Regional Autonomy for Tibet

8/9/2019 Regional Autonomy for Tibet

1/28

REGIONAL AUTONOMY FOR TIBET: A VIABLE RESOLUTION OF

THE SINO-TIBETAN CONFLICT

By Tenzin Lekshay

Coordinator, India-Tibet Coordination Office

INTRODUCTION

The contemporary Sino-Tibetan history began after the Chinese Communists acceded to power.

Although the Tibetan Government enjoyed de facto independent status since 1911, the Chinese

Communists occupied Tibet in 1951. Under the Peoples Republic of Chinas (PRC) repressive

rule over Tibet, the Tibetans have faced tremendous hardships, and Chinese tyranny for more

than 50 years. Over 1.2 million Tibetans have died as a result of Chinese occupation and 6,000

monasteries have been destroyed. The Tibetans have become a minority in their own land. The

PRC has imposed socio-cultural injustice, political repression, religious condemnation, and

economic disparity. The TGiE, under the leadership of the Dalai Lama has been pursuing a non-violent means of resolving the Tibetan issues. The Tibetan Government in Exile (TGiE) is

seeking genuine autonomy within the PRC.

I have chosen Tibet on the ground that Tibet is a representative case of a minority that has been

subject to repression by a dominant majority, the Han, is tied to a particular territory and seeks

some form of autonomy from the central state apparatus in redress for the human rights

violations it has endured. Accordingly, I will argue that regional autonomy for Tibet is a viable

solution for the long-standing Sino-Tibetan dispute.

The first chapter addresses the concepts of ethnicity and national identity. It deals with the

definition of ethnicity and ethnopolitical groups, and apply them to the case of Tibet. The second

chapter describes the history of Sino-Tibetan relations. It will address the argument that the

1


2/28

historical loss of political autonomy is an incentive to ethnopolitical groups to take action and

apply it to the case of Tibet. Chapter Three will describe the present situation inside Tibet, in

particular, the human rights situation which includes political injustice, economic inequality,

religious intolerance, and ecological disturbances. Chapter Four describes the Middle Way

Approach of the TGiE. The TGiE does not challenge the subordinate status of Tibet. Rather it

seeks more limited autonomy for ethnic Tibetans providing them space in which they may

preserve their culture, traditions, language and environment.

THE CONCEPT OF ETHNICITY AND ITS APPLICATION TO TIBET

China claims that Tibet has been incorporated into a unified China for more than 1,500 years

when the Tang Princess Wen Cheng married the Tibetan King, Songsten Gampo.1 But, the TGiE

based in Dharamshala, India under the leadership of Dalai Lama challenges this historical

distortion by the Chinese government, declaring that Tibet enjoyed de facto independence since

1911.2 In 1950, soon after Chinese Communist Party (CCP), under Mao Zedong, acceded to

power, Radio Peking announced that Tibet was a part of China and the Peoples Liberation Army

(PLA) invaded Tibet. The Government of Tibet had no other choice but to sign the infamous 17

Point Agreement, declaring Tibet to be incorporated into the Communist regime.3 Soon after

that, Tibetans became one of the 55 ethnic minorities of the Peoples Republic of China (PRC).

Before the Chinese invasion, the Tibetans were not aware of the concept of ethnicity. Tibet was

an isolated, landlocked area composed of a fairly homogeneous group of people connected by a

common culture, traditions, lifestyles, language and government. But after the Chinese invasion,

the term ethnicity played a vital role in maintaining their national identity. Ted Gurr defines

ethnic groups as a people who share a distinctive and enduring collective identity based on a

1 Tibet- its ownership and human rights situation, Information Office of the State Council of the Peoples Republic

of China, September 1992, http://www.china.org.cn/e-white/tibet/9-1.htm, (accessed on March 23, 2008).2 Tibet-Proving Truth from Fact, The Department of Information and International Relations, TGiE, Third, updated

edition 1996, pp. 16; ICJ, Tibet: Human Rights and the Rule of Law, December 1997, p. 43; Verdict of the

Permanent Tribunal of People (Session on Tibet, Strasbourg, November 1992) claims that Tibet was, before 1949-

1950 an independent state for the purposes of international law, Tibet: The Position in Internatioanal Law, Serindia,

London, 1994, p.147.3 The first point of the 17 Point Agreement stated The Tibetan people shall return to the big family of the

Motherland- the Peoples Republic of China.

