestions for further improvement

Suggestions

Chittoor West Godavari

Warangal

Palama

neru

Bangaru

palem

Reni gunta

D.Tiru

mala

Undrajavara

m

Undi Sangam

Gudur Dharma

SagarTotal

Place & Time 13.3 30.0 3.3 30.0 3.3 20.0 - - 13.3 12.

6 Discipline 16.7 - - - 6.7 - - - - 2.6 Monitoring by Govt.

23.3 6.7 3.3 13.3 6.7 40.0 23.3 13.3 10.0 15.6

Lighting Facilities 13.3 26.7 20.0 30.0 10.0 10.0 13.3 16.7 6.7 16.

3 Int. Lit. into trg. 6.7 - - 13.3 6.7 - - - - 3.0

Change of Examples

13.3 - 6.7 3.3 3.3 - - - - 3.0

Simple Teaching 6.7 36.7 43.3 - 3.3 3.3 20.0 56.7 16.7 20.

7 Trainers should be in Village

- - - 3.3 3.3 - - - 6.7 1.5

Duration should be more

3.3 - 3.3 - - - - - - 0.7

According to Trg. 3.3 - - - - - - - - 0.3

Adequate books - - 20.0 3.3 - 23.3 43.3 13.3 40.0 15.

9 Integrate Depts. - - - 3.3 - - - - - 0.3

Proper Trg - - - - 13.3 - - - - 1.5

Incentives to Preraks

- - - - 43.3 3.3 - - 6.7 5.9

Total 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 270


WOMEN EMPOWERMENT THROUGH FUNCTIONAL LITERACY AND TRAINING: A CASE STUDY OF WOMEN

IN SELF HELP GROUPS IN ANDHRA PRADESH

PART – A: GENERAL INFORMATION

1. Schedule Number:

2. District

3. Mandal

4. Gram Panchayat

5. Name of the village _________________________________________

6. Rural / Tribal (Rural = 1, 2. Tribal)

7. Name of the SHG: ___________________________________________

PART B. RESPONDENTS’ BACKGROUND INFORMATION

8. Name of the respondent: _________________________________________

9. Age

10. Religion 1. Hindu 2. Muslim


3. Christian4. Jain5. Others (specify)------------------------

11. Caste Mention the exact caste1. OC 2. BC 3. SC 4. ST

12. No. of members in the household

13. Number of earning members in the family 14. Type of family 1. Joint 2. Nuclear15. Education of respondent

1. Illiterate 2. Less than V3. V-VII4. VIII-X 5. X and above

16. Education of the head of the household(If the respondent is the main earner please ignore this question)

1. Illiterate 2. Less than V 3. V-VII 4. VIII-X 5. X and above

17. Occupation of the respondent

1. Cultivation 2. Services (PVT) 3. Service (Govt.) 4. Small business 5. Large Business 6. Animal husbandry7. Agricultural Laborer8. Other daily laborer9. Domestic servant 10. Unemployed 11. Other (Please specify)________________


18. Occupation of the main earner of respondent’s family (If the respondent is the main earner please ignore this question)

1. Cultivation, 2. Services (PVT) 3. Service (Govt.) 4. Small business 5. Large Business 6. Animal husbandry7. Agricultural Laborer8. Other daily laborer9. Domestic servant 10. Unemployed Other (Please specify)__________________

