Regional Planning and Regional Problems in the Former East

Geographical Review of Japan Vol. 70 (Ser. B), No. 2, 95-114, 1997

Regional Planning and Regional Problems in the

Former East Germany

Koji KOBAYASHI

Faculty of Education, Gifu University, Gifu City, 501-1193 Japan

Abstract: This study has attempted to describe some of the regional planning issues that have been developed and executed as well as illustrating some regional problems that have arisen in the former East Germany. Features of regional planning achieved in the former East Germany includes the following: 1) a major effort has been made to provide efficient access between the former East and West Germany; 2) the resolution of many conflicts faced by the two former regions is being addressed in regional plans that have incorporated many of the unique,

positive elements that still persist in the former East Germany; and, 3) major efforts are being taken to coordinate and integrate reciprocal regional planning issues with the neighboring East European nations. At the same time, however, various regional problems within the former East Germany have arisen. The main issues are a drastic decline in services in rural areas, the spread of urban sprawl in the cities and suburbs, delays in urban redevelopment projects, and the collapse of industrial areas.

Key words: the former East Germany, regional planning, regional problems

Introduction

After German unification in 1990, the introduction of a market economy in the former East Germany caused a good deal of change in the regional structure. It became necessary to establish a new regional system in the former East Germany which could deal with the market economy. In addition, the unified Germany needed a new regional system which could include both the former West and East Germany. As a result, regional planning in the former East Germany has been carefully designed and carried out. This regional plan is based on the Raumordnungsgesetz (Regional Order Law), the purpose of which is to realize living conditions with equal value (Kobayashi 1995, 1996; Kobayashi 1996; Morikawa 1995).

It is vitally important to clearly understand the distinctive planning features of regional

planning in the former East Germany. Many studies of regional planning in the former East Germany and in united Germany have been made. In particular, reference was to be made to problems and distinctive features of the re

gional planning process (Maretzke and Moller 1992; Gatzweiler 1992; Deiters 1993). However,

because these issues were so fragmentary, it

proved impossible to fully graspe all the distinctive features of regional planning in the former East Germany. Therefore, it is necessary to have a general grasp of the distinctive features of the regional planning in the former East Germany and just what kinds of problems are occurring in the region today. Without an essential understanding of these basic points, it will be difficult to predict the future of the former East Germany and united Germany. Therefore, this paper has the task of clarifying both of these issues.

When looking at German unification, one im

portant point to keep in mind is the successful

integration of two completely different political

systems. In addition, for the growing united

Germany, it is necessary to focus our attention

on the remarkable gap in economic develop

ment and in the "quality of life" between the

eastern and western regions of the country.

Following unification, it became clear that

there were serious environmental problems in

the former East Germany and that its infra

structure was in critically poor condition. This

meant there was a clear disparity between the

east and west. Under these circumstances, huge

amounts of capital have been invested in the

96 K. Kobayashi

former East Germany, and dramatic changes have taken place there.

Before beginning discussions of the main topics, two points need to be raised. The first deals with the unique features of a basic law within the regional planning process, i.e., the "regional order law (Raumordnungsgesetz)",

which was amended in 1991 (Bundesministerium fur Raumordnung, Bauwesen and Stadtebau, 1991). The purpose of this regional order law is to "construct living conditions with equal value." This law was incorporated into the regional planning process with the aim of "creating equal living standards as the fo rmer

Figure 1. German regional order organization.

Source: Based on information obtained from the Institut fur Landerkunde (1992): Das vereinte Deutschland, S . 11.

Table 1. German regional order plan

Source: Institut fur Landerkunde (1992): Das vereinte Detschland, S. 12.

Regional Planning and Regional Problems 97

West Germany as quickly as possible." Fig. 1 illustrates the organization of this regional order law, while Table 1 illustrates how the law is legally incorporated into the regional planning process. The following two points will show how this distinctive feature of German regional planning functions. First, each administrative district, e. g., the federation (Bund), state, region, and Gemeinde (cities, towns, villages), must comply with the aims of the planning goals as stated in each regional plan. Re

gional planning becomes more detailed as one moves from the federation to the states, the regions, and the Gemeinde. Secondly, when

plans are made and then enforced, the various administrative regions are required to exchange relevant information. For example, it is the Minister Konferenz fur Raumordnung

(MKRO) that mediates between the federation and a state's regional planning objectives. Also, when there are conflicts in the regional planning process among the states, regions, and Gemeindes, they can make adjustments that are mutually beneficial through setting up standards and conducting inspections of their respective plans. In this manner, it is possible for the various planning regions to conduct regional

planning at their respective levels in a mutually comprehensive, non-contradictory fashion.

A second point of interest is that these vari

ous administrative districts were reorganized

and integrated in a broader area. The Landkreis

administrative district was unified and en

larged. A Planungsregion and Amtsregion were

also set up.1 In addition, it was argued that

Berlin and Brandenburg state should be uni

fi ed.2 These measures were undertaken to make

the functioning of the regional systems more

efficient.