2
http://www.china.org.cn/e-white/tibet/9-1.htmhttp://www.china.org.cn/e-white/tibet/9-1.htm


3/28

belief in common descent and on shared experiences and cultural traits. They are also referred to

as communal and identity groups.4 Tibetans are clearly an ethnic group as defined by Gurr:

They have a distinct culture, dress, religious beliefs, language and history. More importantly,

Tibetans also have a strong national identity. In contradistinction to those groups whose belief in

a shared history is largely mythical, Tibetan identity is molded by its age-old traditions including

Buddhism, language and over two thousand years of history. The Tibetan ethnic identity

determined by their security, status, material wellbeing, and access to political power, has

become highly salient.5 Tibetans are an ethnopolitical group whose ethnicity has had political

consequences, including differential treatment of group members. As a result, political action on

behalf of group interests has become more prominent.

According to the Chinese white paper on Regional Autonomy for Ethnic Minorities in China,

China claims to be a united multi-ethnic state with a long history. The unification of China began

during the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC). In 1951, China invaded Tibet and then assimilated

Tibetan territories into different Chinese provinces. At present, China regards Tibet as

comprising only the Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR), while the TGiE claims that Tibet

constitutes all three of the traditional provinces of Tibet.6 Two of these traditional provinces have

been incorporated into four different Chinese provinces consisting of Qinghai, Sichuan, Yunnan

and Gansu. Greater Tibet or ethnographic Tibet is broadly divided into one autonomous

region, twelve autonomous Prefectures (including the autonomous regions which are shared with

other nationalities), one Autonomous County and two Prefecture-level cities. Because China

considers Tibet as being limited to TAR, and the autonomy granted to the Tibetans is only in

name.7

In the early twentieth century, Tibet has seen many political developments. The British

Expedition led by Colonel Young Husband in 1904, Manchus invasion in 1911, the Declaration

4Ted Gurr, People vs. States, Minority at Risk in the New Century, United States Institute of Peace Press,Washington D.C., 2004, p. 5.5Ibid, p. 6.6 Horowitz says that territorial boundaries help shape the level of group identity that emerges as most salient. Ethnic

Groups in Conflict, University of California Press, 2000, p 66.7 Deepa Khosla, Tibetans: Dim Prospects for Settling a Protracted Ethnonational conflict, in Ted Gurrs People vs.

States, Minority at Risk in the New Century, United States Institute of peace, 2000, p.212.

3


4/28

of Tibetan Independence in 1913 and occupation by the Chinese Communist regime in 1951. 8

Great Britain had a special interest in Tibet but was cautious about recognizing Tibets de facto

independence. Late Dr. Dawa Norbu wrote that the drastic shift in the balance of power in South

Asia and Northeast Asia posed major difficulties in ensuring Tibetan autonomy. Because

Tibetan autonomy did not enjoy protection by a great power in South Asia, its autonomy was at

the mercy of China.9

Tibetans, as members of an identifiable ethnopolitical group, suffer systematic differential

treatment, which is often repressive in nature. Tibetans suffer economical, political, and social

disadvantages relative to Han Chinese and other ethnic groups in China. Tibetans are defending

and promoting their self-defined interests through political mobilization.10 The seven early

warning indicators of acute ethnic conflicts identified by Vayrynen and Leatherman, including

the degree of structural tension, territorial disputes, social unrest, cultural tension, government

repression, influence of external actors and legitimacy of political governance, clearly indicate

that ethnic conflicts in Tibet is now acute.11

As a national people, Tibetans have lost their state status following the Chinese invasion of Tibet

but still preserve their cultural and linguistic distinctiveness. Tibetans are also seeking greater

autonomy within the PRC. On the other hand, Tibetans also comprise a minority people, that is a

group based on some combination of race, ethnicity, immigrant origins, economic status and

religion. Though Tibetans are considered to be an ethnonational group, that is a people

concentrated in a single territory, have a history of organized political autonomy within their

own state, a traditional ruler, or a traditional government, Tibetans can also be considered

minority people in so far as they have become a disadvantaged group in the PRC.12

Whether understood as a national or minority people, Tibetans are at risk where the Chinese

government exercises long term and pervasive political, economic and cultural discrimination.

8 Tsepon W.D. Shakabpa, Tibet: A Political Hisotry, Potala Publications, 1988, pp. 205-314.9 Dawa Norbu, Chinas Tibet Policy, Curzon, 2001, p. 176.10Ted Gurr. People vs. States, Minorities at Risk in the New Century, United States Institute of Peace, 2002, p. 71.11Timothy Sisk, Power Sharing and International Mediation in Ethnic Conflicts, United States Institute of Peace,2002, p. 22.12 Ted Gurr. People vs. States, Minorities at Risk in the New Century, United States Institute of Peace, 2002, p. 17.

