Report of Committee on

Forest and Rural Fire Protection

R. L. Bjornsen, , Chairman FMA International, Inc..

James T. Wooters, Vice Chairman DeKalb County Fire Services

Mary D. Chambers, Secretary Bernalillo County Fire Distr ict tO

Fred G. Allinson, Natl Volunteer Fire Council Lee Barkow, USDI Bureau of Land Management Lynn R. Biddison, Chemonics, Fire-Trol John E. Bunting, New Boston Fire Dept. Richard J. Day, CalJfornia Dept. of Forestry &,Fire

Protection Dennis'Dube, Canadian Forestry S()rvice J. A. Foster, ISO Commercial Risl: Services Inc. Donald C. Freyer, Georgia Forestry Commission William Goldfeder, Loudoun County Dept of Fire/Rescue

Services Rep. IAFC

Salvatore M. Grasso,- Sedgwick James of New York Edward T. Grohe, Western Fire Equipment Co.

• Roy G. Hatcher, Iowa Conservation Commission Louis G. Jekel', Rural/Metro Corp. Ralph R. Lafferty, MacMillan Bloedel Ltd Michael W. Lowder, Bladen County Office of Emergency

Services Paul G. Mason, M&M Protection Consultants Richard E. Montague, Incident Management Concepts' Frederick S. Richards, NYS Dept..of Sta te

Rep. FMANA 3ames C. Sorenson, USDA Forest Service "Robert M. Swinford. USDA Forest Service Gary O. Tokle, California State Fire Marshal's Office

Rep. FMANA Howard L. Vandersall, Lawdon Fir(, Services, Inc. John Vieweger, Ansul Fire Protect•ion Ronald R. Walker, National Forest. Products Assoc. Chief Louis A. Witzeman, ScottsdzL1e Fire Dept.

Alternates

John F. Marker, USDA Forest Service (Alternate to R. M. Swinford)

Edward F. Straw, ISO Commercial Riisk Services Inc. (Alternate to J. A.'Foster)

David.D. Walizer, California State Fire Marshall Rep. FMANA (Alternate to G. O. Tokle)

Staff Liaison: William J. Baden

This l i s t represents the membership at the time the Committee was balloted on the text of this edition. Since that time, changes in the membership may have occurred.

The Report of the Committee on Forest'and Rural Fire Protection is p~esented for adoption in 5 parts.

Part I of this Report,was prepared by .the Technical Committee on Forest and Rural Fire Protection and proposes withdrawal of NFPA 224-1985, Standard for Homes and Camps in Forest • Areas. NFPA 224-1985 is published in Volume 6 of the 1990 National Fire Codes and in separate pamphlet form.

Part I of this Report has been submitted to let ter ballot of the Technical Committee on Forest and RuralFire Protection which consists of 28 voting members; of whom 22 voted aff irmatively,.1 negatively (Mr. Freyer), and 5 ballots were not returned (Barkow, Day, Dube, Goldfeder, and Walker).

Mr. Freyer voted negatively stating: "Chapters 4, 5, 6, and 7 are not included in

NFPA 299. Whether they should be or not is not here the question. The proposal says "the NFPA 2i4 - subject material is being incorporated as part of . . . " not al l of 224 is incorporated in 299. I f all the NFPA references in 224 are included in 299 references, mavbe this wi l l suffice. I feel the chapters are important for individual structures as homes."

Part I I of thls Report, was prepared by the Technical Comm(ttee on Forest and Rural Fire Protection and proposes for adoption a complete revision to NFPA 295-1985, Standard for Wildfire Control. NFPA 295-1985 is published in Volume 6 of the 1990 National Fire Codes and in separate pamphlet form.

Part I I of this Report has been submitted to let ter ballot of the Technical Committee on.Forest and Rural Fire Protection which consists of 28 voting members; of whom 23 voted affirmatively, O negatively, and 5 ballots were not returned (Messrs. Barkow, Day, Dube, Goldfeder, and Walker).

Part I I I o f t h i s Report, was prepared by the Technical Committee on Forest and Rural Fire Protection and proposes withdrawal of NFPA 296-1986, Guide for Air Operations for Forest, Brush and Grass Fires. NFPA 296-1986 is published in Volume tO of the 1990 National Fire Codes and in separate pamphlet form.

"Part I I I of this Report has been "submitted to let ter ballot of the Technical Committee on Forest and Rural Fire Protection which consists of 28 voting members; of whom 23 voted affirmatively, 0 negatively, and 5 ballots were not returned (Messrs. Barkow, Day, Dube, Goldfeder, and Walker).

Part IV of this Report, was prepared.by the' Technical Committee on Forest and Rural Fire Protection and proposes withdrawal of NFPA 297-1986, Guide on:Telecommunications Systems for Rural and Forestry Agencies. NFPA 297-1986 is ~ublished in Volume tO of the 1990 National Fire Codes and in-separate pamphlet form.

Part IV of this Report has been submitted to let ter ballot of the Technical Committee on Forest and Rural Fire Protection which consi:sts of 28 voting members; of whom 23 voted affirmatively, 0 negatively, and 5 ballots were not returned (Messrs. Barkow, Day, Dube, Goldfeder, and Walker).

Part V of this Report, was prepared by the Technical Committee on Forest and Rural Fire Protection and proposes for adoption a" new document NFPA 299, Standard for Protection of Life and Property from Wildfire.

Part V of this Report has been submitted to let ter ballot of the Technical Committee on Forest and Rural Fire Protection which consists of 28 voting members; of whom 23 voted affirmatively, 0 negatively, and 5 ballots were not returned (Messrs. Barkow, Day, Dube, Goldfeder, and Walker).

699

NFPA 295

PART I

224- I - (Entire Document): Accept SUBMITTER: Technical Committee on Forest and Rural Fire Protection RECOMMENDATION: Withdraw NFPA 224, "Standard for Homes and Camps in Forest Areas." SUBSTANTIATION: The committee is incorporating the material from NFPA 224 in a new document, NFPA 299, "Standard for Protection of Life and Property from Wildfire."" (See Part V of this Report). COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept.

PART I I

295- I - (Entire Document): Accept ~UBMITTER: Technical Committee on Forest and Rural Fire Protection RECOMMENDATION: Completely revise NFPA 295, "Standard for Wildfire Control." SUBSTANTIATION: The committee is revising the document to incorporate current technology and terminology used in wi ldf i re control. I t is also incorporating the pertinent wi ldf i re control information from NFPA 296, "Guide for Air Operations for Forest, Brush and Grass Fires" and NFPA 297, "Guide on Telecommunications Systems-Principles and Practices for Rural and Forestry Services" so al l wi ldf i re control information is in a single document. (See Part I I I and Part IV of this Report which recommend withdrawal of NFPA 296 and NFPA 297). COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept.

" t .

700,

NFPA 295

Standard for Wildfire Control

1991 Edition

NOTICE: An asterisk (~) following the number or let ter designating a paragraph indicates explanatory material on that paragraph in Appendix A.

Information on referenced publications can be found in 'Chapter 6 and Appendix B.

Chapter l Introduction

I-I Scope. This standard presents fundamental' information to f i re departments on the control of wi ldf ire burning in natural and other vegetative fuels. This standard recognizes that protection of structures in the wildland areas may require modification of strategy and tactics to allow for protection of those structures. I t includes necessary and useful information on safe procedures and practices, as well as other topics that are essential f6r the safe and successful control of wildfires.

I-2 ~ Purpose. The purpose 'of this standard is to identify organizational practices and management policies and to specify requirements on safe procedures, equipment, and apparatus to ensure the successful control of vegetation fires and exterior protection of structures and improvements. The .standard does not apply to interior structural f i re fighting operations.

I-3 Definitions. For the purposes of this standard the following terms have the meanings shown below:

Apparatus. Motor-driven vehicles specially designed or modified for f i re fighting or other emergency service; or a collective group of such vehicles, such as pumpers or engines, tankers, ladder trucks, rescue squads, etc.

Brush. Shrubs and scrub vegetation or other growth heavier than grass, but not fu l l tree size.

Company. An organized group of f i re fighters under the leadership of a company officer or other designated of f ic ia l . Companies are often assigned to specific apparatus or stations. Also see "Crew".

Company Officer. The officer in charge of a f i re department company or station or any other position of comparable responsibility in the department.

Control. When an adequate line has been established completely around the perimeter of the f i re and i t no longer has a potential for additional destruction or for escaping under the existing weather conditions. The f i re has reached the phase in which mop-up and patrol are the only act iv i t ies required to extinguish the f i re. "Control" is also used as an inclusive term for any and all actions taken to halt, confine, and tota l ly extinguish a f i re, including detection, mobilization, size-up, attack, mop-up, and patrol.

Crew. An organized group of f i re fighters under the leadership .of a crew leader or other designated of f ic ia l . Also see "Company",

Crew Leader. A supervlsory'person' in charge of a group of f i re fighters and responsible for their leadership, performance, safety, and welfare for the duration of their assignment; sometimes called a crew foreman, crew boss, or crew supervisor.

Incident Commander. The person responsible for al l supp/ession and service act iv i t ies on a wildf ire. Primary responsibilities are to develop control plans and organize and direct the f i re suppression organization in such manner that the f i re is "completely and ef f ic ient ly controlled. The incident commander may carry out al l responsibilities alone or assign prescribed l ine and staff, duties to subordinates.

Incident Management System. A system that provides structure and coordination to the management of emergency i-ncident operation in order to provide for the safety and health of f i re department members and other persons involved in those act iv i t ies. (See NFPA 1561, Standard on Fire Department [ncident Management System).

Forest Fire. Any uncontrolled, unwanted f i re in a forested area.

Grass Fire. Any uncontrolled, unwanted f i re involving dried grass.

Prevention.' That part of- f i re protection act iv i t ies designed to prevent ignition of unwanted fires and to minimize loss i f f i re does occur. Such act iv i t ies, including public education, personal contact, law enforcement, engineering, and reduction of fuel hazards, are directed at reducing !)r eliminating the

number of fires that start.

Rural. Any area wherein residences and other developments are scattered and intermingled with forest, range, or farmland and native vegetation or cultivated c r o p s .

Wildland/Urban' Interface. Where urban development and wildland fuels meet at a well defined boundary or interface with both the urban development and the wildland fuels being clearly separated.

Wildfire. An unplanned and unwanted f i re requiring suppression action; an uncontrolled f i re, usually spreading through vegetative fuels and often threatening structures.

Chapter 2 Organization and Management

2-I * Organization. ' I

2-1~l ~ Purpose. The f i re department shall be organized to perform f i re prevention and control in order to protect l i f e and property from f ire. Other services demanded of the f i re department, because the f i r e department force is available and has specialized training, shall be:undertaken only to the extent that they do not interfere with the department's basic purpose and that they are act iv i t ies just i f iab ly related to i t .

2-I.2 Goal. The f i re department's goals shall be to protect l i f e and property; to minimize f i re losses through f i re prevention; to take quick, aggressive in i t ia l action to prevent the small f i re from becoming large; and to control the large f i re as soon as possible with the minimum cost.

2-2* Command.

2-2.1 Fire Chief. The f i re department shall have a f i re chief who shall be in overall command of the department at al l times.

2-2t2 Incident Commander. On .every f i re or emergency incident, one individual or individuals (in a unified command structure) must be recognized as incident commander.

NFPA 295

2-2 .2 .1 . When the department responds to a f i r e or other emergency' the f i r s t o f f i c e r to a r r i ve shal l assume command of the inc ident un t i l s p e c i f i c a l l y re l ieved bysomeone with higher au tho r i t y .

2-2.3 Succession. A formal chain of command or succession shal l be fol lowed as described in NFPA 1561, Standard for Fire Department Incident Management System.

2-2.4 Company Officer's. Each f i r e company or crew shal l operate under the command of a designated o f f i c e r , Crew leader, inc ident commander. Each company shal l have enough o f f i ce rs to provide a leader to command the company a t t h e time of any response.

'2-3 Respons lb i l l t i es .

2-3.1 Fire Chief. The f i r e chief shal l be responsible for the admin is t ra t ion , management, and operat ion of the f i r e department. Duties s p e c i f i c a l l y include:

(a) Be the p r inc ipa l spokesperson for and represent the f i r e department before the publ ic and the governing legal, author.ity. \

(b) Establish the operational procedures of the department, through the issuance of regulations and orders.

(c) Direct operations at a f i re or emergency incident.

(d) Ensure that the department is adequately trained and staffed.

(e) Ensure that a trainingplan is developed and implemented and that al l members are knowledgeable in the basic measures for attaining fast, safe, and effective f i re suppression./

i f ) Prepare a departmental budget.

(g) Be familiar with al l laws and ordinances that apply to the operation of the f i re department.

(h) Investigate al l fires for cause, origin, and circumstances.

(iS Ensure ~ompllance by the department with all sections of this standard and all applicable local laws and ordinances.

( j) Development and implementation of a f i re prevention program for the entire year.

(kS Responsibile for department equipment and the safety and welfare of al l f i re department members engaged in departmental operations.

2-3.2 Officers.- Company officers or supervisors shall have the following duties and responsibilities:

(aS To ensure the safety and welfare of their company or crew members.

(b) To act as leader of a crew of individuals.

(c) To respond to alarms to which the unit is assigned and to direct operations Of the units.

(d) To have sufficient knowledge of f i re strategy to be able, in the absence of a chief officer, to make a proper size-up or appraisal of the emergency and assume in i t ia l command until formally relieved.

(e) To be familiar with the area protected by the department.

i f ) To ensure the care, maintenance, and f i re readiness of assigned apparatus and equipment.

2-3.3 Members.- All fice department members shall be responsible for the following:

(aS ~e familiar with the r~les and regulations governing the operation of the f i re department.

7ol.

NFPA 295

(b) To keep themselves in good physical condi t ion in accordance with the f i r e department's establ ished f i tness standards.

(c) Be f a m i l i a r with and knowledgeable of the en t i re area protected by the department.

(d) Be knowledgeable in the methods of f i r e .suppression, the safe use of tools and f i re fighting equipment, and in the procedures for safe and effective response to incidents.

(e) Be familiar with the f i re laws and regulations of the local jurisdict ion and state or province.

(f) To operate through established lines of responsibility and authority.

(g) To respond to incidents when notified.

(h) To protect themselves and others in the . hazardous task of f i re fighting through compliance with all safety standards, regulations, and procedures.

2-4 Emergency Response and Notification. Members shall be trained to achieve safe and effective response to incidents.

2-4.1 When a incident occurs, members of the f i re department shall be immediately notified so they can respond with apparatus and equipment.

2-4.2 Provisions shall be made for immediate notification of f i re department members. This may be accomplished through activation of a siren, use of radio pagers or alert monitors, • or a telephone chain.

2-5 ~ Pre-Incident Planning.

2-5.1 Plan Required. A written plan shall be prepared. A plan in outline form is acceptable. The plan shall be revised and updated annually or sooner i f required by changing conditions.

2-5.2 Elements. The plan shall contain the following information as a minimum:

(a) Fire department organization and personnel roster with contact information.

(b) A l is t ing of cooperating agencies and contacting procedures.

(c) Additional available resources of personnel, • equipment, supplies, and fac i l i t i es and contracting or

ordering procedures.

(d) Up-to-date map of protection area, including: boundaries, roads and other means of access; heliports, airports, aviation hazards, water sources, special hazards; and dangerous f i re risks.

(e) Mutual aid agreements, automatic response agreements, and other protection agreements.

"2-6 Mutual Aid. Whenever possible, mutual aid, automatic response, and/or cooperative agreements for mutual assistance with adjacent f i re departments of other agencies shall be negotiated and implemented. Such agreements shall include provisions to ensure clearly established command authorities and responsi bi I i t l es.

2-7* Fire Prevention Program.

2-7.1 ~ Plan Required. A f i re prevention plan shall be developed and implemented each year.

2-7.2 Elements. The f i re prevention plan shall contain an analysis of f i re causes, special f i re hazards and risks, an assessment of interface f i re protection problems and proposed measures to' reduce f i re occurrence and decrease f i re damage. I t shall also include provisions for cooperative efforts with al l other neighboring f i re protection agencies~

Chapter 3 Safety and Training

3-1 Safety.

3-1.1 * Personnel. The safety and wel fare of personnel shal l be the f i r s t and foremost considerat ion in a l l inc ident operat ions and decisions.

3-1.2 * Protect ive Clothing and Equipment. The o f f i ce r in charge shal l require that appropr iate personal p ro tec t i ve c lo th ing and equipment be worn by a l l f i r e department personnel whi le engaged in any inc ident .

3-1.2.1 As a minimum, f i re fighters engaged in wildf ire suppresslon shall have and use a safety hard hat or f i re helmet equipped with chin strap, leather boots at least 6 in. (15.24 cm) high, goggles, and glov@s. Synthetic polyester clothing, tennis shoes, sneakers, or low-quarter shoes shall not be worn on the f i re l ine. Fire department members shall wear cotton or wool clothing with cuffless trousers and long-sleeved shirts or lightweight flame resistant clothing, specially designed for wi ldf i re f i re f ighting: Individual states or provinces may have more restr ict ive personnel protective clothing requirements. To ensure compliance with such regulations, the f i re department shall check with i ts state or provincial occupational safety and health agency.

Structural f i re fighting personal protection clothing and equipment (turnouts and rubber boots) are not appropriate for wildland f i re suppression act iv i t ies, and wildland f i re suppression personal protective equipment shall not be ut i l ized for interior attack on structures.

3-1.3" Physical Examination. Propective members of the f i re department shall undergo and pass a physical examination before admission to the department as an active member. The medical examiner shall cert i fy the applicant's physical ab i l i t y to perform f i re fighting

"duties.

3-1.4 ~ First Aid. Fire department members shall be trained and certl f ied in f i r s t aid and cardlopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).

3-I.4.1 First Aid Kits. First aid kits for f i rel ine use shall be readily available on al l emergency responses.

3-I.5 Fire Apparatus.

3-1.5.1 All apparatus shall be equipped and operated as described in NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health Program and NFPA 1901, Standard on Automative Fire Apparatus.

3-I.5.2 Vehicles on the f l re l ine shall be parked so they face in the direction of the escape route.

3-I.5.3 Fire apparatus shall be driven and operated only by trained and qualified personnel. Apparatus shall be driven in a sa~e and sane manner. At1 applicable laws and departmental regulations regarding the response of emergency vehicles shall be obeyed.

3-1.6 Tractors, Bulldozers, and Fire Plows.

3-1.6.1 Fire fighters shall not work directly above or below tractors, bulldozers, or f i re plow where they may slide beneath the machine or be struck by rol l ing material.

3-I.6.2 Fire fighters shall not approach a tractor, bulldozer, or f i re plow until i t has stopped and the operator has signaled i t is safe to approach.

3-I.6.3 Fire fighters shall avoid being immediately in front of or in back of a tractor, bulldozer, or f i re plow in operation.

3-1.6.4 Fire fighters shall not get on or off moving equipment.

702

3-1:6.5 Fire fighters shall not s i t or bed down near a tractor, bulldozer, or f i re plow. o

3-1.6.6 Tractors, bulldozers, and f i re plows shall be operated only by trained, experienced operators.

3-I.6.7 Fire fighters shall not ride on tractors, bulldozers, or f i re plows.

3-1.7 Power Saws.'

3-1.7.1 Power saws.shall be operated only by t ra ined, experienced personne!.

3-1.7.2 Power saw operators shal lwear safety hard hats, protective chaps, ear and eye protection, and gloves.

3-1.7.3 The motor shall ,be stopped whenever a power saw is to be carried more than I0 f t (3.0 m).

3-1.7.4 The motor shall be stopped for al l cleaning, adjustments, and repairs.

3-1.7.5 The motor shall be stopped and the exhaust allowed to cool prior to refueling. Refueling shall be done on bare ground and spil led fuel wiped off the motor. The saw shall not be started within 10 f t (3.0 m) of the refueling area.

3-1.7.6 Whenever using a power saw, there shall be nearby either a portable f i re extinguisher, or a backpack pump f i l l ed with water, or a shovel for extinguishing f ires that may be started by the power saw.

3-1.8 Hand Tools.

3-1.8.1 All hand tools shall be maintained in good conditiQn, with t ight handles, properly sharpened, and all-sharp edges guarded When not in use.

3-1.8.2 Hand tools shall not be carried on the shoulder. Hand tools shall be carried by the balance point on the downhill side with the cutting edge away. from the body. A distance of at least 6 f t (2.0 m) shall be maintained between individuals when carrying hand tools. When using tools, a distance of at least 10 f t (3.0 m) shall be maintained between individuals. Except in an emergency, f i re fighters shall not run while carrying hand tools.

3-1.9" Aircraft . I f the department has occasion to work with f i re f ighting aircra.ft, members shall be trained in safety procedures regarding fixed wing and rotary wing a i rcraf t . A a i r operations safety briefing shall be conducted.

3-2* Training. To ensure safety and effectiveness, every f i re department member shall receive basic wildland f i re training prior to responding to a wildland f i re .

3-2.1 The content and length of the training program" shall be determined by the f i re chief. As a minimum, the content shall include, courses in f i re l ine s a f e t y , , f i re behavior, suppression methods, the 10 standard f i re f ighting orders, and the 18 situations that shout "WATCHOUT".

Chapter 4 Equipment aniJ Apparatus

4~I Equipment.

4-1.1" Hand Tools.

4 - I . I . I The organization shall have suff icient hand tools for wildland f i re suppresslon.

4 - I . I .2 All hand tools shall be for use in emergencies only andshall be d is t inc t ly labeled for emergency use.

4-I.2" Power Saws.

4-1.2.1 Power saws shall~be carefully maintained and serviced in accordance with manufacturer's recommendations. Manufacturer's eperating and safety instructions shall be followed.

- NFPA 295

4-1.2.2 Power saws shall be equipped with approved spark arrestors.

~-I.3 Fire Hose. Fire hose shall be maintained in good condition and cared for properly. I t shall not be, used for other than f i re f ighting unless such use is approved by the f i re chief. (See NFPA 1962 Standard for the Care, Use, and Maintenance of Fire Hose Including Couplings a n d N o z z l e s ) .

4-2.1 Tractors, Bulldozers, and Fire Plows. All tractors or bulldozers shall have protective canopies, winches, and adequate l ights for night operations, and i f not turbocharged, shall be equipped with approved spark ~rrestors.

Chapter 5 General

5-I* Retardants and Suppressants. These items shall not be used without a thorough knowledge of the particular precautions to be followed and the hazards associated with their use. Wildland f i re foams shall meet NFPA 298 requirements. Wetting agents shall meet NFPA 18 requirements.

5-2 Communications.

5-2.1" Communications System. A wildland f i re : communication system plan shall be established by al l f i re deRartments and be incorporated into the f i re department's/agency every day operational procedures.

As a minimum, a wildland f i re communicatio~syste m plan shall address the following:

(a) Communication between the public and the f i re department/agency

(b) .Communication procedures within the f i re department/agency

(c) Communications procedures within the f i r e " departments/agencies

(d) Communications between the f i re department/agency and other public safety related agencies ""

5-2.2 Emergency Telephone. "An emergency telephone number shall be established'for receiving reports of f ires or other emergencies. This emergency telephone number shall be widely publicized in the response area and published i n the local telephone di.rectory.

5-2.3 Alerting Systems. The f i re department shall have an alert ing system by which i t can summon personnel at any time of' the day or night.

5-2.4 ~ Incident Radio Communications Plan. The f i re department/agency shall have established procedures .for determining incident radio system needs; methods for allocation frequencies and pr io r i t ies ; and support equipment assignment and accountability.

5-3 Fire Reporting and Investigation.

5-3.1 ". Fire Reporting. A f i re report shall be completed and f i led with the appropriate state or federal agency for every incident that the f i re department responds to.

5-3.2* Fire Investigation. Every f i re responded to by the f i re department shall be investigated for f i re Cause, and an investigation report shall be completed. Significant wildland f ires may require investigation by a specially trained wildland f i re investigator.

The f i re department shall contact i ts state forester, state f i re marshal, or'other equivalent off icer to request assistance an(] determine required f i r e . reporting and investigation procedures and'report contents.

5-4 A i r Operations.

5-4.1 Air Operations Plan. A l l tactical a i r operations in support of wildland f i re shall be conducted in accordance with an appropriate a i r operation plan and managed by a qualif ied a i r operation off icer.

703

NF.PA 295

5-5 Wildland/Urban Interface Operations.

5-5.l When jurisdict ion dr mutual aid and assistance agreements include wildland/urban interface areas, training shall be provided in basic wildland and structural f i re, safety, and exposure protection.

Chapter 6 Referenced Publications.

6-I The following documents or portions thereof are referenced within this standard and shall be considered part of the requirements of this document. The edition indicated for each reference ~s the current edition as of the date of the NFPA issuance of this document.

6-1.1 NFPA Publications. National Fire Protection .Association. I Batterymarch Park, P.O. Box 910l, Quincy, MA OZZ69-glOl.

NFPA i8-1990, Standard on Wetting Agents NFPA 298-1989, Foam Chemicals for Wildland Fire

Control NFPA 1500-1987, Standard on Fire Department

Occupational Safety and Health Program NFPA 1561-19g0, Standard oh Fire Department Incident

Management System NEPA IgOl-lg85, Standard on Automotive Fire Apparatus NFPA 1962-1988, Standard for the Care, Use, and

Maintenance of Fire Hose Including Couplings and Nozzles

Appendix A

This Appendix is not a part of the requirements of this NFPA document, but is included for information purposes only.

A-I~2 The current text is designed to help the thousands of small community organizations existing in the rural and forested areas of North America. Many of these communities are exposed to the dangers of a large f i re involving many acres of natural fuels, such as forest, grass, or brush. To effectively prepare for such emergencies, the responsive f i re protection organizations and individuals must be informed of the most recent and useful wil~land f i re control techniques, equipment, training', and operations.

Additional information on large equipment, heavy power tools, specialized wi ldf i re f i re fighting equipment, and techniques is available in other publications. The standard includes a l i s t of mandatory requirements that must be met i f f i re fighters are to be safe and effective in the prevention and suppression of wildfires.

I~ is suggested that f i re organizations consider the adoption of this standard through a vote by the f i re department members or by citizens of the protected area. Legal counsel should he consulted to explain how the adoption of this standard affects the department and i ts members.

In many rural and wildland areas, forest, grass, crop, and brush fires are a dontinual problem.' These fires, i f not controlled, can endanger human l i f e and cause serious damage to property, natural resources, and the environment. Careful evaluation of w~Idfires in the United States and Canada for many years has shown that f i re damage can be prevented or minimized i f such fires are aggressively attacked by trained f i re fighters in the early stages of f i re development.

