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Reliability of the New Testament
Is there evidence?
Objective: to provide a most probable explanation using common logic and reasoning.
Note: God has made us logical creatures (Come now, let us reason together. [Is 1:18]). Reason and logic are two concepts which are intrinsically tied together. Reason is a way that we work through a problem—through a set of deductions—to get from point A to point B. We reason our way through things.
Logic is the rules we apply to reasoning. It's the fundamental parameters that we apply to working through a problem. But if our logic is flawed, our reasoning will never bring us to the correct answer, no matter how good the reasoning seems. Simply put, reasoning is a system, and logic is the rules applied to that system.
Discuss: 1+1=2, emotions, etc.
A comment in the Billings Gazette
"Interestingly, there's no historical evidence that Jesus ever existed."
Cornelius Tacitus, a famous Roman historian who lived shortly after Jesus, wrote in the Annals of Tacitus (XV.44), "Christus, the founder of the name, was put to death by Pontius Pilate, procurator of Judea in the reign of Tiberius; but the pernicious superstition, repressed for a time broke out again, not only through Judea, where the mischief originated, but through the city of Rome also."
Lucian of Samosata, a 2nd century satirist, wrote, "the man who was crucified in Palestine because He introduced this new cult into the world."
Josephus, a famous Historian born in 37 AD, wrote, "Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, if it be lawful to call Him a man, for He was a doer of wonderful works, a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure."
In "Life of Claudius," by Seutonius, another Roman historian, this time under Hadrian, it was written, ""As the Jews were making constant disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus , he expelled them from Rome."
Many other scholars and rulers of antiquity such as Pliny the Younger, Tertullian, Thallus, Phlegon, etc., wrote of Jesus, and often of the crucifixion by Pilate and the rise of Christianity.
You’re crazy!
Celebrity scientists. Richard Dawkins: The God Delusion. “If children
understand that beliefs should be substantiated with evidence, as opposed to tradition, authority, revelation or faith, they will automatically work out for themselves that they are atheists. I am against religion because it teaches us to be satisfied with not understanding the world.”
They’re not stupid!
Dr. John Sanford, Ph.D.
Applied geneticist; has over 30 patents in genetic engineering.
Most significant scientific contributions involve three inventions, the biolistic (“gene gun”) process, pathogen-derived resistance, and genetic immunization.
Scientific convert from atheism.
Dr. John Lennox
MA from Uni of Cambridge
PhD from the Uni of Cambridge
D.Sc. in mathematics from Uni of Cardiff
D.Phil from Oxford
MA in bioethics from Uni of Surrey
Fluent in English, Russian, French, German, and Spanish
Has debated Hitchens, Shermer, Dawkins, Krauss, Stenger, Tooley, etc.
Oxford professor of mathematics
Fellow in Mathematics and Philosophy of Science at Green Templeton College, Oxford University
Pastoral Advisor of Green Templeton College and Fellow of Wycliffe Hall
They’re not stupid!
William Lane Craig, Ph.D. Research Professor of Philosophy at Talbot School of Theology, California
Arguably the world’s foremost defender of historic Christianity.
Following the debate with Christopher Hitchens in 2009, the website, Common Sense Atheism commented: “Craig was flawless and unstoppable. Hitchens was rambling and incoherent. Frankly, Craig spanked Hitchens like a foolish child.”
“William Lane Craig is Christianity's #1 living apologist. Wake up, fellow Atheists … and see clearly what … is happening here. If we expect Christians to be honest about anything, we as a group need to be honest as well, and honestly face the fact that Craig is kicking our collective (butt) and we're apparently too dumb (as a group) to even know it!”—Mark Smith, Contra Craig Website
Dawkins refused to debate Craig.
Said, Craig is a professional debater and that is his “only claim to fame;” it would look good on Craig’s CV but would not look good on his own.
Fellow professor at Oxford, Dr. Came, wrote Dawkins about this and said, “I understand that you have also commented that ‘a debate with Professor Craig might look good on his CV but it would not look good on mine’. On the contrary, the absence of a debate with the foremost apologist for Christian theism is a glaring omission on your CV and is of course apt to be interpreted as cowardice on your part.”
You’re not crazy!*
Francis Collins: Director of the National Institute of Health, head of the human genome project. His predecessor, Jim Watson, was an atheist. Collins…Christian.
