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Religious Extremism and Pak
Relations with Central Asia
Implications for Islamism
Under The Supervision of
Dr. Iram Khalid
Submitted by
Tauqeer Ahmed
M. Phil – International Relations (Sem. I)
Department of Political Science, University of the Punjab, Lahore
Abstract
This study set to find impacts of Islamism in the region on relations between
Central Asia and Pakistan. Objectives of this study are to find vision and
policies of Pakistan and Central Asian republics towards Islamism and its
repercussions on relations. Descriptive and analytical method is applied by
using secondary data. Pakistan and Central Asian countries have different
policies and approaches towards Islam as a political force as it is manifested in
differences of both sides in Afghanistan which are fueled by ethnic violence.
Pakistan support of Islamism caused tension in the relations due to Islamist
threat to autocratic regimes of Central Asia. Good relations can be maintained if
mutual distrust is eliminated by cooperation and respects for interests of each
other. Islamist Insurgency in Pakistan and imminent US withdrawal from
Afghanistan has changed the scenario from confrontation to cooperation. Recent
developments in security cooperation and counterterrorism are promising which
needed to be strengthened.
Key Words: Ethnic Violence, Extremism, Stability, Afghanistan, Autocracy
In every epoch of time, some factors dictate the relations between different
nations. Although international relations theorists especially realists always
assert that National Interest is motivating factor for relations among nations. But
certainly these interests are also linked with other dimensions of International
System. Security always has been main concern of states but after 9/11 states
not only have to secure themselves from aggressive states but also from non-
state threats which often have their roots in extreme political, ethnic or religious
ideology. Our world is plagued by increasing intolerance fueled by extremist
ideologies. Religious intolerance is by far most wide spread and dangerous
among them. Islamism is one of these extreme religious ideologies. Islamism is
an extremely conservative view of Islam, which may entail violence. Our
country Pakistan has been confronted by this conundrum for a very long time.
Among other things this problem proved an anathema to our foreign relations.
Relations of Pakistan with Central Asia are very important particularly in light
of energy needs of Pakistan and Central Asian need to access the sea. Central
Asia is a complex term. Central Asia is defined differently by various authors.
Some geologists called this region „Inner Asia‟ comprising Central Asian
Republics, Xinjiang, Tibet, Mongolia, Afghanistan, northern Iran and northern
Pakistan (Miroshnikov, 1992: 477-80). Some geologists described as „Middle
Asia‟ the Muslim areas from above mentioned are included in this region
(Soucek, 2000: xi-xii) which together with Muslim nations of Middle East
constitute (Buzan and Waever, 2003: 423). Some scholar use same term
„Central Asia‟ for entire Central Asia for heartland of Asia from Volga to
Siberia and the Himalayas (Akiner, 1998: 4). But now Central Asia is widely
used term among these in contemporary literature, including only five Muslim
Republics of Central Asia of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan
and Kyrgyzstan (Bergel, 1996: 3). Central Asian republics (the five former
Muslim Soviet republics, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan
and Kyrgyzstan) are also facing this problem. There should be cooperation
between Pakistan and these states because both are prone to same threat but
there are some misunderstandings due to some international actors‟ portrayal of
Pakistan as promoter of terrorism, not its victim. This study raises the question
about Central Asian and Pakistani view of Islamism in general and Islamic
extremism in particular. How Islamism can affect the relations between Pakistan
and Central Asian republics.
The objective of this study is to explain implication of Islamism on relations
between Central Asia and Pakistan. This study also focuses on sources of
extreme Islamic ideologies in Central Asia as well as in Pakistan. This study
also elaborates the manner with which Central Asian republics and Pakistan
tackle the threat of Islamic extremism.
Literature Review:
The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism? (1994) by Ahmed
Rashid describes Islam in Central Asia in pre-independence era. But main focus
of the book is Islamic revival at the time of disintegration of Soviet Union.
Pakistani religious organizations especially Jamat-e-Islami funded many
madrasas in Central Asia which were main source of this Islamic surge in the
region. Pakistani government was also keen to use Islamic sentiments to
increase its influence in the region. But these Islamic movements were loathed
and ultimately suppressed by Central Asian regimes. Pakistani support for these
movements has negative effects on bilateral relation even though both sides
were anxious to strengthen economic relations. Pakistani religious organizations
channeled funds of Saudi Arabia during Tajik Civil War to Islamist factions.
Each of Central Asian republics of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan has its chapters, in which differences and
similarities of different Islamist groups throughout Central Asia are discussed.
Baran, Starr and Cornell (2006: 5-49) described the Islamist and secular patterns
of societies of Central Asian Republics. They described pre-independence
Islamic movements in Central Asia. They also enlist different Islamic Radical
groups, Hizb ut-Tahrir al Islamiyya (The Islamic Party of Liberation),
Akramiya, Hizb un-Nusrat, The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU),
Islamic Rebirth Party of Tajikistan (IRP) and The Islamic Movement of Central
Asia (IMCA). Hizb ut-Tahrir, The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) and
Islamic Rebirth Party of Tajikistan (IRPT) are important among them. These
three groups are also related to Pakistan because members of these groups were
engaged in training in Tribal Areas of Pakistan. Even Tajik and Uzbek officials
blame Pakistan to support these fundamentalist groups alongside with Turkey
and Saudi Arabia. They also elaborate extremist dimensions of Tulip
Revolution in 2005 in Kyrgyzstan and Andijan Tragedy in Uzbekistan also in
2005.
Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia (2000) by
Ahmed Rashid give a comprehensive picture about how religious
fundamentalism is turned into violent struggle in the region. The large resources
of oil made Central Asia very important strategically. This region has become a
center of intrigue between different regional powers. He gives the example of
Tajik Civil War in which Iran supported government forces whereas Saudi
Arabia supported Islamist with the help of Pakistan. Iran also supported
Northern Alliance in Afghanistan alongside with Central Asian states whereas
Pakistan was supporting Taliban alongside with Saudi Arabia and Turkey.
These moves pitched Pakistan against Central Asian states. Taliban carried out
massacre of ethnic Tajik and Uzbeks alongside with Hazaras in Northern
Afghanistan, most important of which is the massacre of Mizar Sharif in 1997.
When Pakistan continued the support of Taliban even after these atrocities,
relations with Central Asian countries were severely damaged. But writer did
not mention that Uzbek forces led by Abdul Rashid Dostam also carried put
massacre against ethnic Pashtuns.
The Establishment of National Republics in Soviet Central Asia (2004) written
by Arne Haugen focuses on how political identity of people of Central Asia
changed from Islam to nationalism. In Soviet times Islam was banished from
political circle of life and was replaced by nationalism. Even Soviet Union
abhorred nationalism too but she used it to counter Islam as a political force
which she perceived as greater threat than nationalism as Basmachi rebellion
and Jadid movement were essentially Islamist rather than nationalist and these
movements made Soviets realized the potential force of Islam. After
independence, leaders of Central Asian countries continued the legacy of their
Soviet predecessors and obstructed any role of religion in politics.
Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam in Central Asia (2002) by Ahmed Rashid
listed out major Islamist groups in Central Asia after discussing Islam in the
past. Before Soviet takeover of Central Asia, Sufi Islam was strong in Central
Asia. Soviet authorities suppressed Islam without any distinction between
tolerant Sufi Islam and violent militant Islamism. In this book, one chapter is
reserved for each important Islamist group in Central Asia. These includes Hizb
ut-Tahrir al Islamiyya (The Islamic Party of Liberation), The Islamic Movement
of Uzbekistan (IMU) and Islamic Rebirth Party (IRP). The relations of Central
Asian countries with their neighbors are also discussed in a separate chapter
which includes relations of Pakistan with Central Asian republics.
In „Understanding Central Asia: Politics and Contested Transformations‟ (2012)
author Sally M. Cummings describes minute change in political system of
Central Asia since independence. Instead she renders broad understanding of
stability and peace in Central Asia even with problems of ethnicity, language
and religion. She also sheds light on Islamic extremism, its rise and the
participation of Islamist parties in the politics. Autocratic leaders see them as a
opposition to their rule. Central Asian identity was strongly link with religion
but in Soviet era Practice of Islam was severely restricted. Now, Kazakh,
Uzbek, Tajik, Kyrgyz and Turkmen people are returning to religion after
independence but they do not necessarily want Islamist governments. In
security, Central Asian nations are dependent on Russia and China which also
see Islamism as a threat. Tajik Civil War and other security issues have shown
the vulnerability of Central Asian Republics especially to Islamic extremism,
ethnic violence and localism. But she also observed that suppression of religion
by Central Asian leaders also contributed in extremist tendencies in citizens.
Descent into Chaos: The United States and the Failure of Nation Building in
Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Central Asia (2008) by Ahmed Rashid criticize war
on terror did not end the Islamism in the region of Central Asia. The actors in
the region failed to reach on consensus on how to deal with Islamism. One of
the Frontline states against terrorism, Pakistan is still supporting certain Islamist
elements in the region especially in Afghanistan to exert its influence, Central
Asian states are also more focused on their ethnic interests in Afghanistan than
to concentrate on elimination of Islamic extremism in the country. Both sides do
not trust each other. Pakistan believe that Central Asian republics along with
their ethnic allies in Afghanistan trying to undermine her security by tilting
towards India, the arch rival of Pakistan which will result in encirclement of
Pakistan. Central Asian republics think that Pakistan is bent to spread Islamism
in the region to counter Indian influence as Pakistani authorities think that if
Islamist would come into power in Central Asia, they will be more close to
Pakistan rather than India and Russia.
Historical Background
Islamism seeks application of Islamic ideals in all areas of life. Mostly Islamist
groups did not acknowledge other school of thoughts in Islam. They consider
their own interpretation of Islam right whereas they regard difference of opinion
in Islamic values and faith deviation. Some Islamist ideologies consider other
Muslims who do not believe in their version of Islam as heretics, even infidels.