4


5/28

The ethnopolitical conflict in Tibet is largely caused by the Chinese governments policy

regarding Tibet. First, the PRC invaded Tibet, then forcibly imposed communist styled reforms,

cultural assimilation and socio-economic discrimination. The Tibetans quest for internal self-

determination since the 1950s has been crushed by the Chinese policy of containment.

The Dalai Lama has long been prepared to discuss autonomy rather than the complete

independence of Tibet with the PRC authorities. Though there have been several channels of

dialogue opened in the past between the PRC and TGiE on resolving the Tibetan issue, the

matter still remains unsolved. The official Chinese position continues to be characterized by

three points: Tibet was historically a part of China; the liberation of Tibet has been beneficial to

Tibet; and international criticism over the PRCs policies in Tibet constitute interference in the

internal affairs of the PRC. Failing to find a compromise solution increases the chances that

violence will erupt over nonnegotiable issues. Ironically, the right of national minorities to

regional autonomy is enshrined in the Chinese constitution and the Chinese Regional National

Autonomy Law (RNAL) respectively. In a sense, TGiE is asking that the PRC grant the Tibetans

what is no more than its due under existing Chinese law. If the PRC implements its own law,

Tibet will remain an inalienable part of China and peace and stability will be restored. According

to Sisk, constitutional provisions may not spell out the public policy strategies to ameliorate the

effects of past discrimination or comparative inequality but make the important symbolic

statement that the aim of the polity is to seek redistribution.13

THE HISTORY OF TIBET AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH CHINA

Tibet has 2000 years of recorded history as a distinct culture, tradition, government and

geographical entity. Traditionally, Tibet consists of three regions: Utsang (Central), Dotoe

(Eastern) and Domey (Northeastern). The geographical boundaries of these regions are natural.

Tibet is considered as Roof of the World with an average altitude of 4,000 meters above sea

level. It is surrounded by India, Nepal and Bhutan in the south, China in the east, Pakistan and

Afghanistan in the west and Mongolia and East Turkistan in the north.

13Timothy Sisk, Power Sharing and International Mediation in Ethnic Conflicts, United States Institute of Peace,2002, p. 65.

5


6/28

Because Songtsen Gampo, the 33rd King of Tibet married Princess Wen Cheng, a daughter of the

Chinese Emperor Tai-Tsung, the 1992 Chinese whitepaper on Tibet argued that Tibet was a part

of China. The Chinese emperor, however, gave his daughter to the Tibetan king to reconcile with

him as the emperor feared that Songsten Gampo might attack him. The successors of Songsten

Gampo engaged in war many times with Chinese emperors and on at least two occasions,

defeated China. The Tibetan defeat of the Chinese led to the peace treaties of 783 A.D. and 821

A.D. Indeed, the stone pillar in Lhasa erected in 823 A.D. along with pillars in Changan and at

Guge Meru bore witness to Tibets victory.14 The inscription on the pillar stated: This solemn

agreement has established a great epoch when Tibetans shall be happy in the land of Tibet and

Chinese in the land of China.15

After the assassination of the last monarch in 842 A.D., Tibet disintegrated into princely states

without any centralized authority for more than 400 years. In 1247, Godan Khan, a grandson of

Genghis Khan, vested Sakya Pandita with the authority to rule over the thirteen Myriarchies of

Tibet.16Later, Kublai Khan gave Phagpa, nephew of Sakya Pandita, the authority to rule over the

three regions of Tibet. At that time, Emperor Du-Dzong of the Sung Dynasty ruled China.

Chinese official documents explicitly referred to Tibet as being part of China since the 13 th

century.17 Historical fact contradicts that claim. By 1279, the Mongol Khanate had conquered the

whole of China and established a central government under the title of Yuan Dynasty. Well

before Kublai Khan had unified and conquered China, he had already vested in Phagpa the

authority to rule over Tibet. Hence, the Chinese had no valid claim to Tibet.