They’re both top-level scientists, which shows us that what divides them is not their science, but rather their world-view. There is a real conflict, but it is not science versus religion. It is theism vs atheism; there are scientists on both sides.
*at least not for believing in God.
A reason
Most atheists agree that Jesus existed.
Today we’ll talk about our dependence on NT
The only records which describe Jesus in detail are those in the NT
If I were to ask you …
If I were a person who didn’t believe, and I were to ask you, “Can you prove to me that the New Testament is a reliable historical document,” could you?
If not, it is simply mythology, and Jesus is not important.
If NT is incorrect, we’re all a bunch of fools.
Why do we believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God?
I ask people, “Do you believe that the Bible is the Word of God?” “Oh yeah…”
Because of the miracles that He did?
Because of prophecies?
Because He rose from the dead?
But where did you learn about those things?
Faith
We don’t want to have blind faith.We want it to be reasonable.Faith comes from “pistis,”primarily "firm
persuasion," a conviction based upon hearing (akin to peitho, "to persuade.“
We want to be able to persuade people.
How important…
How important is it that the New Testament was written in the timeframe in which it says it was written? If it was written hundreds of years later, large margin for
error, and faked.
What if it had many errors in relation to people, events and geography?Think about the book of Mormon. How could we trust the NT authors if they couldn’t get cities
and events right?
How important…
Book of Mormon Holy Bible
No Mormon cities have been located Most Bible cities have been located.
No Mormon names have been found in inscriptions
Many Bible names have been found in inscriptions
Archaeologists have never successfully used the B of M as a guide in locating ancient ruins.
Archaeologists have and still do successfully use the Bible as a guide in locating ancient ruins.
Was translated from "reformed Egyptian.“ Nothing on the western hemisphere has been found that even remotely resembles Egyptian. Officially "reformed Egyptian" doesn't exist.
The Bible was translated from Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek. These languages are taught in today's universities.
Questions
Is the NT reliable as a historical document?
Can we trust it to be accurate in relating the facts of HX concerning the facts of Jesus’ life?
Can we have confidence that what we have today is accurate, or has it been altered beyond recognition from the 1st century? (Have you ever played the telephone game?)
It is good to have a love for the scriptures, but we need to be able to answer questions like this. Because our society is moving away from God. And people will snipe ya. ;)
And then your chance is gone.
This is NOT comprehensive. This is just a brief overview. We could do classes on this for years straight.
How can we trust?
Since we don’t each have the original writings in front of us, how can we trust what we have today? We have two big issues that we have to be certain of.
1.) How do we know that there haven’t been significant errors of changes made in copying this book. How do we know that it matches at all?
2.) How do we know that there wasn’t collusion to deceive people by a bunch of guys? (Bibliographic test.)
Bibliographical test for documents from antiquity
Applied to all ancient historical document. Things like Julis Caesar’s Gaelic War, the Annals of Tacitus, the Histories of Tacitus, etc.
Asks 4 major questions; the answers will help us determine NT accuracy as compared to secular docs:
1) How many copies of the manuscript are there? We want as many as possible so we can compare to each other to see if they are accurate.
2) Where were the copies found? If they all came from one place, it could be collusion. If they are from places far removed by time and location, is unlikely.
3) What length of time between when they were written and when the earliest copies were made as compared to the originals? If a long time, lots of errors could be introduced.
4) What are the variances? If there are huge differences, we couldn’t determine what the original author wrote. If they are few and minor, then the copying over the years has been faithful.
How many copies of the manuscript are there?
Over 5,686 Greek manuscripts.
Over 24,000 total manuscripts in various languages.
This allows us to compare them for errors.
How many manuscripts for other historical documents?
Plato’s Tetraologies: 7
Aristotle’s Poetics: 5
Caesar’s Gallic Wars: 10
Yet the NT is often ridiculed, while the others are accepted as fact.
We can check the copies against one another for accuracy.
F. F. Bruce: "There is no body of ancient literature in the world which enjoys such a wealth of good attestation as the New Testament."
Where were the copies found?
Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Turkey, Greece, Italy, etc.
You don’t have to be a scholar in geography to know about how far Turkey and Italy are apart.