A-2-I Organization and Management. In order to provide f i re prevention and control and to protect l i f e and property from wildf i re, a community should establish the following:

(a) An o f f i c ia l l y designated formal organization headed by a f i re chief or f i re warden charged with the responsiblity of preventing and suppression of wildland fires. The chief js in charge of the entire departmental operation. The chief should be appointed by,the governing body, i f one exists, or elected by the membership on the basis of merit and ab i l i t y . The chief may be a paid professional, part-time paid, or volunteer.

A well organized, equipped, and t ra ined f i r e company or crew~who w i l l operate under the au tho r i t y of the ch ie f , f i r e warden, or subordinate o f f i c e r .

Host smalt w i l d f i r e s can be handled by a we l l - t r a i ned squad or company of two to f i ve f i gh te r s i f attached' qu ick ly . Large or rap id l y spreading f i r e s require more f i r e f i gh te rs , more equipment, exper t supervis ion, and extens ive radio and telephone, communications.

Three or four small companies or squads of f i ve or s ix f i r e f i gh te r s , wi th leaders ,may be grouped together under the command of a crew leader or company o f f i c e r . This leader may be one of several crew leaders commanding s im i l a r groups, and a l l personnel unde~ his command, and others concerned, should know who the crew leader is and the scope of the leader 's au tho r i t y . The crews or companies may be assigned to act ion on only a designated por t ion of the main f i r e . This designated por t ion of the f i r e is commonlycal led a sector o r ' d i v i s i o n .

A-2-1. ] For more in format ion see NFPA 1201, Recormendat ions ' for Developing Fire Protect ion Services fo r the Publ ic .

A-2-2 Command. The f i r s t responsible au tho r i t y ranger, warden, company o f f i c e r or crew leader, or other o f f i c e r who a r r i ves at the emergency, is the inc ident commander un t i l someone with higher au thor i t y s p e c i f l c a l l y assumes command. Whenever a new inc ident commander assumes command, a l l o f f i c e r s , crew leaders, and others on the inc ident should be n o t i f i e d immediately; The inc ident commander is responsible for planning and d i r e c t i n g the f i r e control e f f o r t s ; assembling crews of f i r e companies and t e l l i n g them where and how to work; maklng the best use of personnel; arranging fo r communications, rest periods, and r e l i e f crews; making the best use of equipment and too ls obta in ing suppl ies; and ensuring that the f i r e is completely ext inguished before the l as t Crews are released from the scene. In other words, the inc ident commander is responslb le fo r a l l a c t i v i t i e s and operat ions at an emergency inc ident the inc ident commander delegates more and more r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to ass is tants as the organ izat ion needed grows, but he is always the f i na l au tho r i t y and bears to ta l responsibility.

A-2-5 Pre-lncident Planning. Written f i re suppression mobilization plans are important even i f prepared only in outline form. They should l i s t al l preplanned decisions and attack plans and outline other information needed for.planned action. Such f i re control plans allow a subordinate to take emergency action in the absence of the f i re chief or other key individuals. Copies of tile plans with necessary maps should be distributed to key f i re officers. Plans must be updated at leasy annually and any other time when required by changing conditions.

.A. Fire Department Organizational Chart

I. Line of Succession Names - how to contact 2. Personnel Roster Names - how to contact

B. Cooperating Agencies Names - how to contact

C. Resources

I. Reserve personnel - how to contact. 2. List of available equipment - type, locations,

how to contact and procure. 3. List of available supplies and suppliers - types,

locations, how to contact'and procure. 4. List of other available fac i l i t ies - types,

locations, who to contact.

D. Map of Protected Area. Include such items as:

I. Boundary of protected.area and adjacent jurisdictions.

2. Roads and other means of access: heliports and airports.

3. Locations of manpower, equipment, and fac i l i t ies resources.

4. Water sources. 5. Areas of concern.

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(a) Hazards - mapped areas of hazardous fuels. (b) High risk ignition sources: dumps, sawmills,

logging operations, recreation areas, etc.

E. Fire Weather Information

I. Source of information. 2. Methods of notifying the publi,c.

F. Pre-Attack Plans

A-2-7 Fire Prevention. A major responsibility of. every f i re protection organizatloo~ is to keep the . community informed of the methods and need for sound f i re prevention. Prevention o fw i l d f i r e is a continual job. Fire is an eVer-present dan!]er, and, to be effective, f i re prevention must be constantly practiced. Fire prevention is often said to be the most important function of a f i re protection organization, A f i re prevention program must include plans for the entire year. The program should analyze the common causes of f i re, identi~y significant f i r e hazards and risks existing in the protection area, and propose measures to reduce the occurrence of f i re and

f i r e damages, The following is an example of a systematic wildland f i re preventi(}n planning process.

A-2-7.1 Wildfire Prevention Planning

In order to implement a wi ldf i re prevention program as an integrated element of the f~re management program, wi ldf i re prevention must be focused. Wildfire prevention efforts must focus upon ignitions that pose the greatest threat to cause unac(:eptable damage or losses. Ut i l iz ing wildf ire prevention as a selected strategy based on the threat of ti~e ignition integrates i t into the f i re management progr~; Other strategies within the f i re management program that may be employed include suppression, fuels management, prescribed f i re, etc.

To focus wi ldf i re prevention' programs i t is important to accurately identify problems or potential problems. Any wi ldf i re prevention planning process that does not accurately assess or identify wi ldf i re prevention problems is doomed to fa i l . Ideni:ification of. pr ior i ty wildfireprevention programs must look at a number of variables. These variables include:

I. Risks. Risks are defined as those uses or human act iv i t ies that have the potential to resu l t i n wi ldf i re ignition. When @ssessincl the risk of a given area, only the RISK should be examined. The potential for a f i re to spread or burn wi l l be looked at

separately; these 2 items should ~ot be confused., Wherever there are concentrations of people or act iv i ty the potential for a human-caused ignition exists.

'After assessing the risks within Bn a~ea i t may be helpful to look at histor ical . f i res "to val idatethe risk assessment. Historical fires alone, however, are not an accurate reflection of the risks within a given area. The objective of.this effort is to determine the degree of risk within given areas of an administrative unit.

2. Hazards. Hazards are defined as the fuels and topography of an area. Given normal or average f i re weather conditions, f i re intensity is largely a product of fuels and topography. The objective in examining risks is todetermine the potential for a large f i re to result from a human-caused ignition. This could be more simply put as determining the degree of d i f f icu l ty in suppressing a f i re once i t is ignited..Again, i t is important to examine hazards without regard for

'anything else.

3. Values. Values are defined as natural or developed areas that would be unacceptable if ' lost or destroyed by wildf ire. The objective of this process is to rate values based upon the need to protect them from wildf ire.

Once risks, hazards, and values have been evaluated i t wil l be possible to determine when, where, and how to implement effective f i re prevention programs. ,By, comparing an area's potential to have an ignition ( r i sks) wi th i t s ' p o t e n t l a l to burn a f t e r ign i ted (hazards), and the values threatened by a w i l d f i r e , an

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effective f i re prevention plan can be written. This • plan can focus on the highest pr ior i ty wi ldf ire

prevention problems within an administrative unit. I t may not be necessary to have an extensive f i re prevention effort in an area with a number of risks where the hazard is minimal and there are no real values at risk. In contrast i t wil l be important to have a comprehensive effort in an area where there are substantial risks, a high hazard, and high values threatened.

The wildf ire prevention plan should address what needs to be done in each area based upon the type of act iv i t ies and uses. I t should clearly define what actions wi l l take place, when, and who i s responsible. Wildfire prevention act iv i t ies generally fa l l within one of 3 broad categories. These categories include:,

I. Education. Education is aimed at changing 'people's behavior by informing them. Informing people can be done through printed materials, mass media (radlo, televislon etc.), one-on-one contacts or group presentations. ~nformation can also be delivered through signs, displays, fairs, parades, etc.

2. Engineering. Engineering is an act iv i ty designed to shield an ignition source (e.g. spark arrester) or remove the fuel that would ignite from a spark (clearance around a home).

3. Enforcement. Enforcement is used to gain compliance with f i re codes and ordinances.

The wi ldf i re prevention plan should select the most cost effective mix of act iv i t ies to mitigate potential f i re problems within each pr ior i ty area. Annually the wildf lre prevention plan should be evaluated. I f ignitions are occurring in an area where an active f i re prevention program is implemented; perhaps the f i re prevention act iv i t ies should be reviewed. Thls review may result in a change of act iv i t ies within the area. I f the plan is working, there wi l l be no need to make any changes.

A-3-].I Personnel. Fire fighting requires fast action, sustained effort, and greater energey than most other work. Fire fighting is always hazardous and potentially dangerous. In the United States, f i re fighting has one of the highest accident rates of any occupation. Wildfire control can be particularly hazardous unless the necessary safety procedures and principles are constantly practiced and obeyed. Most accidents can be prewznted by careful procedures and training before emergencies. The safety and welfare of the entire f i re fighting organization are the responsibility of the incident commander. Each person in authority is likewise responsible for the safety_of the personnel under his direction.

A-3-I.2 Protectlve Clothing. A safety hard hat with chin strap must be worn on the f i re l ine. A standard f i re f ighter's helmet may be worn as an alternative. Hard hats greatly reduce the number of serious. injuries. Lightweight "bump" hats are unacceptable as they do not provide adequate protection in wildfiTe control.

Footwear should be leathe'r lace-up boots.' I t is recommended-that boots be without steel toes except for those used by chain s~ operators. The boots should have slip-resistant soles, such as a hard rubber lug-type or tractor tread. This allows for maximum traction and prevents melting when exposed to normal f i re l ine conditions. Soles should not be made of composition rubber or plastic, which have low melting points. This does not: preclude the use of boots with smooth, hard rubber soles or those with a well-defined tread. However, the disadvantage of these soles is their tendency to sl ip on smooth rock, logs, dry grass, and pine needle surfaces that are often encountered on

'wi ldf i res. The height, of boot tops should be a minimum of 6 in. (15.2 cm), with at least 8 in. (20.3 cm) or greater preferred. Low-quarter boots or shoes should not be worn as they do not provide ankle support or keep out sparks and d i r t . ' Pull-on type boots~ such as structural f i re fighting rubber boots, cowboy boots, or

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NFPA 295 engineering boots are not recommended because they do not provide adequate ankle support, do not keep out sparks and d i r t , and are l o o s e - f i t t i n g and may cause blisters.

I f available, flame resistant clothing specially designed for wi ldf i re fighting should be worn. I f flame-resistant clothing is not available, f i re fighters should wear loose, cuffless trousers and shlrts'made of cotton or wool. Loose-fitting clothing reduces chafing and affords more protection. Neck-buttoning collars should be worn to protect the ams and neck from heat, burns, scratches, and insects.

Fire shelters should be wo6n by al l f i re fighters engaged in supp'~esslon act iv i t ies i f available.

Gloves should be worn to protect hands and make hand work easier. Fire fighters should have goggles for eye protection when encountering excessively smoky or dusty environments.

An NFPA standard on personal" protective clothing and equipment for wildland f i re fighters is currently being developed.

A-3-I.3 Physical Examination. Members of the f i re department must be in good physical condition. Suppression operations often demand long hours of vigorous act iv i ty . Wildfires in particular require much climbing, carrying, and use of tools and equipment in uneven terrain, often for several days and nights. Persons unable to pass rigid physical examination may be used within their ab i l i t ies in nonflreline act iv i t ies, such as dispatching, or other capacities.

Anyone selected as an active member of the f i re department should und.ergo a physical examination by a physician. The f i re department may establish standards for physical examinations and for physical fitness. These standards may be used for e,valuation through testing procedures as well as guidance for physicians evaluating members. The US federal wi ldf ire control agencies and a number of states use a "step test" for evaluating the physical condition of new and experienced personnel. Information on the step test may be obtained from respective state foresters' offices or the US Forest Service.

Medical f i les should be established to maintain a history of acc.idents or d isabi l i t ies that the f i re fighter receives in service. One of the f i r s t acts in the newly formed f i re control organization should be to establish i ts membership requirements in accordance with the applicable provisions of state or provincial legislation. This would include provisions for workmens compensation or other insurance for f i re fighters. Requirements for professional f i re fighters are included in NFPA I001, Fire Fighter Professional Qualificiatlons.

A~3-I.4 First Aid. All f i re department members must be trained and cert i f ied in f i r s t aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). As a minimum, the training should consist of the American Red Cross's First Responder standard f i r s t aid course and the American Heart Association's First Responder cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) course, or equivalent medically cert i f ied courses. I t is highly recommended that f i re department members be trained and certif ied beyong these courses to the more advanced First Responder First Aid training or Emergency Medical Technician (EMT) level.

A-3-1.9 Aircraft Safety.- Fixed Wing Aircraft. The use of f i re retardants dropped from aircraft is a modern, sophisticated attack tool in wi ldf i re control. I t is l ike ly that members of f i re departments may become involved in the use of a i r tankers; therefore, they must be cognizant of the safety rules regarding air tanker operations.

Ground forces should be warned when drops wi l l be made in their area. Often the air tanker p i lo t wi l l make a dry run or high pass over the portion of the

' f i r e where He plans to drop. This usual ly indicates the drop wil l be made within l . to 3 minutes. I f drops have already been made in the area, there usually wil l be no dry runs.

I f unable to retreat to a safe place when an airdrop is imminent, follow these safety procedures:

(a) Lie face down with head toward, oncoming aircraft and hard hat in place. I f possible, grab something solid and get behind i t to prevent belngcarried or rolled about by the drop. Spread feet apart for better bod~ s tab i l i ty and to assist digging in.

(b) Hold tools firmly out to the side and away from the body. Flying tools or equipment can cause injury.

(c) Do not run unless escape is assured. Never stand up in the path of an air drop.

(d) Stay away from large old trees and snags. Tops, limbs, or entlre trees may break and fa l l , causing injury.

After the retardant drop has been made, there is a follow-up advantage on the f i re. However, these factors must be considered after the drop:

(a) Most retardants are slippery; therefore, be careful of footing and wipe off al l hand tools, especially the handles.

(b) Heavy application of retardant on surfaced roads can be hazardous and should be washed down as soon as possible.

(c) Retardant should be washed from equipment and structures as soon as possible to prevent damage to finishes.

(d) Retardant may also damage agricultural or ornamental vegetation, and actions should be taken to minimize such damage.

Rotary Wing Aircraft (Helicopters). The use of helicopters has become a key part of wi ldf ire protection; however, as with any other piece of f i re fighting equipment, there are definite rules for safety when using or operating around a helicopter. The following safety procedures apply to helicopter operations:

Approach and Departure.

(a) Get the p i lo t 's attention and permission before approaching the helicopter.

(b) Always approach in ful l view of the pi lot . Never approach from the rear of the helicopter.

(c) Always approach or depart in a crouched position. Gusts of wind can cause the rotor blades to drop dangerously low to the ground.

(d) Safety helmets must be held securely to prevent their being blown away or blown up into the rotors by the rotor blast.

(e) Never approach or depart a helicopter from ground that is upslope from the main rotor. Rotors are . almost invisible when turning at hig h speed or under poor l ighting conditions.

(f) Keep-clear of the main and ta i l rotors at all tim~s. Do not walk to the rear of the helicopter when entering or exiting.

(g) Carry al l long-handled tools in such a manner that the handles wil l not be inadvertently raised into the rotor path.

Working Around Heliports.

(a) Stay at least 100 f t (30'm) away from helicopters at al l times unless you have a specffic job that requires otherwise. Your presence can cause confusion and disrupt the p i lo t 's concentration.

706

(b) Do not face a landing helicopter unless wearing goggles.

• (c) Do not,remain in an area that is consistently under the f l ight path of any helicopter.

(d) Do not smoke within 50 f t (15 m) of any helicopter or fueling area. -

In , f l ight Safety.

(a) Do not smoke in the helicopter.

(b) Use the seatbelt and keep i t secured until the , p i lo t instructs yoG to leave the helicopter.

J

(c) Ensure that al l loose gear'and helmets, maps, papers, etc., are securely held to prevent their being blown about the helicopter or out the windows.

(d) Do not let any gear get in the way "of the p i lot or his controls.

(e) Never throw anything out of a helicopter.

(f) Do not talk to the p i lot unless necessary, particularly during takeoff'and landing.

(g). Be alert for hazards such as Other aircraft and especially telephone and power lines.

(h) Never slam the doors of a helicopter. The doors do not have spring-loaded locks, so the handles must be physically turned to secure the door.

A-3-2 Training. At1 personnel should receive frequent -training in f i r s t aid, f i re l ine safety, f i re behavior, and techniques and methods of wi ldf i re suppression. This should include periodic hands-on training with hand tools and equipment, as well as crew and f i re l ine organization. Crew leaders and company officers need specialized training in f i re control tactics to assure their competence when directing f i re suppresslon operations• I t is recommended that cooperative

• training with other wi ldf i re control organizations be conducted'. Federal, state, and provincial forest f i re officers have technlcal training materials and are usually available to assist.

Many s'tates and provinces have established programs through which,fire fighters can receive training in structural f i re fighting. Special training in wildf ire tactics and techniques can be obtained from state, provincial, or federal wi ldf i re protection agencies, which frequently, conduct special f i re schools, seminars, and other forms of instruction. A number of publications dealing with wildf ire control are available from state forester's offices or the National Wildfire Coordinating Group's Publication Management System (See Appendix B.)

The 10 Standard Fire Fighting Orders and 18 Situations that Shout Watchout are used as the basic safety instructions for wildland f i re suppression act iv i t ies and should be included in al l wildland f i re suppression training.

Ten Standard Fire Fiahtino Orders

I . Fight f i re aggressively but. provide for safety f i r s t .

2. In i t ia te al l actions based on the current and expected f i re behavior.

3. Recognize current weather conditions and obtain forecasts.

4. Ensure instructions are given and understood.

5. 'Obtain current information on •fire status.

6. Remain in communication with crew members, your supervisor, and adjoining forces.

7. Determine safety zones and escape routes.

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8. Establish lookouts in potent ia l ly hazardous s i tuat ions.

9. Retain control at i l l times.

10. Stay a ler t , keep calm, think c lea r l y , act de'cisively.

18 Situations That Shout Watchout

I. The f i re is not scouted and size~ up.

2. You're in country not seen in daylight.

3. Your safety zones and escape routes aren't identified. :

4. You're unfamiliar with weather and local factors influencing f i re behavior.

5. You're uninformed on strategy, tactics, and hazards.

6. Instructions and assignments are not clear.

7. You have no coimunication llnk with crew members and supervisors.

8. You're constructing a line without a safe anchor point.

9. You're building a f l rel ine downhill with f i re below.

lO. You're attempting a frontal assault on the f i re.

11. T~ere is unburned fuel between you and the f i re.

12. You cannot see the main f i re, and you're not in contact with anyone who can.

13. You're on a hi l ls ide where rol l ing material can ignite fuel below.

14. The weather is getting hotter and drier.

15. Wind increases and/or changes direction.

16. You're getting frequent spot fires across the f i re line.

17. Terrain and'fuels make escape to safety zones d i f f i cu l t .

18. You feel l ike taking a nap near the f i re l ine.

A-4-1.1 Hand Tools. Tools needed wi l l vary by sections of the country due to differences in fuels, soi l , and topography. All equipment selected • for f i re control work should be dependable, properly maintained, and used for the type of work for which i t was designed. Many national standards and specifications are available to help f i re department organizations' purchase the proper equipment. Assistance ~n selecting appropriate tools can be obtained from federal, state, or provinc!al wi ldf i re fighting agencies.

A-4-1.2 Power Saws. I t is,not necessary that f ire suppression organizations own power saws; •they are frequently available from woods operators, the same operators that communities may often rely on for additional f i re fighting manpower.

Information on power saws can be secured from the manufacturers as well as from operators who have used the various makes and types. Because f i re suppression may require carrying saws long distances over rough terrain, an important consideration is weight.

Saws must be equipped with adequate spark arrestors to minimize, the possibi l i ty of igniting nearby fuels by hot exhaust particles: References for information on approved spark arresters for power saws are found i~ Appendix B.

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A-4-2.1 Tractors and Bulldozers. Tractors and bulldozers are costly compared to hand tools or the majority of power tools used in l ine constructlon and mop-up work. Most f i r e departments wi l l not find i t economical to own tractors or bulldozers but should make a careful evaluation to determine use possib i l i t ies under existing conditions of terrain, fuels, and rates of f i r e spread. Heavy tractor equipment is frequently available from construction and logging operators, whose names and telephone numbers should be included in the f i r e plan. Any tractors or bulldozers used for wi ld f i re suppression should be equipped with protective canopies, winches, and adequate l ights for operating at night. Unless turbo-charged, bulldozers or tractors should also be equipped with approved and effect ive spark arrestors. References for information on approved spark arresters for tractors and bulldozers are found in Appendix B.

A-5-I Retardants and Suppressant Applications.

In wildland f i r e suppression and f i r e management including prescribed burning, these items fa l l into two categories :

- Long Term Retardant. (Depends upon chemicals that a l ter the combustion process - effect ive for long period of time.)

- Suppressants. (Depends upon ab i l i t y to retain moisture - usually effect ive from just a few minutes to up to one hour or so under optimum condltlons.)

Lona Term Retardants

I. Long term retardants contain true f i r e retarding salts, ammonimum sulfate, ammonium phosphate or a combination of each that a l ter the combustion process.

2. Used for:

Pre-treating a planned f i r e control l ine. Applying a short distance ahead of the f i r e - direct attack. May or may not be used in conjunctionwith ground crews.

3. Methods of application:

- Fixed wing airtankers. - Helicopters with buckets or fixed tanks. - Fire engine.

Suppressants

I. Suppressants are water with additives such as polymers or foam concentrate. They depend upon the water and moisture retention for effectiveness. When the water dries out, the effectiveness disappears.

2. Used for:

- Direct attack in support of on-the-line f i r e crews.

- Short term protection of items such as improvements, log decks, forest fuels adjacent to a f i r e l ine.

- Prescribed burning and backfiring. - Mop-up.

3. Methods of application:

- Fixed wing a i r tankers. - Helicopters with buckets or fixed tanks. - Fire engines. - Back pumps.

4. Basic principles for the creation of foam for Class A fuels:

- Foam is an aerated solution of water and foam concentrate.

- Very small amounts of wildland f i r e foam concentrate is needed, usually .20 percent to ..7 percent by volume of water.

- Wet sloppy foams are most effect ive for wildland f i r e suppression and mop-up..

- - Thicker, richer foams are most effective for short term protection of improvements and forest fuels to be protected.

- The consistency of the foam (thin-thick) can be controlled by the application equipment used ~or application on the ground and by drop speed and height from a i rcra f t . The more a i r entrained, the thicker the foam.

- Aspirating nozzles with water/alr expansion rates of + lO to ± lO0 are available.

- For mop-up, regular f i r e hose nozzles and aspirating nozzles with low water/air expansion rates are the most effect ive.

- The thickest, driest foams are made by using compressed a i r foam systems (CAFS).

- Wildland f i r e foams are chemically derived wetting agent foams, As such, they have the ab i l i t y to form an insulating blanket on the surface of fuels, as well as increasing the efficiency of water by increased penetration into fuels and reducing the amount of water that runs o f f onto the ground.

References for information on wildland f i r e foams and reEardants are found in Appendix B.

A-5-2.1 Communication Systems. A communication system by which f i res and emergencies may be reported to the f i r e organization is essential. There must be telephone communications to some-central location that serves as a dispatch center. An emergency telephone number, widely publicized in the response area and published in the local telephone directory, must be established. I t is essential that al l persons in the

community and surrounding area be noti f ied of how and where to report a f i r e or other emergency. I t is also essential that the f i r e department have an alert ing system by which i ts personnel can be summoned at any time of the day or night. There area a number of ways to do this, including radio-activated pagers and monitors, sirens, and telephone chain systems.

Communications between of f icers, apparatus, and the dispatch center are also important. This is usually accomplished through the use of 2-way radios'and/or cel lu lar telephones.

Additional detailed information on f i r e department communications can be found in NFPA 1221-1988 Standard for the Instal lat ion, Maintenance and Use of Public Fire Service Communication Systems.

System Elements. There are four basic elements in the communications requirements of a f i r e protection agency:

(a) Communications between the public and the f i re agency.

(b) Communications within the f i re agency under both emergency and nonemergency conditions.

(c) Communications among f i r e agencies. (d) Communications between the f i r e agency and other

agencies.

Each plays an essential part, enabling the f i re agency to meet i ts protection responsibi l i ty. The part icular method used must provide for each in order to be effect ive.

Radio, telephone, and other electronic equipment, operating procedures, and personnel training must allow messages to be conveyed as quickly and rel iably as the situation requires. Messages must be sent and received correctly with no delay. Time delay and the number of messages to be handled are strongly interrelated with

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service. Systems and equipment must be provided so that the public may notify the f i re agency of fires or other emergencies. Attention must be given to message types, the number and length~of messages, the equipment capabilit ies, radio frequencies, a~d system organization. Effective operatir, g practices must be developed and training must be provided to meet the needs of each agency. The measure of adequate service is the ab i l i t y of the system to handle emergency • situations as well as the normal daily act iv i t ies of the agency. A major conflagration, or multiple fires, generates a much greater need for communications than do normal daily act iv i t ies. ..

Communications Between the Public and the Fire Agency. Communications between citizens and the f i re agency revolve around several areas:

. i o o

\ natiOn A' aTre~ ~hv° tnees T < D~: ~i!;e~P~ SFw°mr i?eS ir° n > ' "

I I I L] Central Data Banks

Figure A-5-2.l(a) Fire Communications.

(a) Calls from citizens for emergency assistance or for reporting f ires.

(b) Calls from citizens giving information to, or requesting information from, the f i re agency.

(c) Calls from the f i re agency to citizens.

Calls from citizens, usually received through the telephone system, gfving or requesting information, may be of an emergency nature. Whether or not such a call

• is an emergency is decided by the individual answering the telephone. Many f i rd agencies maintain different administrative and emergency telephone numbers to keep the two types of communications separate. Calls from the f i re agency to citizens usually are of an administrative nature. "911" (universal emergency telephone number) reporting has become common. I t is most easily accomplished in rural areas rather than urban areas.

E;eo ge°c , z e ' s \

Calls to Citizens. ~ , ~

InfOrmation From Citizens

Figure A-5-2.1(b)

Typical Fire Department Communications with the Public.