These ideologies advocate violence to spread their beliefs. These ideologies
come under the umbrella of „Islamic Extremism‟. Central Asia and Pakistan
both have been centers of Islamic Mysticism. Islamic Mysticism is and ideology
which is tolerant towards other Islamic schools of thought. This ideology is
even tolerant to non-Muslims. Religious dimension of relations between Central
Asia and Pakistan is spectacular. Many Muslim conquerors from Central Asia
facilitated the cause of Islam in sub-continent. But they were the Sufis who left
magnificent impression on Muslim civilization in India. Muslims in both
Pakistan and Central Asia revered Sufism as path to God. Sufi traditions of
Pakistan especially Suhrawardiyya School of thought have its roots in Central
Asian cities of Bukhara, Samarkand and Khiva. The beacon lit by Bukhari,
Ghazali and Razi (all belonged to Central Asia) was inspiration for Muslim
scholars in India. If we ponder on great Sufi past of Pakistan and Central Asia,
present religious extremism in this area seems very absurd because Sufism in
inherently abominated to religious extremism.
Pakistan has strong and archaic cultural and religious affinities with Central
Asian States. Aryan came to Indus Valley from Central Asia. As Khan (1996,
92) put it, “Central Asia holds signal significance for the land and people of
Pakistan, its culture and the society are Central Asian”. India particularly North-
western India (present day Pakistan) attracted the invaders from Central Asia.
From Kushans, Hephthalites and Parthians to Muslim conquerors such as
Mahmud Ghaznavi, Muhammad of Ghor and Babur and his Mughal
descendants belong to Central Asia. It is interesting that all ruling Muslim
dynasties (Ghulaman, Khilji, Tughlaq, Sadat, Lodi, Suri and Mughal) traced
their lineage from Central Asia. After Mongol invasion of Central Asia many
artists, Sufis, intellectuals and scientist took refuge in India and contributed in
native architecture, literature, arts and sciences. Muslim architecture is heavily
influenced by Central Asia even Taj Mahal took inspiration from Timur‟s
Mausoleum in Samarkand. Pakistan is conscious of this cultural link to Central
Asia. Reetz (1997, 212) said that Pakistan, the most significant countries of
South Asia are highly mindful of their common cultural heritage with Central
Asia.
Transformation of Religious and Cultural Ties:
Central Asia had been under complete Russian domination since 1865. Tsarist
rule was only concerned with political and economic gains from region. It did
not interfere in religious and cultural of native people. But Russians were
apprehensive about relations of Central Asian Muslims with Indian Muslims
which were also now living under domination of a foreign power, Great Britain.
Great Britain and Russia were rivals. This rivalry started the transformation of
cultural ties between Central Asian and Indian Muslims. Now both Muslim
nations were living in hostile empires. Both British and Russians detest Islam as
a political ideology. Due to Salafist movement in present-day Saudi Arabia,
Islamist movements also grew in Central Asia and present-day Pakistan. These
movements were opposite to Sufi ideologies prevailing in these societies. These
movements consider Sufism and mysticism as superstition, heresy even
polytheism. This was the watershed of modern Islamism in both sub-continent
and Central Asia. These movements also sought political domination of Islam
and to establish a society where they could implement their version of Islam.
Revolt of Shah Ismail in Balakot against Sikhs and Faraizi Movement of Haji
Shariat Ullah against British were examples of early Islamist movements in sub-
continent. In Central Asia, Jadidi movement was pioneer Islamist movement
which aimed to achieve a united Muslim Turkistan and revival of true Islam
(according to their own ideology). Both Russian and British crushed these
movements. Even after political domination of Russia and Britain, role of
religion in life of a common man remained the same in Central Asia and sub-
continent respectively. But Communist Revolution in 1917 changed this
scenario. Bolsheviks abhor religion and tradition which was the core of Central
Asian culture. Soviet Union started to discard religion form social and political
spheres in Central Asia. Religion played important role in society before Soviet
overtake of Central Asia but during Soviet period, State and Religion were
separated and atheist ideology of Communism was promoted. Delimitation
process (1921-36) divided single Muslim Turkistan into national republics to
transform identity of people from Islam to nationalism. In wake of this „Divide
and Rule‟ policy, Sharia law and courts were declared null and void. Qadis and
their Sharia courts were replaced by Peoples courts supervised by Supreme
courts which operated on Inquisitorial System of Roman Law. Atheist
communist ideology became prime source of newly developed constrictions of
Central Asian Socialist republics. Religious education was banned. Scientific
education swapped conventional and tradition education as well as schools
replaced Madrasas. Mosques were closed down and scholars were arrested,
executed or deported. Script of all national languages (Tajik, Kyrgyz, Kazakh,
Uzbek and Turkmen) was changed from Persian to Cyrillic. Soviet-sponsored
culture stressed more on different national identities rather than a unified
Muslim heritage. These policies have impact on foreign relations too. In era of
Stalin Central Asia was virtually cut off from Muslim world as Stalin fear the
popularity of movements of Pan-Islamism and Pan-Turkism which are directly
connected to Islamic world. Soviet regime introduced „Look West‟ policy in
which more contacts were established between Central Asian republics and
other communist regimes in Europe. According to Soviet Union, the relations
with other nations were based on political ideology, not on culture or religion.