Distinctive Features of Regional

Planning in the Former

East Germany

Regional planning in 1991 in the former East Germany covers a broad spectrum of issues including the economy, industries, housing, settlements (villages and cities), the environment,infrastructure,jointprojectswithneighboring countries, how the united Germany should

be placed in the broad spectrum of Europe, and

so on. Within these rather broad issues, the

central issues of concern are primarily related to

the improvement of the environment, mainte

nance of a development axis, maintenance of

centers, and coordination of planning policies

with neighboring states. It is these four princi

pal issues that will be the focus of this section.

Regional planning in the former East Germany was called Territorial Planning, which was strictly controlled by the SED (Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands). Its purpose was to increase industrial production in the former East Germany. Therefore, the focus of this

planning was where and how to establish industries. The failure of the functioning of this regional planning was clearly shown in the serious environmental pollution (Fucks, et al., 1996).

Improving the environment

The former East Germany has faced a serious

environmental pollution crisis. The problems

extended to air, soil, river, and ground water

contamination. Levels of air pollution in the

region as of 1990 are illustrated in Fig. 2. As

can be seen in the map, the air pollution was the

worst in the south which had been the manu

facturing center for the region. This led to

severe destruction of the forests in the Erz

Figure 2. Air pollution in the former East Germany (1990). Source: Based on information obtained from the cornelsen & Schroedel (1990):

Berlin and die funf neuen Lander, S. 13.

98 K . Kobayashi

mountainous region. This air pollution not

only affected the landscape, but after unifica

tion, it was brought to light that there were

very serious deleterious effects to the popula

tion living there as well.

The area surrounding Bitterfeld has suffered especially severe environmental contamination . On a yearly basis, 40,000 tons of dust particles , 90,000 tons of sulphur dioxide (SO2), 13 ,000 tons of nitrogen dioxide (NO2), plus other chemical substances such as carbon monoxide (CO), chlorine gas, hydrochloric acid, and other solvents are emitted from the region's factories . These amounts reached several times the total amount emitted in the former West Germany . The cause of this massive air pollution can be traced to the soot and smoke belched from the chemical manufacturing centers in Bitterfeld

(Kobayashi 1992: 307).

A pediatrician practicing in the Bitterfeld region produced a report on the consequences of this air pollution on the region's children . The doctor reported on the increased incidence of chronic disease in the region's children , including such illnesses as bronchitis , asthma, laryngitis, skin disease, and so on . In addition, he went on to state that as much as 95% of the children suffered from some sort of serious infection, and their resistance to such illnesses had become very weak compared to the general

population (Kobayashi 1992: 307).A 1968 investigation found other physical

problems among the children of the Bitterfeld

region. Third and fourth grade children in

Bitterfeld and its surrounding areas were found

to be suffering from bad or poor bone structure .

It was estimated that their bone development

lagged approximately 10 months behind nor

Figure 3. German national parks, nature preserves and natural wildlife refuges . Source: Based on information obtained from the Akademie fur Raumforschung and Landesplanung (1991);

Probleme von Raumordnung, Umweit and Wirtschaftsentwicklung in den neuen Bundeslandern .


Photo 1 Natural wildlife refuge

in the former border re

gions of East Germany in lenburg-Western

Pomerania (Sept. 1995).

mal growth in children of the same age outside

the region (Kobayashi 1992: 307).

River contamination is remarkable for its severity. After unification, some improvements in major pollution of the rivers and streams in the former East Germany could be carried out, but the situation of the Elbe remains extremely bad. This contamination is especially severe in those rivers located near major urban centers. Ground water contamination and old neglected deposits (Altlasten) in the former East Germany have become severe problems (Shirakawa, Teranishi and Yoshida, trans. 1994).3

One of the major causes of this severe pollution throughout the region has been the use of brown, high-sulphur coal as a major energy source throughout industry and as a home heating fuel. Another cause can be traced to the abandoned former Soviet military bases which used little or no environmental protection measures. All kinds of contaminated substances, including huge amounts of manure mixed with various chemicals and agricultural chemicals were left scattered around the bases with very poor or nonexistent drainage protection. The fundamental cause has arisen from

policies creating a grave imbalance between industrial production and preservation of the environment.

Given these conditions, Germany after uni

fi cation moved quickly in a positive manner to

begin to address improving the serious en

vironmental problems as they existed in the

former East Germany. These countermeasures consisted of two major issues. One is the removal of the major sources of contamination and a decrease in the amounts of contamination through the introduction of modern, state-of

-the-art manufacturing facilities in the region. This process includes switching factories and homes from burning brown coal to using oil and natural gas, closing outdated factories, removing the old Soviet military facilities, building and maintaining water and sewage treatment plants, and so on. The other issue is the creation and designation of national parks, nature preserves, and wildlife refuges (biotope) throughout the region (Fig. 3). Following German unification, these regions have been

primarily designated along the former borders of the East and West Germany, along the Baltic coast, and along the border regions of Poland and the Czech Republic (Photo 1). During the Cold War between the East and West, the border regions were fortified to keep the respective populations in place, and as a result, many of these regions, particularly along the border between Germany and Poland, have been relatively untouched by human hands. As a result, these areas were almost pristine and abounded with wild animals and natural vegetation.