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Communications with the Fire Agency. Communications between members of the f i re agency include emergency and nonemergency messages. Most of these are accomplished by radio and may involve the dispatcher, radio-equipped vehicles (land, water, or air) ,

.personnel equipped with two-way radios, or personnel at outlying stations in a variety of emergency situations. Examples of such convaunlcations are:

(a) The radio dispatcher gives information to the f i re stations and/or mobile equipment.

(b) Personnel report location and work status to the dispatcher for emergency assignment.

(c) The dispatcher gives coordination information and status to personnel and equipment responding to an emergency.

(d) Field commanders give instructions to ground or air mobile units and to f i re line personnel under their command in a tactical situation.

(e) Communications between equipment un i tsof personnel at a f i re or other emergency.

(f) The f ield commander requests infomation or assistance, and the.dispatcher advises status.

(g) Reports of f i re are transmitted from lookouts or aircraft to dispatch centers.

(h) Infomation on status of personnel and equipment, f i re danger rating, f i re weather forecasts, and legal burning is transmitted between fixed stations, mobile units, and the radio dispatcher.

Figure A-5-2.1(c) Base-Mobile Radio Communications.

Communications Among Fire Agencies. Many f i re agencies supply their' neighbors with requested infomatlon. Such communications are necessary because many small agencies depend on mutual aid agreements, and wildland fires are l ike ly to cover more than the jurisdiction of a single agency. In addition, many f i re agencies have common infomation needs.

Interchange may be divided into two kinds of communications -d i rected and incidental. Directed communication is the conveying of info~atien from one agency to-one or more-specifically selected agencies. Incidental communication is the exchange of infomation among agencies that is a by-product of the primary purpose of the communi.cations.

An example of directed communication is the exchange oZ infomation regardlng burnlng permits or other smokes of interest to stations of other agencies, or" the transmittal of a f i re danger rating or f i re weather infomatlon. I t may also be advice regarding equipment in adjoining stations where f i r s t attack arrangements exist.

. 7 0 9

NFPA 295

I nc iden ta l or nondi rected communication among agencies occurs whenever one agency moni tors the t ransmiss ions o f another,, a l though the in fo rmat ion is not s p e c i f i c a l l y intended f o r in teragency distribution. Most of this kind of communication is by radio, especially among agencies that share a radio channel. (When agencies have a choice of channels on which to operate, they must weigh the advantages of mutual monitoring by al l system users against the disadvantages of greater message t ra f f ic and the resulting problems of channel loading.) This kind of communication is no less important than directed communication, for i t allows one agency to be aware of situations in another community or area that may "spi l l over" or involve i t direct ly in a short time.

Monitoring of nearby f i re departments' or f i re agencies' transmissions helps the listener to anticpate the need for mutual aid and to be aware of the level of emergency act iv i ty in an area larger than the department's or agency's own boundaries. I f two f i re service agencles anticipate a need for mutual aid or cooperation, they frequently monitor each other's calls even when not on the same radio channel. Monltor-recelvers at the dispatcher posltions.are generally used.

Special mutual.ald radio frequencies or channels for mobile use only have been licensed so that f i re agencies from adjacent Jurisdictions can communicate directly with each other. Such a channel can assist normal day-to-day interagency communication needs and emergency communi cation during widespread disasters. The channels may serve as command channels for interagency communication. Although these are helpful, there are also problems with them. The frequencies may become overloaded very quickly. The multi-channel synthesizer mobile radio allows al l radio t raf f ic to be conducted on the "Agency in Charge" radio system, starting with in i t ia l attack on through large f i re operations.

'Point-to-Point' Channel Local Channel

Figure A-S-2.1(d) Interdepartmental Communications.

Communications Between the Fire Agency and Other Agencies. Another function of a communications system is to pass messages between the f i re agency and public safety oriented agencies, such as public works, highway maintenance departments and u t i l i t i e s , hospitals and ambulance services, towing and wrecker services, law enforcement agencies, c iv i l defense units, forest industries, and f i re weather forecasters.

I ,

Fire agencies exchange a large variety Of information with nonfire agencies or cooperators. Perhaps the information most widely exhanged in the rural and mountain areas is the local f i re danger rating or f i re weather information, reports of road conditions, flooding, fallen trees, and similar useful data. Reports of vehicle accidents are often made to the f i re agency by pol i te agencies where a f i re department or rescue company response is required. Since many of these companies are radio equipped, they can be of assistance during large fires or other major incidents.

One of the greatest demands for communications with other agencies can occur during major emergencies. The ab i l i t y to meet this problem requires planning for message volumes and possible language barriers. Telecommunications for a fire.department or forest agency must include contingency plans for emergency situations. During an emergency is no time to set up new communications links. The volume of messages that must be handled is l ikely to exceed most estimates, so plans must include means for handling the volume of message t ra f f ic to prevent system breakdown due to overloadihg. Concerned citizens and news media can rapidly overload a telephone system. Nonfire agencies may not understand the standard language of f i re radio. Therefore, liaison personnel familiar with the radio language of the f i re service and the assisting organizations are needed to maintain effective commuhications. The National Interagency Incident Management System~(NIIMS), which is being adopted by many f i re agencies, includes two important communications concepts that should improve communications effectiveness during major emergencies. These are:

(a) Common Terminology - using "clear text" or "plain l apguage" radio and established standard terms and phrases.

(b) Integrated Incident Communications - which intends the best possible use of al l participating agency radio systems including frequency sharing agreements.

The new.synthesizer mobile radios can also be very useful here. Police, f i re, and other public safety agencles can now converse with each other "at the scene" and not depend on time-consuming relays through dispatchers.

Figure A-S-2.1(e) Communications With Other Agencies.

A-5-2.4 Incident Radio Communications Plan. An incident radio communications plan should be prepared in direct support of the objectives and control operations established by the incident commander. This incident radio communications plan is usually a single-page form that outlines the general radio system needs and allocations, frequency assignments and. pr ior i t ies (ground to ground, ground to air, and air to air) , communication equipment accountability, and specific remarks to meet the control and management objectives for the incident. I n i t i a l l y , incident radio communications planning is the responsibility of the incident commander until a logistics chief and/or communications unit leader is assigned to the more complex incidents.

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Figure A-5-2.4 Sample Incident Radio Communications Plan

I. Incident Name 2. Date/Time 3. Operational Period Prepared Date/Time

INCIDENT RADIO COMMUNICATIONS PLAN Butte 8-20-89 8-21-89 2100 Hrs 0600-1800 Hrs

4. Basic Radio Channel Uti l ization

System/Cache Channel Function ' Frequency Assignment Remarks

Fire Department l Command 170.450 "A" Net

Fire Department 2 "A"

IC, Generic and I. Command Staff Air Ops., Div Supv., and Group Supv.

Tactical 170.000 Division A Net

Fire Department 3 Tactical 170.250 Division B "A" Net

Tactical 154.250 Engine Strike Net Teams: 1801

Structure 1802 Protection 1930

Fire Department l "B"

168.075 Air Ops, Helibase Manager, Heli- copters, Air- tankers, Division Sup.

Emergency 1 Air to Fire Cach e Ground (White)

Command and support net repeaters are located'at DP-2 on C1eghorn Truck Trail

2. Command/Gen Staff, Air Ops, Helibase Hgr, Division Supervisors, & Group Leaders, a l l monitor the command net. When not using another net, keep radios on command net.

3. Communication Centers are to monitor the command support, tactical, support , and air to ground nets.

4. Turn in all radios at the end of each shift. command support, tactical, support, and air to ground nets.

4. Turn in all radios at the end of each shift.

Emergency 2 Logistics 168.250 Support Functions Fire Cache Net and in-camp (White) communications

tankers, Division Sup.

ICS 205 .5. Prepared By (Communications Unit)

8-78

See Figure A-5-3.] for a Sample Reporting Form modified to include Wildland Fires.

A-5-3.1 Fire Reporting. The rep{~rting Of fires is an important function of'the f i re department. Fire ' reports provide a real ist ic ant factual basis for f i re prevention planning, support for funding requests, and aid in organizational development. They may also be significant documents in insurance claim adjustment cases. A report must be completed on every f i re or false alarm responded to by the f i re department. I t is important to compile information that is fresh in the mind of the reporting officer.

To maintain uniformity in f i re reporting, the NFPA Technical Committee on Fire Reporting'has developed NFPA 90l. This standard establishes basic definitions and terminology for use in f i re reporting and. a means of classifying data so that they (:an be aggregated either manually or automatically. NFPA gOl provides the common language used by nearly al l large scale (e.g., state, national) data bases in the United States and many others around the world.

The US Fire Administration (USFA) has developed the National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS); which is the automated system based on the work of the NFPA Fire Repotting Committee as published in NFPA gOl. The system now has been installed in approximately 40 states, the Distr ict of Columbia, and a number of larger f i re departments.

At the state level, NFIRS provides for the collection .of wrltten, reports on incidents to which local communities responded. At the national level,'NFiRS provides data bases from individual states to form the national data base. The USFA analyzes this data base and publishes the analysis.

The National Wildfire RepOrting Group (NWCG) has established a standard information content for wildfire reporting also. This standardized content is now used by al l U.S. Federal Wildfire Control Agencies and many states.

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NFPA 295

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FILL IN THIS REPORT IN YOUR OWN WORDS

FOlD INCIDENT NO.

I I I I z i I I I TYPE OF SITUATION FOUND

FIXED PROPERTY USE

CORRECT ADDRES~

OCCUPANT NAME (LAST. FIRST, MI)

OWNER NAME (LAST, FIRST, M I I

METHOD OF ALARM FROM PUBLIC

Telephone Number Where You Can Be Contacted ( )

Area Code

INCIDENT REPORT NFIRS 1 1 n DELETE

FIRE DEPARTMENT 2 I-I CHANGE

EXPN:." I MO" I DAY ' Y ? R DAYOFWEEK I ALARMTIME ARRIVALTIME TIMEIN

I I I , I SERVICE I I I TYPE OF ACTION TAKEN MUTUAL AID

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I I I I I I I ~ • I I TELEPHONE ROOM OR APT.

ADDRESS TELEPHONE

NUMBER FIRE SERVICE PERSONNEL RESPONDED

NUMBER OF INJURIES

FIRE SERVICE I I ] I

COMPLEX

DISTRICT SHIFT NO, ALARMS

NUMBER ENGINES NUMB1ER AERIAL APPARATUS NUMBER OTHER VEHICLES RESPONDED RESPONDED RESPONDED

[ ~ NIUMBE ~ OF FATAUTIES I I I I ~ I

F, RE SERV,CE OTUER OTHER I , I i ~ I I ~ , MOBILE PROPERTY TYPE

I I I i AREA OF FIRE ORIGIN

FORM OF HEAT'OF IGNITION

I METHOD OF EXTINGUISHMENT

NUMBER OF STORIES

I i TYPE OF MATERIAL IGNITED

LEVEL OF FIRE ORIGIN

EXTENT OF FLAME DAMAGE

DETECTOR PERFORMANCE

I TYPE OF MATERIAL GENERATING MOST SMOKE

IF SMOKE SPREAD BEYOND ROOM OF ORIGIN FORM OF MATERIAL GENERATING MOST SMOKE

IF MOBILE PROPERTY YEAR MAKE

EQUIPMENT INVOLVED IN IGNITION

FORM OF MATERIAL IGNITED

I ~ I ~ ESTIMATED LOSS (DOLLARS ONLY)

3ONSTRUCTION TYPE

EXTENT OF SMOKE DAMAGE

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DATE

DATE

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FIRE DANGER I SLOPE ASPECT RESISTANCE TO CONTROL SPREAD RATE

I I I I I SIZE CLASS ACRES TOTAL ACRES BURNED ACRES GRASSLAND ACRES FORESTLAND ~ o

I I I I" I I I I I I I I I I I I F E D E R A L A C R E S B U R N E D . S T A T E A C R E S B U R N E D P R I V A T E A C R E S B U R N E D

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I SUPPRESSION COST DAMAGE CLASS VALUE VALUE CLASS

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Age of Bui lding . Condi t ion of Bui lding Equipment Used Breathing Water Used

I I I I Hose I I I , I I I I I Wind Direct ion Veloc i ty Humid i ty General Descr ip t ion

I I I I I I ~ I I I I I Exit Dril l in the Home Pract iced Was it Used

I I i i

7 1 2

A-5-3.2 Fire Investigation. The effectiveness of future f i re prevention efforts may depenB on the thoroughness of f i re investigation; therefore, every. f i re should be investigated for cause as.soon as possible. Investigation can be performed simultaneously with the f i re suppression operation. Crew members must be trained to protect the f i re 's area of origin and to protect any evidence at the f i re scene. I t is important that the f i re 's area of origin be as undisturbed as possible and that anything that might be evidence not be moved unless absolutely necessary to prevent i t from being destroyed.

All f i re fighters have responsibilities in f i re investigation. When responding to a f i re they should note anyone or anything that could relate to that starting of the f i re; they should observe vehicles in the f i re area and those moving away from i t ; they should record license numbers, vehicle descriptions, personal descriptions, number of people, and locations or directions of travel.

At the f i re scene f i re fighters should be alert for evldence•on how the f i re started and who started i t . They should preserve and protect any evidence found, recording the time and place where each item was located. I t may be necessary to assign one of the crew members to this task while the rest of the crew takes suppression action. All information obtained should be recorded, including the names of witnesses or anyone else contacted, and summaries of any conversations with them. I f an of f ic ia l investigator arrives, he should receive ful l cooperation from all f l re.f ighters and. al l obtained information should be turned over to him.'

Additional detailed information on wildland f i re investigation can be found in "Wildfire Cause Determination Handbook", National Wildfire Coordinating Group Hand Book 1. (See Appendix B.)

Appendix B Referenced. Publications

B-I The following documents or portions thereof are referenced within this standard-for informational purposes only and thus are not considered part of the recommendations of this document. The edition indicated for each reference is the current edition as of the date of the NFPA issuance of this document.-

B-I.I NFPA Publications. National Fire Protection Association, l Batterymarch Park, P.O. Box 9101, Quincy, MA 02269-9101.

NFPA 18-1990, Standard on Wetting Agents

NFPA 298-1989, Foam Chemicals for Wildland-FiFe Control

NFPA 402M-1989, Manual for Aircraft Rescue and'Fire Fighting Operations

NFPA 403-1988, Standard fo rA i rc ra f t Rescue and Fire Fighting Services at Airports

NFPA 407~1990, Standard for Aircraft Fuel Serviclng

NFPA 408L1989, Standard for Aircraft Hand Fire Extinguishers.

NFPA 409-1990, Standard on Aircraft Hangers

NFPA 410-1990, Standard on Aircraft Maintenance

NFPA 412-1987, Standard for Evaluating Foam Fire Fighting Equipment on Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting Vehicles

NFPA 414-1990, Standard for Aircraft Rescue and Fire " Fighting Vehicles

NFPA 1201-1989, Recommendations for Developing Fire Protection Services for the Public

NFPA 295

NFPA 1221-1988, Standard for the Installation, Maintenance and Use of Public Fire Service Communication Systems

NFPA 1500-1987, Standard on Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health Program

NFPA 1901-1985, Standard on Automotive Fire Apparatus

NWCG-NFES No. 1363-1988,.Spark A'rrester Guide, General Purpose and,Locomotive (6 P/L) Volume I (PMS No. 430-2).

NWCG-NFES No. 1363-1988, Spark Arrester Guide, Multiposition Small Engine (MSE) Volume 2 (PMS No. 430-2)-.

Wetting Agents and Wet Water Foams - Making Water More Efficient, NFPA 1962 Fire Protection Handbook, 12th Edition.

B-I.2 Boise Interagency Fire Center Publications.

Boise Interagency Fire Center Publications, PMS 3905 Vista Ave., Boise, ID 83?05

B-I.3 Additional Information.

Brown, A. A. and K. P. Davis, Forest Fire Control and Use, New York, NY, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1973, Second Edition.

California Department Of Forestry, Fire Fighter Training Course, Vols. I and I I , Sacramento, CA, 1981.

Canadian Forestry Service, Environment Canada; Canadia n Forest Fire Weather Index Tables, Forestry Technical Report 25, 1978.

Deeming, 3.. E., R. E. Burgan and J. D. Cohen, The National Fire-Danger Rating System, USDA, For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-39~ and INT-40, Intermt. For. and Range Exp. Stn., Ogden, Utah 1978.

Deeming, J. E. and 3. W. Lancaster, Background Philosophy, ImplementatiOn - National Fire Danger Rating System. USDA Fire Control Notes 32(2): 4-8, 1971.

Lancaster, J. W., Fire Management Applications of th~ National Fire Danger Rating System - 1978. USDA Forest Service, Cooperative Fire Protection, 1978.

Lawson, B. D., An Interpretive Guide to the Canadian Forest Fire Behavior Rating System, Can. Forestry Serv., Pacific Forest Res. Center Rep. BCP-3-72, 1972.

Schroeder, Mark J. and C. C. Buck, Fire Weather ... A Guide for Application of Meteorological Information to Forest Fire Control Operations. USDA Fo~. Serv. Agr. Hdbk., 1970.

Turner, J. A. and B. D= Lawson, Weather in the Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System. Forestry Service, Environment Canada, Pacific Forest Research Centre Report BC-X-ITI, 1978.

Van Wagner, C. E., Structure of the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index. Can. Dep. Environ. Can. Forest.• Serv. Pub. 1333, 1974.

Williams D. E., Forest Fire Danger Manual. Canada, Department of Forestry Pub. No. I027, 1963. "

California Division of Forestry and USDA, Forest Service, Forest Fire Fighting Fundamentals, 1950.

Clar, Raymond C. and Leonard R. Chatten, Principles of Forest Fire Management, California Division of Forestry Sacramento, 1972. •

Department of Lands, Eorests, and Water Resources, British Columbia Forest Service, Handbook on Forest Fire Suppression, Victoria, BC, 1972.

713

NFPA 295

F lor ida Forest Service, Fire F igh te r ' s Guide, Tal I ahassee, 1964.

Gaylor, Harry P., W i l d f i r es : Prevention and Contro l , Robert 3. Brady Co., Bowie, MD, 1974.

B- I .4 Other Pub l i ca t ions .

Foam App l !ca t ions fo r Wildland and Urban Fire Management - NWCG, Volume 1,. No. I , 1988.

A lber ta Forest Service - Wildland Fire Foam Manual, Second Ed i t i on , 1989.

U.S.D.A. Forest Service - In ter im Requirements and Manufacturer Submission Procedures for Wildland Fire Foam.

B-2 Bibliography

B-2.1 U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations.

The following publications are available from U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.

Vol. I:

Part l Definitions and Abbreviations

Vol I I :

Part 11 Part 13 Part 15

Part 21

Part 37 Part 39 Part 45 Part 47 Part 49

Part 183 Part 187 Part 189

General Rule-making Procedures Enforcement Procedures Nondisc÷imination of Federally Assisted Programs for the FAA Certification Procedures for Products and Parts Technical Standard Order Authorization Airworthiness Directives Identification and Registration Marking Aircraft Registration Recording of Aircraft Tit les and Security Documents

• Representatives of the Administrator Fees Use of Federal AOiation Administration Communication Systems

Appendix C Air Operations for Forest, Brush, and Grass Fires

C-I Introduction.

C-I-I Scope. This guide presents fundamental information for agencies desiring to use aircraft for any and all aspects of wildland f i re prevention, detection, and/or suppression. I t presents necessary and useful information on procedures, practices, organization, management, and even suggested pol i ty.

C-I-2 Purpose. The primary purpose of this guide is to present the information necessary to plan, organize, and manage safe,'cost-effective aircraft operations. The guide focuses on aircraft under the control of agencies responsible for wildland f i re prevention, detection, and suppression.

C-l-3 General. Many agencies in different countries use aircraft for reconnaissance, fire.detection, f i re suppression, fuel management, and coordination of- ground control forces.

C-I-4 Definitions of Aeronautical and Air Operations Terminology.

Abort. An order to terminate a preplanned aircraft maneuver e.g., aborted takeoff, abort run. (FAA Pilot/Controller Glossary).

Drop Accuracy. The assessment of a drop made "by the air attack supervisor (birddog officer) or a f i re line supervisor, i .e . , where a load lands in relation to target.

ADF. Automatic Direction Finder is a radio navigational receiver operating in the low frequency bands, found'in many aircraft .

Advisory Service. Advice and information provided by a fac i l i t y to assist p i lo t in the safe conduct of f l ight and aircraft movements. (FAA Pilot/Controller Glossary).

AGL. Above Ground Level.

Air Attack. An operation involving the use of aircraft as part of the f i re suppression action.

Air Traffic. Aircraft operating in the air or on an airport surface, exclusive of loading ramps and parking areas. (FAR.I.I)

Aircraft Footprint. That area on the surface of the earth, runway, or ramp that is covered by the tread of the aircraft t ires while the aircraft is in a motionless condition.

Airport Advisory Area. The area within IO miles (]6.] km) of an uncontrolled airport on which is located a f l ight service station.

Airport Advlsqry Service. A terminal service provided by a f l ight service station located at an airport where a control tower is not in operation.

Airport Information Desk. A local airport fac i l i t y designed for p i lo t self-service, weather briefing, f l ight planning, and f i l i ng of f l ight plans.

Airport Traffic Area. Unless otherwise specifically designated in'FAR Part 93, that airspace within a horizontal radius of 5 statute miles (8 km) from the geographical center of any airport at which a control tower is operating, extending from the surface up to, but not including, an altitude of 3,000 f t (914 m) above the elevation of an airport.

Airspeed. The speed of an aircraft relative to i ts surrounding air mass. The unqualified term "airspeed". means one of the following:

I. Indicated Airspeed - The speed shown on the aircraft airspeed indicator. This is the speed used in pi lot /control ler communications under the general term "airspeed." (Refer to FAR Part 1)

2. True Airspeed - The airspeed of an aircraft relative to undisturbed air. Used primarily in f l ight planning and en route portion of f l ight . When used in pi lot /control ler communications, i t is referred to a s "true airspeed" and not shortened to "airspeed."

Airtanker. A fixed wing aircraft equipped to drop f i re retardants and/or f i re suppressants.

Airtanker Coordinator/Birdog Pilot/Lead Plane Pilot. The pi lot of the control aircraft , (lead plane) under the supervision of the AAS, and assigned to designate tarkets and coordinate the movement of airtankers. (ICS)

-Airtanker Mandatory Requirements., Those requirements set forth • by the Interagency Air Tanker Board.

Alert Area. Airspace that may contain high volume p i lo t training act iv i t ies or an unusual type of aerial act iv i ty.

Approved. Acceptable to the "authority having jur isdict ion."

NOTE: The National Fire Protection Association does not approve, inspect or cert i fy any installations, procedures, equipment, or materials nor does i t approve or evaluate testing laboratories. In determining the acceptability of installations or procedures, equipment or materials, the authority having jurisdiction may base acceptance on compliance with NFPA or other appropriate standards. In the absence of such standards, said authority may-require evidence of proper installation, procedure or use~ The authority having jurisdiction may also refer to the l ist ings or labeling practices of an organization

714

concerned with product evaluations which is- in a position to determine compliance with appropFiate standards for the current production of l isted items.

Armed. A term used' in connection with,the safety device that prevents accidental opening Of retardant tank doors• When the door actuat!ing system is "armed," the controls are operative:

A r t i f l c i a l Horizon Attitude Indi'cator. An'instrument that indicates att i tude with respect to the true horizon. A substitute for the natural horizon.

Authority Having Jurisdiction. ~he "authority having jur isdict ion" is the organization, off ice or individual responsible for "approving" equipment, an !nstal lat ion or a procedure.

NOTE: The phrase "authority having jur lsdlct ion" is used in NFPA documents in a broad manner since Jurisdictions and "approval" agencies vary as do their responsibi l i t ies. Where publlc safety is

primary, the "authority havin!] jur isdict ion"may be a federal, state, local or otI!en regional department or indiyidual such as a f i re chief., f i re marshal; chief of a f i re prevention bureau, labor department, health department:, building o f f i c ia l , electrica'l inspector, or others having statutory authority. For insurance purposes, an insurance inspection department, rating bureau, or other insurance company representative may be the "authority having jur isd ic t ion." In many circumstances the property owner or his designated agent assumes the role of the "authority having jur isd ic t ion" ; at government instal lat ions, the commandlng~officer or departmental o f f ic ia l may be

t h e "authority having jur isd ic t ion."

Autorotatlon. This is a nonpowered f l i gh t condltion with the rotor system maintaining the required f l i gh t rpm at a given forward alrspeed,r due to the relat ive wind upward through the rotors, caused by the weight~ forward speed, add descent of the helicopter.

Avlgatlon. Aerlal nav'igatlon.

Base/Rear/Heel. The side of ' the f i re having the slowest rate of speed.

Birdog/Air Attack (Aircraft) . The ai rcraf t carrying the of f icer or individual in char(ie.of a i r attack operations over a f i re .

Bomb Away/ or "Now." The voice command that signal the moment for actuating the controls that open the retardant doors.

Break/Left or Right. Means turn le f t or r ight. Applies to a i rcraf t in f l i gh t , usually on a retardant drop run, and when given as a command to the p i lo t , implies a prompt compliance.

Bullseye. Term indicating that a load was placed exactly where requested.

Call'ed Shot. The drop.technique wherein the control a i rcraf t triggers the load by voice signal to the p i lo t . (See "Countdown.")

Candling or Torching. The burning of the foliage of a single tree, or a small group of trees, from the bottom up.

Canopy. The uppermost layer of tree f o l i a g e .

Cat Guard/Bulldozed Line/Catline.. A physical f i re break made by bulldozers.

Ceiling. The height, from the earth's surface, of the lowest layer of clouds or obscuring phenomena that is reported as "broken," "overcast," or "obstruction" and not classified as "thin" or parti~!l.

Countdown. A ten down to one reverse count on a called shot start ing approximatel!l one-half mile (0.8 km) from the target. (See "Called Shot.")

NFPA 295

Course. The intended direction of f l i gh t in the horizontal plane.

Crosswind Component. The wind component measured in knots at 90 degrees to the longitudinal axis of the f l i gh t path.

Crown Fire. Fire traveling in the upper foliage of .standing timber..

Cruising Altitude. A f l i gh t level determined by the vertical'measurement from mean sea level. (MSL)

Dehs!ty Alt i tude. Pressure al t i tude for ambient temperature. In standard (ICA0) atmosphere, density and pressure al t i tude are equal. For a given pressure alt i tude, the higher the temperature, the. higher the density al t i tude.