But in sub-continent, Islam emerged as political mobilizing force during
Khilafat movement which was not only a sign of solidarity for Turk Muslims
but also indicated tendency of people towards a unified government (Caliphate)
based on principles of Islam (even nominally). In contrast to that, Russian Tsars
and their Soviet successors ruthlessly crushed Pan-Turkism and Pan-Islamism
movements which were also connected to Ottoman Caliphate and Islamic Unity.
These policies resulted in two contrast situations. Soviet authorities were
successful in separation of State and religion in Central Asia. Elite was created
which have no regard for religion. Character of Central Asian people changed
from religious to nationalist. Even after independence, Soviet legacy persisted
and Central Asian societies remained atheist nationalist. But suppression of
Islam did not bring the results Soviet Union wanted. Instead these policies
bought fruits in quite opposite way. Instead it resulted in quite opposite. Soviet
authorities want to end Islam as political ideology and a way of life. They
wanted that people should look towards communism for political guidance
rather than Islam and their way of life should be dictated by Leninist-Marxist
ideology not by some supernatural being. When people were forced to renounce
their beliefs, they abide by decision in the face of mighty power. Oppression
always begets Oppression. Oppression of religion led to Oppression on the
name of religion. So, oppressed religious sentiments turned into religious
extremism Wahabists and Salafists especially during and after Afghan war
exploited the repressed religious sentiments and spread the puritan version of
Islam. Soviet authorities want to end Islam as political ideology and a way of
life. These extremist movements took a toll on stability of Central Asia. So,
Soviet policies polarized Central Asian societies in this way.
As for Pakistan, Islamism was always present because many people believe that
Pakistan achieved independence in the name of Islam. From the Objective
Resolution to Constitution of 1973, Islam was declared „State Religion‟ of
Pakistan. But Pakistan was never an extremist society even though there were
certain Islamist elements which favored extreme version of Islam. Pakistani
society faced extremism as real threat as result of Afghan War.
Afghan Conundrum and Tajik Civil War
Interestingly religious extremism in both Pakistan and Central Asia is, in some
way, linked to invasion of Afghanistan by atheist regime of Soviet Union. By
invading Afghanistan, Soviet imperialism reached at its military zenith. To keep
Russian bear off the warm waters USA started to arm Afghan mujahedeen with
help of Pakistan. Extremist Salafist found their Ideological paradise in
Afghanistan and started tinting an independence movement in the shade of
religious crusade. Now, Central Asia and Pakistan were standing in opposite
sides. Pakistan government deliberately used religious sentiment to counter
Soviet Union in Afghanistan. Islamist from all over the world After Soviet
withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1989, religious extremism trickled down to
newly independent Central Asian republics meanwhile Pakistan was exposed to
„Kalashnikov Culture‟ with increasing Sectarian violence thanks to increasing
religious militarism. Authoritarian governments see the rise of Islam as threat
and brutally repressed religion. This victimization card was in return played by
religious extremist who used the public discontent against autocratic regimes to
grind their own axe.
The domestic dissenter elements perceived as threat by authoritarian
governments, Political Islam is greatest among them. Political Islam is greatest
threat to autocrats of Central Asian Republics. Authoritarian rulers of Central
Asian Republics legitimize their rule as bulwark against Islamic extremism (a
claim which is partially valid). In past, some people in Central Asia thought that
survival of Islam would be eventual cause of fall of Soviet Union (Bennigsen
and Wimbush, 1985: 4), they are worried that same Political Islam also can be
dangerous for Independent states of Central Asia. Even common adherence to
Islam is seen in political meaning due to (even after independence) continued
Soviet Context (Khalid, 2003: 574). Pakistani government helped Mujahedeen
who fought on the name of Islam, not on the name of Afghanistan. Pakistani
government also used Islam to portray the imperialism of Soviet Union and
righteousness of Afghan Mujahedeen. These initiatives by Pakistan ultimately
create a perception of Pakistani inclination towards Islamism in the mind of
Central Asian people in general and in mind of Central Asian leaders in
particular.
Tajik Civil War (1992-1997) is most prominent conflict in Central Asia. It was
not purely Inter-State conflict but it involved many states as it grew in its
ferociousness. If the sequences of events leading to this war are seen, it is clear
that why after so many years people of Central Asia are content with autocratic
rulers. As truly described by Rubin (1998, 132) that how Tajikistan went into
chaos explain why Tajikistan went into chaos. Central Asia will face the
baptism of blood and fire as Tajikistan faced from 1992 to 1997 during the civil
war because of friction between extremist elements and regime. But this conflict
was not limited to Tajikistan only, many countries in the region was drawn into
this conflict. Lynch (2001, 49) puts it that Tajik Civil War was fought on basis
of power not on ideologies. Islamist parties do not seek revival of religion, they
seek political power. Islamic Rebirth Party of Tajikistan paddled its Salafist
ideology, to gain influence in Tajikistan, not to save the souls of Tajiks. Islamic
Rebirth Party of Tajikistan could never challenge the authority of Tajik
government unless it did not have the support of Afghan Mujahedeen.