Since the time of Kublai Khan until the last emperor of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, the

relationship between the two states was politico-religious and was termed a priest-patron

relationship. Both parties had mutual responsibilities to each other. Tibetan lamas played the role

of priest and attended many Chinese courts as the religious leader. As patron, Chinese emperors,

acted as Tibets protector. However, Tibet fought many wars without Chinese involvement, such

14 Tsepon Shakabpa, Tibet: A Political History of Tibet, Potala Publication, 1988, p. 49.15 The Three Dharma Kings of Tibet,http://www.tibet.com/Status/3kings.html(accessed on March 25, 2008).16 Thirteen Myriarchies (Trikor Chuksum) consist of areas including all the three traditional province of Tibet17 Chinas Tibet: Facts and Figures 2002,http://www.china.org.cn/english/tibet-english/lishi.htm(accessed on

March 25, 2008).

6
http://www.tibet.com/Status/3kings.htmlhttp://www.tibet.com/Status/3kings.htmlhttp://www.tibet.com/Status/3kings.htmlhttp://www.china.org.cn/english/tibet-english/lishi.htmhttp://www.china.org.cn/english/tibet-english/lishi.htmhttp://www.china.org.cn/english/tibet-english/lishi.htmhttp://www.tibet.com/Status/3kings.htmlhttp://www.china.org.cn/english/tibet-english/lishi.htm


7/28

as its war with the Indian Kingdom of Jammu in 1841, Nepal in 1856 and British India in 1904.

After the Nationalist government toppled the Qing Dynasty of China in 1911, the Thirteenth

Dalai Lama repatriated all Manchu and Chinese officials based in Tibet to China and declared

the independence of Tibet in 1913. Many western scholars believed that Tibet enjoyed the de

facto status of an independent state from 1913 to 1951. During that period, the Tibetan

government administered its own internal affairs with the creation of a postal service and its own

currency, national anthem, national flag and national treasury.18

TIBET UNDER COMMUNIST CHINA

Communist China invaded Tibet to liberate it soon after the communists acceded to power in

1949. China claims that it liberated Tibet from feudalism, serfdom, the Kuomintang, and foreign

imperialists.19 However, liberation was just a means of acquiring full control over Tibet. The

Tibetan government was compelled to sign the 17 Point Agreement in 1951, which purports to

safeguard the Tibetan people. In general, before 1954, China confined its policy to foreign aid

rather than foreign conquest. But in 1955, Mao introduced a reform High Tide of Socialist

Transformation in almost all minority nationality areas. In Tibet, the Preparatory Committee for

the Tibet Autonomous Region was instituted to effectively transfer political authority to the

Chinese Government. The 17 Point Agreement promised to enable Tibet to exercise its right tonational regional autonomy under the unified leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)

in accordance with the nationalities policy laid down in the Common Program of the Chinese

Peoples Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC). China, however violated its promise that

the political system of the Tibetan government under the leadership of Dalai Lama would remain

unchanged.20

After his visit to China in 1954, the Dalai Lama first learned of the Preparatory Committee for

the Tibet Autonomous Region, which consisted of 51 members, of whom all except five were

18 Mevyn Goldstein, On Modern Tibetan History: Moving beyond Stereotypes, in McKay, A, Tibet and Her

Neighbours: A History, Hansjorg Mayer, 2003, p. 217.19 Michael C. Davis, The Quest for Self-Rule in Tibet,Journal of Democracy - Volume 18, Number 4, October

2007, p. 166; China, Tibet and Chinese nation,http://www.index-china.com/index-english/Tibet-s.html(accessed onMarch 26, 2008).20ICJ, Tibet: Human Rights and the Rule of Law, December 1997, p. 50.

7
http://www.index-china.com/index-english/Tibet-s.htmlhttp://www.index-china.com/index-english/Tibet-s.htmlhttp://www.index-china.com/index-english/Tibet-s.htmlhttp://www.index-china.com/index-english/Tibet-s.html


8/28

Tibetans. The Dalai Lama was appointed as the Chairman and the Panchen Lama as the Vice-

Chairman of the committee and their main task was to prepare for the regional autonomy of

Tibet. All the members of the committee were subject to the approval of the Chinese

government. This constituted an infringement of the 17 th Point Agreement to which the Chinese

government had agreed.21

The peaceful coexistence of the Han and Tibetans under the 17 Point Agreement did not last long

even though Mao Zedong initially adopted a policy of moderation towards Tibet. Maos

integration theory was intended to gradually transform Tibet.22 Hence, Maos government

encouraged the pursuit of cordial relations between the Han Chinese and Tibetans by

emphasizing the improvement of the conditions in Tibet. At first, they refrained from repressing

the Tibetan culture and religion. Moreover occupying Peoples Liberation Army (PLA) was

required to be fair in buying and not permitted arbitrarily to take even a needle or thread from the

people. This rule of conduct was supported by a strict behavioral code. When democratic

reforms were adopted in Sichuan in late 1955, the Tibetan rebellion turned into a bloody

uprising. This uprising continued to build a momentum until the 1959 uprising in Lhasa.23