19. Housing Type 1. Pucca2. Semi Pucca3. Kutcha

20. Housing conditions

1. Very Good2. Good 3. Average4. Poor5. Very Poor

21. Source of Drinking water

1. Tap (individual) 2. Tap (Community)3. Hand Pump4. Well 5. Others

(specify)______________________

22. Toilet Facility 1. Individual2. Public 3 Open Defecation 4. Others (specify) _______________________

23. Income flow characteristics (of the main earner of the house)

1. Daily 2. Weekly3. Bi weekly4. Monthly


5. Quarterly6. Bi annual7. Annual8. Irregular

24. Total Annual Income of the family

1. Rs. 0-6000, 2. Rs.6001-12,0003. Rs.12,001 to 25,000 4. 25,001 to 40,000 5. 40,001 and above

PART – C: INFORMATION ABOUT THE SHG AND TRAININGS RECEIVED

25. Are you a member of a SHG?

1. Yes 2. No(Precaution:- If the answer to Q24=2 then you are asking to a wrong respondent)

If you are a member of the SHG please provide the following information26. When the SHG was formed? (From the information obtained in months and years please calculate how old the SHG is)

Year

Month

27. Who were the key players in the formation of your SHG

1. NGO2. Formed by GP3. Formed by government4. Bankers5. Other (Specify) ____________________

28. What are the present activities the SHG involved in? (Multiple responses possible)

(a) Self management of enterprise (Cooperatives)(b) Microfinance (c ) DWCRA – Marketing of local products(d) Decentralised planning /Participation in local governance


(e) Any other (pl. Specify)_________________

29. What are the major institutions promoting the present activities of your SHG(Multiple responses possible)

(a) NGOs(b) Government functionaries(c) Grampanchayat(d) Banks (e) Others

(Specify)_____________________

PART – D: ADULT LITERACY PROGRAMS

Questions related to Literacy program30. Have you heard about adult literacy program?

1. Yes2. No(Go to Q32 if Q29=2)

31. Can you name some of them?

1. 2. 3. 4.

32. What are the skill development programs associated with the literacy programs just mentioned?

1. 2. 3. 4.

PART – E: LITERACY PROGRAM AND WOMAN EMPOWERMENT


Q33 Information on different levels of training as part of livelihood skills:-

Topics (Level -1) Response (Round it) If yes, then conducted by

1. Group formation 1. Yes 2. No

2. Concept of SHG 1. Yes 2. No

3. Team Building and leadership

1. Yes 2. No

4. Group dynamics 1. Yes 2. No

5. Book keeping 1. Yes 2. No

6. Credit management 1. Yes 2. No

7. Communication skills 1. Yes 2. No

Level – II1. Information and knowledge on government programs

1. Yes 2. No

2. Community participation

1. Yes 2. No

3. Skill upgradation and income generation

1. Yes 2. No

4. Importance of girl litaracy

1. Yes 2. No

5. Marketing skills 1. Yes 2. No

Level – III1. Importance of health and nutrition

1. Yes 2. No

2. Awareness on sanitation and personal hygene

1. Yes 2. No

3. Awareness on 1. Yes 2. No


environment and energy conservations4. Water harvesting 1. Yes 2. No

Level – IV1. Planning for self employment

1. Yes 2. No

2. Group lending schemes 1. Yes 2. No

3. Non-formal and rural economy

1. Yes 2. No

4. Marketing skills 1. Yes 2. No

Codes for who conducted the training program (Column 4 of the above table)1. If by the government agencies only 2. If by the NGOs only 3. If only by the banks and financial institutions4. If by government and NGOs5. If by bank and NGOs 6. If by government and Banks 7. If by all the agencies 8. Any other (specify in the given rows)Q34. When did the training programs were conducted

1. After the initiation of SHG activities 2. Befors the initiation of SHG activities 3. In between the two

Q35. From your experience what is your opinion on the following? (a) Literacy program is pre-requisite in preparation for training in livelihood and income generation activity.