Gulbuddin Hikmetyar was most staunch supporter of Tajik Islamist among
Afghan Mujahedeen. He was supported by Pakistani government against
Ahmad Shah Masood, a Tajik Mujahedeen leader and Abdul Rashid Dostam, an
Uzbek warlord. After independence Central Asian republics look towards
Pakistan alongside with Iran and Turkey for economic assistance. All Central
Asian republics became members of Economic Cooperation Organization
(ECO) and Central Asian leaders paid visits to Pakistan as well as visited by
Pakistani leaders also. But Pakistani support to anti-Tajik and anti-Uzbek
elements in Afghanistan proved a crack in the cup. Pakistan ignored that after
facing economic Both Uzbeks and Tajiks in Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and
Afghanistan were part of Tajik Civil war. Due to existing Inter-ethnic tensions
for example between Tajiks and Uzbeks as described by Roy (1997, 143-4),
Uzbekistan was also drawn into this conflict. Uzbekistan especially, is
threatened by Islamism due to very religious area of Farghana Valley. Boas
(2015, 9) stressed that Islamic civil society is most prominent hazard to the
supremacy of the regime in Uzbekistan because compete with the regime for
legitimacy among the populace. The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU)
has strong links with extremist groups in Tribal Areas of Pakistan. But Islamist
threat was not limited to only Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. Brown and Sheiko
(2006, 11) of the view that like other leaders of Central Asian Republics,
Turkmen autocrat leaders maintain Islam as the belief of the Turkmen but
discard any political role for spiritual leaders, much like his Communist
forerunners. This fear can be regarded true as nearly all post-Independence
conflicts are related to fundamentalist Islamist ideologies. Plagued with
Islamist insurgency in Xinjiang Autonomous Region, China was also alarmed
by situation. Tajik Islamists started to receive support from Afghan Taliban
which further alienated most of Tajiks from Islamists as they saw them as
agents of Pashtun Taliban which are targeting ethnic Tajiks in Afghanistan. This
move also caused rift in ranks of opposition because Pamiris were repulsed by
receiving help from Taliban who are massacring their fellow Shia Muslim
brothers as Pamiris are Ismaili Shias. Roy (1998, 141) also claims that localism
prevailing far and wide in Tajikistan leading to Tajik Civil War. This caused
people to think when there would be democracy in Tajikistan and everyone
have the right to vote, these religious, ethnic, linguistic and regional conflict
will make this country a living hell. Even resenting autocratic rule, Tajik
people, like their fellows living in other Central Asian republics know that these
autocratic are operating as lid on these ethnic and religious tensions. Without
strong leaders, Central Asia will be thrown in conflict and war. Rubin (1998,
153) suggested that breakdown of autocratic institution led to Tajik Civil War
Islamist parties are unable to give stable substitute political as well as economic
structure as Rashid (2002, 113) suggested. This political system has created a
delicate balance between different ethnic, religious, linguistic and regional
groups in terms of power and hierarchy.
Ethnicity also plays a major role as setback for the relations between CARs and
Pakistan. Northern Alliance hostile to Taliban was heavily comprised of Tajik
and Uzbek ethnic groups of Afghanistan which are second and third largest
ethnic groups in Afghanistan respectively. Pakistan government‟s support for
mostly Pashtun Taliban was a source of discomfort for these ethnic groups
which also create apprehensions in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan as these states
always try to protect the interest of their brethren in Afghanistan. Tajiks and
Uzbeks are most educated and liberal people of Afghanistan who always see
religious extremism with alarm. They were also suspicious of the intentions of
Pashtuns and they brethren living in Pakistan. Pashtuns of Pakistan likewise
have sympathies for their ethnic fellows in Afghanistan. Pashtuns living on both
sides of Durand Line were deeply religious and traditional. Rise of Taliban
made the waters murkier. Now Central Asian leaders were looking at a group
which endorsed a very conservative Islamic ideology and was also ethnically
Pashtun. Tajik civil war was still raging. Pakistan was again on the other side of
the fence. Pakistani government was wholeheartedly supporting Taliban, many
of whom were educated in Pakistani Madrasas. According to Burke (1998) who
was writing in British daily Independent, Uzbek President Islam Karimov and
Tajik President Emomali Rahmon publicly accused Pakistan of nurturing
Islamism in Central Asia to gain influence in the region. Central Asian states
still fears that any Islamist government will spill Afghan instability over the
whole region as it was done in Tajik Civil War when Tajik Islamist started to
cooperate with Afghan Mujahedeen to defeat regime of Emomali Rahmon and
extended Afghan drug smuggling network up to Russia itself. That time conflict
was averted forces from all Central Asian members of Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS) installed in Tajikistan and Agreement on the
Establishment of Peace and National Accord in Tajikistan was signed with the
help of mediation by Russia. As Ambrosio (2008, 1336) called stability, even
after end of Tajik Civil war, most important value for Shanghai Cooperation
Organization (SCO). In the perspective of Islamist movements in Russia
Republics of Chechnya and Dagestan and Chinese Autonomous Region of
Xinjiang, China and Russia would never tolerate any Islamist government in
Central Asia. Central Asian Republics of Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and
Turkmenistan share border with Afghanistan which is already in the state of war
due to extreme Islamist ideology of Taliban. Even though, China has extremely
friendly relations with Pakistan, members of SCO are very cautious about
Islamist movements in their countries which have breeding grounds in Pakistan.