Fearing that China might attempt to assassinate him, the Dalai Lama was forced to flee the

country and took up asylum in India along with approximately 80, 000 Tibetans. He denounced

China for oppressing the Tibetan people and repudiated the 17 Point Agreement by accusing the

Chinese government of failing to implement the autonomy it had promised to Tibet.

3.1 The Status of Tibet:

The TAR, established in 1965, is one of the five autonomous regions in China. In safeguarding

the right of regional autonomy for ethnic minorities, the Chinese Constitution as well as the

RNAL include detailed provisions guaranteeing all nationalities political, economic and cultural

autonomy. Article 4 of the Chinese Constitution, adopted in 1982, states that the PRC protects

the lawful rights and interests of minority nationalities, and upholds and develops the

relationship of equality, unity and mutual assistance among all of China's nationalities.

21 The Dalai Lama, My Land and My People, McGraw Hill Book company, 1962, p. 125.22 Chen Jian, The Tibetan Rebellion of 1959 and Chinas Changing Relations with India and the Soviet Union,

Journal of Cold War Studies, Summer 2006, Vol. 8, No. 3, p. 63.23 Melvyn C. Goldstein, The Snow Lion and the Dragon, University of California Press, 1997, p. 53.

8


9/28

Discrimination against or oppression of any nationality is legally prohibited. But as a matter of

fact, there are substantial injustices occurring in Tibet. The huge economic disparities between

the Tibetans and the Han Chinese immigrants in Tibet, and its consequential effect on the

Tibetan culture and traditions, has aggravated the intercommunal conflict between Han Chinese

and Tibetans and has led to intercommunal violence.24 The recent burning and looting of Chinese

shops, banks, markets and government offices in Lhasa is a clear indication that the conflict in

Tibet is not directed only at the Central Government but also at the Han Chinese immigrants in

Tibet.25

Regional National Autonomy Law (RNAL) states that Regional National Autonomy means

that minority nationalities, under unified state leadership, practice regional autonomy in areas

where they live in concentrated communities and may set up organs of self-government for the

exercise of their autonomy. Regional national autonomy embodies the state's full respect for and

guarantee of the right of the minority nationalities to administer their internal affairs and its

adherence to the principle of equality, unity and common prosperity for all of its nationalities.

But it is paradoxical to pair autonomy with unity where unity is contradictory to a

guarantee of self-governance without any inference from the state in the minoritys internal

affairs. Unity emphasizes integration and oneness, thus it necessarily undermines the very

essence of autonomy.26

Due to the political sensitivity of autonomy, which is often interpreted as a challenge to the unity

of the motherland, TAR has been granted only very limited autonomy. This has raised issues of

human rights violations, including religious persecution, deprivation of socio-economic benefits

and the threat of the loss of cultural identity as a product of the Chinese Government policies.

Taken together, these human rights violation are making the Tibetan cultures vulnerable to

extinction.27

24 Ted Gurr. People vs. States, Minorities at Risk in the New Century, United States Institute of Peace, 2002, p. 65.25 China makes arrests in Tibet crackdown, March 21, 2008, http://au.news.yahoo.com/080314/2/165ke.html

(accessed on April 10, 2008); Standing firm with China, April 07, 2008,http://www.thenews.com.pk/daily_detail.asp?id=105285 (accessed on April 10, 2008).26 Dr. Lobsang Sangay, Chinas National Autonomy law and Tibet: A Paradox between Autonomy and Unity,

Harvard South Asian Journal, October 04, 2006, http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=14112&t=1&c=4(accessed on March 29).

27 Group discrimination refers to political, economic and cultural restrictions that are invidiously imposed on ethnic

9
http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=14112&t=1&c=4http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=14112&t=1&c=4http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=14112&t=1&c=4


10/28

Studies of ethnonational conflicts show that a national people demands for independent

statehood from the governing elites are unlikely to be accommodated. Accordingly, substate

autonomy is a political demand that is more likely to be granted.28 The Dalai Lama has called for

the preservation of the Tibetan culture, Tibetan Buddhism, and Tibetan identity. These are the

main criteria of his Middle Way Approach. He has not demanded that the Chinese

Government grant Tibet full-fledged independence.29

3.2 The Political Right to Autonomy:

As a constitutional matter, the Tibetans have an equal right to participate in the administration of

state affairs and to vote and stand for election. Moreover, Article 114 of the Chinese Constitution

empowers members of the ethnic nationality to head the administration of the autonomous

region, prefecture and county in which they reside. Under the provisions of the RNAL, Tibetans

should be equitably represented in the government. But, equitable is too abstract to define.