Through these and other measures, there has

been a remarkable improvement in the environ

ment of the former East Germany. Since uni

fi cation there has been a conspicuous decrease

in the amount of this gas spewed into the air.

100 K . Kobayashi

In a similar manner, we can see decreases in the

emissions of other gases and substances such as

carbon monoxide and dust particles.

In contrast, nitrous oxides have exhibited

the opposite trend and have been found to be

increasing. In Thuringen state, for example,

when we take up the discharge amounts of

sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, dust particles

and nitrous oxides, we see that there is a tendency for nitrous oxides only to be on the increase (Freistaat Thuringen 1994). This surge in this gas can be attributed to the sudden increase in exhaust gases from automobiles , especially diesel engine-equipped autos. As we can see, there has been a marked improvement in the environmental contamination of the

Figure 4. Regional order planning in the former East Germany . Source: Institut fur Landeskunde (1992): Das vereinte Deutschland , S. 13.


former East Germany, but at the same time, we can see the environmental situation developing similar characteristics to problems found in the former West Germany, where the automobile has been a major cause of air quality problems.

Maintaining developmental axes

Maintaining developmental axes has a primary aim of promoting unification through activation of exchanges (distribution) between the former East and West Germany. It also serves as a basis of rational structuring of a regional system in the unified Germany (Fig. 4).

This system is comprised of the following three points: 1) maintaining developmental axes between the centers4 of the former East Germany; 2) maintaining developmental axes between the centers of the former East and West Germany; and, 3) maintaining developmental axes between the centers of neighboring countries and the former East Germany.5

The principal tenet for this system is trans

portation. A project to create a transportation

network, including upgrading existing ones, has been proceeding at breakneck speed since implementation of the Verkehrsprojekt Deutsche Einheit (Unified German Transportation Plan) in 1992 (Fig. 5).6 Construction of transportation systems in various regions has already been taking place. The goals of this project are concentrated on improving and expanding the nation's railways and major arterial highways

(Autobahn). The Autobahn is being upgraded and expanded to connect the major urban centers of the former East and West Germany, as well as creating developmental axes to regions that have been poorly developed historically, e. g., a plan to construct an Autobahn to the northern region of the former East Germany.

It is not only the main arteries that are under

going improvement and expansion, but second

ary, local access routes are also being upgraded

and expanded. In rapid succession, many of the

main urban centers of the former East and West

Germany and within the former East Germany

Figure 5. Improvement, construction plans for German railways and Autobahns.

Source: Kobayashi, K. (1992) Gekido no togodoitsu (Umbruch im vereinigten Deutschland). Tokyo: Kokon-shoin.

102 K. Kobayashi

have been connected by express trains, IC, and high-speed express trains, ICE. In addition, roads that had been cut off during the days of the former East and West Germany have been reconnected and restored and now serve as part of the trans-national transportation system. New roads are being constructed in various regions where the need arises. The Autobahn system and other major arterial roads have been repaved, widened, and medial strips have been improved. In the old East Germany, the speed limit was set at 100kph, but already in most places, this speed limit has been removed , and traffic now flows in the same manner as in the former West Germany. Within a very short time period, travelling by car in the former East Germany has become surprisingly comfortable and pleasant. Surprisingly quickly, accessibility between the major urban centers of Germany has been greatly improved.

When discussing an overall transportation

plan in Germany, mention must be made of the

railway system which has become important in

the country, due to a sudden increase in the

amount of traffic flow throughout the country

which has caused a concomitant increase in

such environmental problems as air quality and

noise pollution as well as a deterioration in urban structures. Those people concerned with maintaining a high standard of quality of life for the nation are well aware of this situation . Transportation projects giving priority to im

proving and expanding the nation's railway system also will be carried out in the former East Germany.

Maintaining centers

Centers have been divided into three differ

ent levels to maintain the corresponding func

tions and responsibilities appropriate to that

level. They are upper, middle, and lower

centers, respectively.

Following unification, and still continuing today, the former East Germany has experienced a population outflow to the former West Germany. However, when compared to just after unification, the number of people emigrating has been decreasing. The unemployment rate in the former East Germany is now 16%

(1996 census), and it is vitally important to maintain centers as a way of stemming this steady outflow and unacceptably high unem

ployment rate.Twelve centers have been designated as

Figure 6. Upper and middle centers and their environs in Mecklenbung-Western Pomerania . Source: Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (1993): Erstes Landesraumordnungsprogramm .


Photo 2 Repair work on the

Frauenkirche in Dresden

(Aug. 1996).

developmental areas7 in the former East Germany, taking into consideration harmonious regional development. These centers include Berlin/Potsdam, Dresden, Halle/Leipzig, Magdeburg, Rostock, Erfurt/Jena, and others. Berlin/ Potsdam, Erfurt/Jena, and Stralsund/Greifswald have been merged to form one central region

(Fig. 4). In addition, middle and lower centers have been designated. Fig. 6 illustrates the upper, middle, and lower centers for Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania State.