Pakistani government changed its attitude towards Islamism in general and
Taliban in particular after 9/11. But many considered it a charade as policies of
military of Pakistan remained same which still considered Islamist elements as
„Strategic Assets‟ against India. Ironically when Pakistan was declared greatest
non-NATO ally against terrorism, Jamat-e-Islami, one of the leading Islamist
parties of the world was governing the very province in which most of extremist
movements including Hizb ut-Tahrir al Islamiyya (The Islamic Party of
Liberation) and The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) have their training
camps. Triumph of Northern Alliance over Taliban turned the table in the
region. Dominated by Tajiks and Uzbeks, Northern Alliance visibly tilted
towards India which also has implication in Central Asia. Indian lease of
Farkhor and Ayni bases in Tajikistan in addition to military hospital clearly
indicate the failure of foreign policy Pakistan because Pakistani decision makers
failed to understand implications of support of Islamism on the relations with
Central Asian republics.
New Opportunities
In nowadays, Central Asia is dubbed as „New Middle East‟ due to its strategic
location and rich wealth of natural resources especially hydrocarbons. Central
Asia is blessed with being located at the crossroads of Asia and Europe and
sharing border with China and Russia but it also face constraints of difficult
terrain and lack of access to sea. The needs of Pakistan and CARs complement
each other perfectly. CARs needed access to sea and transit facilities to reach
out world. Pakistan is facing mammoth energy crisis which can be unraveled
through adding new energy flows in economy. After independence of Central
Asian states Pakistan continued to look towards Central Asia in the light of
cultural and religious ties. Pakistani policy makers ignored the potential of
economic and commercial relations. As Khan (1996, 93) describes, “The
Northern connections were only discernible in the historical perspective and had
little commercial or strategic use for the early policy makers. Pakistan therefore
continued to shut its eyes to the North, until the emergence of new realities.
Both public and government were excitedly awakened to the situation and
attempts at all levels commenced forthwith to revive the links”.
But with energy crisis looming over the economy of Pakistan, government
officials are keener to establish economic relations keeping in view the large oil
and gas resources of Central Asia. “Pakistan‟s economic priority is for
developing bilateral trade in raw material and manufactured goods, opening up
communications and contracting for regular supplies. Pakistan saw industry,
Pakistani entrepreneurs felt they had a great deal to offer in setting up
substantial benefits for its industrial growth in obtaining regular supplies of
surplus power through gas and electricity grid scheme or through future oil
supplies from Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. Besides
manufacturing and light banking and insurance as well as stock Markets, joint
venture capital and import-export, all sectors poorly developed in Central Asia”
(Anwar, 1997: 190-191). However, Tareen (1995, 35) laments the “directionless
government of Pakistan” for “pursuing equally directionless and haphazard
policy” towards Central Asia which is “against all reasons”. He asks, “How can
we realistically hope for a trade link with Central Asia when the easiest, the
most feasible and economically viable rout that passes through Afghanistan is
blocked?” Pakistan is presently intertwined in severe energy crisis but according
to Tareen she is for the “second time in history losing a golden opportunity next
door”. Tareen says, “Our electricity and power is far more expensive per unit
than imported power from Tajikistan which according to experts would not only
have been feasible but cheaper than locally generated electricity”.
Construction of Gwadar port and the inception of Pak-China Economic Corridor
have given Pakistan relation with Central Asian republics a new dimension.
Pakistan can now have access to mineral resources of Central Asia. But this is
not only opportunity for Pakistan. Central Asian republics can also have access
to new markets with help of above-mentioned projects. According to Effendi
(1995, 2), “Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, the two significant South Asian states
are „Eurasia‟s treasure house‟ of natural resources in terms of hydroelectric
power hydrocarbon, agronomical products and minerals. During the Soviet
period these two republics were mainly treated as source for raw materials for
the capital and consumer goods industries of the USSR, located in Western
Russia and Urals. However, despite the ruthless exploitation during the Soviet
era, the resources of the Region seem inexhaustible”. Effendi (1995, 8) further
writes, “The labour market of Uzbekistan has an abundant quantity of good
quality manpower which is both cheaper and more disciplined than what
available in South-West Asia and the Sub-continent. In the same manner the oil
reserves of Kazakhstan accounted for 9% of the former USSR‟s deposits, while
overall the CIS reserves ranging between 6 to 10 % constitute the entire world‟s
hydrocarbon reservoirs. The Manqyshiak oil is unique as it contains limestone
which is an excellent building material”. Deposit of manganese Kazakhstan has
13% of global deposits and is ranked third after US and Ukraine. Furthermore,
Kazakhstan is the world‟s second largest producer of Chromium. In iron
production she ranks as the eighth largest producer and produces 16,662 million
tons of Iron and she is the second largest producer of phosphorous, fourth
largest producer of lead and molybdenum, having large uranium deposits and
“produced 56% of the total output of the former Soviet Union. She has large
uranium deposits and produced 56% of the total output of the former Soviet
Union. Central Asian republics can exploit this mineral potential if these states
have access to lucrative markets of world. Being Landlocked, these states can
reach out the whole world by using Gwadar port. But Islamism posed a threat to
economic projects also. Presence of Islamist movements of TTP in Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa and Jandullah in Baluchistan is alarming because these two
provinces are key regions to transit corridor for Central Asia access to Arabian
Sea.