This is particularly the case where the requirement that the government head must be a member

of the ethnic group does not extend to the CCP, which holds actual power in China.

Tibetans have been deprived of their right to political participation. The Chinese government

ensures that Tibetans are under-represented. The TAR has existed for more than 40 years but no

Tibetan has yet been installed as the Party Secretary of the TAR. Despite the relevant provisions

of the Chinese Constitution and claims of Chinese leaders regarding the treatment of Tibetans,

the violation of the political rights of Tibetans continues to be an obstacle to trusting the CCP.

Ethnic and communal groups are still clearly subjected to discrimination.30

3.3 Socio-Economic Rights:

Tibet, like other ethnic areas, experienced a substantial increase in autonomy rights after reforms

began under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping in 1978. Hu Yaobang, then the General Secretary

groups. Ted Gurr. People vs. States, Minorities at Risk in the New Century, United States Institute of Peace, 2002,p. 106.

28 Ibid p. 195.29Dawa Norbu, Chinas Tibet Policy, Curzon, 2001, p. 316.30 When the state systematically limits the exercise of political rights or access to political positions with

comparison to other groups in the society, Ted Gurr. People vs. States, Minorities at Risk in the New Century,United States Institute of Peace, 2002, p. 111.

10


11/28

of the CCP, was concerned with improving the political, social and economic welfare of the

Tibetan people. He promised to implement regional autonomy by reducing the number of

Chinese officials stationed in Tibet. He also promised to develop educational policies that would

strengthen Tibetan culture and education. He introduced tax cuts to aid in promoting and

establishing businesses in Tibet and formulated economic policies based on regional differences.

An investigation team led by Hu Yaobang and Wan Li admitted that the Tibetan living standard

was much lower than in any other part of China and worse than any other autonomous regions .31

Clearly, speeding up socio-economic development is key to regional ethnic autonomy. However,

in the drive to economic modernization, Tibetans have been underprivileged and have become a

victim of many economic policies carried out by the central government. This is a significant

source of ethnic tension.32 After the PRC occupied Tibet, it faced a devastating nation-wide

famine in 1960-1962 for the first time in Tibets recorded history. The famine was caused by a

large incursion of Chinese PLA stationed in Tibet. The land reforms introduced by the Chinese

government led to extensive crop failures, destabilization of the economy, and huge inflation.

The result was the death of 340,000 Tibetans.33

The Tenth Panchen Lama in his capacity as the Vice-Chairman of the Preparatory Committee for

the Tibet Autonomous Region, had documented the conditions of the Tibetans under Chinese

rule in his 70,000 Characters Petition. It focused mainly on religious freedom, improved

education, and acceptance of Tibetan as the official language. It was regarded as fiercely critical

of Chinese policy in Tibet. In January 23, 1989, he made an important public speech during a

religious ceremony at the Tashi Lhunpo Monastery, where he confronted Chinese Government

policy. He stated, If we compare the price of the sacrifice Tibetans have made with the

development that we have seen, my feeling is that the value of our sacrifice has been far greater.

Our sacrifice far outweighs our development.34 Dorjee Tsering, then the governor of TAR, also

complained that the PRC had not taken much interest in the Tibetans. Both Tibetan

ethnopolitical leaders had adopted a conventional political strategy in pursing their national

31 Yang Zhong Mei, Hu Yaobang: A Chinese biography, M.E. Sharpe, 1988, p. 142.32 Donald Horowtz, Ethnic Groups in conflict, University of California Press, 2000, p. 101.33 Free Tibet Campaign, http://www.freetibet.org/info/facts/fact1.html(accessed on March 30, 2008)34 International Campaign for Tibet, www.savetibet.org/campaigns/pl/10th.php, (accessed on March 30, 2008).