At this point, it is instructive to examine the

development policies of the upper centers

which contain the following five definitive

policies: 1) accumulate more industries and businesses and enhance employment opportu

nities; 2) repair and construct residences; 3) repair, restore, and preserve historically signi

fi cant buildings such as city halls, churches, and

so on (Photo 2); 4) relocate and establish federal

and state offices; and 5) establish universities

and research facilities.

In addition, there are three further issues that must be taken under consideration when developing and maintaining centers. The first is to avoid overconcentration of functions in the Berlin/Potsdam region (Photo 3). It must be borne in mind that the city of Berlin was reunified when all of Germany was unified, and in the process has become a major urban center with a population of 3,470,000 (1993 census), and it has become the federal capital of the

unified Germany.8 After the collapse of the

Cold War between the East and the West, Berlin

must preserve its historic and vital role as a

gateway to Eastern Europe. It can safely be

stated that Berlin will play an increasingly

larger role in the future. Therefore, a federated

state system, to which Germany has steadfastly

adhered, should continue to dampen fears of a

collapse in decentralization of power at least for

the near future.

The regional development plan for Berlin and Brandenburg State has emphasized development of centers (upper and middle) surrounding Berlin such as Frankfurt/Oder, Brandenburg, Neuruppin, and others, to avoid concentration of population in Berlin (Birkholz 1993).

The second major issue that needs to be addressed and implemented regarding these centers is concerned with public transportation facilities such as streetcars, buses, and so on. The streetcar in the urban centers of the former East Germany has played an important role in

providing its citizens with reliable public transportation, and it must be preserved and developed to its fullest potential in the age of the unified Germany (Photo 4). After unification, it has been surprising how rapidly the car has invaded the former East Germany. In fact, the number of cars now ranks as almost even with the former West Germany. As a result, as mentioned earlier, this has led to the car being responsible for serious pollution problems in

104 K. Kobayashi

Photo 3 Reconstruction in the

capital, Berlin (Potsdam

Square) (Aug. 1996).

Photo 4 Streetcar in Rostock (Ju

ly 1993).

the region. These problems must be contained

as much as possible, and the intent of develop

ment plans should reflect these concerns.

The last issue concerns ways of inhibiting

urban sprawl in the region's major centers.

Using a population scale as a measure to com

pare the relative size of urban centers in the former East and West Germany, it can be seen

that centers in the former East Germany are

smaller and more compact. Even though the

cities' occupied space is relatively compact,

they still contain large tracts of open space for

urban land uses, and these compact centers uti

lize a tram system as a form of public transpor

tation more effectively as a countermeasure to

at least slow the increase of auto traffic in their

centers. However, as will be discussed later,

other external pressures are working against

this trend, and it will not be an easy issue to

successfully implement.

Considering measures to coordinate and inte

grate policies between neighboring states and neighboring countries (particularly East

Europe)

With German unification as a turning point,

the structure established during the Cold War

between the East and the West collapsed, and

the time has now come for the region to re

evaluate and coordinate its policies with neigh


boring states and countries through the region

al planning process.

First of all, conferences of the MKRO and

between individual state ministries play a pri

mary role in coordinating and integrating

policies. These conferences can also provide the decision-making process of regional plans

covering multi-state regions, designating

nature preservation areas, settling border

changes, and so on. Close attention, in particu

lar, needs to be paid to the relationship between

Berlin and Brandenburg State. With German

unification, Berlin has become the center of

Brandenburg State. (Senatsverwaltung fur

Stadtentwicklung and Umweltschutz 1990,

1994; Ministerium fur Umwelt, Naturschutz

and Raumordnung des Landes Brandenburg

1995). Without close, intimate cooperation be

tween these two areas in regional planning conferences, there is no possibility of developing

sound, long-lasting solutions between them. Because of the possibility of an impasse actual

ly occurring, there has been a call for the crea

tion of a single political unit of Berlin/Bran

denburg. However, unification of both areas has

not been achieved. It is vitally important

that this issue should be followed cautiously.

Regarding relationships with neighboring countries, an important issue that needs to be considered is that the eastern borders of the European Union (EU) now abut Eastern Europe

(the so-called external border, AuBengrenze). It appears, although we cannot say when, the evolution and expansion of the EU will ineviably continue. At present, the Vishgrad countries of Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungry, because of their close relationship with Germany, will have the best chance for membership in the EU. In order for these nations to be considered for future membership in the EU, they need to insure that democracy has become firmly entrenched, and they need to be actively pursuing formation of a market economy. In this scenario, Germany can play a more active role in

promoting their successful entry into the EU and assisting the Vishgrad countries in attaining their goals.