Direct Attack. A drop with the main portion of • retardant or suppresSAnt fa l l ing on the flame front.

Discrete. Frequency. A frequency assigned t0,a part icular function.

DME. Distance Measuring Equipment.

Down Loading. The reduction in a i rcraf t gross weight made' to compensate for loss of performance due to increase i n density a l t i tude .

Dr i f t . The effect.of.wind on smoke or retardant/suppressant drop.

Drop Sequence. The order and method'in which the tanks are released.

Dummy Run/Dry. Run. A simulated retardant or suppressant run made on a target by •the birddog/leadplane or alrtanker. Used to.indlcate approach and target to airtanker and to ~heck for f l i gh t hazards.

DZ. Drop Zone or target area.

Early or Short. Landing before the target. Retardant/Suppressant dropped before reaching target.

Elevatlon. The elevation of thelead plane/birddog when over the target on a dry run.

ELT. Emergency Locator Transmitter. A radio transmitter • attached to the a i rcraf t structure,.which operates from i ts own power source on 121.5 MHz and 243 MHz' transmitting a dist inct ive downward swept audio tone for homing purposes, and is designed to function without human action after an accident.

End of Load. The last portion of . retardant/suppressant to be released from tanker~

ETA. Estimated Time of Arr ival .

ETD• Estlmated Time of Departure;

ETE. Estimated Time Enroute.

FAA. Federal Aviation Administration.

FAR." Federal Aviatlon,Regulatlons.

Final. That portion of the f l i gh t path that is aligned with the retardant/suppressant drop l ine.

Fire Fighter's Cert i f icate. A method of carding f i re fighter~ sooverhead can determine their qualif ications prior to assigning them a position.

Fix. A geographical position determined by visual reference to the surface, by reference to one or more radio navaids, by celestial plott ing, or by any other navigational device.

Flank. 'Side of a f i re joining base or.rear to head. o

Flight Path. The route an a i rcraf t f l ies on any approach to and from a target.

j.

715

NFPA 295 Flight Plan. Specified information relating to the

intended f l ight of an aircraft that is f i led orally or in writing with an air t raf f ic control fac i l i t y .

Flight Time. The time from the moment the aircraft f i r s t moves under i ts own power for the purpose of f l ight until the moment is comes to rest at the next point of landing.

Flight V is ib i l i t y . The average forward horizontal distance from the cockpit of an aircraft in f l ight at which prominent unlighted objects may be seen and identified by sight.

Front or start of Load. The early end Of the load.

FSS. Flight Service Station. A fac i l i t y operated by the FAA to provide f l ight assistance service.

Gallons per Hour Concept. An in i t i a l and supporting attack On a f i re based on a continuous delivery of retardant/suppressants by airtankers or helicopters until complete control of the f i re is achieved by ground personnel.

Ground Effect. Reaction of the wlng/or rotor downwash against ground surface forming a "ground cushion" that increases l i f t i n g capability of that section of air.

Ground Fire. Fire in duff or ground debris.

Ground Speed. The speed with which an alrcraft transverses the ground over which i t f l ies.

Ground V is ib i l i t y . Prevailing horizontal v i s i b i l i t y near the earth's surface as reported by the U.S. National Weather Service or an accredited observer.

Head. The side of, the f i re having the fastest rate of spread.

Heading. The compass direction in which the longitudinal axis of, an aircraft points.

Helibase. Location within the general area of an incident for parking, fueling, and maintenance of helicopters.

Helibase Manager. Manages resources/supplies at a hel ibase. (Heli port/hel i spot)

Helibucket. A specially designed bucket carried by the helicopter l ike a sling load and used to drop retardant or suppressants.

Helicopter Coordinator. Works for the air attack supervisor. With instructions from air attack supervisor is primarily responsible for coordinating tactical or logist ical mlssion(s) by helicopters assigned to an incident.

Heliport. A.designated landing area that is accessible by road and large enough to accomodate, at a. minimum, two helicopters. I t should have fueling fac i l i t ies , wind indicator, f i re extinguishers, surfaced pads," t ie downs, parking areas, water source, telephone and radio communications, officers for base personnel, pi lots ' rest areas, and l ights.

-Helipumper. A portable pump unit developed for • transport by helicopter.

Helispot Location where a helicopter can land and take-off.

Helitack. The in i t i a l attack phase of f i re suppression using helicopters and trained airborne teams to achieve immediate control of wi ldf i re in a safe and economical manner.

Helitack Crewman. A f i re fighter trained in use of helicopter accessories and techniques to attack and suppress wildfi re.

Helitack Foreman. The person direct ly in charge of a helitack crew.

Helitank. A tank attached to a helicopter t:o carry liquids such as suppressants or retardants.

HF. High Frequency.

High Drop. A drop well above the canopy to give a soft fa l l ing, well-dispersed pattern. Used mainly to give a l ight retardant or suppressant coating that wil l reduce f i re intensity.

Hold. Do not drop. An order to hold a load and go around. I t should be followed by an explanation and new directions from the air attack supervisor, usually a change in attack plan or a ground crew in the way.

Hole. Weak or missed area in retardant o~ suppressant drop.

Hot Spot. A particularly active part of a f i re within or along the f i re boundary.

ICS. The incident command system or qualifying and organizing personnel to manage wildfires or other incidents.

Incident Commander. The chief of an incident management team under the ICS.

Identif ication Run. A pass over the target area by the air tanker coordinator birddog or lead aircraft to indicate the f l ight path and target while the airtanker p i lo t is observing.

IFR. Instrument Flight Rules.

I.G.E. In-Ground Effect. Using the high density ground cushion to hover the helicopter.

In i t ia l Attack. The f i r s t action taken to suppress a f i re, whether i t be ground or a i r attack.

Inspection Run. Run over target area to check for wind and smoke conditions and other hazards.

Knot. Nautical mile per hour.

Labeled. Equipment or materials to which has been attached a label, symbol or other identifying mark of an organization acceptable to the "authority having jurisdict ion" and concerned with product evaluation, that maintains periodic inspection of production of labeled equipment or materials and by whose labeling the manufacturer indicates compliance with appropriate standards or performance in a specified manner.

Late Drop. Retardant or suppressant landing beyond the target.

ray-Up. Connecting a drop to the rearward part of a previous d r o p .

Lead In. Lead plane/birddog f l ies thetarget run in front of the tanker on.final approach to target.

L.F. Low Frequency - in 30-300 KYz band.

Line. A stretch of retardant or suppressant lald by aircraft to support constructed line or suppressant or retard f i re spread.

Line Length. The distance actually covered on the ground by a single retardant or suppressant drop at a given coverage level.

Listed. Equipment or materials included in a l i s t published by an organization acceptable to the "authority having jurisdict ion" and concerned with product evaluation, that maintains periodic inspection of production of l isted equipment or materials and whoselisting states either that the equipment or material meets appropriate standards or has been tested and found suitable for use in a specified manner.

'NOTE: The means for identifying l isted equipment may vary for each organization concerned with product evaluation, some of which do not recognize equipment as l isted unless i t is also labeled. The "authority having jur isdict ion" should ut i l ize the system employed by the l is t ing organization to identify a l isted product.

716

Lone-Wolf Action. I n i t i a l attack by a single airtanker operating without direction from an airtanker coordinator (Lead plane pilot/birddog of f icer) .

Long Term Retardant. One having a chemical retarding action on f i re even after water content has evaporat@d.

Low Drop. A drop lower than recommended minimum,drop height.

Magnetic Bearing. Angle to an object measured from magnetic north' in a clockwise direction.

Magnetic Course. The angle that the longitudinal axis 'of the a i rcraf t makes with magnetic north.

Magnetic Variation. The angle between true north and magnetic north, measured east or west.

Maneuvering Speed. The maneuyering speed is the greatest safe speed for abrupt maneuvers or for very rough ai r . Upon encountering severe'gusts, the p i lo t should reduce airspeed to maneuvering speed. For airplanes in which the maneuverin~ speed is 'not specified, i t can'be safely computed as 70 percent greater than normal stal l ing speed. (Stall ing speed x 1.7 = maneuvering speed.)

MOT. CanadianMinistry of Transport.

MSL. Mean Sea Level. The base commonly used in measuring alt i tudes. ,,

NAVAID. Air Navigation Faci l i ty . Any structure, equipment, or device used in a i r navigation or a i r t ra f f ic control and considered a part of the national airways system, - '

Night. The time between the end of evening c,ivil twi l ight and the beginning of morning c iv i l twi l ight , as published in the "American Air Almanac," converted to local time.

NOTAM. Notice to Airmen. A notice identif ied e~ither as a Notam or Airmen Advisory, containing information concerning the establishment, condition, or change in any component of, or hazard in, the National Airspace System, the timely knowledge of which is essential to personnel concerned with f l i gh t operations.

OAT. Outside Air Temperature.

One Strike/0ne Shoe Concept. An i n i t i a l attack on a f i re based on enough long term retardant or suppressant arriving to f inish the action and control the f i re without the airtankers having to ~lake a second t r ip .

Orbit. Circular holding pattern• an a i rcraf t makes over one specific spot or area.

Parallel Attack. An outs ide( indi rect) attack parallel to and removed from the f i re ' s edge. Usually only effective with long term retardants in an ai,r attack operation.

Pass. A run by the target without making a retardant drop.

Pilotage. Navigation by visual reference'to landmarks.

Pilot-in-Command. The p i lo t responsible f o r t he operation and safety of an a i rcraf t during f l i gh t time.

Pull Up. The act of executing a sharp maneuver to indicate the target area.

Radial. A magnetic bearing extending from a V0R, VORTAC, or TACAN.

RadioFix. The determining of position by one or more radio navigational aids.

Restricted Area. Special use airspace of defined dimensions identi f ied ,by an area on the surface of the earth within which the f l i gh t of ~,ircraft, while not wholly prohiblted, is subject to restr ict ions.

Retardant. A chemical having a retarding action on fire."

717

NFPA 295

Re ta rdan t Support Base. A base set up to support the opera t ions of re ta rdant /suppressant a i r c r a f t ,

Return-and Hold: An order to a p i l o t denot ihg mission completed and f u r t h e r loads not requ i red . He returns to base and wai ts for' f u r t h e r i n s t r u c t i o n s ,

Rheologic Proper t ies . Cohesiveness or the' a b i l i t y of a mate r ia l to hold toge ther dur ing a dropJ

R i s i ng Ground, Ter ra in of i .ncreasing e l eva t i on ahead or on e i t h e r s ide,

Salvo. The dropping of the e n t i r e re ta rdan t or suppressant load at one t ime,

Should. Ind ica tes a recommendation or tha t which is advised but not r e q u i r e d ,

S lu r ry Base. The same as re ta rdan t support base, .

Snag/Chicet. Any dead o r ' l i v i n g t ree r i s ing ' above the g

forest canopy.

Special Use Airspace. Defined airspace within which f l i gh t is prohibited or restricted, or in which special hazards exist to f l i gh t .

Split Load. A drop sequence wherein the load is dropped in increments.

Spot Fire. A f i re ahead of, or outside, the main f i re boundary.

STOL Aircraft . Short Take-Off and Landing Aircraft . An ai rcraf t that has the capabil ity of operating from a STOL runaway, in accordance with applicable, airworthiness and operating regulations.

Suppressants. "Agents used to extinguish'thb flaming and glowing phases of combustion by direct application to burning fuels, i . e . , water or foam.

Tag-On. Connecting a drop to the forward part of a previous drop.

Touchdown Area. That part of the landing and take-off area there the helicopter alights. "

Tower. Airport Traffic Control Tower. A fac i l i t y providing airport t ra f f i c control service.

Track. The f l i gh t path of an a i rcraf t over the surface of the earth.

Traffic Pattern. The'traff ic flow that is prescribed for a i rcraf t landing at, taxiing on, and taking off from an airport. The usual components of a t ra f f i c pattern are upwind leg, c~osswind leg, base leg, and final approach.

Trail Drop. To drop retardant from separate compartments in rapid succession to give an extended pattern on the ground. Normally used to build a retardant l ine or barrier along the f i re l ine.

• True Bearing. A bearing by true north rather than magnetic north.

Turn-the-Corner. Connecting a drop to a previous drop at an angle toward the head of the f i re .

Uncontrolled Airport. An airport not having an operating control tower.

Unicom. Frequencies authorized for aeronautical advisory services to private aircraft~

Vector. A heading issued to an a i rcraf t to provide navigational guidance by radar.

VFR Conditions. Basic weather conditions prescribed for f l i gh t under Visual Flight Rules.

VFT (Special). Aircraft operati'ng in accordance with clearances within control zones in weather conditions less than the basic VFR weather minima.

VHF. Very High Frequency. m,

NFPA 295

Viscosity. The thickness of a solution or suspension. A measure of the relative ab i l i ty of a fluid to resist flow. Heavy syrup has a high viscosity; gasoline has a low viscosity. Viscosity is

usually measured in centipoise.

VOR. VHF Omnidirectional Range. Provides pictorial guidance on any selected magnetic course to or from the radio fac i l i t y . I t is limited to line of sight reception. There is some "spi l lover," however, and reception at an altitude of 1,000 f t (305 m) is about 40 to 45 miles (64 km to 72 km). This distance increases with alt itude.

VTOL Aircraft. Vertical Take-Off and Landing Aircraft. An aircraft that has the capability of vertical take-off and landing. These aircraft include, but are not limited to, helicopters.

Weather Advisory. In aviation forecast practice, an expression of hazardous weather conditions not predicted in the area forecast, as they affect the operation of a i r t ra f f ic and 'as p.repared by the NWS.

Wetting Agent. Chemical added to water to reduce surface tension.

Wing Span. The distance in feet (meters) and inches (cm) from wing t ip to wing t ip of an airplane.

C-2 Aircraft and Equipment Suitabi l i ty and Selection

C-2-1 Aircraft - Fixed Wing.

C-2-I.1 Detection, Reconnaissance, and Survey. " Small airplanes (single and multi-englne) are used for detection, reconnaissance, and surveys'. Airplanes for f i re reconnaissance are used in combination with ground detection systems in areas of high f i re occurrence. The use of aircraft for checking areas not visible from ground detection units is an accepted practice. Reconnaissance f l ights are usually scheduled following lightning storms. Flights to check "going" fires and controlled fires from previous days provide the latest information on conditions and progress.

Recently, heat sensing (FLIR) systems have been developed for use with small aircraft . These systems are economically feasible, and simplicity of operation warrants their consideration for detection and reconnaissance act iv i t ies. With further development the detection could be computerized.

C-2-I.2 Paracargo and Freight. Numerous types of small, medium, and large airplanes are used for transporting freight and dropping paracargo to f i re camps or isolated crews. Not al l airplanes are suitable for freight act iv i t ies, and relat~ively' few can be modified into good paracargo ~ircraft. Most c iv i l ian airplanes now being used were designed and bui l t for carrying passengers and require special modifications to adapt them for freight or paracargo work.

Desirable features for air- f reight and paracargo airplanes are: sufficient capacity, smooth floors, inherent s tab i l i ty , moderate or low stal l ing and landing speeds, suitable paracargo discharge aperture, ample reserve power at near gross weight (multiengine), easy control under marginal f lying conditions, good v i s i b i l i t y , stripped u t i l i t y inter ior, cargo tiedov~n fac i l i t ies and approved seats, seatbelts, and shoulder harness.

• C-2-I.3 Special Equipment. Cargo tiedown fac i l i t ies are necessary in al l airplanes used to transport 'air-freight or cargo. Special equipment must be installed to assure no malfunctions. Most special euqipment must have FAA approval before use.

C-2-I.4 Amphibious Operations. Amphibious or f loat equipped aircraft can be more versatile and serve more functions than land based aircraft . In Alaska, and some parts of Canada and the contiguous United States where suitable lakes and rivers are numerous, and in the coastal area, this type of aircraft is used extensively.

As long.as adequate water depth and an unobstructed water surface area are maintained, l i t t l e or no preparation other than suitable docking or ramp fac i l i t ies is required for a'water-base operation. I f no safe natural docking or beaching site is available, temporary docks can be constructed to fac i l i ta te loading and unloading, to avoid damage to, the aircraft.

• Many amphibious aircraf.t are equipped to drop suppressants such as foam.

C-2-I.5 Detection, Reconnaissance, and Survey Aircraft. Airplanes that are available and suitable for detection, reconnaissance, and surveys can ~e divided into three basic types: (1) l ight high-wing, single engine airplanes, (2) l ight Iow-wlng, single engine airplanes, and (3) l ight twin engine airplanes. The l ight hlgh-wlng single engine type airplane is usually the most suitable.

Light airplanes are usually more economical and eff icient than helicopters for detection, reconnaissance, and survey f l ights; however, the helicopter, because of i ts versat i l i ty , is especially useful for intensive-type missions that ~equire land!ng for ground inspections and low level slow f l ight .

Some factors to consider in selecting aircraft for these assignments are:

(a) Number of persons necessary to carry out the assignment..

(b) Performance characteristics of'the airplane; landings and take-offs from airf ields at high elevations, with short unsurfaced runways; adequate cruising range; v i s i b i l i t y (maximum forward and lateral v i s i b i l i t y is essential); cabin space; aircraft instruments and properly installed radio equipment.

(c) Suitabi l i ty for infrared scanning and mapping.

C-2-I.6 Air Tankers. Aircraft selection for wildf ire suppression and related uses involves certain problems. The performance characteristics must be such that safe and eff icient operations can be conducted over typical terrain and at necessary elevations. The aircraft integrity should be such that atmospheric conditions wi l l not present a structural problem.

Tank capacity, drop speed, cruise speed, and other characteristics of the various makes and models of airtankers are l isted in Table C-2-I.6.

Light airtankers can be operated ef f ic ient ly and economically as in i t ia l attack aircraft on wildfires when the fires are within 30 miles ~km) of the air attack base. These aircraft are also capable of support action and accurate low volume drops in confined areas.

Medium and larger airtankers with 2,000 plus gal (7600 l i ters) capacities are more eff icient on a cost-per-gallon.mile basis for high volume cascading on fires,and retardant f i re line construction. This should not preclude use of large ai~tankers at short range, because many times fires are contained or controlled by several high volume cascading actions.

With the development of the NAFFS concept (Modular Airborne Fire Fighting System), mil i tary and c iv i l 'cargo aircraft can be converted For airtanker use provided the aircraft is equipped with a ta i l loading door and can carry the weight of the system.

C-2-l.6.1 Suitabi l i ty Factors for Airtankers. To select suitable airtankers, consider the tank capacities, performance capabilit ies, and general f l ight.characteristics l isted in Table C-2-i.6, in relation to the following factors: (See Table C-2-I.6).

(a) Airport-Airtankers using an airport at high elevations, above standard temperatures or with a gradient of I percent or above, wi l l require more runway length for safe eff icient operation than they would at sea level airports.

718

NFPA 2 9 5

Table C-2-I?6 F!xed-Wing Airtankers Specifications Chart

AIRTANKER LIGHT - up to &,including

800 gallons (3028 l i ters) Aero Commander Snow DeHavilland Otter DeHavilland DHC-6 Twin Otter Grumman AG-Cat N3N Stearman Grumman S2F Tracker FLZ M18 Dromader

MIN . RUNWAY A/C LOADED- MINIMUM TOTAL

REQUIRED NO. OF NO. OF SPEED KNTS NO. OF RELEASABLE CAPACITY FEET(METERS') ENGINES CREWS DROP CRUISE "DOORS US IMP US IMP

2000(610) 1 1 2500(762) l ] 2500(762) 2 l 2000(610) 1 1 3500(1067) 2 1 1000(305) 1 l

MEDIUM - 800. gallons up to 2000 gallons (3028 l i ters) (7570 l i ter~

Douglas B-26 STOL Consolidated PBY5A Canso Consolidated Super PBY 5 Canadair CL-215 Lockheed PV2 DouglasDC-4 SP2H

HEAVY - 2000 gallons plus (7570 l i ters)

Convair Super PB4Y-2 Douglas Super DC-4 Douglas DC-6

• Douglas DC-7 Lockheed P2V Lockheed C-130A Lockheed C-130 (MAFFS)

61 96 I' 300 200 300 250 70 lO0 2 108 90 276 230 59 150- 2 276 230 480 400 61 87 I-2 300 250. 300 250

104 161 2 200 167 800 666 78 118 1 660 550 660 550

2000(1220) 2 l 122 190 4 250 208 1200 lO00 5000(1525) 2 2 87 104 2 400 333 960 800 4200(1281) 2 . 2 87 148 2 624 520 1500 1249 4000(1220) . 2 2 96 ' 152 2 588 490 1412 1176 4000(1220) 2 2 ~13 180 2 437 364" 1050 874 4000(1220) 4 2 126 170 4-8 207 ' 172 2000 1666 4000(1220) 2 2 120 216 2 500 416 2000 1666

' . 4000(1220) 4 2 113 190 8 275 2200 2200 1832 2600(1098) 4 2 126 190 8 275 2200 2200 1832 .5000(1525) 4 2 126 216 8 250 .208 3000 2499 4500(1373) 4 2 130 230 8 250 208 3000 2499 4000(1220) 4 2 126 216 8 408 340 2450 2040 4500(1373) 4 3 130 256 8 375 312 3000 2499 4500(1373) • 4 5 130 256 8 3000 2499 3000 2499

* Individual airplanes on this "list are sometimes modified for local needs.

To help evaluate airport capability vs airtanker performance for safety during maximum load take~off purposes, the 80 percent take-off concept (~-englne) or the accelerated stop concept 2 engine should be used. I f either of these two concepts fa i l to meet the runway length, the cleared area concept may be used.

(b) Airtanker Loading.' I t may be necessary to reduce the load to obtain safe performance in response to certain variables such as density altitude, runway lengths, gradient, runway surface, and obstructions.

(c) Cruising Speed. Generally, high cruising speed is desired, especially for in i t ia l attack operation.

(d) Drop Speed. The speed at which the aircraft f l ies during retardant/suppressant drops (slower than cruising speed.)

C-2-I.6.2 Special Appliances for Airtanker. Each airtanker should have the following equipment:. FAA and agency approved instal lat ion of tanks, discharge gates, emergency dump mechanism, shoulder harness,, parking brake, rotating beacon, emergency locator transmitter, warning sound device, strobe l ight, suitable radio equipment, camlock or quick connect f i t t ings for loading tanks, and accurate tank gauge to control loading.

C-2-1.6.3 Tanks, Venting, Drop Elates. The cr i ter ia (requirements) for performance of these items are establisheB in the Inter-Agency R,ir Tanker Board, Aircraft-Tank and Gating Systems.

C-2-I.6.4 Application Variation. For maximum f l e x i b i l i t y and efficiency, the r etardant/suppressant application rate should be variable, to f i t the f i re situation. This can be done by sequencing various combinations.of multiple doors, or using a variable flow rate system.

2-I.6.5 Quantity (Spli t t ing the Load). A means of varying the quantity dropped should be provided on airtankers having capacities larger than 500 gals (1893 I) . This may be accomplished by:

(a) Tank with separate compartments, each wl.th i ts own door.

719

(b) One tank with doors controllable.

(c) A main tank with one door that can be f i l l ed from other tanks in the aircraft .

C-2-I.6.6 Discharge Rate. A means of varying the discharge rate is necessary for effective application. The amount of variation possible wi l l depend on the aircraft and tank door arrangement. The maximum discharge rate should be as high as practicable, and the lowest rate should achieve minimum coverage levels. The discharge rate is measured with the airplane in level f l ight altitude, al l doors open, dropping water in the amount equal to the chemical capacity.

C-2-I.6.7 Acquisition. Arrangements for obtaining airtankers must be based upon the most practical and economically feasible method - contract, lease, or outright ownership.

C-2-I.7 Smokejumping Aircraft. Civil aircrafts are not designed specifically for smokejumpidg use, and certain approved installations and modifications must be made to the properly selected aircraft. These modifications wil l include a static line anchor cable ( instal lat ion wi l l vary with the aircraft) , door safety strap, safety handrails, doorstep, cargo parachute static l ine anchor, cargo dropping harness anchor cable, and cargo tiedown fac i l i t ies . All sharp corners and projections near the door and step, along the fuselage, and under the belly that snag parachutes or cargo must be removed or shielded. (SmokejumPer aircraft equipment drawings and specifications are obtainable from the IJS Forest Service).

C-2-2 Aircraft - Rotary Wing. The helicopter has become a familiar multiuse f i re fighting aircraft in wildland f i re suppression. This aircraft has become as necessary in today s, f i re suppression as hand tools crews, tractors, smol<ejumpers, engines, and airtankers (See Table C-2-2):

C-2-2.1 Retardant'and Suppressant Dropping• The versat i l i ty and maneuvering capabilities of the helicopter make this aircraft an important in i t ia l attack tool. Helicol)ters with capacities for dropping 80-2000 gal (303-7600 l) of suppressant or retardants • are principal weapons in the helitack phase of wildland f i re suppression. Helicopters u t i l i ze generally two methods of dropping (See Table C-2-2.1) c

(a) A bucket slung underneath the helicopter.

(b) A f i x e d e x t e r n a l t ank .

NFP

A

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C-2-2.2 In i t ia l Attack Transport• Helitack functions are designed to transport trained personnel to the f i re as quickly as possible. Small crews, trained and properly equipped, can gain control of most incipient wildland f i re situations i f they ,:an make fast in i t ia l attack• This can be accomplished by landing or rappelling near the f i re.

.C-2-2.3 Reconnaissance and Scouting. Performance characteristics of the helicopter make i t an excellent reconnaissance and scouting aircraft . The slow speed add ab i l i t y to operate in areas that could not be observed from fixed wing aircraft, plus its usefulness in providing terrain and f i re intelligence that otherwise may not be obtainable, are obvious benefi.ts. The helicopters provide an ideal platform for using heat sensing and mapping systems• The systems range from hand-held units to.permanently mounted units.

C-2-2.4 Shuttllng'Equipment and Fersonnel. Equipment can be moved to other f i re areas, heliport to hel4p~rt, or by paracarge or sling load methods, where landings cannot be safely accomplished• Personnel" ( f i re crews, helitack personnel, ~ and others) can be a i r - l i f ted as conditions warrant. Food and water can be delivered to line crews, and spike camps can be supported in this manner•

C-2-2.5 Rescue. Hellcopters are an essential part of many rescue operations. Some uses are: a i r l i f t i ng medical aid crew personnel to care for and move the injured persons to medical aid sites or hospitals'; scouting and directing rescue crew~ and servicing isolated parties until rescue can be accomplished.