11
http://www.freetibet.org/info/facts/fact1.htmlhttp://www.freetibet.org/info/facts/fact1.htmlhttp://www.savetibet.org/campaigns/pl/10th.phphttp://www.freetibet.org/info/facts/fact1.htmlhttp://www.savetibet.org/campaigns/pl/10th.php


12/28

interests by using their official positions in Tibet as a platform for their lobbying activities.35

Initially, the Central Committee United Front Work Department claimed that China had spent

RMB 72,300,000,000 in Tibet from 1952 to 1983 for various projects including industrial

projects, transport and communication development, education and renovation of monasteries.36

But the aforementioned funds hardly benefited Tibetans. During General Secretary Hu

Yaobangs visit to Tibet in 1980, he was so shocked to see the suffering of the Tibetan people

that he publicly admitted that the party had let the Tibetan people down. The life of the Tibetan

people had not been notably improved. He expressed concern about the misuse of the Central

Governments funds by saying that the all the monies had been thrown in the Yarlung river.

The central governments projects had been mostly political in nature rather than concentrating

on economic development benefiting the Tibetans in the TAR. In 1984, 43 development projects

were launched to mark the 20th anniversary of the founding of the TAR in 1985. Many of those

funds were allocated for hotels, theaters and commercial ventures. Similarly in 1994, 62

development projects worth of US$29 billion were launched in connection with the

commemoration of the 30th anniversary of the TAR in 1995.37Nearly US$13 million were spent

on a celebration of that anniversary of the TAR. The remaining funds were mostly spent on

heavy projects like hydropower, railways and roadways. It is estimated that Golmud-Lhasa

Railway budget was around 26.2bn Yuan (1.8bn). Tibetan people in the diaspora saw the

opening of Golmud-Lhasa Railway as a plot to invade Tibet for the second time. The Dalai Lama

regarded the railway as a tool of cultural genocide.38 It has been reported that Golmud-Lhasa

Railway has been used to transport nearly 5,000 to 6,000 Chinese to Lhasa daily and the number

of returnees are significantly less than the numbers of those who arrived in Lhasa.39

35Ted Gurr. People vs. States, Minorities at Risk in the New Century, United States Institute of Peace, 2002, p. 27.36 Jiang Ping, deputy director of the CCP Central Committee United Front Work Department Beijing spoke on

Central Governments fund in Tibet, Gist of the Chinese views as mentioned in Dawa Norbus article, ChinasDialogue with the Dalai Lama 1978-90, Prenegotiation state of Dead End? Pacific Affairs, Vol. 64, No. 3,Autumn, 1991, p. 359.

37 CPC Leaders' Stress on Development in Tibet in Half Past Century, People's Daily, July 18, 2001,

http://english.people.com.cn/english/200107/18/eng20010718_75259.html (accessed on March 30, 2008); TibetsMarch Toward Modernization, Information Office of the State Council of PRC, November 2001.38 Next stop, Lhasa, Fortune Magazine, June 12, 2006, p. 154; The railway in the clouds, Telegraph, January 07

2006. www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2006/06/30/wrail30.xml&sSheet=/news/2006/06/30/ixnews.html, (accessed on March 27, 2008).39 Tibet sees record influx of tourists in first five months, Xinhua, News Agency, June 19, 2006,

12
http://english.people.com.cn/english/200107/18/eng20010718_75259.htmlhttp://english.people.com.cn/english/200107/18/eng20010718_75259.html


13/28

Tibet is strategically important to the security of China. The construction of railway was mainly

to serve a political need rather than the developmental needs of the Tibetan people. On July 29,

1998, the Tibet Daily reported a speech by Ragdi, deputy Party Secretary of TAR who declared:

Tibet holds a crucial status in the overall order of Chinas political, economic, and cultural

development, being one of Chinas key defense outposts and strategic points, so speeding up the

economic and social development of the Tibetan region, to preserve its united and stable order, is

of key significance to national security.40 Jiang Zemin forthrightly acknowledged the political

importance of the railway as it increases Chinese economic migration into Tibet, thus further

diluting the Tibetan population. The TARs Communist Party Chief, Zhang Qingli, similarly

remarked that the railway presents a precious opportunity to ensure the country's lasting order

and stability. Clearly, the railway ultimately threatens Tibet's cultural survival. Moreover, it is

not unreasonable to conclude that this is precisely the intent of the PRC authorities.