These opportunities are not only on economic front. US have indicated its
withdrawal from Afghanistan in near future. This scenario projects gloomy
picture for Central Asian republics which are contemplating surge in Islamist
movements in their countries due to Taliban rise in Afghanistan on the horizon
as in past mujahedeen takeover of Afghanistan resulted in extremist violence in
Central Asia which reached its zenith with Tajik Civil war. Pakistan is also
engaged in struggle against extremist elements in the country. Rise of IS in
Afghanistan is also alarming for both Central Asia and Pakistan. Pakistan has
one of the strongest armies of the world whereas Central Asian countries are
dependent on Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) for their security.
Pakistan has potential to provide security assistance to Central Asian republics
against these extremist movements due to immense experience of dealing with
extreme Islamist movements at home. Fortunately, both sides have realized
these possibilities and making progress towards it. PM Nawaz paid visits to
Tajikistan (17-18 June 2014), Turkmenistan (20-21 May 2015), Kyrgyzstan
(22-23 May 2015), Kazakhstan (25-26 August 2015) and Uzbekistan (17-18
November 2015) while Tajik President visited to Pakistan (12-13 November
2015). In all these visits several agreements were signed which included
security, defense and eradication of terrorism and extremism.
Individual Level Analysis:
Leaders in Pakistan have cognitive map which is definitely embedded in
religion due to their religious upbringing and some leaders like Gen. Zia used
Islam as political ideology because his autocratic regime needed legitimacy. His
use of religion tapped religious extremism into politics which through
Afghanistan (where leaders have same ideology and Islam was also their source
of legitimacy) spread into whole region. In contrast, leaders of Central Asian
Republics were brought up in atheist Soviet Union for whom ethnicity is more
important than religion as Kyrgyz President once said that I am a Kyrgyz, not a
Muslim. These leaders are also repressive but their source of legitimacy is
nationalism, not the religion. They see Islamic extremism as a threat to their
rule as it did threaten Tajik regime in Tajik Civil War (1992-97) and Andijan
insurgency (2005). For Central Asian leaders, Afghan War constructs a
perception of Pakistan as an Islamist state. Lack of any define policy towards
extremism in Pakistan further fueled this perception.
State Level Analysis:
Central Asian Republics came into existence after the breakup of Soviet Union.
These states were based on ethnicities. For example, Tajikistan is an
independent state because it is homeland of Tajik people, not Muslim or Turk
people. If it would be the case than what is difference between Tajikistan and
Uzbekistan? In Central Asia, Islamism posed a threat to autocratic governments
and these governments dealt with it with iron hand. In Pakistan used the policy
of vacillation towards Islamic extremism even after the end of Afghan War.
Furthermore when Islamism rises in Central Asia, these states were at the
threshold of independence. This situation called for stability and consensus
whereas Islamist movements were creating chaos and intolerance. Meanwhile,
Pakistan favored Islamist movements in Central Asia on the grounds that it will
lead to strong relations based on religious ties. In Central Asian political culture
Islamist parties are not tolerated whereas in Pakistan, Islamist parties are strong
and part of both government and opposition. Central Asian bureaucracy is
comprised of elite elements that see Islamism as threat to their interests. In
Pakistan, military bureaucracy is sympathetic to Islamism.
System Level Analysis:
Central Asia is dominated by Russia and China which are facing Islamic
extremism in their countries. Therefore, most significant regional organization
in the region SCO define „Extremism, Terrorism and Separatism‟ as Evil
Triangle. After 9/11, Central Asian republics and Pakistan both decided to join
US in „War on Terror‟. But policies and interests of Pakistan and Central Asian
states are different towards Islamism especially in Afghanistan. But Pakistan is
facing energy crisis and Central Asian republics need transit route for access to
global trade. These elements are bonding these states together despite existence
of above-mentioned factors.