With this orientation as a backdrop, cooperative projects between Germany and its bordering nations have been taking place. One exam

ple is the "Euro-Regions" such as Pomerania,

Viadrina, Neisse-Nysa, Egrensis, and others. As

such, they have been receiving support from

the EU to assist in establishing reciprocal ex

changes of ideas and policies in order to help in

developing their regions on a coordinated basis.

Cooperative projects among Germany, Poland and the Czech Republic have also been

fl ourishing. In particular bilateral projects with Poland have been proceeding apace. As an example, the flow of traffic beyond their respective borders has been improved. More concretely, checkpoints have been upgraded, bridges have been expanded or built, and major arterial routes connecting the two nations have been upgraded and expanded (e. g., Berlin

- Frankfurt-Poznan-Warsaw, and Berlin-Cottbus- Forst-Wroclaw). In addition, nature preserves

have been designated along the border, and cities separated by the effects of World War II have begun to include policies promoting reintegration of these centers in their regional development plans (Loboda and Ciok 1994; Grimm and Weigel 1995). Some of these divided cities include Frankfurt/Oder (Germany)

- Slubice (Poland), Guben-Guben, Forst-Zasieki, Gorlitz-Zgorzelec, and others. They have coordinated and integrated their city planning organizations, coordinated traffic flows, constructed joint, modern sewage systems and

garbage recycling facilities.There is no limit to the kinds of endeavors

or the degree of coordination in the regional

planning process. Bilateral projects have been set up spanning a broad spectrum of activities, including, but not limited to, the economy, society and culture. These activities are occurring not only at the national and state levels, but also extend down to the local administrative and individual level.

Regional Problems in the

Former East Germany

The former East Germany has accomplished

a remarkable turnaround. However, as these

changes progress, various regional problems

have begun to appear. Four of the more serious

issues facing the region will be the focus

of closer examination. These issues are: 1) a

106 K. Kobayashi

severe decline in services in rural areas; 2) urban sprawl in the cities and suburbs; 3) delays in urban redevelopment projects; and, 4) the collapse of manufacturing areas.

A severe decline in services in rural areas

The population density of Germany in 1989 is illustrated in Fig. 7. As shown, the density in the northern region of the former East Germany is extremely sparse, with wide areas having a distribution of less than 50 people per square kilometer. This low population density shows a region with many small, scattered rural villages where it is difficult to offer any kind of efficient community services. This situation existed under the former East German government as well, but the government response was to set up a network of Konsum (union-organized business facility and store carrying daily necessities), a day care center, a nursery school, and a medical clinic. Through such a system, the region could be provided with the bare minimum services to get by in these scattered rural communities.

Following German unification, these facilities have completely disappeared. The main culprit for this demise has been the introduction of a market economy into the region. The agricultural workforce has been drastically reduced, causing greater unemployment which has led to massive emigration out of the area. This, in turn, has brought about an even further deterioration in the region because the local economy can no longer be sustained efficiently or profitably. The result has been rampant shuttering of various facilities. Today, the drastic decline in the rural population with a concomitant decline in various services is creating a never-ending spiral in which an everincreasing number of people flee from the area which then causes more disruption and decline in life-sustaining services to the rural communities (Kobayashi 1996; Wollkopf 1996).

This situation is especially painful for the

elderly who cannot drive and for single women.

Before unification, it was possible for these citi

zens to buy their daily necessities from the

Konsum. Mothers could leave their young chil

dren at the local day care center or nursery

school before going off to work. But as stated

above, these facilities no longer exist, and it is

now practically impossible for this segment of

the population to maintain their former

lifestyle. Their daily life has been made in

sufferable. The introduction of a market econo

my has mercilessly cut off the weak from

almost any kind of productive life.

In contrast, even for those who have access to a car, life has become at most inconvenient but not unbearable. With major upgrading and expansion of the region's roads, it has become a simple matter of taking the family in the car to the nearest urban center for shopping. Due to the increase in ease of access, there has been an increase in the kind and amount of goods available in the cities, and as a result, consumption has increased beyond what it was in the former East Germany.

Urban sprawl in the cities and suburbs

As mentioned earlier, one of the unique features of urban centers in the former East Germany is their relative compactness compared to similar sized cities in the former West Germany. This was a deliberate policy adopted by the former socialist government as a means of maintaining tight control over its inhabitants and affirming tight management controls of the economy. This is how the term "command-type urban centers" came into being during the era of the former East Germany. In addition, because the number of autos was severely limited, it was necessary to keep the cities as compact as

possible to provide the most efficient and effective public transportation system. After unification, expansion of the region's urban centers (urbanization) has been occurring. In fact, it has been progressing at breakneck speed even beyond what any former West German cities have experienced. This urbanizing trend is especially noticeable in such major urban centers as Berlin, Leipzig, Dresden, Magdeburg, Schwerin, and others.

Population trends in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania State for the 1992-1993 period are shown in Fig. 8. There have been marked population increases in and around the major cities of Schwerin, Rostock, Neubrandenburg, and others, and one possible explanation for this sudden spurt may be due to the rapid expan


Figure 7. Population dersity of Germany (1989).