No collusion. Discuss ancient times and travel.
What length of time b/w when they were written and when the earliest copies were made as compared to the originals?
Papyrus has been dated to within 50-100 years of the events.
Several nearly complete manuscripts within 300 years. References (exact) to the writings long before that.
Of the four Gospels alone, there are 19,368 citations by the church fathers from the late first century on.
Even if we had no manuscripts, virtually the entire New Testament could be reconstructed from these quotations
If we compare these manuscripts to other historical manuscripts, we see some interesting stuff.
Author When Written Earliest Copy Time Span No. of CopiesCaesar 100-44 B.C. 900 A.D. 1,000 yrs. 10
Livy 59 B.C.-A.D. 20
Plato (Tetralogies)
427-347 B.C. 900 A.D. 1,200 yrs. 7
Tacitus (Annals) 100 A.D. 1,100 A.D. 1,000 yrs. 20 also minor works; note, only partial
100 A.D. 1,000 A.D. 900 yrs. 2
Puny the Younger(History)
61-113 A.D. 850 A.D.. 750 yrs. 7
Thucydides(History)
460-400 B.C. 900 A.D. 1,300 yrs. 8
Suetonius(De Vita Caesarum)
75-160 A.D. 950 A.D. 800 yrs. 8
Herodotus(History)
480-425 B.C. 900 A.D. 1,300 yrs. 8
Horace 900 yrs.Sophocles 430-406 B.C. 1,000 A.D. 1,400 yrs. 100Lucretius Died 55 or 53 B.C . 1,100 yrs. 2Catullus 54 B.C. 1,550 A.D. 1,600 yrs. 3Euripedes 480-406 B.C. 1,100 A.D. 1,500 yrs. 9Demosthenes 383-322 B.C. 1,100 A.D. 1,300 yrs. 200*Aristotle 384-322 B.C. 1,100 A.D. 1,400 yrs. 5**Aristophanes 450-385 B .C. 900 A. D. 1,200 yrs. 10*All from one copy. **Of any one work.
Table 1
What about the variances between copies?
There are some. There are less than ½ of 1% of variances between
copies, Around 99% amount to linguistic shift. (Explain colloq, literally, brain freeze.)
That’s between over 24,000 total manuscripts.
There is no fundamental doctrine of Christianity that rests in a difference in reading.
The NT gets a passing grade.
In fact, it does better by far than any other document from antiquity, ever.
Josh McDowell, a historian and literary expert, said, “After personally trying to shatter the historicity and validity of the Scriptures, I have come to the conclusion that they are historically trustworthy. If one discards the Bible as being unreliable, then he must discard all literature of antiquity. One problem that I constantly face is the desire on the part of many to apply one standard or test to the secular literature and another to the Bible. One needs to apply the same test…the Bible is historically reliable.”
A last thought…
For about 2000 years, only references to Pilate were from Bible and references such as in Josephus and Tacitus
In 1961, the Pilate Inscription stone was found.
Recommended reading…
The Origin of the Bible—F.F. Bruce, MA, J.I. Packer, MA, DPhil, DD, Philip Comfort, Carl F. H. Henry; Harold O. J. Brown, PhD., R.T. Beckwith, MA, Ray Elliot, MA, Milton Fisher, ThM, PhD, DD, R.K Harrison, PhD, DD, Mark R. Norton, MA, Leland Ryken, PhD., Larry Walker, PhD, Victor Walter, MA, ThM (All)
Reasonable Faith: Christian Truth and Apologetics, Third Edition—William Lane Craig, PhD, DTheol; esp. pp 207-405
The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?—F. F. Bruce (All)
The New Evidence That Demands A Verdict Fully Updated To Answer The Questions Challenging Christians Today—Josh McDowell (All)
Archaeology and History attest to the Reliability of the Bible— Richard M. Fales, Ph.D (All)
The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration (2nd edition, but is now updated to 4th edition with Bart Ehrman, PhD, MDiv, BA) —Bruce Manning Metzger, PhD. (All)
The Case for Faith: A Journalist Investigates the Toughest Objections to Christianity—Lee Strobel (All)
The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism—Kurt Aland; Barbara Aland (I no longer have access to this; subscription to LexisNexis recommended or buy it online.) (All)
Recommended reading…(Yes, I quit writing this in AMA, sue me.)