Weather and performance limitations of the aircraft may, at time, prevent their use in rescue operations•

C-2-2.6 Night Operations. Under t ight ly controlled conditions, night vision aids for pi lot ing helicopters can extend the safe use of many daytime helicopter operations in,the wildland environ~lent into night.

Night operations have several tactical advantages: cooler temperatures~ higher humidity, low density altitude," and more stable ai r are usually present after dark. Atmospheric conditions contribute to better f lying conditions at times that suppression measures can be more effective.

Also, helicopter services wi l l not be in competition w~th airspace requirements of airtankers, smokejumpers, and cargo planes. ~"

C-2-2.7 Other Uses. Helicopters may also be used f o r aerial ignition operations suchas helitorch, ping pong. dispenser, and other similar devices; repelling of trained crews; retrieving smokejumpers; and for " detection and prevention act iv i t ies.

C-2-2.8 Criteria for Selecting Landing Sites. Consideration should be given to the following in selecting a site for a helibase or be l i spo t .

(a) Proximity to Fire

1. Close enough to minimize f l ight time.

2. Out of the path of the f i re.

(b) •Topography of the Site

I. Recommended size of take-off and landing area (safety circle).

(a) Light helicopters - 75 f t in diameter (23 m) (b) Medium helicopters - iO0 f t in diameter (30 m) (c) Large hel.icopters - 105 f t iF, diameter (46 m)

NOTE: .There should not be any ~bstacles other than 2 f t (.6 m) high brush maximum in the safety circle. All other vegetation'and obstacles should be removed (trees, large rocks, etc.).

2. Slope of landing/parking area - 6 degrees maximum recommended.

NFeA 295

-3. Touchdown, taxiway, and parring surfaces.

(a) Maximum height of brush is 2 ft (:6 m). (Caution: Dry grass can be a fire hazard around helicopters.)

(b) Sufficiently free of large rocks so as to ensure a stable landing•

(c) Minimum foreign object damage potential.

( i) Secure or eliminate al l loose objects in the v ic in i ty , such as twigs, branches, trash.

( i i ) Dust abatement: Dust can do severe damage to a helicopter's rotating components, especially the engine. Dust abatement wil l also minimize the rotor-wash generated dust cloud that could dangerously restr ict a p i lo t 's v i s i b i l i t y •

(d) Compacted enough to support the following weights:

( i) Light helicopters - 7,000 Ib (3178 kg)

( i i ) Medium helicopters - 15,000 Ib (6810 kg)

( i i i ) Large helicopters - 60,000 Ib (27,240 kg)

(e) The touchdown/parking pad (on which the landing gear wi l l physically si t) should be a minimum of the following:

( i) Light helicopters - 15 f t . x 15 f t (4.6 m x 4.6 m)

( i i ) Medium helicopters - ] 5 f t x 25 f t (4.6 m x7.6m)

( i i i ) Large helicopters - 30 f t x 35 f t (9". m x 1 0 . 7 m)

(f) Soft surfaces, such as tundra or boggs, may. require a log pad.

(g) Recommended minimum obstacle clearance~for touchdown, taxiway, and parking areas is tO f t (3 m) from the t ip .of the main and ta i l rotor. I f , during planning, the turning radius of the helicopter is' not known, ut i l ize the radius of the appropriate safety circle outlined in 1(b) above, to determine the minimum distance that an obstacle (including other helicopters should be from the touchdown/parking pad or centerline

'of the taxiway.

4. Approach and departure capability in several directions i f possible. This wil l allow the pilots to ut i l ize the wind to their best advantage.

5. Bare, open pinnacles, ridgelines, and meadows make the bes.t hellspots and helibases. Due to the potential volume of t raf f ic at.a helibase, a more level, open, and preferably improved area should be sought, along with str icter adherence to the guidelines•

6. Although helicopters are capable of operating • out of areas in which the safety circle is surrounded

by ta l l trees (hover hole), i t is not necessarily safe to do so. Every effort should be made to allow the helicopter to make shallow approaches and departures•

I f operating from a hover hole is the only alternative, ensure that the approach and departure paths to the hover hole meet the minimum'criteria outlined in (c) below•

(c) The recommended cr i ter ia for approach and ..departure paths:

I. Preferably, the approach and departure paths should not be the same. In fact, several approach and departure paths should be developed i f possib!e. This wi l l allow pilots to adjust to changing meteorological conditions.

2.' The minimum width of approach and departure paths should be the same as the diameter of the

725 ~,

NFPA 295

correspohding safety c i r c l e . Safety would be enhanced • i f the paths could be widened I0 degrees e i t he r side of

cen te r l ine as they leave the c i r c l e (20 degree spread).

3. Curving paths are permissable in order to avoid major obstacles."

4. The paths should have a minimum 8:1 slope, measured from the edge of the safety c i r c l e .

5. No obstacle should penetrate that slope dur ing the 20 degree spread for:

a. Approach path - 150 f t (48 m) b. Departure path - 300 f t (96 m)

6. Areas suitable for landing the helicopter in the event of an emergency would be desirable along the paths.

7. The paths may generaily be aligned with the prevailing wind, but not always. Pilots wi l l u t i l ize such variables as velocity of the wind, turbulence, updrafts, and downdrafts in deciding the direction of their approach and departure; hence, the importance of having several approach and departure paths available.

(d) Establish f l ight routes in order to ensure the following:

I. Separation between helicopters. 2. Separation between other, aircraft on the f i re. 3. Flight following check points. 4. Aircraft performance - try not to have a heavily

loaded helicopter climb steep terrain.

(e) Pilots. The most important factor to consider when establishing these sites is the advice of the pilots f lying in and out of them. This test offers only general guidelines for selecting hellbases and hellspots. The pilots wi l l make the final descislon on a l l proposed site selections.

C-2-2.9 ,Helicopter Accessories. The versat i l i ty of the helicopter permits ut i l izat ion of a variety of helitack accessories. I t is essential that helitack crews be able to properly use these accessories and that f i re overhead personnel understand their tactical use.

(a) Cargo Hook . .A cargo, hook or cargo adapter assembly is required wi th he l i cop te r accessories. The cargo hook or adapter assembly serves as a standard suspension hard po in t fo r a t tach ing external he l i cop te r accessories. With the cargo hook i n s t a l l e d , the he l i cop te r can take s l i ng - t ype he l i tanks or any load suspended by a cable or cables.

, (b) Swivels. Swivels are required for sling loads of supplies and for using drum l i f te rs . A swivel permits sling loads to rotate freely and elimina£es the possiblity of lead l l ne breakage due to oscil lat ion.

(c) Lead Line. The cable that joins the cargo hook or swivel to the sling load. Regardless of the type of lead line material or length used, the following points should be considered:

I. tensile strength . 2. condition of material 3. length of line.

(d) Cargo Nets. Cargo nets are designed for transporting freight suspended beneath helicopters. Suspended loads beneath the aircraft permits delivery of freight without landing and is considered the most eff icient method for heliborne freight movement.

(e) Helicopter - Buckets and Tanks. These are used to drop retardants/suppressants on fires.

The key to effective use of the bucket is to have a water or chemical source as close as possiblb to the f i re site. Hoverfil l ing ( f i l l i n g the bucket while the helicopter hovers) maximizes the turnaround and delivery capability since i t is not necessary to land and load water or chemicals by pumping.

The helicopter buckets vary in capacity from 80 through 2000 gal (303-7600 l) and are designed for use with various makes and models of helicopters.

The helicopter fixed tank is made of metal (usually aluminum) and usually has a capacity of 200-36~ gal (757-1363 I) . These are f i l l ed by a hose from an engine, portable pump, or through an internal snorkel from a dip tanker or other water source.

(f) Cargo Racks. A variety of helicopter cargo carriers are in use - f la t racks, basket-types (Stokes l i t t e r ) , etc. General requirements applicable to cargo racks must be observed. Litters can be mounted internally and externally.

(g) Loading Platforms. An elevated landing ramp or loading pi t may be required for heavy or bulky loads that must be stacked as closed to the sling release as ~ possible.

(hi Firing Devices. At least two proven f i r ing devices can be effectively used for " f i r ing out" operations on wildland w11dflres and for igniting prescribed burns.

The helitorch consists of a 35-200 gal (189-757 l) drum mounted on a sled platform, pump, discharge line, and an electronically activated glow plug. As the thickened fuel passes through the glow plug, the fuel ignites and free flows to the ground. The fuel consists of unleaded gasoline and a gelling agent. When properly mixed, the fuel thickens to a je l lo - l i ke substance.

The Aerial Ignition Device System (AIDS) mounts within the helicopter's passenger doorway. "Ping pong bal ls," containing potassium permanganate, are fed through the device injecting each ball with ethylene glycol causing the ball to ignite within 20-40 seconds after i t exits the discharge tube.

( i) Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR). Units can be internally and externally mounted on helicopters for detection and reconnaissance. The images are recorded on video tape and can simultaneously be viewed on a screen within the helicopter. Hand-held infrared units can be operated effectively from within the helicopter. Tapes can then be cropped or delivered-to f i re camp where they can be used for tactical planning.

C-2-3 Effects of Increased Density Altitude on Aircraft Performance. With increased density altitude, l i f t and engine horsepower decrease; rotor blades and propellers lose efficiency; and ground speed increases for any given indicated airspeed. This increases take-off distance and radius of turn, decreases rate of climb'of fixed-wing aircraft , and reduces the performance of rotorcraft (See Tables C-2-3(a) and C-2c3(b).

.The ICAO Standard Atmosphere Table

Speed Alti~ude Temperature of Sound

Meters (Ft) °C °F Standard Atmosohere 0 15

305 I000) 13.019 610 2000) II.037 915 3000) 9.056 1220 4000) 7.075 1525 5000} 5.094 1830 6000) 3.113 2135 7000) 1.132 2440 8000) - .850 2745 9000) -Z.831 3050 (10000) -4.812 3355 (11000) -6.794 3660 (12000) -8.775 3965 (13000) -10.756 4270 (14000) -12.737

• 4575 (15000) -14.718

Pressure Knots In. H9

59.0 661.7 29.92 55.4 659.5 28.86 51.9 547.2 27.82 48.3 654.9 26.82 44.7 652.6 25.84 41.2 650.3 34.90

• 37.6 647.9 23.98 34.0 645.6 23.09 30.5 643.3 22.22 26.9 640.9 21.39 23.3 638.6 20.58 19.8 636.2 19.79 16.2 " 633.9 19.03 12.6 631.5 18.29 9.1 629.1 17.58 5.5 626.7 16.89

Table C-2-3(a)

~Z26

Density Altitude Table

NFPA 295

Pressure C15 ° 20 ° 25 ° 30 ° 35 ° 40 ° A l t i tude F59 ° 58 ° 77 ~ 86 o 95 ° 104 ° S.L. 0 550 t,100 1,650 2,200 2,750 1,000 1,200 1,750 2,300 2,850 3,400 3,950 1,500 1,850 2,400 2,960 3,500 4,050 4,600 2,000 2,450 3,000 3,550 4,100 4,650 5,200 2,500 3,050 3,600 4,150 4,700 5,250 5,800 3,000 3,650 4,200 4,750 5,300 5,850 6,400 3,500 4,250 4,800 5,350 5,900 6,450 7,000 4,000 4,900 5,450 6,000 6,550 7,100 7,650 4,500 5,500 6,050 6,600 7,700 ,7,700 8,250 5,000 6,100 6,650 7,200 7,750 8,300 8,850 5,500 6,700 7,250 7,800 8,350 8,900 9,450 6,000 7,300 7,850 8,400 8,950 9,500 10,050 6,500 7,950 8,500 9,050 9,600 10,150 10,700 7,000 8,550 9,100 9,650 10,200 10,750 11,300 7,500 9,150 9,700 10,250 10,800 11,350 11,900 8,000 " 9,750 10,300 10,850 11,400 11,950 12,500

45 ° 50 ° 113 ° 122 °

3,300 3,850 4,500 5,050 5,150 5,700 5,750 6,300 6,350 . 6,900 6,400 7,500 7,550 8,100 8~200 8,750

• 8,800 9,350 9,400 9,950

10,000 10,550. 10,600 11,150 11,250 11,800 11,850 12,400 12,450 13,000 13,050 13,600

1. Set a l t imeter at 29.92. Face of a l t imeter w i l l now read Pressure A l t i tude. ' " 2. Note the temperature on the outside a i r temperature gage. 3. Fin~ the Pressure Alt i tude. in the Pressure A l t i tude column. 4. Read to the r ight of the Pressure A l t i tude f igure unt i l you come to the Temperature column "' corresponding to the temperature on the outside a i r temperature gage. THIS IS THE DENSITY ALTITUDE FIGURE.

Table C-2-3(b)

The four factors that af fect density a l t i t ude are Runways for a i r tanker use must be of su f f i c ien t a l t i t ude , atmospheric pressure, temperature, and length to assure safe take-offs and landings. Repaired moisture content of the a i r . runways, taxiways, and ramps should be of such

structural design that the gross weight of air tanker Runway length requirements for speci f ic a i r c ra f t are operations w i l l not cause damage to the surface.

usually computed for sea level and standard atmospheric 'conditions of 59°F/29.92 Hf (15°C/101.32 kPa), with a Runway or ientat ion should be .such that the crosswing runway gradient of one percent or less. • factor can be held to a minimum. I f possible, i t is

desirable to have unobstructed departure and approach C-3 .Ground. Faci l i t ies lanes for the runways.

C-3-1 Ground Support Fac,ilities. Permanent or Ideal ly, a i r t ra f f i c should be minimal. I f a i r auxi l iary bases for a i rcraf t engaged in wi ld f i re or t ra f f i c becomes heavy, employ an approved a i r t ra f f ic related operational act iv i t ies shoq]d be arranged so control ler to expedite departures and arr ivals. that a i rcraf t ground t ra f f i c , parking, and public movement w i l l not delay or hinder the ef f ic ient and Rural-located bases, such as heliports, helibases, or safe operation. Taxiways and loading areas must a f f o r d helispots, are rarely confronted with competing adequate width and clearance for si~fe ground ac t iv i t ies that slow down or hinder a i r operations as maneuvering of the a i rcraf t . Ramp:; or heliport pads opposed to an airport-located base'. One exception in should be designed to support the !)ross weights of the some areas is mi l i tary training routes (MTR's). a i rcraf t and other' necessary equipment.

The operations bbilding for a permanent or auxi l iary The National Wildfire Coordinating Group's Fire base should be of adequate design and size to

Equipment Working Team has developed an Airtanker Base . accommodate present and'foreseeable future operations Planning Guide that ident i f ies planning cr i te r ia for " off ice act iv i t ies . I t should include the necessary deyeloping or upgrading airtanker hase fac i l i t i es , communications fac i l i t i es essential for eff icient, and

"" safe operations, off ice space, p i lo t lounge, etc., in a C-3-1.I Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting. In most permanent base operations building. cases, rescue and f i re f ighting operations in response to accidents at an a l r po r t 'w i l l be performed by regular (a) Alt ltude. Increase the basic runway length by 7 airport f i re f ighting personnel. However~ i t may be percent for each 1,000 f t . (3-5 m) above'sea level. necessary at times to furnish this service and - necessary equipment where such fac i l i t i es are not (b) Temperature. Increase the runway length that provided by the airport management., The National Fire has been fixed by al t i tude by I/2 of 1 percent for each Protection Association has published a number of useful degree (F) that the mean temperature of the hottest day standards, manuals,.and guides on this subject, l isted exceeds 59°F (15°C). in Appendix B.

• With normally aspirated engines "(non-supercharged), NOTE: At no time should a i r attack operations be approximately one-half of the r~te d horsepower is . lost conducted without approved f i re extinguishing at 10,000 f t (3.050m). equipment and trained personnel on " f i re guard."

The FAA Flight Standards Service Operations Division C-3-2 Airports, Neliports/Helibases, and Helispots. has developed the Denalt Performance Computer, which is

intended to supplement the a i rcraf t manufactorer's C-3-2.1 Ai'rports. Suitable runway lengths for published performance data for computing take-off a i rcraf t employed in a i r Operations could vary from a performance. Two types are available: one for, fixed sod runway of 2,000 f t (610 m), being used by single pitch and one for variable pitch propeller, a i rcraf t . engine detection, reconnaissance, and scouting ai rcraf t , to the 4,000 to lO,O00 ft. (1220 to 3048 m) of C-4 General Operating Procedures hard surfaced runway capable of supporting, and of adequate length to assure safe operations of, the C-4-I Air Operations Plan. Considerable evaluation largest airtankers. Runway length requirements given and. study wi l l be necessary for those who plan a i r for specific a i rcraf t usually apply only at sea level operatlons. Firsthand experiences and sound . al t i tude with standard day temperatures'59°F (15°C), ' information from others who are using a i rcraf t wi i l be and when the runway gradient is one percent or less. extremelyhelpful. For other conditions, the runway length must be increased. Airport Capabil!ty vs Aircraft Performance Concepts.

727

NFPA 295

Some of the factors involved for consideration w i l l include the overall objectives and need for the operations, cost evaluation, avai lab i l i ty of suitable aircraft to f u l f i l l the objectives and need, operational base locations, and ground support fac i l i t ies , communications, personnel necessary to operate the aircraft , the bases and ground support fac i l i t ies , and for the overall supervision of the'air operations.

C-d-2 Control of Aircraft During Incident. The chain of command at a incident should be: Air Operations Director, Air Attack Supervisor (in the air or on the ground, job may be assumed by Incident Commander or Division Supervisor in early stages of f i re) , Airtanker Codrdinator (lead airplane), smokejumper or cargo aircraft , and f i r s t i n i t i a l attack p i lo t on scene.

C-4-2.1 Control Procedures. Pilots should know before being dispatched who has aircraft control at the f i re. They should check in with Aircraft Control at least 5 miles (8 km) from the f i re area and should not take-off, or enter, or remain in the f i re area unless' both primary and secondary radio frequencies are operating on transmit and receive.

Pilots, including the one arriving to assume control, who are unable to establish communication on the primary or secondary frequencies should remain clear of the f i re area and attempt to relay through other stations to control. I f no contact can be made, the p i lot should return to his base.

Smokejumper or cargo drops, alrtanker retardant drops, and helicopter operations should not be conducted simultaneously i f one wi l l interfere with the other. Aircraft control should designate which operation has pr ior i ty when aircraft must accomplish more than one mission.

I f an in i t ia l attack airtanker arrives when no control plane is in the area, the tanker p i lo t should attempt to establish ground contact for drop instructions. I f contact cannot be established, and the p i lo t is positive i t is not a radio malfunction, and the arrival of a control plane is not imminent, the p i lot should circle the f i re area at least once, evaluating i t for water-chemical drop. The in i t i a l pass'should be a dry run to check v i s i b i l i t y , turbulence, and obstructions, and to spot personnel in the anticipated drop area. I f the p i lo t is satisfied that a safe effective drop can be made, the aircraft should proceed to accomplish the drop.

C-4-3 Retardant and Suppressant Drops. The proper use of a i r attack is important to resource pro~ection..

The decision to use airtankers should be based on careful consideration of the following:

(a) Fire potential and i ts likel'ihood of doing extensive damage or requiring costly suppression efforts.

(b) Threatened safety of l ives.

(c) Opportunity to obtain,moFe economic control.

(d) Avai labi l i ty of an airtanker organization sufficiently trained, equipped, and organized t o perform the mission.

(e) Accomplishing the mission during daylight hours, with terrain, v i s i b i l i t y , and wind conditions permitting safe and effective dropping.

The airtanker is a highly specialized and costly f i re fighting tool. I t is the responsibility of the incident commander to suspend the use of airtanker(s) when i t is no longer effective or essential.

Specialists with airtanker experience should be consulted and assisted in the planning of the airtanker program. An airport f ac i l i t y guide and map showin~ the airports suitable for primary and auxil iary airtanker operations, within or adjacent to protection areas, should be made.

L Airports selected for either primary or auxil iary

alrtanker operations should be rated as to the number of airtankers that can be handled simultaneously. This wil l depend on the size of the airport and area set aside for loading fac i l i t ies , the mixing and loading fac i l i t ies , the aount of fi're retardant chemical, and the available ground personnel-.

The. objective should be to have airports within 30 minutes travel time from the areas to be protected by in i t ia l a i r attack aircraft . The distance wil l vary with the different size aircraft . The aircraft direction and distance scale shown on Figure C-4-3 can be used for calculating area coverage. The time distance table is based on loaded aircraft going to the f i re. The return to base wi l l be faster. The time distance is approximate and can be converted for any type of airtanker.

Pre-wildfire season planning should include preparing the base for airtanker operations. This wil l include:

1. An operationsl check of mixing equipment. 2. Determination of the dry and wet chemical supply,

water supply, and storage fac i l i t ies , and 3. Training of the ground crews that are to support

the operation and the logistics necessary to keep the air attack aircraft operational.

Aircraft Miles S-2, DC-4 lO 20 30 40 50 PB4Y2, B-26 7 12 16 19 22 P2V, DC-6, DC-7, C-30, P-3 5 8 II 14 17

Figure C-4-3 Aircraft Direction and Distance Scale

C-4-4 Detection, Reconnaissance, and Scouting. The essential components for a successful airborne detection, reconnaissance, and scouting operation are as follows:

C-4-4.1 Preliminary Planning. Maps, charts, seen-area composites, spot maps, weather information, f i re stat ist ics, and any other information that may help in accomplishing the operation should be ut i l ized.

C-4-4.2 Aircraft Selection Suitable for the Operation. The aircraft should satisfy al l functions of the mission, Aircraft size, performance characteristics, v i s i b i l i t y , and safety are of prime importance.

i

C-4--4.3 Pilot Qualifications. The~selection of a properly qualified p i lo t capable of accomplishing the mission safely under any conditions that Sight be encountered. This includes the sk i l l and knowledge necessary for determining When the mission can no longer be considered safe and should be terminated. A properly qualified p i lo t is usually an excellent observer.

C-4-4.4 Aerial Observers. Aerial observers should have the proper training and have gained through actual experience the capabilit ies of distinguishing and interpreting their observations in relation to the mission's objectives. In wi ldf i re and related missions, the observer should be experienced in f l re behavior, fuels, weather measurements, ~nd f i re suppression.

C-4-4.5 Preflight Briefing. Pilot and observer should completely understand their individual responsibilities, along with other combined efforts necessary in conducting a successful and safe mission.

C-4-4.5.1 Pilot responsibilities include:

(a) In- f l ight check points, established at 15-minute intervals.

(b) Safety of airplane, cargo, and passengers during take-off, in- f l ight , and landing.

(c) Monitor of Weather - turbulent air, altitude, and f l ight path direction changes, noting storms and cross wind components with regard to mission termination, f l ight plan revisions, and unscheduled landings.

728

(d) Check v i s i b i l i t y per FAA requirements. Adjusting of f l ight route and termination of mission.

C-4-4.5.2 Selecting the proper class and type of mission is usually done with the assistance of the person responsible for dispatching the f l ight , but qualified observers are often delegated this duty. Observer responsibilit ies are as follows:

(a) Assemble current information and prepare information, maps, and notes. I f on a wildf ire mission, assemble current f i re and weathr information.

(b) Check to see i f p i lo t has reached or wi l l exceed his allowable number of safe flying hours per day or week.

• NOTE: Pilots should' not be allowed to exceed f l ight hour limitations.

(c) Be familiar with a i r safety rules.

(d) Check equipment and forms needed for the mission.

(e) Inform the pi lot of mission route, and know deviations such as f i re scouting, freight delivery, etc.

(f) Ground check of radio instal lat ion.

(g) Observer in- f l lght duties should include:

I. Recording flying time. 2. Radio communications, forest net radio,

applicable frequencies. 3. Pilot performance. 4. Other. necessary act iv i t ies.

(h) Schedule aircraft in advance when possible.

C-4-4.6 Reconnaissance. The aircraft should be flown to provide the observer wit~ the best possible v i s i b i l i t y . The objective should he on the observer's side and as free as possible from v i s i b i l i t y restrictions. Approaches should be planned to provide the l ight and background.

Frequently, the p i lo t can offer a.ssistance to verify questionable observations and, at times, assist by providing data from aircraft instruments,,maps, and aircraft radio use.

• Flying should be as smooth as possible to relieve the observer of unnecessary strain. "The pi lot should anticipate the observer'sneeds and maneuver the aircraft so that the observer does not have to shift position constantly.

C-4-4.7 Detection. Flight routes ;hould be planned and timed to give the'observer every possible advantage for the best observations. The selection routes should be prepared on charts for each foreseeable condition that may occur and to preclude overlapping of jurisdictions. Systematic prof i l ing of cr i t ica l areas along the proposed route is essential as this permits easier determination of alternate fl*ight routes. I t may be necessary to f ly the f l ight routes several times before establishing the selected route. The observers then should continue to refine and make adjustments.

I t may be necessary to adjust f l ight altitudes and place areas with backgrounds that l imi t v i s i b i l i t y on proper profi le for f l ight l ine adjustments in improving the efficiency of the detection f l ights.

C-4-4.8 Direction of Flight in Relation to Drainage. Normally, in mountainous areas, the f l ight routes should be planned to parallel the major drainages. This a11ows the observer to look up or down the secondary drainages. Flights.across major drainages restr ict the observation behind secondary and minor ridges..

C-4-4.9 Correct Flight Line Altitude. Correct f l ight altitudes are determined by:

I. intensity of search and frequency of observations; 2. v i s i b i l i t y restriction, smokey haze,'etc., and

its elevation;

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• NFPA 2 9 5

3. width of observation strip; 4. topographic type; 5. amount of cloud and topographical shadows; 6. sun angle and direction; and 7. background and minimum altitude required for safe

f l ight .

A method of determining f l ight altitude is to profi le and calculate coverage at 500-ft (152 m) intervals and altitudes.

There is very l i t t l e advantage in f lying at high altitudes, even in clear weather, when the observation strip is limited by topography. The best observation altitudes may vary according to terrain. Varying atmospheric conditions may require adjustment of f l ight altitude.

C-4-4.10 Observation Distance. The observer should not waste any effort'searching the distant horizon. Observations should be confined principally to the assigned strip. The :~earch area ahead should be limited to 15 miles (24 km) or less. For intensive search, such as lightning coverage or during extreme or emergency f i re danger, this distance should be reduced. About half the tim e may be used in forward observation. The rest of the ~time is spent searching those areas that later wi l l be hidden from view.

C-4-4.11 Flying Speed. The slow cruise speed of t h e aircraft is a good observation speed. Under certain conditions, slower speeds may be necessary to observe specific areas. The experience and training of the p i lo t and observer have an important bearing on the f lying speed. High and low speeds have certain advantages, depending on conditions and observation objectives.