Source: Federal Ministry for Regional Planning, Building and Urban Development (1991): 1991 Regional Planning Report of the Federal Republic of Germany, p. 18.

sion of urban services to their outlying dis

tricts.

This sudden burst in urbanization is a clear

example of how market economy forces can

108 K. Kobayashi

Figure 8. Changes in population in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. Source: Based on information obtained from Statistisches Jahrbuch des Landes Mechlenburg-Vorpommern. Caution: Black districts represent government districts where population changes could not be measured.

affect regions. Concrete factors have also contributed to this phenomenon, including the precipitous rise in the number of autos, an abrupt decline in agriculture around the urban centers,

and the complex nature of land ownership in the central districts. In addition, during the

period of confusion created just after unification, a lot of the farmland around the urban districts was bought out (primarily by former West Germans), and due to the spread of urbanization in such a short period of time and

beyond anyone's expectations, city planning efforts have been unable to cope with the rapid changes taking place. As a result, the former compact cities have been experiencing tremendous growth pressures. Urban sprawl has become a conspicuous part of the landscape in and around these urban centers. This phenomenon has created a serious problem regarding the destruction of the landscape and deterioration in the living environment. Leipzig is a

good example of what has been transpiring. Located in the northeast region of Saxony State, it has a population of 494,000 (1993). The city has experienced a major build up of housing subdivisions followed by shopping centers and then industrial parks in the surrounding

suburban regions. This urbanization is especially prominent along the Autobahns (routes 9 and 14) that run to the northwest. Within the area, successive mammoth shopping centers and industrial parks have sprung up along major arterial roads, and once vast farmlands have been broken up and subdivided with the remaining open spaces scattered throughout the region. This has created a prominent landscape feature of urban land use mixed with ever-decreasing farmlands (Photo 5).

Delays in urban redevelopment projects

When the residential environment of the former East Germany is compared with the former West Germany, it is found to be infe

rior (Bundesministerium fur Raumordnung, Bauwesen and Stadtebau 1994). Almost all

persons setting foot in the former East Germany from the former West Germany have the

same strong impressions. The former East German urban centers are plagued by a poor retail service sector, antiquated and rundown edifices that look as though they have not been touched since the end of World War II, abandoned and forlorn houses still located in the center of the city, residential buildings with


Photo 5 Urban sprawl in Leipzig

(Sept. 1995).

little or no surrounding green tracts of land,

multistory residential complexes (called Plat

tenbau) built with substandard building ma

terials (called Bausubstanz), inadequate commu

nity services, narrow roads with little pave

ment and full of potholes, inadequate sidewalks

for strolling.

Following German unification, positive ef

forts have been made to upgrade and improve

the residential environment of urban centers in

the former East Germany through implementa

tion of urban redevelopment projects. Un

fortunately, however, these projects have

been unable to proceed according to schedule.

Today, when one visits districts where urban

redevelopment is taking place, he/she will see a

rather odd sight. Repairs on some buildings

have been proceeding at a rapid clip. In just a

short period of time, the building has received a

beautiful facelift and can hardly be recognized

as it once was. But then when you look around,

you can see other buildings scattered throughout the district that have remained completely

untouched and still stand in all their dishev

elled appearance. This stark contrast between

the beautifully refurbished and still wornout,

antiquated buildings strikes a discordant note

in one's sensibilities (Photo 6). This disparity

has been brought about by the clearness or

unclearness of ownership rights to the various

buildings, i.e., those buildings having clear title

of ownership have been altered quickly while

those lacking substantiation of clear ownership

languish as they are. No building can undergo

repairs if there is the slightest doubt regarding

clear ownership.

During a period of some 40 years in the

former East Germany, many residents left the

country and emigrated elsewhere. Their num

bers added up to a few million (Sander 1988).

Most of them emigrated to the former West

Germany, but some of them migrated as far

away as Israel and the United States.

When the former East German government found an abandoned building or house, it as

sumed the ownership rights from the former East German citizen. Then, in more than a few

cases, these old, vacant dwellings were torn down and the government built a new one in its

place. The building was sold, resulting in the land owner and dwelling owner being two

different people. Many of those who left are now returning to the region and demanding the return of their land and dwellings. The number of these claims for return of a dwelling has

swollen to 1/4 to 1/3 of all buildings in the urban areas.9 Even at the present time, there are numerous instances in which outright ownership cannot be clarified. And now, because of these property ownership problems, residential repairs have not been able to proceed as much as expected. It appears that considerably more time is required before the desired objectives can be obtained in the various urban redevelopment projects in the region.10

Collapse of industrial areas

In the former East Germany, the manufactur

ing sector was also administered directly by the

government through state ownership (national

property) or cooperatives. A distinctive feature of this public ownership system was that in its

zeal to increase production, the state did not

regard production efficiency and product quali

ty as being particularly important. In this

planned economy, cost and efficiency were

110 K. Kobayashi

Photo 6 Reconstruction of the center of Schwerin (Sept. 1996).

neglected in favor of using the labor force to its

fullest capacity. Also, the principle of competi

tion between business enterprises was consid

ered as unimportant or unnecessary. That the

amount of labor that was employed in this

system was hard to imagine illustrates the con

sequences of these past policies.