Digging for the Truth. Dir. The History Channel. 2007. Gaster, Theodore. The Dead Sea Scriptures. Peter Smith Publishing, 1976. Golb, Norman. "The Dead Sea Scrolls as Treated in a Recently Published Catalogue." DSS Review
(2007): 1-22. Kohler, Kaufman. "Philo's Account of the Essenes." JewishEncyclopedia. Lundberg, Marilyn. The West Semitic Research Project. 2000-2007.
<http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/wsrp/information/>. UNC. ibiblio.org. 2000-2008. <http://www.ibiblio.org/>. Jodi Magness, PhD (Kenan Distinguished Professor in Early Judaism at UNC-Chapel Hill), The
Archaeology of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls (Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature); The Essenes and the Qumran Settlement 2003; 2014
Joan E. Taylor, PhD, Professor of Christian Origins and Second Temple Judaism at King's College London, The Essenes, the Scrolls, and the Dead Sea, 1st Edition, 2012
AJT Jull, PhD; Douglas J Donahue, PhD, Radiocarbon Dating of Dead Sea Scrolls Confirm Paleographic Dates
Kenneth Kitchen, PhD, On the Reliability of the Old Testament (Eerdmans, 2003).
Old Testament Support—Dead Sea Scrolls
Abstract
There has been a huge amount of research into the religious relics known as the Dead Sea Scrolls. These artifacts provide us with important information on the religion in the Dead Sea area at the time of their writing, as well as confirm some writings found in other religious texts, such as the Bible. They have become famous and offer a glimpse into the past while impacting the present. We will examine the Dead Sea Scrolls, as well as their discovery, origin, and religious impact.
Does the Bible preserve the Old Testament well?
Always approach this first
Bracket these questions until we have made up our minds about (1) whether or not God exists and (2) whether or not He raised Jesus from the dead in vindication of his radical personal claims.
Old Testament Support—Dead Sea Scrolls
Sir Frederick Kenyon, in 1948 printing of Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts, stated: “There is indeed, no probability that we shall ever find manuscripts of the Hebrew text going back to a period before the formation of the text which we know as Masoretic. We can only arrive at an idea of it by a study of the earliest translations made from it.…”
Until around that time, earliest manuscripts for OT writings were circa AD 900
Two major Hebrew manuscripts represent the Masoretic Text tradition: the Aleppo Codex (c. AD 930) and the Leningrad Codex (AD 1008). The Aleppo Codex was the authoritative text until large portions were destroyed in 1947 by Arab riots. Now the oldest complete manuscript is the Leningrad Codex, which underlies most modern Hebrew and English Bibles.
Age was doubted for a while because it was highly accurate to more modern codices.
Old Testament Support—Dead Sea Scrolls
Christianity and Judaism have some of the richest history, and also some of the most solid. There are many relics and artifacts that add to the base of knowledge of the two religions, and one of the most prominent sets of artifacts is the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Found near what is now called Qumran.
Discovery
In the spring of 1947, Bedouin goat herders were searching the cliffs for a lost goat . While looking for the goat, the Bedouins wandered into the caves near the Dead Sea.
Inside found pottery jars with manuscripts inside. Made of animals skins, papyrus, and one on copper. From right to left, using no punctuation except for
an occasional paragraph indentation. Sometimes no spaces between words.
Discovery
The Bedouins later sold the manuscripts to a cobbler, who in turn sold three of them to the Hebrew University.
Four others were sold to a scholar, and they were brought to the American School of Oriental Research.
In 1949 the first cave, later known as Qumran Cave I, was located. A search of the cave led to additional finds, which proved that the manuscripts were indeed original. By 1956, ten additional caves were found.
Appear to be secret library of religious sect called Essenes
Essenes
Qumran was occupied from around 100 BCE to 68 CE
Essenes, a Jewish sect described by ancient authors such as Flavius Josephus, Philo of Alexandria, and Pliny the Elder.
Refused to participate in the sacrifices offered in the Jerusalem temple, which they considered polluted by the current priesthood.