1. Highly agree 2. Agree 3. Partially agree 4. disagree

(b) Literacy program should be followed by separate income generation activity (there is no systematic connections between the



two)

(c ) Income generation activities leading to literacy (e.g. Mahila Samakhya)


(d) Income generation activities and literacy are integrated (simultaneously starting the same activity)


(e) Literacy and income generation activity in parallel but separate

1. Highly agree 2. Agree 3. Partially agree 4. Disagree

F:- EMPOWERMENT ISSUES (INDIVIDUAL LEVEL)

Q36. Please give your opinion on the following: 1. Domestic work should be shared by men

1. Agree2. Disagree

2. Women should have control on the decision on family size.

1. Agree2. Disagree

3. Women should be given freedom to take decision on their earned income?

1. Agree2. Disagree

4. Women should feel pride and value for their work.

1. Agree2. Disagree

5. Women should have adequate self confidence esteem.

1. Agree2. Disagree

6. Women should be capable of preventing violence.

1. Agree2. Disagree

7. Women should be able to take decision on marriage and education of the girl child.

1. Agree2. Disagree

G:- EMPOWERMENT ISSUES (ORGANISATIONAL/COMMUNITY LEVEL)

Q37. Please give your opinion on the following: 1. Women should come together and form their organizations

1. Agree2. Disagree

2. More funds should be allocated for the projects related to man

1. Agree2. Disagree


3. There should be increased number of men leaders at all levels.

1. Agree2. Disagree

4. Women involvement in design and application of technology

1. Agree2. Disagree

5. Men should participate in community programs, productive enterprises and PRIs.

1. Agree2. Disagree

6. Women should be trained in important aspects of social, political and economic life

1. Agree2. Disagree

7. Women should be able to express her legal rights when necessary.

1. Agree2. Disagree

H:- IMPACT OF LITERACY PROGRAMS ON LIVELIHOOD SKILLSQ38. Do you feel that such training is useful for improving your existing skills?

1. Yes 2. No

Q39. Do you feel that such training programs has improved your skills and helped in improving your income generation activities?

1. Yes2. No

Q40. If yes, in what areas of operation you have gained more from the training program

1.2.3.4. Any other (pl.

specify)Q41. Do you feel that such training program has helped you in strengthening your income generation activities

1. Yes2. No

Q42. If Yes, then how? 1.2. 3. 4. 5.


Q43. To what extent? 1.High 2. Above average 3. Average 4. Below average 5. Not at all

Q44. Did the literacy and skill development programs have helped you in the following:(a) Strengthening income generation activities

1. To a large extent 2. Up to some extent 3. Not at all

(b) Participation in CBOs 1. To a large extent 2. Up to some extent 3. Not at all

(c ) Starting the enterprise of their own


(d) Managing their enterprise 1. To a large extent 2. Up to some extent 3. Not at all

(e) Participation in decentralized planning


Q45. Do you feel that the present approach is adequate enough to address the current women issues in AP

1. Yes2. No

Q46. If yes, what are the reasons? (emphasize on livelihood programs)

1. 2. 3. 4.

Q47. If no, please specify the reasons 1.2. 3. 4.

Q48. What, according to you are the major problems associated with the program?

1. Inadequate books and materials

2. Irregularity of instructors

3. Lack of program monitoring


4. Training provided by the instructors are not well understood

5. Lack of power supply / alternative power arrangement to conduct classes

6. Improper timing and place

7. Any other(specify)______

Q49. Suggestions for further improvement

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.6.

FACTORS AFFECTING WOMENS PARTICIPATION IN LITERACY

Q50. What according to you are the major obstacles in attending the literacy program? (Multiple responses possible)

a. Household work b. Economic condition c. Health conditiond. Locatione. Caste f. Religion g. Decision mostly depends on the peer group / spouseh. Others (specify) ------------

Q51. Do you think that the mass media can play a major role in women’s participation in literacy programs?

1. Yes ……………………2. No ……………………

Q52. What according to you should be major areas where skill development can be included as a part of literacy program?

a. Promotion of gender awarenessb. Lessons on health and nutritionc. Integration of


technical, entrepreneurial, cultural and communal aspects, d. Provision of planning and thinking skills e. Any other (pl. specify)____________

Name of the Investigator:

Date and Time taken for the interview:

SUPERVISOR’S REMARK:-

* * * * * *


Documents

Report of the Study on Women Empowerment - Final version