It goes without saying that the collapse of

these enterprises following unification had a

significant, negative impact on the region. Not

only was the East European market lost, there

was also a huge inflow of former West German

products into the region (Oba 1993).

Most of the manufacturing areas in the former East Germany were located in the southern states of Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia. A unique feature of the manufacturing centers in these states was that they were mostly made up of a single industry or manufacturer (called Monostruktur). Such urban centers as Eisenhuttenstadt, Schwedt, and Cottbus could be classified as single industry manufacturing centers. The collapse of the manufacturing sector had a particularly pernicious impact on these centers. They suffered higher unemployment than elsewhere, resulting in a greater outflow of people in search of

jobs leaving these areas. Those that remained have had to cope with an increase in such social

problems as alcoholism and domestic violence.At this point, it is instructive to look a little

closer at what has transpired in the city of

Eisenhuttenstadt.11 The city was built in 1950, and in the same year a huge steel complex, the Eisenhuttenstadt Combinant Ost (EKO) was set up and a residential complex was constructed for the laborers who would man the mills. EKO chose this region because of good transportation connections. It was convenient to haul the raw steel-making materials, iron ore and coal, from outlying regions (iron ore from Russia and coal from Poland).

EKO undertook major expansion projects. The labor force which was 5,500 in 1964, swelled to 13,000 in 1989. At the same time, Eisenhuttenstadt city's population grew from 39,000 in 1966 to 52,000 by 1980 (Stadt Eisenhuttenstadt 1993).

The city was laid-out and built in the typical socialist style of those years. The main thoroughfare, Magistrelle, started at the main square, Demonstration Square, and extended outward. Such important facilities and edifices as the communist party headquarters, city hall and other government offices were located along this avenue. In addition, major business facilities, a theater and cinema, and so on, also were located along this central artery. Highrise apartment complexes for workers were constructed in wide open areas surrounding the main thoroughfare.

Large-scale changes took place in the city

following German unification. Until 1994, the

EKO steel complex was under direct manage


ment control of Treuhand, the public trust cor

poration established by the German government to privatize former state enterprises. Then, in January, 1995, the EKO complex was bought by a Belgian manufacturer, Cockerill Sambre. In a six-year period, the EKO complex's labor force shrank from 13,000 in 1989 to 2,500 by 1995, or 1/5 of its former size, resulting in a surge in the unemployed (Stadt Eisenhuttenstadt 1994). Following unification, the city's unemployment rate has climbed to 17 -18% . Looking closer, these figures are even more severe for women, at 60%. As of 1993, the number of unemployed seeking new work had climbed to 6,800 (Stadt Eisenhuttenstadt 1993). As shown by these figures, the unemployment situation in Eisenhuttenstadt is severe, in fact, the rate is higher than that for all of the former East Germany.

The issue of the availability of other possible sources of employment needs to be addressed. Since there are few other businesses located relatively close to the EKO complex, those former laborers seeking employment have been forced to search in the former West Germany. However, because those labor markets are so far from Eisenhuttenstadt, it is next to impossible for those lucky enough to find a job to commute from the city to their job and back everyday. Therefore, they must choose between moving their families to the former West Germany, or finding accommodations for themselves for weekdays and coming back to their homes and families on the weekends. Both of these trends are increasing in Eisenhuttenstadt.

With the development of this situation following unification, there has been an increase in the number of families in which the wage earners live separately from their family. Also, as the number of unemployed increases, there is a concomitant increase in the number of incidences of alcoholism and domestic violence. Such crimes as theft, and others, have seen a conspicuous rise. As an example, in 1993, the number of handbag and auto thefts in Eisenhuttenstadt city had reached 5,889 which would have been virtually unthinkable in the former East Germany (Stadt Eisenhuttenstadt 1993). In Eisenhuttenstadt, German unification has brought many profound changes.

To mention some of these changes in the agriculture system in brief, agricultural organizations such as the LPG and VEG were com

pletely broken up. Family farms and such legal agricultural production organizations as

agricultural cooperatives and joint-stock companies have been newly organized. Concomitantly, some profound problems have emerged in rural areas, the most conspicuous ones including 1) a great increase in the number of the unemployed, especially women; and 2) rapid depopulation of rural areas (Kobayashi 1994).

Conclusion

This study has attempted to describe some of

the regional planning issues that have been

developed and executed as well as illustrating

some regional problems that have arisen in the

former East Germany. The features of the re

gional planning achieved in the former East

Germany are as follows.