Some gaps in knowledge. Roland de Vaux excavated in the 1950s, but not
all works ever published
Essenes
Philo of Alexandria is quoted as observing that: “They are anxious to keep their minds in a priestly
state of holiness. They prefer to live in villages and avoid cities on account of the habitual wickedness of those who inhabit them, knowing, as they do, that just as foul air breeds disease, so there is danger of contracting an incurable disease of the soul from such bad associations."
Kohler, Kaufman. “Philo’s Account of the Essenes.” The Jewish Encyclopedia.
About
~15,000 fragmentsFrom more than 500 manuscriptsAnd over 800 scrolls.Some Biblical, some non-Biblical
Including dynamic equivalence textsCommunal guidelines, conduct in war, extra
thanksgivings, psalms, and wisdom writings Among the scrolls, 19 copies of Isaiah, 25 of
Deuteronomy, and 39 of Psalms
About
All came from slightly different times“The Exodus Scroll” was radiocarbon dated to an
age of between “159 BCE and 16 CE” A scroll on Psalms was dated to “between 22CE
and 78CE” Supported by paleographic research, which
estimated the ages of the scrolls by analyzing the handwriting styles, materials, and formatting of the manuscripts.
Just ramblings of men?
Christians and Jews often claim OT written between 1400BC and 400BC
Some modern scholars (and non-scholars) have claimed it was written later to support the prophecies about Christ or are just words of men. Fables.
Manuscript 4QMMT (Some Precepts of the Law) says, “We have written to you so that you should understand the Book of Moses and the Books of the Prophets and David.”
Dated to 150BC
It supports the words of Jesus in Luke 24:44 referring to the Old Testament as “the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms.”
Some scholars said that OT writings fixed by a Jewish council around AD90
But 4QMMT shows otherwise.
Just ramblings of men?
Christians and Jews often claim OT written between 1400BC and 400BC
Some modern scholars (and non-scholars) have claimed it was written later to support the prophecies about Christ or are just words of men. Fables.
Manuscript 4QMMT (Some Precepts of the Law) says, “We have written to you so that you should understand the Book of Moses and the Books of the Prophets and David.”
Dated to 150BC
It supports the words of Jesus in Luke 24:44 referring to the Old Testament as “the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms.”
Some scholars said that OT writings fixed by a Jewish council around AD90
But 4QMMT shows otherwise.
Problems with OT.
We may address some of these in greater detail, especially Exodus.
But let’s talk Exodus. (And we’ll really talk in detail about this later.)
Why no Egyptian evidence?
Problems with OT.
“The Delta is an alluvial fan of mud deposited through many millennia by the annual flooding of the Nile; it has no source of stone within it. Mud, mud and wattle, and mud-brick structures were of limited duration and use, and were repeatedly leveled and replaced, and very largely merged once more with the mud of the fields. . . . The mud hovels of brickfield slaves and humble cultivators have long since gone back to their mud origins, never to be seen again. . . . And, as pharaohs never monumentalize defeats on temple walls, no record of the successful exit of a large bunch of foreign slaves (with loss of a full chariot squadron) would ever have been memorialized by any king, in temples in the Delta or anywhere else. On these matters, once and for all, Biblicists must shed their naïve attitudes and cease demanding ‘evidence’ that cannot exist (p. 246).”
Problems with OT?
But we do have some credible support. (Again, not going into great detail today.)
How to explain the apparent and inexplicable quintupling of the land of Canaan between 1210 and 1150 BC?
The salient question is not whether we have a proof of the historicity of the Exodus but whether the evidence disproves the historicity of the Exodus. It does not.
Some stuff we’ll look at in the future.
Support of the OT that is of necessity indirect.
We will search Biblical texts for information about covenants, business transactions, slave-prices, personal names or special kinds of architecture, and we will ask ourselves whether these were typical of the period during which Biblical text is supposed to have been written.
If typical, then either the Israelites had excellent and very long memory spans, or the Biblical texts actually WERE written long before the Dead Sea Scrolls, and copied well by scribes.
One example: Joshua has a mix of Semitic and Hurrian names, which was typical of the so-called, “Conquest Period,” but very atypical afterward.
Evidence also shows that the price paid for Joseph, 20 shekels, was historically appropriate.
Some stuff we’ll look at in the future.
Support of the OT that is of necessity indirect.
We will search Biblical texts for information about covenants, business transactions, slave-prices, personal names or special kinds of architecture, and we will ask ourselves whether these were typical of the period during which Biblical text is supposed to have been written.