C-4-4.12 Number and Frequency of Flights. The number and frequency of f l ights wil l depend on the desired objectives, available personnel and aircraft , and atmospheric conditions.

C-~-4.13 Estimating. Rapid and accurate estimating is essential to a successful mission. Some of the common methods of estimating From aircraft are: ~

!

(a) Distance.

I . Compare the lineal measurements of.objects, either visually or from maps and air photos. Lakes, runways,'and similar landmarks are suitable for this purpose.

2. Measure the approximate distance by using f l ight time and airspeed:

(b) Slope.

I. Aircraft instruments, such as the ar t i f i c ia l horizon and altimeter, can be used to estimate slopes. Slopes may also be estimated from topographic maps.

C-4-5 Communications. Satisfactory communications equipment must be installed in the aircraft either permanently or on a temporary basis.

C-4-5.1 Radio• Suitable transceivers, either permanent or for temporary installation, must be. provided for each aircraft . The use of Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) VOR navigational equipment or LORAN.may he used to locate ground 'positions accurately.

C-4-5.2 Message Dropper. Message droppers should be carried in al l aircraft for use when other means of communications are not possible or available.

4-5.3 Air-Ground Signals. A copy of the air-ground signals should be carried in the aircraft and by al l crew members.

C-4-6 Flight Plans. Planned periodic aincraft position reports should be made (frequency shall depend on the mission). These position reports should be followed,up promptly i f not received within a specified time l imit .

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Any deviation or change from a planned route should be reported immediately and a new f l i gh t plan f i led with not i f icat ion of check points and destination.

A defini te procedure should be established designating personnel responsible for follow-up i f a i rcraf t is unreported at i ts destination. This is • especially important for f l ights terminating during hours the dispatching off ice is not manned.

Following f l i gh t procedures and requirements should be mandatory for each f l i gh t . Radio contact and a location report should be made at least at 15-minute intervals. A. f l ight search should be in i t ia ted i f contact cannot be established within 30 minutes.

C-4-7 Records and Reports. Adequate records and reports are necessary for proper management of a i r operations. The reports help determine i f the operation is: o

I. being conducted safely and economically, and 2. accomplishing the objectives of the plan.

Once i t is determined that both are being met, reports can be reduced to a minimum.

C-4-8 Lead Planes. The mission of the lead plane p i lo t is to serve as airtanker coordinator on the f i re , assigned to the a i r attack supervisor. The primary purpose of the airtanker coordinator is to make certain that the alrtankers place the retardant or water on the targets assigned safelyand effect ively.

NOTE: Lead planes are usually l ight twin engine ai rc raf t .

At the present time, a number of lead plane t~chniques are used. The two most frequently used are:

(a) The lead plane orbits the f i re at l,O00 f t (305 m)above ground level and directs the airtankers by radio. This high-level technique affords better v i s i b i l i t y of both the ground and a i r operations, but radio conversation is time consuming at times and time loss is costly.

(b) The lead plane acts in a low-level "show me" method, simulating the airtanker pass, and identi f ies the target by radio, by 'rocking i ts wings over the target, zooming, or by using other methods of identifying the target.

The lead plane -a i r t anke r coordinator- is primarily concerned with f l i gh t effectiveness and safety; specifying approach and departure patterns for the airtankers; drop elevations; approximate speed and type of drop "( t ra i l , salvo, etc.); and other f l i gh t details. The airtanker coordinator is further responsible for checking wind patterns and turbulence; assessing drop accuracy and effectiveness; and for defining the a i rcraf t orbi t pattern over the f i re .

The lead plane p i lo t also determines i f there are f i re f lghting personnel or others in the proposed drop area and i f so not i f ies the a i r attack supervisor or incident commander so people on the ground can be warned of the impending drops.

C-4-9 Helltack. Helitack is deslgned to transport f i re fighters, equipment, and helitack crew trained in the use of specialized accessories, such as cargo nets and helltank~ to the f i re without delay. The prime value is speed of attack with short turn around in rugged terrain.

C-4-9.1 Rappelling. The development of a helicopter rappel deployment technique extends the present use of helicopters as a wi ld f i re suppression tool. Successful rappelling from a helicopter to the ground in stands of ta l l timber [200 f t (61 m)] has proven that rappelling is possible, and a practical means of delivering specially trained wi ld f i re suppression crews when other means are not possible.

C-4-9.2 Nigh Operations. Night v is ion goggles permit nightime use of twin engine hel icopters over forested area~ where only natural l ight prevails. Special p i lo t training is needed to perform water and chemical dropping, personnel transportation, cargo hauling, reconnalssance, and medlvac operations. Under carefully controlled conditions, the operations can .be performed with one or more helicopters.

High intensity l ights mounted in the helicopter have also proven to be an effective and safe means of conducting night operations. I t is generally a less expensive program than night vision goggles. High intensity l ights require no special p i lo t training and can be used adjacent to populated areas. Combinations of steerable large a i rcraf t landing l ights have proven most effective.

C-4-9.3 Coordinated Use. Airplanes and helicopters may be used in many ways on a single f i re . Their use must be coordinated to provide the right action at the right t'ime and to assure a safe a i r attack operation. This is done by the a i r attack supervisor.

C-4-I0 Smokejumping, Airplanes can drop smokejumpers into remote, isolated areas for fast i n i t i a l attack on wi ldf i res or to build and prepare a helispot or landing area, so that ground crews and f i re fighters can be landed by helicopters. SmokeJumpers maybe f i re "fighters with special training in parachute jumplng. Smoke Jumpers are used on any f i re where their attack is faster than ground-crew attack. Normally, they are transported by airplane to the f i re area, making parachute jumps as close to the f i re area as possible and starting suppression work immedlatley. When the situation demands, smokejumpers are dropped near a f i re and construct a helispot. Helicopters then shuttle f i re fighters to the hellspot and return jumpers to bases to be ready for another jump.

C-4-1] Air Traffic Pattern. The a i r t ra f f i c pattern in the f i re area is determined in part by the terrain and wind conditions. Aircraft control should establish the most suitable patterns and coordinate aircraf t separation.

Airtankers should orbi t at least l,OOO f t (305 m) above the terrain in a l e f t pattern while waiting to drop. The orbi t generally wi l l be made at a designated location away from the drop area. The a i rcraf t speed and turning radius wi l l determine size of the pattern. Airtanker a i rcraf t should operate below the observation a i rcraf t .

The a i rcraf t of the a i r attack supervisor should maintain at least 2,000 f t (610 m) above the terrain, using the f l i gh t pattern most suitable to the mission. When descending below 3,000 f t (914 m), the p i lo t should f l y a lefthand t ra f f i c pattern.

The lead plane should orbi t to the le f t or wherever necessary to set up and observe the'airtanker drops. The exact f l i gh t pattern and elevation above the terrain wi l l depend on whether the high-level or low-level system of airtanker direction is used.

Smokejumper and cargo a i rcraf t should advise aircraft control of the best pattern for their purpose. a i rcraf t control should then establish the aircraf t separation required and notify the jumper or cargo a i rcraf t when to proceed. All other a i rcraf t should remain at a designated location well clear of the jumper or cargo drop area unti l receiving further instructions from ai rcraf t control.

Aircraft control wi l l instruct helicopters to stay clear of the area when any type of drops are being made. I f p r io r i t y use of a helicopter is desired, a i rcraf t control should discontinue the drops unti l the helicopter has completed i ts assignment or is clear of the area.

,C-4-12 Training Requirements. Each person involved in a i rcraf t operations on wi ldf i res, such as a i r , operations director, a i r attack supervisor, lead plane p i lo t /a i r tanker coordinator, airtanker p i lo t , and helicopter p i lo t must be fu l l y qualif ied to do his job. Special training is required for these positions.

730

C-4-13 General Aviation Hazards. Pilots should be briefed and familiarized with al l possible a i r hazards approaching and returning to the base of operations and within the f i re area. When practical, a hazard map should be prepared and the p i lo t should be given a famil iar izat ion f l i gh t over the area in which he wi l l conduct his f l i gh t operations. Such f l i gh t hazards wi l l include:

(a) Restricted areas (mi l i tary ac t iv i t ies , etc.).

( b ) Obstructions less than 1,0ii0 f t (305 m) above ground (observation towers, antennas, TV towers, etc.) .

(c) Obstructions more than 1,000 f t (305 m) above the ground (radio and TV towers, microwave, and related communications towers).

(d) Valleys, rivers, and lakes with dangerous power lines, telephone lines, or towers.

(e) Power lines and towers, telephone lines and poles in the immediate v i c in i t y where a i r operations and low f ly ing may be required.

( f ) A single tree or snag that is t a l l e r .than the other trees in the area, where low f lying is to be

, conducted.

(g) Narrow canyons, valleys, and steep terrain that could cause extreme turbulence or alleys, and steep terrain that could cause extreme turbulence or down-drafts.

(h) Extreme a i r turbulence or high winds,'generally over 30-40 mph (45-65 kmh), which could restr ic t or suspend low-level f ly ing.

. ( i ) Mi l i tary f l i gh t training routes where low f ly ing, high speed a i rcraf t could present a hazard.

( j ) Aircraft or related ac t iv i t ies in the.v ic in i ty of the airport (parachute Jumping).'

(k) Obstructions on or near the a i r base thatmay affect take-off or landing of the a i r c ra f t . .

(1) Geographic features that could cause wind conditions that might be hazardous to f l i gh t operations.

(m) Domestic or wild animals on the a i r base that could cause a col l is ion or damage the operational surface•

(n) Roads crossing a i r bases that could cause coll isions or damage.

(o) Airborne sightseers, news media, etc.

(p) When required, on-going wi ld f i re operations with a i rcraf t should be coordinted With FAA Route Structure Controllers and Mi l i tary Low-Level High Speed Training route schedulers and coordinators.

C-4-14 Airtanker Base Operations. By the designation of ~ safety 'of f icer or person in charge the following

• steps should be taken to assure th,~ safe performance of al l airtanker operations:

(a) Keep unauthorized persons out of the mixing and loading areas.

(b) Designate a parking area for needed vehicles, and keep al l other vehicles elsewhere or away from the operations base.

(c) Use airport matting around mixing and loading areas to ensure footing of ground personnel, A water hose should be provided to flus~ r,ztardant materials that cause hazardous conditions.

(d) Require a l l airtanker operations personnel to wear hard hats,, goggles, and earmuffs, and to wear respirators during.mixing operations.

(e) Enforce safety regulations for loading and refueling a i rcraf t .

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(f) Provide a f i re guard with suitable f i re extinguishers. Crash trucks should be arranged for or provided when practical'.

(g) Require airtanker pi lots to wear crash helmet, safety belt, safety harness, and f i re resistant clothing•

(h) Prohibit a l l unnecessary low.flying of airtankers over f i re camps or other large concentrations of men off the f i re l ine.

( i ) Airtankers operati'ng from water bases wi l l exercise a l l water-related safety precautions.

(J) Designated personnel, wi l l make periodic 'inspections of crash and survival gear, replacing and renewing items as needed.

(k) Require al l a i rcraf t to be operated in conformance with the operations manuals Prepared by the contracting or owning agencies.

• (1) Prior to alrtanker use, brief the tanker p i lo t as to the f i re situation, general plan of action, and to specific missions. The briefing wi l l include hazards, topography, wind velocity, turbulence, anticipated operations at the target site, and whom to contact when about 3 minutes from the f i re , or some other ground contact.

(m) Provide a taxi director for congested ground operations•

C-4-15 Airtanker Water Operations• Amphibious or float-equipped a i rcraf t can pick up a load of water in a very few seconds, These amphibious a i rcraf t or seaplanes may be equipped with external or internal tanks, and range in capacity up to 1,500 U. S. gal (5678 l ) . The method of f i l l i n g is generally the same for al l alr, craft, with fixed, adjustable,' o.r. retractable probes. The water is forced-up'the f i l l i n g tubes by ram pressure developed by forward movement of the a i rcraf t while planing or taxiing.

Air attack operating principles and procedures are essentially the same as land-based airtankers with the exception of the loading operation. Airtankers making water plck-ups from the same source can be confronted with water turbulence caused by the preceding aircraf t during i ts f i l l i n g operation. This can also hold true during the cascading operation i f adequate spacing is not maintained. The amount of turbulence depends on the size of the a i rcraf t and prevailing wind and conditions. This turbulence is dispersed more rapidly in high and cross winds. Under normal operating conditions, the minimum spacing of the a i rcraf t making water pick-ups from the same source would be I minute apart. With a fast turnaround.tlme,, you are limited to the number of a i rcraf t that can operate from the same source. I f more than one loadin 9 source is established, i t becomes essential that suitable control of loading at the sources and cascading operations at the f i re site be conducted in a safe manner•

Amphibious airtankers are usually equipped with an on-board supply of wildland f i re , foam, and can inject i t into the water on the way from the pick-up spot to the f i re .

To assure safety in f l i gh t between the loading source and the f i re , adequate a i rcraf t separation and altitudes must be maintained. This separation is usually maintained by a delay between a i rcraf t during the cascading and al t i tude separation of a i rcraf t attacking the f i re , and the a i rcraf t returning from the f i re . Safety is always a prime factor when more than ̀

one a i rcraf t is involved in the same operation:

( a ) Amphibious and float-equipped attack aircraf t have a defini te advantage over land-based ai rcraf t , provided a suitable water source for loading is available near the f i re .

(b) No ground crew or equipment is required at the loading s i te •

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Since loading time genera l ly requires less than 30 seconds, d e l i v e r y time per load is the f l y i n g time from the water source to the f i r e and return. This normally resu l ts in more loads per hour than could be de l ivered and cascaded by land-based a i r c r a f t . In many cases, small a i r c r a f t operat ing from a water source close to the f i r e can equal or surpass the de l i ve ry rate in gal lon per hour of much l a rge r land-based a i r c r a f t . I t must be remembered, however, that amphibious a i r c r a f t drop suppressants, not re tardants ; and 'while not necessar i ly less e f f e c t i v e , they d e f i n i t e l y require a different attack strategy than do retardants.

,Amphibious and float-equipped a i rcraf t are mobil and independent; they may be moved rapidly from f i re to f i re with concerns only for normal fuel, o i l , and maintenance requirements.

C-4-16 Amphibious and Float-Equipped Support Aircraft..Amphibious and f loat-type a i rcraf t are ut i l ized in many support functions ranging from detection, reconnaissance, and survey f l ights, to the transportlng'of cargo and personnel. Aircraft that were designed, or could be configured, for water operations have for the past 50 or more years provided v i ta l support to remote inland rivers, lakes, and coastal areas.

C-4-17 Helicopter Operations. Helicopter operations wi l l comply with the applicable general rules for aerial operations and practices prescribed for specialized helicopter operations.

The p i lo t is responsible for the safety of the a i rcraf t at al l times.

With the exception of specially trained pi lots equipped for nighttime operations, daytime operation of the helicopter wi l l be conducted during the period of time defined as 1/2 hour before sunrise to I/2 hour after sunset.'

Helicopters must not be dispatched for mountain flyi'ng when average velocity over a 5-minute period at exposed peaks is 30, mph (27 KNTS) or more.

The helicopter p i lo t must not be permitted to f l y more than the maximum number of allowable hours in a day.

A person trained in helicopter use should be stationed at each helicopter landing area during f l i gh t operations to supervise loading operations and enforce safety regulations.

Nighttime helicopter operations can be conducted with a qualif ied p i lo t , using night vision goggles or high intensity l ights when performed within closely controlled and defined l imi ts.

Helicopter arm signals should be practiced by al l personnel assigned to helitack operations.

Ground-to-alr signals and FAA ground signals should be remembered and use by associated personnel.

C-4-17.1 •Precautions on the Ground - Helicopters. All unauthorized personnel wi l l be kept clear of the area of operation. Hard hats with chin straps wi l l be worn at al l times.

(a) Keep clear of helicopter rotors. Unless required to go near, stay 50 f t (15.2 m) from small helicopters, I00 f t (30 m) from large helicopters, at al l times. When necessary, approach from front or side, in fu l l view of p i lo t .

(b) Always approach and depart helicopters from down h i l l side, at a sl ight crouch, keeping visual contact with p i lo t at al l times.

(c) •Before take~off, fasten and adjust safety belt and shoulder.harness. Keep belt fastened unti l instructed by p i lo t , after landing, to leave a i rcraf t .

(d). Do not face helicopters when they are landing, taking off , or hovering unless goggles are worn.

(e) Keep clear of main rotor and ta i l rotor at al l times. Carry long-handled tools low and parallel to the ground, keeping clear of the main rotor or s tabi l izer bar.

( f ) Do not overload helicopter; put cargo in racks and t ie down securely.

(g) Obtain p i lo t ' s approval for al l gear stowed in or on the helicopter.

• (h) Always indicate wind direction by wind socks, streamers, flagging, or throwing d i r t .

( i ) Helibases, part icular ly refueling areas, should be dostproofed by wetting dQwn, using polybinder, or other means, to prevent dust and other foreign objects from entering engine's .fuel containers,.damaging engine parts" of the ship, or presenting danger to the eyes of personnel.

( j ) Equip helibase, helispots, heliport with a minimum of two f i re extinguishers - separated to each side of the landing area.

(k) Keep f ie ld helispots clear of debris, equipment, and unauthorized personnel. -

('l) When helicopter accessories such as sling loads and helitanks are being used, personnel should never be standing direct ly beneath.any por t lono f the helicopter or equipment.

• (m) Smoking regulations and other safety signs shall be posted at al l f ie ld heliports.

The following regulations must be observed when refueling helicopters:

I. Helicopter engine must be stopped and master • switch shut off unless a cert i f ied and functioning

closed c i rcui t refuelingsystem is instal led. 2. Helicopters and fuel containers wi l l be grounded. 3. There wi l l be no passengers aboard the aircraf t . 4. A suitable f i re extinguisher wi l l be available

for immediate use. 5. No smoking within 50 f t (15.2 m) of fueling area. 6. No unauthorized personnel within 100 f t (30.5 m)

of fueling area.

C-4-17.2 Pro-Take-Off Briefing. Conducted by the p i lo t or helitack personnel. The type of operation wi l l dictate the type of briefing necessary, and discuss the following:

(a) Overwater Flights. The location and use of f lo tat ion gear and other survival equipment aboard; how and when to abandon the helicopter should ditching be necessary.

(b) Flights Over Rough or Isolated Terrain. Occupants should be informed of access to maps and survival gear.

(c) Emergency Instructions. Each passenger shoul.d be aware of necessary actions and precautions in the event of an emergency, such as assuming correct body position for best spinal protection against a high vertical impact landing (erect, with back firmly against the seat back) and when and how to exi t after landing.

C-4-17.3 Precautions for Passengers During Flight:

(a) No smoking.

. (b) Keep clear of the controls.

(c) Hold maps, papers, etc., securely while in f l i gh t .

(d) Use chin strap when in f l i gh t . I f chin strap is not available, hold hard hat securely under arm or i n hand.

(e) Keep oriented - aware of bearing - at al l times.

732

i f ) Keep alert for hazards, particularly power and telephone lines. Inform p i lo t of their presence, and assist the p i lot when requested in watching ta i l roto~ clearance during landings at f ie l d landing area.

C-4-17.4 Pre-landing Briefing. The nature of the landing area wi l l determine the information given to passengers. A few items to consider:

(a) I f on a h i l l , depart down h i l l . I f this involves walking around the helicopter to avoid area of the lowest rotor clearance, always go around the front. NEVER THE REAR.

(b) Review of safety precautions for ground operations.

C-4-18 Ground Personnel - Hazards From'Airtankers. All ground personnel should listen and watch for low flying aircraft making retardant or water drops. I f no. prior notif ication of the drop has been received, the f i r s t warning of the arrival of the aircraft may be the sound of the air to ground warn|no siren or "whooper," or the aircraft engine sounds durlng the dry run over ,the target area. The safest procedure in such a situation is:

(a) Do not run unless escape is assure~.

(b) Discard hand tools to the side in as safe a manner as time permits. Do not leave tools where cascading retardants can dislodge them, causlng.lnjury to personnel in the area. I f uncertain as to safety, retain tools in hand.

(c) Lie face down, head toward the oncoming aircraft, with hard hat in place and grab something firm to prevent belng carried or rolled by the dropping liquid.

(d) When in timber, get away from large trees and snags i f at al l possible. Retardant and water drops can break off both dead and l ive branches. Do not' remain in any area where there are loose rocks or other material that may be dislodged and thrown b~. the liquid drop.

C-4-]9 Air Space Control. With the smoke, turbulence, and topography problems, the air operations and .air attack flying on wildfires canl in themselves, be dangerous. With the added problems of the presence of sightseei.ng, commercial, and mil i tary aircraft in the f l re area, the hazards increase greatly, and mid-alr collisions become a possibi l i ty.

There are measures, however, that can be taken to reduce the, nonessential a i r t ra f f ic in the f i re area.' U.S. Federal Aviation Regulation 91.137 Temporary Flight Restrictions, allow the affected agency to request FAA restriction of air t ra f f ic around disaster areas. When this f ] ight restriction is requested, and when a Notice ~o Airmen has been issued under this section, no person may operate an ~ircraft within the designated area unless the aircraft• is operated in compliance with this f l ight rule.

The airspace restriction should be requested and set up only when necessary to conducted air operations in the f i re area. When this ~equest is made to the f i re area. When this request is made to .the nearest FAA air t raf f ic fac i l i t y , the FAA f i les a NOTAM (Notice to Airmen) of existence and location of restriction, .which could include a request that nonparticipating aircraft avoid using the selected bases of operation to relieve airport t ra f f ic congestion. This restriction system is not foolproof, and continued vigilance for other aircraft is absolutely essential.

There are hazards, created by mil i tary aircraft with their low altitude, high-speed training routes. These• routes - Department of Defense Flip Low Altitude' Training Routes -.cover much of the United States with a constantly moving network of Ibw=level, high-speed mil i tary aircraft . ' "

This is a d i f f i cu l t problem without a ready solution. To minimize the problem, Flip Low Altitude Training Route Charts should be available to the

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dispatcher, enabling him to notify al l persons, involved that a f i re is near a given route. Notification of the base designated responsible for the route does not assure that mil i tary training aircraft wi l l always be diverted from this route.

Again, as.previously stated, the best defense against this problem is coordination, communication, and constant vig!lance.

C-5 General.

C-5-1 Ah Interagency Airtanker Board Charter. The Interagency Airtanker Board was establishe~ to provide coordination between f ire agencies in evaluation, testing, and use of.airtanker to accomplish the f i re suppression job.

A. Purpose of the Board:

I. Accept, review, and evaluate proposed new or modified airtankers. Recommend approval of acceptable airtankers to concerned agencies.

2. Act as advisor to the agencies and industry • operators in the overall improvement of airtanker

retardant delivery systems.

3. Provide the vehicle for cooperative effort among all using agencies and industry operators in the development, evaluation, improvement, introduction, screening, selection, and approval of experimental and operational airtanker retardant dell.very systems.

,4. Promote, through any and all available means, the long term improvement in the effectiveness and efficiency of airtanker retardant delivery systems.

B. Objectives of the,Board:

I. Through an evaluation and testing process, determine acceptable types of airtanker aircraft, tanks, and gate design, and recommend them for interagency use.

2. Integrate advancement of retardant technology " in to aerial delivery systems.

3. Provide a central source of data and information regarding evaluation, testing, selection, and introduction of airtankers, tanks, gates, and al l using agencies and industry.

C. Function of the Board:

I . Accept and review applications for the development and introduction of airtanker aircraft, and tank and gate design as part of the total retardant delivery system. Applications may include the proposal of a concept, design for development, or the completed hardware.

2. Evaluate and weight the application and proposal in'reference to:

(a) "Mandatory requirements. (b) Other than mandatory cr i ter ia.

3. Select the best f l ight test programs and gualified organization to conduct or perform f l ight testing and f ield evaluation on the drop characteristics of the retardant drop systems:

4. Review and recommend approval or rejection of the. proposed airtanker, aircraft tank and gating system based on the results of the f l ight test and retardant drop test program.

5. When the airtanker is drop tested, designate an individual, agency, or fac i l i t y to supervise and report on the performance of drop tests, f ield evaluation, and pattern acceptability and effectiveness.

6. I f the drop tests are acceptable and other requirements are satisfactori ly completed, recommend approval of the airtanker, tank, and gating system and type of aircraft for interagency use. I f not acceptable, recommend redesign, or reject the proposed airtanker, and tank and gating system.

7~

NFPA 295

7. Obtain an operational f ield evaluation from the using agency or other concerned agencies after the f i r s t season of use and provide appropriate agencies with the results.

8. When a given type of a i rcraf t . is approved as an airtanker, the Board, as a matter of expediency, may recommend temporary approval of proposed additional airtankers that are to be modified in conformity to the same TC/STC approval, pending submission of the required conformity statement, weight and balance data, and revised f l ight manual.

D. Membership of the Board:

1. The Board shall be composed of eight voting members. Three members shall be appointed by the Director, Office of Aircraft Services, Department of the Interior. Three members shall be appointed by the Director of Fire and Aviation Management - Forest Service, Department of Agriculture. 'One member shall

be appointed jo in t ly by the two Directors from a l i s t of candidates submitted by the National Association of State Foresters. The eighth mem.ber, who wi l l serve as chairman, shall be appointed Jointly by the two directors for a term not to exceed 4 years,

2. The Board may call upon advisors from industry, 'research, and equipment development as needed, in - addition to state and FAA representatives, contracting or other technical specialists, none of Whom may be. voting members.

3. Membership on the Board, and participation as advisors to the Board, shall be with the concurrence of the individual's organization. Individual expenses incident to the Board operation wi l l be funded by the unit of assignment of the'i~dividuai, or the company of employment.

E. Operation of the Board:

I. The Board shall meet annually, and at other times as needed, to act on any applications and proposal s.

2. All requirements of the evaluation procedures, including aircraft modification, tank and gate design, f l ight and drop tests, and cert i f icat ion, wi l l normally be financed by the operator/proponent.

3. A weighting process, such as a point system, wil l be used by the Board in evaluating al l "other than mandatory c r i t e r i a , " o r some other equitable and workable systems for evaluation.

4. Changes in the cr i ter ia for requirements of airtanker wi l l be recommended to the appointing authorities for approval before they may be included as a requirement.