First, there has been a major effort to provide

efficient access between the former East and West Germany. Because such access was almost nonexistent during the past 40 years, the emphasis on improving access between the regions can be considered a forgone conclusion. Today, existing railway systems and roads are being upgraded and expanded while new links are being constructed at a feverish pace. One example of the kinds of ongoing projects that are being undertaken is the Verkersprojekt Deutsche Einheit (unified German transportation

plan).Secondly, regional plans have been made to

solve many of the problems that occurred in the

former East and West Germany. Plans have

also been carried out to utilize the unique, pos

itive elements that still persist in the former

East Germany. These include strong, positive

environmental policies such as the designation

of nature preserves, and a good, reliable, expan

sive public transportation system in urban

centers using the upgrading and expansion of

tram systems, and so on. An issue that was not

raised in this paper but should be mentioned is

the creation of large-scale corporate manage

ment organizations that have made use of the

112 K. Kobayashi

strengths or merits of former socialist collectiv

ist policies.

The third issue concerns major efforts that are being taken to coordinate and integrate reciprocal regional planning issues with neighboring East European nations. The extensive, wide-ranging exchange of information and

policy matters, and the beginning of the development of "Euro-regions" has been clearly described.

At the same time, however, various regional

problems within the former East Germany have arisen. Changes brought about by German uni

fi cation have proceeded too quickly and abruptly. This has led to four particularly severe

problems in the region, i.e., a drastic decline in services in rural areas, the spread of urban sprawl in the cities and suburbs, delays in urban redevelopment projects, and the collapse of industrial areas. Policies to revive and develop the former East Germany have been melded with the introduction of a market economy, and the shifts brought about by the change in economic systems have been proceeding at a feverish pace as well. It goes without saying that many of the regional problems facing the region today are a legacy of the policies and actions undertaken by the former government.

From this point it on, it can be safely stated

that the development of the former East Germa

ny will proceed through regional development

policies administered and enforced by au

thorities in the region. As mentioned earlier,

resolution of regional problems is also moving

in the same direction.

German unification, which caused the revolu

tion in East Europe, has altered the old struc

ture of Europe. One unambiguous assumption

that can be made is that the EU will continue to

evolve and expand. During this process, what

role will Germany play? We have to observe

carefully to see what kinds of regional policies

Germany may adopt in order to realize greater,

more unified regional systems for both Germa

ny and Europe.

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to express his gratitude to Prof.

J. Maier, Dept. of Geography at University of

Beyreuth, Prof. P. Meusburger, Dept. of Geography at University of Heidelberg, Dr. M. Wollkopf of the Leipzig Institute of Regional Geography, Prof. Dr. F. Voss, Dept. of Geography at TU Berlin and others for their kind assistance in the completion of this manuscript. Thanks go to Asst. Prof. Gary B. White, Faculty of Education, Gifu University for his assistance in the preparation of the English manuscript. The author also wishes to express his gratitude and appreciation to the Monbusho International Scientific Research Program and Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). The results of this research were first presented in the Spring of 1996 at the General Conference of the Association of Japanese Geographers, and the present manuscript is a revised and amended version of the original presentation.

(Received Mar. 29, 1997)(Accepted Oct. 10, 1997)

Notes

1.Amtsregion is not set up in all Land.

2.Following German unification, Berlin and five

states of the former East Germany have been

restructured. This has resulted in creating var

ious problems, especially between Berlin and

Brandenburg State. The City has now become

the center of the State. Therefore, Berlin and

Brandenburg State have had to coordinate and

integrate their regional planning policies.

Against this background, the two regions

have been meeting in conferences in order to

resolve their differences. On May 5, 1996, a

regional vote on unification was conducted in

the two regions. While the citizens of Ber

lin voted in favor of unification, the citizens

of Brandenburg State were opposed to such

a move. Based on these results, efforts to

unify them have been dropped. In addition,

Verflechtungsraum, consisting of Berlin with its

outlying districts including Brandenburg, has

been organized in order to provide systematic

development of this district.

3.A special issue of Stern magazine dated Aug. 27, "Deutschland im Umwelt-Test" (A German

Environmental Test), provides a clear description of the environmental pollution situation in

Germany.4.It is described as regional development areas in

Fig. 6. Regional development areas represent the upper centers and their environs.

5.An account of this point is provided in the next section.

6.Already in regions where Autobahn construction is proceeding, opposition movements have

sprung up.7.Development areas consist of the upper region

al centers and their environs. It is in the upper centers and their environs that we can see the


remarkable progress of urbanization. There

fore, it is vitally important that regional plans

in these upper regional centers include their

surrounding districts. It was against this back

ground of rapid urbanization that the concept of development areas was articulated.

8.However, the functions of the Federal Capital, Berlin, are under construction.

9.Through interviews with Bund and Land officials such as the Bundesministerium fur Raumordnung, Bauwesen and Stadtebau and Sachsisches Staatsministerium fur Umwelt and Landesentwicklung.

10.But, hereafter, urban redevelopment projects should be able to proceed more smoothly. Even if outright ownership of buildings cannot be clearly established, it should be possible, in

the public interest, to proceed with building repairs.

11.Sasaki has provided a detailed account of this point in his monograph (Sasaki 1996).

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Documents

Regional Planning and Regional Problems in the Former East