Summary:
Historical relations between Central Asia and present-day Pakistan were based
on religious ties, manifested by Sufi traditions which are opposite to current
Islamist ideologies. Russian Tsardom and British Empire set the trend of
Islamism in Central Asia and Pakistan respectively which still persists. Afghan
war led to surge in Islamism in both Central Asia and Pakistan. Pakistan used
Islamism to exert influence in the region whereas newly-independent Central
Asian states perceived Islamism as a threat due to ideological as well as ethnic
factors. After independence, Central Asian republics established good relations
with Pakistan because they needed economic assistance to build their weak
economies. Inclusion of all Central Asian republics (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan) in ECO was a sign of increasing
cooperation. But rise of Taliban and subsequent Pakistan support for this ethnic
Pashtun group against Northern Alliance comprised of Uzbek and Tajik
Afghans, led to slouch in relations. After 9/11, Pakistan and Central Asian
republics both find themselves in the ranks of US-led coalition against terrorism
but vacillating policies of Pakistan breed mistrust in relations. Andijan
insurgency and Tulip Revolution in 2005 made Central Asian governments very
cautious about Islamism and prompt them to rally under the flag of Shanghai
Cooperation Organization (SCO) to fight Islamic extremism. In Pakistan, the
rise of Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) proved a watershed movement.
Pakistan military conducted operation in Tribal Areas to eradicate extremist
organizations including Hizb ut-Tahrir and The Islamic Movement of
Uzbekistan (IMU). These moves by Pakistan are welcomed by Central Asian
republics. Pakistan has become full member of SCO with support of all five
Central Asian republics which is a clear sign of increasing trust in Pakistan.
Findings:
Central Asian leaders view Islam as political force due to persistence
policies of Soviet Union and Islamist opposition to autocratic Central
Asian leaders. Islamist political parties are suppressed at home and in
addition to that Central Asian opposed to Islamist movements in other
countries too especially in the region.
In Pakistan, Islam is a strong political force. This ideology is often
endorsed by successive regimes (such as Gen. Zia). Many Islamist parties
are not only support the enforcement of Islamic laws but also providing
support to Islamic groups in other countries (including Central Asian
states).
Pakistan and Central Asian republics enjoyed good relations but after
start of Tajik Civil War, relations began to sour as Pakistan supported
Islamist elements in Tajikistan which received aid and training from
Saudi Arabia from the channel of Pakistan.
Relations between Pakistan and Central Asian republics were affected
due to their policies towards Afghan Mujahedeen. Central Asian
republics considered them as agents of Islamism in their own countries.
Pakistan viewed them as a channel to increase influence in the region.
Rise of Taliban introduced an ethnic dimension in Islamism in the region.
Pakistan supported Taliban whereas Central Asian states supported
Northern Alliance. Taliban oppression of ethnic minorities of Uzbeks and
Tajiks caused stress in relations of Pakistan and Central Asian states.
Even after Pakistan‟s withdrawal of support for Taliban in the wake of
terrorists attacks of 11 September 2001, relation with Central Asian states
on the issue of Islamism remained tense due to apathy of Pakistan
towards interests of Central Asian states in Afghanistan
Islamist insurgency in Pakistan has significantly changed the policies of
Pakistan towards Islamism. These changes have implications on relations
between Pakistan and Central Asian states as now there is increasing trust
which is shown by many agreements between two sides for annihilation
of Islamism in the region.
Suggestions:
Pakistan should stop Central Asian Islamists groups to use her territory.
Pakistan also should prevent its Islamic parties to support and fund
Islamist groups in Central Asia.
Peace in Afghanistan is necessary for good relations between Central
Asian countries and Pakistan because ethnic groups in these countries
(Pashtun in Pakistan as well as Tajiks and Uzbeks in Tajikistan and
Uzbekistan) are also present in Afghanistan in large numbers. Islamism in
Afghanistan is threat to Pakistan and Central Asian states.
Central Asian countries should end the persecution of religion which is
main reason of extremism.
A platform should be created by Pakistan and Central Asian states to
cooperate for eradication of Islamism which is a menace for whole
region. Inclusion of Pakistan in Shanghai Cooperation Organization
(SCO) provides the perfect opportunity for progress in this direction
because other members China and Russia are also facing the peril of
Islamism.
Weaknesses:
Many observers believe that Central Asian concern regarding Islamism is mere
„Cry Wolf‟ and actually government‟s own policies of suppression of religion is
root cause of extremism. In addition to that, Central Asian republics of
Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan themselves has been supporting Islamist
movements in Xinjiang region of China due to ethnic affinity with Uighurs
which also points out the main source of conflict is not religion but the
ethnicity.
Even with historical religious ties, Pakistan and Central Asian republics treat
Islamism differently at home and at regional front. Pakistan is often accused
(most of the time correctly) as promoter of Islamism as an agent of influence in
the region. Due to their domestic situation and their interests in Afghanistan,
Central Asian republics are opposed to Islamism which pitches these countries
against Pakistan. Although there is no direct confrontation but there is high
degree of suspicion and mistrust between both sides. Central Asian republics
and Pakistan know that they need good relation among them because of
economic needs. Good relations can be maintained the region to respect the
interests of each other. Islamism is threat to both sides which can be effectively
dealt with cooperation. Peace in Afghanistan is necessary for stability in whole
region and peace in Afghanistan can only be achieved by end if Islamic
extremism in the country. Recent developments regarding cooperation between
Pakistan and Central Asian states regarding security matters especially end of
extremism and terrorism is a sign of progress which needed to be strengthened.
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