5. All tankers approved by the Interagency Airtanker Board, and the Mil i tary Airborne Fire Fighter System (MAFFS), are to be considered approved tankers. Any tanker with sufficient deficiencies evidenced by use may be subjected to further review by the Board for determination of continuing approval or withdrawal 'of such.

6. All Board recommendations wi l l be jo in t ly submitted to the Director, Office of Aircraft Services, Department of Interior; and the Director, Fire and Aviation Management, Forest Service, Department of Agriculture. Acceptance or rejection of the recommendations wi l l be coordinated between the directors, and then communicated to the Board Chairman., In the event of disagreement between the directdrs additional information may be required from the Board to assist in the negotiation of final agreement. Approval of tankers wi l l be communicated to the Board, aircraf.t owner, and the airtanker contracting officers, by the staff of the Director of the agency currently chairing the Board.

7. Nothing in this plan is to preclude any agency from establishing additional requirements or operating limitations in contracting for the use of airtankers.

e I

PART I I I

296- I - (Entire Document): Accept SUBMITTER: Technical Committee on Forest and Rural Fire Protection RECQMMENDATION: Withdraw NFPA 296, "Guide for Air Operations for Forest, Brush and Grass Fires." SUBSTANTIATION: The committee wishes to incorporate al l pertinent wi ldf i re control information into a single document and has incorporated the material currently contained in NFP A 296 into the Appendix of the proposed complete revision of NFPA 295, "Standard for Wildfire Control" (See Part I I of this Report.) CQMMITTEE ACTION: Accept.

734

PART IV

297- I - (Entire Document): Acc(,pt SUBMITTER: Technical Committee ~n Forest and Rural Fire Protection RECOMMENDATION: withdraw NFPA 2S9, "Guide on Telecommunications Systems-Prlnciples and Practices for Rural and Forestry Servlces. SUBSTANTIATION: Th e committee wishes to incorporate al l pertinent wi ldf i re control information into a single document. Some of the material currently contained in NFPA 297 delt with ~'i ldfire control and has been .incorporated into the proposed complete revision of NFPA 295, "Standard for Wildfire Control" (See Part I I of this Report). The;remainder of the relevant material deals with communication systems and has been forwarded to the Public Fire Service Communications Committee for incorporation in the next edition of NFPA 1221, Installation, Maintenance and Use of Public Fire Service Communication Systems. COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept..

PART V

\

(Log # 1) 299- 1 - (5-1 .1) : Accept in Pr inp ip le SUBMITTER: Peter H. B i l l i n g , National Forest Products Associat ion RECOMMENDATION: Revise t ex t to read as fo l lows:

"5-1.1 Minimum f i r e p ro tec t ion requirements fo r s t ructures and developments i n ' o r adjacent to wi ld land f i r e hazard areas shal l be designed and constructed in a manner to reduce t h e i r i g n i t i o n from a w i l d f l r e , and the spread of a structural f i re to or from the wildlands." " ' SUBSTANTIATION: Chapter S is entitled "Structural Design and Construction" and there isnothing in this

~ roposed chapter which regulates the location of the uilding. This revised language reflects th~ criteria

contained in the chapter. COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept in Principle. COMMITTEE STATEMENT: See revised text in current committee proposal which the Committee feels meets the intent of the submitter.

(Log # 2) 299- 2 - '(5-1.2): Reject SUBMITTER: Peter H. Bi l l ing, National Forest Pcoducts Association RECOMMENDATION: Revise text to read as follows:

"S-1.2 Every building or structure shall be constructed to meet the cr i ter ia of either the BOCA National Building Code, the ICBO Uniform Building Code, the SBCCI Standard Building Code or the CABO One and Two Fam@ly Dwelling Code for the intended occupancy." SUBSTANTIATION: Underwriters Laboratories does not have construction requirements. They are a testing laboratory. Construction requirements are found in building codes. The building codes listed in the proposed revised text. are al l considered "MODEL BUILDING CODES" and are recognized throughout the couptry. COMMITTEE ACTION: Reject. COMMITTEE STATEMENT: Revised text in current co~nmittee proposal omits this section.

(Log # 3) 299- 3L (5-1.3): Reject SUBMITTER: Peter H. Bi l l ing, National Forest Products Association RECOMMENDATION: Revise text to read as follows:

!!5-!.3 ~ Where other' cr i ter ia is required by Other regulations, the more restr lct ive provision shall prevail." SUBSTANTIATION: The proposed language is cumbersome and fa i ls to recognize al l methods of adopting regulations. The' proposed revision is more generic and less confusing. COMMITTEE ACTION: Reject. COMMITTEE STATEMENT: Revised text in current committee proposal omits this section.

(Log #. d) 29g- 4 - (5-2 .1) : Reject SUBMITTER: Peter H. Bi l l ing, National Forest Products Association RECOMMENDATION: Revise text to read as follows:

"5-2.1 Addresses shall be identified withan -appropriae'marker located so as to be clearly readable at al l times to a vehicle approaching on the road servicing such building or structure for a distance of not less thanIO0 f t . SUBSTANTIATION: The draft copy of NFPA 2gg is missing language necessary to complete, the sentence. This revision provides a complete sentehce. While the original proposal includes a requirement for the address marker to be of noncombustible construction, in a f i re situation involving the marker, the paint would be burned off the sign rendering i t as useless as a marker of combustible construction. Thus there is no just i f icat ion for the additional noncombustible requirement.

735

COMMITTEE ACTION: Reject. COMMITTEE STATEMENT: The comment is on text no•longer in the current committee proposal.

(Log # 5) 299- 5 - (5-3.1): Accept in Principle SUBMITTER: Peter H. Bi l l ing, National Forest Products Association RECOMMENDATION: Revise text to read as follows:

"5-3.1 Roof coverings. Roof coverings in the urban/rural interface and wildland areas shall be a minimum of Class C when tested in accordance with NFPA 256." SUBSTANTIATION: The terminology "roof types" relates to Hip roofs. Gambrel roofs, Gable roofs, Flat roofs, etc. but does not relate to the roof covering which this section is attempting to address. Also, ~he NFPA standard for testing roof coverings is NFPA 256. UL provides testing services. A NFPA standard should reference the appropriate NFPA standard. The" terminology EXTREME, HIGH and MODERATE does not relate to the rating classif ications found la ter "in this proposed standard. A requirement for Class C roof covering should provide adequate protection for buildings covered by this proposed standard. In cases where the Class C roof wi l l not perform, the in ter ior of the building could be expected to be involved due to heat radiation through the win~ows. COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept in Principle. COMMITTEE STATEMENT: See text in current committee proposal which the Committee feels meets the intent of the submitter.

J

(Log # 6) 299- 6 - (5-3.2): Accept SUBMITTER: Peter H. Bi l l ing, National Forest Products Association RECOMMENDATION: Delete section 5-3.2 in i ts entirety. SUBSTANTIATION: I f a roof sprinkler system is to be considered as an upgrade of any f i r e resistance classif icat ion, there should be specific design cr i te r ia referenced in order to determine the effectiveness of the system. In the absence of such design cr i ter ia , there is no jus t i f i ca t ion for granting credit for the sysbem COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept.

(Log # 7) 299- 7 - (5-4.1): Accept in Principle SUBMITTER: Peter H. Bi l l ing, National Forest Products Association RECOMMENDATION: Revise the proposed text as follows:

"5-4.1 Vents shall be screened with a corrosion-resistant wire mesh with a mesh not less than one-quarter inch nor more than One-half inch in size." SUBSTANTIATION: The model building codes require at t ic vents to have openings not less than one-quarter inch nor more than one-half inch in size. The l imitat ion as or ig inal ly proposed would require the use of screening with exactly one-quarter inch mesh. A reasonable tolerance is needed due to the inab i l i t y of manufacturing screening to such an exact specification. COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept in Principle. COMMITTEE STATEMENT: See text in current committee proposal which the Committee 5eels meets the intent of the submitter.

combustible ground cover should provide a r~asonable' alternative to the enclosed overhangs. COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept in Principle. COMMITTEE STATEMENT: See text in current committee proposal which the Committee feels meets the intent of the submitter.

(Log # 9) 299- 9 - (5-4.3): Accept in Principle SUBMITTER: Peter H. Bi l l ing, National Forest Products Association RECOMMENDATION: Revise Ehe proposed text as follows:

• "5-4.3 Structures supported wholely or in part on s t i l t s shall have al l underfloor areas enclosed or t h e underfloor area and the surrounding area shall be free from combustible ground cover." SUBSTANTIATION: There is no jus t i f i ca t ion for mandating the rated enclosures when unprotected openings are permitted in the exterio~ walls. The l imitat ion on combustible ground cover should provide a reasonable alternative to the enclosed underfloor areas. COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept in Principle. COMMITTEE STATEMENT: See text in current committee proposal which the Committee feels meets the intent of the submitter.

(Log # lO) 299- lO - (5-5.1): Reject SUBMITTER: Peter H. Bi l l ing, National Forest Products Association RECOMMENDATION: Delete Section 5-5.1 in i ts entirety. SUBSTANTIATION: Safety, tempered, or double-paned glass wi l l not p~event the heat radiation from ignit ing the elements inside a building subjected to the heat from a wildlands f i re . Typically, energy conservation codes wi l l regulate the type of glazing that is instal led. Safety and tempered glazing wil l only be installed in areas which may be subjected human impact. COMMITTEE ACTION: Reject. COMMITTEE STATEMENT: Commenter's text does not take into account the effects of convected heat.

(Log •# 11) 299- 11 - (5-5.2): Accept in Principle SUBMITTER: Peter H. Bi l l ing, National Forest Products Association RECOMMENDATION: Revise the proposed text as follows:

"5-5.2 All openings in buildings located in HIGH Danger classif icat ion areas shall be provided with opening protectives which wi l l provide a minimum protection of twenty minutes when tested in'accordance with NFPA 252 or 257, or the area within lO0 f t of the opening shall be free from concentrations of vegetative fuels. SUBSTANTIATION: A f i reproof shutter wi l l only protect the shutter from combustion. IF i t is necessary to provide protection of the openings, the protection should be in accordance with the appropriate NFPA standard. The twenty minute protection suggested here wil l. provide a specific amount of protection as opposed to a " f i reproof shutter" which may provide an undetermined amount of protection. COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept in Principle. COMMITTEE STATEMENT: See text in current committee proposal which the Committee feels meets the intent of the submitter.

(Log # 8) 299- 8 - (5-4.2): Accept in Principle SUBMITTER: Peter H. Bi l l ing, National Forest Products Association RECOMMENDATION: Revise the proposed text as follows:

"5-4.2 Eaves, cantilever balconies, and other similar overhangs shall be enclosed or the surrounding area shall be free from combustible ground cover." SUBSTANTIATION: There is no jus t i f i ca t ion for mandating the rated overhangs when unprotected opening are permitted in the exter ior walls. The l imitat ion on

(Log # 12) 299- 12 - (5-6): Accept in Principle SUBMITTER: Peter H. Bi l l ing, National Forest Products Association RECOMMENDATION: Revise the proposed text as follows:

"5-6 Exterior Walls. 5-6.1 Exterior walls in buildings located in High

Danger classif icat ion areas shall be designed and constructed to provide one hour f i r e resistance rating when exposed to f i r e from the outside and tested in accordance with NFPA 251."

736

SUBSTANTIATION: UL does not have a " f i r e hazard severity c lassi f icat ion". UL tests assemblies to - determine their f i r e resistance in accordance with the appropriate tests. This #reposed standard should reference the appropriate NFPA standard for f i r e testing. Since i t would be reasonable to assume that a f i r e of one hour endurance would penetrate the exterior envelope due to the radiation through the windows, there is no jus t i f i ca t ion for requiring any endurance

,beyond one hour. The reference to the extreme severity is removes since this draft only relates to LOW,. MODERATE, and HIGH. (See page 88/23) COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept in Principle. COMMITTEE STATEMENT: See text in current committee proposal which the Committee feels meets the intent of the submitter.

(Log # 13) 299- 13 - (5-8): Reject SUBMITTER: Peter H.,Bi l l ing, National Forest Products Association RECOMMENDATION: Delete. Section 5-8 in i ts entirety without substitution. SUBSTANTIATION: The construction of mobile homes, which are legally described as "Manufactured Homes" are controlled by federal government regulations. These federal regulations, kHown as the Manufactured Home Construction and Safety Standards, are preemptive and local jur isdict ions cannot invoke any addit ional requirements. COMMITTEE ACTION: Reject, COMMITTEE STATEMENT: Local regulations can provide c r i te r ia on instal lat ions of si te work and additions to manufactured homes.

(Log # 14) 299- 14 - (Appendix D): Reject SUBMITTER: Peter H. Bi l l ing, National Forest Products Association RECOMMENDATION: Revise the proposed text as follows:

"In the rating system instructions for l ine 15, provide more complete information than is indicated in the draft copy of the standard. There is no reference to l ine 15, and the f i r s t sentence reads "metal or t i l e roofs." Modify the second sentence to read "Do not include homes with non-rated roofs." SUBSTANTIATION: The draft, copy of the standard is incomplete. The reference to wood roofs is improper since the hazard wi l l exist with any roof which may be constructed with non-rated roof coverings. COMMITTEE ACTION: Reject. COMMITTEE STATEMENT: The submitter apparently reviewed an early Committee working document. The proposed NFPA 299 does not include an Appendix D. The language cited by the submitter is not contained in the document.

,(Log # 15) 299- 15 - (Form B): .Reject SUBMITTER: Peter N. B i l l i n g , National Forest Products Association RECOMMENDATION: Revise the proposed text as foilows:

"Modify item 2 of Form B so the portion within the parentheses wi l l read (Metal, Til~ or other f i re. rated roofings. No non-rated roof coverings.)" SUBSTANTIATION: The ~eference to wood roofs is improper since the hazard wil l exist with any roof which may be constructed of non-rated roof coverings. COMMITTEE ACTION: Reject. COMMITTEE STATEMENT: The submitter apparently reviewed an early Committee working document. The proposed document does not include any forms.

(Log # 16) 299- 16 - (Form C): Reject SUBMITTER: Peter H. Bi l l ing, National Forest Products Association RECOMMENDATION: Revise the proposed text as follows:

"Modify item VI of Form C so the f i r s t three categories wi l l read "of homes have Class A, B or C r~of coverings" and the last category wi l l read "of homes have non-rated roof coverings"."

i '

737

NFPA 299

SUBSTANTIATION: The reference to wood roofs is improper since the hazard wil l exist with any roof" which may be constructed of non-rated roof coverings. COMMITTEE ACTION: Reject. COMMITTEE STATEMENT: The submitter apparently reviewed an early Committee working document. The proposed document does not include any forms.

299- 17 - (Entire Document): Accept SUBMITTER: Technical Committee on Forest and Rural Fire Protection RECOMMENDATION: Adopt a new standard to be designated as NFPA 299, "Standard for Protection of Life and Property from Wildfire." SUBSTANTIATION: As a result of the concern over the expanding development in the Nations Wildland/Urban Interface areas, the committee has undertaken to develop a standard which addresses the problems of l i f e and property protection in those areas. The proposed, new standard incorporates information from NFPA 224, "Standard for Homes and Camps in Forest Areas" which is being withdrawn (See Part I of this Report.) COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept.

NFPA 299

Standard fo r Protect ion of L i fe and Property From Wi ld f i r e

1991 Edi t ion

Chapter 1 In t roduc t ion

NOTICE: An a s t e r i s k ' ( " ) fo l l ow ing the number or l e t t e r designat ing a paragraph ind ica tes explanatory mater ial on that paragraph in Appendix A.

Informat ion on referenced pub l l ca t lons can be found in Chapter 9 and Appendix B.

I - I Scope. This standard presents minimum planning c r i te r ia For the protection of l i f e and property from wi ldf i re. I t includes information on safe procedures and practices at the wildland/urban interface or intermix.

I-2 Purpose. The purpose of this standard is to provide c r i te r ia for f i r e agencies, land use planners, architects, developers, and local government.for f i re safe development in areas that may be threatened by wi ldf i re.

I-3 Definit ions.. For th~ purpose of this standard, the following terms have the meanings shown below~

Access Routes. Principal vehicular ingress and egress to a structure or through a development, crossing more than one parcel, including public and private roads, streets, and lanes, that extend to and intersect with a publicly maintained road, street, or lane.

Accessory Building.or Structure. Any building or structure used inc3dentally to another building or structure.

Approved. .Acceptable to the "authority having jur isd ic t ion. "

NOTE: The .National Fire Protection Association does not approve, inspect o~ cer t i fy any instal lat ions, procedures, equipment, or materials nor does i t approve or evaluate testing laboratories. In determining the acceptability of instal lat ions or procedures, equipment or materials, the authority having jur isdict ion may base acceptance on compliance with NFPA or other appropriate standards. In the absence of such standards, said authority may require evidence of proper insta l lat ion, procedure or use. The authority havfng jur isdict ion may also refer to the l is t ings or labeling practices of an organization concerned with product evaluations which is in a position to determine compliance with appropriate standards for the current production of l isted items•

NFPA 299

Aerial Fuels.- Standing and supported l ive and dead combustibles not in direct contact with the ground and consisting mainly of foliage, twigs, branches, stems, cones, bark, and vines.

Aspect. Direction toward which the slope faces.

Average Daily Traffic (ADT). The average daily volume of vehicles traveling on a given road.

Authority Having Jurisdiction. The "authority having jurisdiction" is the organization, office or individual responsible for "approving" equipment, an i.nstallation or a procedure.

NOTE: The phrase "authority having jurisdict ion" is used in NFPA documents in a broad manner since jurisdictions and "approval" agencies vary as do their responsibilit ies. Where public safety is primary, the "authority having jurisdict ion" may be a federal, state, local or other regional department or individual such as a f i re chief, f i re marshal, chief of a f i re prevention bureau, labor department, health department, building o f f ic ia l , electrical inspector, or others having statutory authority. For insurance purposes, an insurance inspection department, rating bureau, or other insurance company representative may be the "authority having jur isdict ion." In many

"circumstances the property owner or his designated agent assumes the role of the "authority having jur isdict ion"; at government installations, the commanding officer or departmental of f ic ia l may be the "authority having jur isdict ion."

Brush. Shrubs and scrub vegetation or other growth heavier than'grass, but not ful l tree size.

Building. Any structure used or intended for supporting or any use or occupancy.

Dead End Road. A road that provides only one point of ingress and egress.

Development. Human-made improvement of property.

Driveway. Vehicular ingress and egress routes that serve no more than 2 buildings or structures, not including accessory structures, on one parcel, containing no more than 3 dwelling units.

Dwelling Unit. Any building or structure or portion thereof that containsl iving fac i l i t i es with provisions for sleeping, eating, cooking, and sanitation for not more than 1 family.

Fire Hydrant. A valved connection on a piped water supply system having one or more outl,ets and that is used to supply hose and f i re department pumpers with water.

Fuels. All Class A fuels within the wildland urban interface or wildland/urban intermix, including vegetation and structures.

Fuel Break. An area, usually a long strip strategically located, wherein vegetative fuels are reduced in volume and maintained to cause a reduction of f i re intensity i f ignited by a wildland f i re.

Fuel Loading. The volume of fuel in a given area, generally expressed in tons per acre.

Fuel Modification. The removal of fuels, conversion of vegetation to fire. resistant species, increased spacing of individual plants, reduction of fuel

• loading, or lowering of age class.

Ground Fuels. Any native or landscape vegetation not considered a tree and generally in contact with the ground.

Mammerhead/T. A roadway that provides a "T" shaped, three- point turn-around.for emergency equipment, being no narrower than the road that i t serves, with the top of the "T" being a minimum of 40 f t (12.2 m) long.

Listed. Equipment or materials included in a l i s t published by an organization acceptable to the "authorityhaving jur isdict ion" and conce'rned with

738

product evaluation, that maintains periodic inspection of production of l isted equipment or materials and whose l is t ing states either that the equipment or material meets appropriate standards or has been tested and found suitable for use in a specified manner.

NOTE: The means for identifying l isted equipment may vary for each organization concerned with product evaluation, some of which do not recognize equipment as l isted unless i t is also labeled. The "authority having jurisdict ion" should ut i l ize the system employed by the l is t ing organization to identify a l isted product.

Occupancy. The purpose for which a building, or part thereof, is used or intended to be used.

Prescribed Fire. The knowledgeable application of f i r e to a specific land area, to accomplish predetermined land management objectives.

Rated Roof. A roof constructed of materials that are l isted as meeting the requirements for Class A, B, or C roofing materials (see NFPA 256 Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Roof Coverings).

Roads, Streets, Private Lanes. An open way for passage of vehicles giving access to more than one parcel, any industrial or commercial occupancy, or to a single parcel with 4 or more dwelling units.

Roadway. Any surface improved, designed, or ordinarily used for vehicular travel.

Shoulder. Surface of a road adjacent to the traf f ic lane.

Slope. Upward or downward incline or slant, usually calculated as a percent of slope (rise or fa l l per 100 f t (30.5 m) of horizontal distance).

Street or Road Signage. Any sign containing words, numbers, directions, or symbols that provides information to emergency responders.

Structure. That which is bui l t or constructed, an edifice or building of any kind, or any piece of work a r t i f i c i a l l y bui l t up or composed of parts joined together in some definite manner.

Traffic Lane. That portion of a roadway that provides single lane of vehicle travel in one direction.

• Traveled Way. The portion of a.roadway that provides for vehicular travel in al l permitted directions.

Turnaround. A roadway, unobstructed by parking, that allows for a safe reversal of direction for emergency equipment.

Turnouts. A widening in a roadway of sufficient" length and width to allow vehicles to pass one another.

Wildland/Urban Interface. An area where development and wildland fuels meet at a well defined boundary.

Wildland/Urban Intermix. An area where development and wildland fuels meet with no clearly defined boundary.

Wildfire. An unplanned and unwanted f i re requiring suppression action; an uncontrolled f i re, usually spreading through'vegetative fuels but often threatening structures.

Chapter 2

Wildland/Urban Interface and Wildland/Urban Intermix Analysis

2-I ~ General. The analysis of the wildland/urban interface or wildland/urban intermix wi l l help identify and document local problem areas and guide the application of standards and establishment of pr ior i t ies relative to f i re danger.

2-2 Analysis Ratings. The authority having jurisdiction shall perform a wildland f i re protection analysis of al l developments, existing or planned, to determine wildland f i re protection ratings. The ratings developed under the authority of this Section

shall be the basis for the implementation of f i re safe design and construction cr i ter ia. This analysis shall be updated as conditions change.

2-3 Analysis Components. "The analysis shall contain the following components:

(a) wildland/urban interface or wildland/urban intermix boundaries

(b) fuel hazard rating

(c) slope hazard rating

(d ) structure hazard rating " "

(el wildland/urban interface or wildland/urban intermix hazard rating

2-3.1" Mapping Wildland/Urban Interface or . Wildland/Urban Intermix Areas. Wildland/urban interface and wildland/urban intermix areas shall be shown on a map. Areas shall be delineated as logical units or areas and given a name or number.

2-3.2 Assigning a Fuel Hazard R~Lting. For each wildland/urban interface and wil~land/urban intermix unit or area, a fuel hazard rating shall be assigned based on Table 2-3.2. Where fuel types vary within a unit or area, the rating assigne~ for the unit or area that best represents the predominant fuel type shall be assigned.

T~ble 2-3.2 Fuel Hazard Rating

Type Ratinq

Small, l ight fuels (grass, weeds, shrubs) I

Medium size fuels (brush, large ~hrubs, small trees) 2

Heavy, large fuels (woodland, timber, heavy large brush) 3

2-3.3 Assigning a Slope Hazard ~ating. For each wildland/urban interface and wil~land/urban intermix unit or area, a slope hazard rating shall be assigned based on Table 2-3.3. Where slopes vary within a unit or area, the rating for the unit or area that best represents the predominant slope range shall be assigned.

Table 2-3.3 Slope Hazard Rating

Slope Rating

Level to mild slopes (0-15%)

Mild to medium slopes (16-40%) 2

Medium to moderate slopes (41-60%) 3

Moderate to extreme slopes (61% +) 4

2-3.4 Assigning a Structure Hazard Rating. For each wildland/urban interface and wildland/urban intermix unit or area, a structure rating that best represents the combination of design characteristics in each unit or area shall be assigned based on Table 2-3.4. Ratings occurring between ~hose shown in the table shall be assigned where they represent areas of mixed - structures.

Table 2-3.4 Structure Hazard Rating

Desiqn Characteristics Rating

Rated roof and nonflammable siding materials l

Rated roof and flammable siding materials 3

Nonrated roof and nonflammable siding materials 7

Nonrated roof and flammable siding materials 10

2-3.5* Calculating the Wildland/Urban Interface or Wildland/Urban Intermix Hazard Ra.t.ing. The wildland/urban interface or wildland/urban intermix hazard rating shall be calculated for each unit or area

NFPA 299

by mul t ip ly ing the fuel hazard rat ing by the slope hazard rat ing andaddlng the structure hazard rat ing to that to ta l .

2-4 Establishing Wildland/Urban Interface or Wildland/Urban Intermix Planning P r i o r i t i es . The re la t i ve wildland/urban interface or wildland/urban intermix hazard of each unit shall be rated from highest to lowest.

2-4.1 Addit ional Factors. Where other factors • influence community needs and where determined as appropriate by the author i ty having j u r i sd i c t i on , the fol lowing 'factors among others shall be considered in the rating system: water supplies, road access, f i re history, f i re weather, and f i re behavior.. NFPA If41, Standard for Fire Protection in Planned Building Groups and NFPA 1231, Standard on Water Supplies for Suburban and Rural Fire Fighting may be ut i l ized.

Chapter 3 Fuel Modification Planning

3-I General. This chapter wil l provide .guidance in the mitigation of measures associated with fuel hazards and special hazard conditions.

3-I . I Mitigation Measures. Fuel modification shall be the primary mitigation measure'.

3-2 Evaluation Factors. As prescribed in Chapter 2 of this Standard, a comprehensive assessment of the fuel . hazard shall be made. Factors that shall be considered in the assessment and designated on maps include:

(a) fuel-type identif ication (b) fuel loading (volume) (c) size of fuel bed (acres) (d) slope and aspect

3-2.1 Fuel-Type Identification,. All fuel, natural vegetation as well a:~ other flammable materials, existing within the area shall be identified and rated as to their potential to increase the hazard. The ease of ignition and ab i l i t y to assist in the spre&d of f i re are important factors.

3-2.2 Fuel Loading. The volume of fuels, both pl-esently existing and l ike ly to be present under expected development, shall be estimated and included on maps.