If typical, then either the Israelites had excellent and very long memory spans, or the Biblical texts actually WERE written long before the Dead Sea Scrolls, and copied well by scribes.
One example: Joshua has a mix of Semitic and Hurrian names, which was typical of the so-called, “Conquest Period,” but very atypical afterward.
Evidence also shows that the price paid for Joseph, 20 shekels, was historically appropriate.
Moabite stone
Circa 850 BC
I (am) Mesha, son of Chemosh-[...], king of Moab, the Dibonite—my father (had) reigned over Moab thirty years, and I reigned after my father,—(who) made this high place for Chemosh in Qarhoh [...] because he saved me from all the kings and caused me to triumph over all my adversaries. As for Omri, king of Israel, he humbled Moab many years for Chemosh was angry at his land. And his son followed him and he also said, “I will humble Moab.” In my time he spoke (thus), but I have triumphed over him and over his house, while Israel hath perished forever.
Mesha stele cites Omri as the king of Israel, just as 1 Kings 16:21-28
Mentions Ahab, Omri’s son, in close connection with the Moabites, as does 2 Kings 3:4-6, and lists Mesha as King of Moab.
Also names the Israelite tribe of Gad, and the Israelite God, Yahweh.
Moabite stone
Circa 850 BC
I (am) Mesha, son of Chemosh-[...], king of Moab, the Dibonite—my father (had) reigned over Moab thirty years, and I reigned after my father,—(who) made this high place for Chemosh in Qarhoh [...] because he saved me from all the kings and caused me to triumph over all my adversaries. As for Omri, king of Israel, he humbled Moab many years for Chemosh was angry at his land. And his son followed him and he also said, “I will humble Moab.” In my time he spoke (thus), but I have triumphed over him and over his house, while Israel hath perished forever.
Mesha stele cites Omri as the king of Israel, just as 1 Kings 16:21-28
Mentions Ahab, Omri’s son, in close connection with the Moabites, as does 2 Kings 3:4-6, and lists Mesha as King of Moab.
Also names the Israelite tribe of Gad, and the Israelite God, Yahweh.
Cyrus Cylinder I returned to [these] sacred cities on the other side of the Tigris, the sanctuaries of which have
been in ruins for a long time, the images which [used] to live therein and established for them permanent sanctuaries. I [also] gathered all their [former] inhabitants and returned [to them] their habitations. Furthermore, I resettled upon the command of Marduk the great lord, all the gods of Sumer and Akkad whom Nabonidus has brought into Babylon to the anger of the lord of the gods, unharmed, in their [former] chapels, the places which made them happy. May all the gods who I have resettled in their sacred cities ask daily Bel and Nebo for long life for me and may they recommend me...to Marduk, my lord, may they say thus: Cyrus, the king who worships you and Cambyses, his son, [...] all of them I settled in a peaceful place.
Coincides with the biblical account of the ruler’s actions, in which Cyrus decreed that the temple in Jerusalem should be rebuilt, and that all the exiled Israelites who wished to join in the venture had his permission and blessing to do so (Ezra 1:1-11)
Note: Isaiah documented that the Babylonian Empire would fall to the Medes and the Persians (Isaiah 13; 21:1-10).
Also called Cyrus by name (Isaiah 44:28; 45:1-5). Isaiah’s prophecy was made roughly 150 years before Cyrus was born (Isaiah prophesied in about 700 B.C.; Cyrus took the city of Babylon in 539 B.C.).
Isaiah predicted that Cyrus would act as the Lord’s shepherd. In fact, Isaiah recorded these words of the Lord concerning Cyrus: “And he shall perform all My pleasure, even saying to Jerusalem, ‘You shall be built,’ and to the temple, ‘Your foundation shall be laid’ ” (Isaiah 44:28).
Don’t read
TABLE 1. QUMRAN VS. THE MASORETES______________________________________Of the 166 Hebrew words in Isaiah 53, onlyseventeen letters in Dead Sea Scroll 1QIsb
differ from the Masoretic Text (Geisler andNix, 1986, p. 382).
10 letters = spelling differences
4 letters = stylistic changes
3 letters = added word for “light” (vs. 11)______________________________________