3-2.3 Slope. Percent of slope and aspect shall be determined and indicated on maps.

3-2.4* Fuel Modification. The purpose of the fuel modification effort wi l l be to develop defensiblespace to protect structures from approaching wildf ire as we l l as to reduce the potential for a structure f i re spreading to the wildland. The defensible space shall be i n i t i a l l y provided by the developer and shall'be maintained by the property owner.

Brush island

/ does l \ ° (=:

• ~%@' .' / ~ Structure

Figure 3-2.4(a) Defensible Space (Level)

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NFPA 299

Convect ive heat currents

I !3o ' !

f " i i I 1~--1oo,-~ I i I I s I

I I I 100 '

setback

I I

13o'1

Z I I I I

I I I N' I I I I

Struc tures at the t op o f slopes wil l requi re 100' or more fue l m o d i f i c a t i o n to m i t iga te increased exposure due to ' convect ive and rad ian t heat transfers.

Figure 3-2.4(b) Defensible Space (Slope)

3-3* Fuel Modification Plan.' (See Appendix A, Figures A-3-3(a-d)).

3-3.1" Modification of Fuel Types. Where consistent with ecological factors, less fire-prone vegetation shall be encouraged.

3-3.2 Reduction of Fuel Loading. Trees and brush shall be cleared away from structures for a distance that is determined to prevent ignition of either the structure or the vegetation, should the other burn. Vegetation existing away from the immediate area of the structure shall be thinned and pruned to prevent a f i re from being carried toward or away from the structure. Annual grasses within 30 f t (9.1 m) of structures shall be mowed to 4 in. (10.2 cm) or less. Ground l i t t e r shall be removed annually. Over-mature, dead, and dying trees shall be evaluatd as to their potential to ignite and to carry f i re. All trees determined to contain such potential shall be removed.

3-3.3 Mitigation of Slope and Apsect Impact. Slope and aspect greatly affect the potential for carrying f i re, and very l i t t l e opportunity exists to modify them directly. Where degree of slope and/or aspect are determined to affect the hazards, greenbelts or fuel-breaks shall be provided.

Chapter 4 Roads, Streets, and Ways

4-I General. Roads, streets, and ways, whether public or private, shall provide for safe simultaneous access for emergency f i re equipment and civ i l ian evacuation. The authority having jurisdiction may permit modification of access requirements when the structures being protected are provided with private f i re protection systems.

4-2 Roads, Streets, and Ways. Roads, s t reets , and ways shall provide for unobstructed t raf f ic circulation during an emergency. Access to fuelbreaks and greenbelts, when required by the authority having jurisdict ion, shall be provided from roads, streets, and ways. All vehicular access and gates servicing such access shall meet the specifications provided herein. All roads shall be designed and constructed according to standards published by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, but shall also meet the minimum requirements set forth in this document.

4-3 Private Roads, Streets and Ways, Fire Lanes, Parking Lots, and Driveways. All f i re lanes, private streets, parking lots, and driveways shall be designed and constructed according to NFPA I141, Fire Protection for Planned Building Groups.

4-4 Specific Design Requirements.

4-4.1 Access Routes. All developments shall have more than one access route. The design of access routes shall consider t raf f ic circulation and employ looped .road networks.

4-4.2 Public Vehicular Easements and Rights of Way.

(a) Public vehicular easements and rights-of-way shall be of sufficient width to accomodate the traveled way, shoulder, parking spaces, vegetation modification, and other local requirements on or along a road, street, or way.

(b) Easements shall be obtained from adjacent property owners where needed to comply with paragraph (a) above.

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NFPA 299

/.

ilder

12" " 12' 4'

Shou

F igure LI-4.4 Traff ic Lanes All-Weather Surface

4-4.3 Road Surface. All roads and road structures shall be graded and surfaced ana of suf f ic ient design to support the weight •of 20-ton vehicles.

4-4.4 Width of Traveled Way. Simultaneous access for emergency vehicles and the evacuation of residents s~all be provided for by a traveled way of not less than 24 f t (7.3 m).

4-4.5 Maximum Grades. Grades shall be no greater than lO percent, except the authority h,~ving jur isdict ion may allow steeper grades where mitigation measure~ can be agreed upon by the f i re chief and the road engineer.

4-4.6 Minimum Grades. Roads shall have a minimum grade of not less than 0.5 percent in order to prevent pooling of water in the trave3ed w;~y. Drainage shall be provided to protect a primary road when i t intersects with a secondary road.

4-4.7 Curve Radius. No road shall be constructed with a curvature radius of less than 100 f t (30.5 m), measured at the center l ine.

4-4.8 Shoulders.

(a) Improved gravel shoulder width shall be a minimum of 4 f t ( I .2 m) on each side of the traveled surface.

(b) On roads with an average daily t r a f f i c in excess of 1000 vehicles per day, shoulders shall be constructed to the same specffications as the traveled way.

4-4.9 Parking• Where parking is to be allowed along the traveled way, at least 9 ~t (2.7 m) of improved width shall be provided (see Figure 4-4.4). I f curbs are not provided, then shoulders shall be constructed accordingto section 4-4.8.

4-4.10 Dead End Roads.

(a) In areas of extreme hazard severity classif icat ion, as ident i f ied in the wildland/urban interface and wildland/urban intermix assessment, Chapter 2, dead end roads shall not exceed 600 f t (183 m) in length.

(b) In al l other areas, dead end roads shall not exceed I000 f t (305 m) in length.

(c) All dead end roads shall have a turn-around at the closed end of at least lO0 f t (30.5 m) diameter measured at the outside of the traveled way. However, where wi ldf i re hazard severity is classif ied as low, the authority having jur isdict ion may approve a hammerhead-T designed turnaround, to provide emergency vehicles with a 3-point turnaround ab i l i ty . •

I ~ . Minimum 40' im I

C u l d e sac H a m m e r h e a d - T

Figure 4-4.10 Cul De Sac and,Hammerhead-T Turnarounds •

4-4.11 Driveways.

(a) All driveways shall provide a minimum u6obstructed width of 12 f t (3,.7 m) and minimum unobstructed •vertical clearance of 15 f t (4.6 m).

(b). All curb cuts at entrances to driveways or other private ways shall be of suff ic ient width to permit safe travel by emergency Vehicles at al l times of year.

(c) Turnouts shall be designed and constructed every 400 f t (122 m) along the driveway's length.

(d) A turnaround shall be provided at ali ' building or structure sites on driveways over 300 f t (91 m) in length and shall be within 50 f t (15.2 m) of the building or structure.

(e) In addition, where applicable, al l driveways shall conform with NFPA I141.

4-4.12 Gated Entrances.

(a) The clear opening provided through the gate shall be 2 f t (0.6 m) wider than the traveled way.

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NFPA 299

12'

Traffic lane

Driveway

Figure 4-4.11

(b) Al l gates Shall be located at least 30 f t (9.1 m) from the public r ight-of-way and shall open inward, al lowing a vehicle to stop without obstruct ing t r a f f i c on the publtc road.

Chapter 5

Standards for Signage of Streets, Roads, and-Buildings

5-I General. To fac i l i ta te the locating of a f i re and to avoid delays in response, al l roads, streets, and buildings shall be designated by names or numbers on sivns clearly visible and legible from the roadway on which i t is addressed.

5-2 V is ib i l i t y .o f Street and Roa~ Signs. Street and road signs shall be located at intersections and legible from all directions of vehicle travel for a distance of not less than lO0 f t (30.5 m).

5-3 Size of Letters, Numbers, and Symbols for Signs. All letters, numbers and symbols shall be a minimum of 4 il;. (10.2 cm) in height, with a I/2 in. (I/3 cm) stroke, be reflectorized and contrasting with the background color of the sign.

5-4 Height of Street and Road Signs. Signs shall be mounted 6 to 8 f t (2 m) above the surface of the road, unless local conditions or existing standards prescribe otherwise.

5-5 Names and Numbers on Street and Road Signs. Newly constructed or approved public and private roads and streets must be identified by a name or number in a consistent system that provides for sequenced or patterned numbering and nonduplicated naming within each jur isdict ion.

5-6 Signs Indi'cating Special Conditions. On other than through-trafflc roads, signs identifying pertinent information shall be placed at the entrance to such road.

5-7 Installation of Road and Street Signs. Signs shall be installed in a horizontal orientation and prior to final acceptance of road improvements.

5-8 Addresses for Buildings. All buildings shall be issued an address and street number by the authority having jurisdict ion. Accessory structures are required to have a separate address.

5-8.1 Size of Letters, Numbers, and Symbols. Letters, numbers, and symbols indicating addresses shall be a minimum of 4 in. (10.2 cm) in helght'wlth a I/2 in. 1.3 cm) stroke, be contrasting with background colors and visible from the road.

Chapter 6 Emergency Water Supplies

6-I "General. This chapter describes the process by which provisions for emergency water supplies shall be evaluated, designed, constructed, and maintained.

Driveways

6-2 Not i f i ca t ion . The authority having jurisdiction shall be notified in writing before any water system is constructed, altered, or removed and before site development or construction of any structure commences so that f i re protection can be evaluated and ample water supply capabilities pertinent to such construction can be established.

6-3 Evaluation of Water Supply Needs.

6-3.1 Authority. The f i re protection agency having jurisdiction shall evaluate al l buildings, proposed and existing, to obtain information required for computing minimum water supply. Information obtained from plans or on-site surveys and determinations made and recorded shall reflect the water supply category required'. The computation of minimum water supplies for ot~er than municipal, domestic, or fixed f i re protection systems. shall be in accordance with NFPA 1231.

6-3.2 Design, Construction, and Maintenance. Based upon the water supply evaluation, the authority having jurisdiction shall approve the design, construction, and maintenance of water supplies and distribution systems to ensure that f i re protection concerns have been addressed and adequate water supplies and access thereto have been provided.

6-4 Minimum Water Supply Requirements. Water shall be available to provid 9 a minimum f i re flow of 250 gallons (946 L) per minute for 2 hr.

6-5 Static Water Supplies. The design and construction of, and access to static water supplies shall be according to NFPA 1231.

6-6 Signage of Water Supplies. Each f i re hydrant or access to water shal] be identified as follows:

(a) a reflectorized marker, with a minimum dimension of 3 in. (7.62 cm) , shall be loacted on the driveway address sign signifying tile hydrant location and on a f i re retardant post located near the.f ire hydrant, and

(b) a f i re retardant reflectorized sign with the words "DRAFT WATER" or "PRESSURE WATER" having letters a minimum of 4 in. (10.2 cm) in height, with I/2 in. (1.3 cm) stroke, reflectorized and contrasting to the background color, shall be located near the hydrant or access to water.

(c) The sign post shall be within 3 f t (0.9 m) of said f i re hydrant or access to water, with the sign no less than 3 f t (0.9 m) nor greater than 5 f t (1.5 m) above the ground and visible from the driveway.

Chapter 7 Structural Design and Construction

7-I General. All buildings in the wildland/urban interface or wildland/urban intermix shall be designed and constructed to minimum structural design and construction cr i ter ia.

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7-j.~l Minimum Requirements. Struct"-uPes and dem1~lopments in ~r adjacent to wildland f i re hazard areas shall be located, designe d , and constructed in a manner to minimize the possibi l i ty of ignition from a wildf ire and to minimize the spread of a structural f i re to the wildland.

7-2 Roofing. Class C roofing shall be the minimum roofing classification for al l roofs and installed to preclude entry of flame or embers.

7-3 Vents, Overhangs, and S t i l t Construction.

7-3.1 Vents. Vents shall be screened with a corrosion-resistant, noncombustible wire mesh with a mes h not to exceed nominal I/4 in. (0.6 m) in size.

7-3.2 Overhangs. Eaves, cantilever balconies, and similar undersides of overhangs shall be. enclosed with materials that equal or exceed I/2 in. (I.3 cm) "- sheathing.

7-3.3 S t i l t Construction. The underside of decks and structures with s t i l t foundations shall be enclosed with the material specified in 7-4.

7-4 Exterior Vertical Walls. Exterior vertical walls shall be c'onstructed of at least I/2 in.~(1.3 cm) sheathing or equivalent material and s ~ l extend from ground level to roof line.

7-5 Windows. ~ I

7-5.1 Glass. Safety, tempered, or double-paned glass shall be used in the construction of structures.

.7-5.2 Orientation. All glazed openings shall be oriented so that they do not face concentrations of vegetative fuels that are within 30 f t (9.I m), unless such openings @re provided with solid shutters.

7-6 Chimneys and Flues.

7-6.I Outlet Screen. Every chimney, flue, or vent shall be provided with an approved spark aErester consisting of 12-gauge welded or woven wire mesh not exceeding I/2 in. (I.3 cm).

7-6.2 Construction. Chimney outlets shall be constructed with lO f t (3.1 m) clearance from al l vegetation and obstructions.

7-7 Manufactured Homes. Manufactured homes shall meet al l applicable construction and safety standards and in additi'on provided with fu l l skirting constructed of material as specified in 7-4~ Any porches and sundecks shall be constructed of nonflammable or l isted f i re retardant materials.

Chapter 8 Public Fire Prevention and Firesafety

Information and Education

8-I Information and Education Plan. The authority having jurisdict ion shall prepare a f i re prevention and firesafety public information/education plan. The p]an,.at a minimum, shall identify and analyze:

i

(a) specific hazards (b) risks

( c ) f i re causes (d) applicable prevention and safety programs (e) target audiences

(f) act iv i t ies. The plan shall u t i l ize a variety of communication techniques to achieve desired objectives.

(See Appendix C for a sample public information/educatlon program and delivery techniques.)

NFPA 299

Chapter 9 Referenced Publications

9-1 The fol lowing dncuments or portions thereof are referenced within th i s standard and shall be considered part of the requirements of this document. The edi t ion indicated for each reference is the current edi t ion as of the date of the NFPA issuance of th is document.

9-1.1 NFPA Publlcat ioqs. National Fire Protectlon Association, 1Batterymarch Park, P.O. Box 9101, Quincy, HA 02269-9101.

NFPA 256-1987, Standard Methods of f i r e Tests o f Roof Coverings

NFPA ll.41-1990,'Standard for f i r e Protection in Planned Bu!Id!ng Groups

NFPA 1231-1989, Standard on Water Supplies for Suburban and Rural Fire Fighting

Appendix A

This Appendix is not a part of the requirements of th is NFPA document, but is included for information purposes only.

A-Z-1 Weather is the most c r i t i c a l element. Wind, wind d i rec t ion, and f rontal a c t i v i t y are the prime factors in most major wildland f i res . The topography element ke~ issue is slope. Slope modifies f i r e spread and creates more draf t ing and preheating ahead of the f i r e . Slopes over 50 percent are especial ly c r i t i c a l .

Fuel beds should be evaluated in terms of cont inui t Y. arrangement, and f i r e h is tory. Add i t iona l ly , fuel Beds in heavy brush and/or.woodland-timber should be evaluated for abundance of down dead fuels.

Response times are an ind i rec t factor that should be evaluated specia l ly in a developing wildland/urban inter~ace. An important question that must be asked is: Can resources and personnel ar r ive in time to protect structures and valued resources pr ior to the fire?

A-2-3.1 The map should show elevations (slope contours)., A color coding system should be used to show grasslands (yellow), medium brush (blue), heavy brush (red), and woodland or timber (green).

A-2-3.5 Table A-2-3.5 shows an example" of the calculations for several sample units or areas.

Table A-2-3.5 Wildland/Urban Interface or

Wildland/Urban Intermix Hazard Rating

Fuel Slope Structure Interface Hazard X Hazard + Hazard = Hazard

Unit Rating Rating Rating Rating

Dunville 2 4 9 i.7 Jerry Flat 3 2 6 12 Crossroads 2 3 5 11 Hope Lake (a) 3 l 3 6 Hope Lake (b) 1 3 2 5 T Valley 1 .I 2 3

A-3-2.4 Abnormal accumulations of down,.dead fuels, caused by age class, snow k i l l , and disease may be color coded(brown) ahd plotted on the map. These areas can be addressed with a fuel management program discussed in ,Chapter 4 of this standard.

A-3-3.1 An example would be the substitution of perennial grasses to annuals.

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NFPA 299

Limbed-up trees Examples of fuel modification

Wildland fuel bed ' .

Fuel break

Figure A-3-3(a) Example of Fuel Modification

Fuel bed (un-modified)

}rush

Figure A-3-3(b) Wildland Fuel Bed Unmodified and Modified

Fuel bed modified

(mosaic pattern)

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NFPA 299

Before Fuel ladder present

I Overstory " ~

Understory

No fuel ladder-woodland Limbed up-brush removed

Figure A-3-3(c) Shaded Fuel Break Concept "

Unmodified fuel bed (limited edge)

• I

Modified fuel bed (mosaic pattern)

(maximum edge effect)

Figure A-3-3(d)

745

Edge Effect

NFPA 299

Appendix B Publication References

The following documents or portions thereof are referenced within this standard for informational purposes only and thus are not considered part of the requirements of this document. The edition indicated for each reference is the current edition as of the

date of the NFPA issuance of this document.

In addition to the wildland f i re protection analysis described in Chapter 2, a number of other analysis methods have been developed a~ross the country..Each method addresses problems common to a particular section of the country. Each differs in the amount of data required and the complexity of the analysis. To assist the authority having Jurisdiction develop the analysis process that best f i t s local needs and concerns, a number of references are l isted below and may be obtained from the issuing agency.

Aids to determining Fuel Models for Estimating Fire Behavior, Hal E. Anderson, United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report INT-122, Ogden, UT, 84401, April 1982.

Fire Safe Guides for Residential Development in California, California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, POB 94244, Sacramento, CA 94244-2460, printed 1980.

Protecting Residences from Wildfires: A Guide for Homeowners, Lawmakers and Planners, Howard E. Moore, General Technical Report PSW-50, United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, 1960 Addison St., Berkeley, CA, 94704.

Fire Hazard Rating: For Existing Wildland Residential Developments or Single Structures in Montana, Montana Department of State Lands, Missoula, MT, 59801.

Wildland/Urban Interface Fire Protection: A National Problem with Local Solutions, August 1988, National Fire Academy, Federal emergency Management Agency, Washington, DC.

Wildland Fibre Protection Analysis, Georgia Forestry Commission, Box 819, Macon, GA, 31298.

Sierra Front Classification Procedures, Forest Supervisor, Toiyabe National Forest, 1200 Franklin Way, Sparks, NV, 89431.

Appendix C

Public Firesafety and Fire Prevention Informatlon/Educatlon

This Appendix is not a part of the requirement of this NFPA document, but is included for information purposes only.

The following outlines various types of information and education programs and techniques that can be uti l ized for f i re prevention and firesafety information programs.

The choice of programs and techniques wil l depend on an analysis of the problem, the target audience, and the desired objectives. Generally, programs that include personal contacts are the most effective and should have the highest pr ior i ty .

I. Exhibits and Displays

A. Exhibits and displays are excellent means of presenting broad interest messages to the general public. As with school programs, a general message or theme should be selected, The story board development process works well with this format.

I I .

I I I .

IV.

B. Remember, you must attract your audience to the display, so make'it attrat ive, interesting, and compelling. Use posters, photos, captions,. graphics, slide programs, puppets, and skits that involve the viewer. Keep handouts to a minimum, but ensure that they reinforce your message.. Have knowledgeable people on hand to answer questions and present your message personally. Consider sharing a space or setting up adjacent to other groups or agencies that present similar themes or messages.

C. Parades'provide another opportunity to present a firesafety message, althouth the p~esentation should be kept simple and be able to withstand the stresses of a ~oving vehicle. "-

Roadside Signs

A. Roadside signs can present a wide variety of f i re prevention messages to the general public, but should be kept simple and clear to t raf f ic driving by at high speed. 4 f t X 8 f t signs are considered the standard, but signs as small as 4 f t X 4 f t can be used effectively.

B. Messages may include "Hazardous Fire Area," "Burning Permits Required," "Spark Arresters Required," or many other traditional messages. The winning poster from a school contest can be painted on the roadside sign to recognize the winner and present a pertinent theme.

C. Obtain written permission from private landowners or prepare agreements with county or state highway departments. Sol ici t corporate sponsorship for signs and billboards. Keep the slgns in good repalr and current with the season and message.

Group, Youth, and Club Programs

Opportunities to present prevention and safety messages to group, youths, and clubs should focus on their group act iv i t ies, specifically to their outdoor programs.

Developing and Delivering Presentations

A. General Guidelines: Define your topic for presentation. Outline the points to be covered, based on attention span, knowledge, and ski l l level and interest. Be sure the presentation focuses on the message you decided. Develop the ful l presentation as outlined. Ask someone else to review your presentation. Rehearse and time your presentation. Remember to speak clearly and with inf]ection in your voice. Use good posture, keep eye contact, and use your hands for emphasis.

B. Slide-Video~Graphic Presentations: I f developed as an independent program, or in" conjunction with an existing speech, the program should be complete and complementary. Develop a story board to prepare a complete flow of thoughts and cover al l points with appropriate slides or film. Choose tl~e right graphic-visual display to present your points, based on program objective, size of audience, location of audience, and, of course, the budget you have to work with. Use progressive disclosure of information to keep your audience with you and prevent information overload. Keep the story in line with the visuals. Write the scrip't as you develop your visuals. Label and number your slides and graphics.

Rehearse and review your program for smoothness and time. Make sure the right equipment is on hand for your presentation. Consider "canned"

programs for useby less technically knowledgeable staff. Graphics must be visible to the person in the farthest corner of the room.

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V. Mass Media

Mass media campaigns provide excellent opportunities to disseminate general and specific f i resafety messages to a broad spectrum of the public. Progressive or phased campaigns can capitalize on preceding messages or piggyback on recent events. Mass media contacts inform the publ4c and raise thei.r level of awareness and understanding, as well as marketing an agency's image.

A. Developing a Campaign

As with any f i r e prevention presentation, a central message theme must be ident i f ied Obviously, a professional public relations agency can prove cost may be prohibit ive. Search for assistance from local universit ies, or corporate donations of a i r time, professional assistance, materials, or financial support.

The theme may be broad, allowing many specific areas or messages to be included under tha t . umbrella, whether seasonal or regional in nature.

Developing a goal: The defined goal should consider the target audience, area distr ibut ion, level of awareness or information to be received, and the result to be accomplished.

B. Target Audiences

The target audience may be very broad or very narrow, but be ident i f ied and included as

compatible with the message theme.

/C. Setting Time Frames

Time frames wi l l vary with the type of media used, the seasonal nature of the message presented, and the timelines of the message. The value of your message can be increased through good t ime.

D. Getting to Know the Medi.a

'To ef fect ively disseminate a f i resafety message, , you must know and Understand the needs and constraints of each type of media outlet.

Newspapers: Local daily and weekly newspapers provide good outlets for det,~iled stories with ' readable local angles. Hard news, those stories of immediate interest, such ,is f i re , have short lead times, and information should be provided as soon as possible and as completely as possible. Soft news, those feature stories or campaign messages have longer lead times, allowing publishing during an appropriate time period, such as a holiday, or the beginning of f i r e season. Contact the newspaper to determine who you should talk to, depending upon the type of story.

Television: Again, time frames wi l l depend on the type of news and the individual station format. Feature-type stories should allow for good pictures and action or examples to take advantage of television's visual nature. Talk shows and public a f fa i rs programs are excellent vehicles to present a complete story, covering al l of the issues. Plan ahead. Lead times to. schedule these types of programs shoul.d be 6-8 weeks, yet program length can run from lO minutes to l hour.

Radio: Most radio news stories are limited to 30-60 seconds to cover the whole issue. Lead time for program scheduling may exceed 4 weeks. The, question-answer format of radio talk shows can allow an in-depth presentation and discussions with the audience. Weekly calendars and public service announcement times can introduce act iv i t ies , exhibits, and other f i resafety programs.

NFPA 299

Newsletters: Professional and" community newsletters often provide opportunities to present focused messages-to target audiences even regionally directed. Lead time and publishing frequency wi l l vary widely.

E. Who to Contact-Visit

Media contacts and telephone numbers change frequently, too. Keep your l i s ts up to date, and stop by to see the reporters periodically.

Print Media: Identi fy the city desk editor, feature edi tor , assignment editor, and beat reporters. Find out the IEad times and publication dates.

Television:" Who are the news director and assignment editor? What types of program formats . are available? What are the lead times to schedule?

Radio: Who is the oews director? Who is the public a f fa i rs director? What is the lead time for program scheduling? What format is best, . audio cassette tapes or script, for public service announcements?

F. Preparing News Releases

Probably the most common type of mediacontact. They provide br ief , factual, informative materials to assist an editor in developing a story. The lead paragraph should present a synopsis of the news and include: who, what, when, where,and " why. Write in present tense and be concise yet clear. All releases should include the following:

_. Contact name, t i t l e , agency, and phone number A catchy headline (optional) • Double-spaced text Two-page maximum text Include photographs, preferably 8 in. X lO in.

glossy black and white, with your story, including a caption describing the photograph and identifying al l people in the photograph

G. When to Use a News Advisory

News advisories inform or remind the media about an upcoming event and are most often used to secure broadcast or news coverage of an event. Use the who, what, where, and when scenario when writing the news advisory. Keep i t br ief and write in the future tense.

Ensure tha t the news advisory arrives several days before the event. Follow-up your advisory with a phone call reminder-just pr ior to the event.

H. .Public Service Announcements

PSAs can be taped on audio cassettes for radio, video cassettes for television, or written in script format for l ive reads. Like news and feature presentations, PSAs must grab the l istener 's/viewer's attention and provide clear, concise message delivery. Lengths vary: 15T30 seconds for radio, 15-30 seconds for television. Take the opportunity to include you~ agency name and/or logo in the PSA. PSAs should be ma!led or delivered with a cover l e t t e r and written transcript a minimum of 4 weeks before you want i t to a i r .

Sol ic i t corporate sponsorship to support the cost - of the filming and production. Always follow up with a call to the station to determine when the PSA wi l l a i r , what time slots, and how many times.

I. Feature Articles

The preparation of a feature length ar t lc le or a le t te r to the editor can allow you to control the story content. Contact the newspaper for specific details about length, format, and publication.

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NFPA 299

J. Using a Recognized Spokesperson

Benefits of a spokesperson: I t ' s always easier to sell an idea when the person presenting the idea is recognized and respected in the community. The spokesperson may be just someone local or may have regional recognition in many of the households throughout the nation.

This person presents credib i l i ty that helps to market your product or service. The spokesperson tends to convey a neutral position, thus not having the bias that an "o f f ic ia l " might have.

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