In 1987, when Deng Xiaoping visited United States, he stated, Tibet cannot develop on its

own... It should seek help from fraternal provinces and municipalities (in China)... We need to

get large numbers of Han comrades in Tibet so that they can impart scientific and technological

know-how, share their scientific management expertise, and help Tibet train scientific,

technological, managerial personnel to speed up its economic development.41 China has further

claimed that economic development leads to an increase in employment opportunities for the

Tibetans while also serving the policy of population transfers. The empirical evidence does not

support these claims. For instance, as to the railway project itself, out of the 38,000 railway-

related jobs open to workers, only few Tibetans were employed. In short, the arrival of many

Chinese immigrants distorted the labor opportunities within the Tibetan economy, favoring

http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200706/20/eng20070620_385823.html, (accessed on March 28, 2008); Lhasaoverpass opens on eve of tourist boom, Xinhua News Agency, April 30, 2007,http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-04/30/content_6049723.htm, (accessed on March 28, 2008); Qinghai-Tibet railway to handle 1.6 million passengers this year, Xinhua News Agency, December 20, 2007,http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-12/20/content_7286398.htm, (accessed on March 28, 2008); Qinghai-Tibet Railway to Transport 4,000 More Tourists Each Day, Xinhua News Agency May 22, 2006,http://english.gov.cn/2006-05/21/content_287030.htm, (accessed on March 28, 2008).40 Development and Stability, Tibetan Bulletin, Sept-October 2005, Volume 9, Issue 5,

http://www.tibetgov.net/en/tibbul/2005/0910/focus2.html, (accessed on April 10, 2008).41 Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, Annual Report 2003, p. 59.

13
http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200706/20/eng20070620_385823.htmlhttp://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200706/20/eng20070620_385823.htmlhttp://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-04/30/content_6049723.htmhttp://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-12/20/content_7286398.htmhttp://english.gov.cn/2006-05/21/content_287030.htmhttp://english.gov.cn/2006-05/21/content_287030.htmhttp://www.tibetgov.net/en/tibbul/2005/0910/focus2.htmlhttp://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200706/20/eng20070620_385823.htmlhttp://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-04/30/content_6049723.htmhttp://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-12/20/content_7286398.htmhttp://english.gov.cn/2006-05/21/content_287030.htmhttp://www.tibetgov.net/en/tibbul/2005/0910/focus2.html


14/28

Chinese settlers over Tibetans.42

Further, education is supposed to be compulsory in China but the schools in the Tibetan

countryside were built and maintained by the villagers without any financial assistance from the

government. Despite assertions from the Government that there would be no tuition fee for

primary education in TAR, rural schools still imposed high non-tuition fees to run the schools.

Rural families toil under a heavy financial burden to educate their children as a result.43

3.4 Restrictions on Religious practice and Belief and the Preservation of Tibetan Culture

Timothy Sisk warns that ethnic violence is likely to occur if multiethnic states expropriate

power, resources and symbols to the exclusion of some groups within the state. State sponsored

policies designed to create inequality and discrimination often provoke ethnic conflicts.44

Clearly, the PRC has implemented discriminatory policies that provoke violence in Tibet.

The Chinese authorities have destroyed more than 6,000 monasteries and learning centers. Only

a few monasteries have survived. They served as storehouses to keep the remnants of metal

statues to be used for reproduction and as a symbol of patriotism. Political campaigns, patriotic

re-education and surveillances of the monasteries have been regularly implemented. The right of

Tibetans to practice their religion belief is threatened by the restrictions that have been imposed

on monks and the monasteries where they reside. Moreover, the numbers of monks in the

monasteries have been restricted and have to abide by government-imposed regulations. This

clearly constitutes cultural discrimination which Gurr defines as a restriction imposed on the

group in pursuing their cultural interests or expression of their cultural values.45

The inheritance of Tibetan culture has been hampered by restrictions on practicing Tibetan

Buddhism. Since Buddhism is ingrained deeply in Tibetan culture, its persecution is considered a

direct threat to Tibetan culture. Similarly, the Tibetan language, traditional dress and costumes,

42 Tibetans Fear Strangulation by Rail: Many in Lhasa worry that the line China is building will transform their

culture and bring more inequality to an impoverished region. Los Angeles Times, Oct 29, 2003.43 Tibetan Center for Human Rights an Democracy, The Next Generation: State of Education in Tibet Today, 1997.44Timothy Sisk, Power Sharing and International Mediation in Ethnic Conflicts, United States Institute of Peace,2002, p. 18.45Ted Gurr, People vs. States, Minorities at Risk in the New Century, United States Institute of Peace, 2002, p. 118.

14


15/28

songs and dances have been Sinicized through the imposition of Chinese characters, designs,

attires, tunes and steps respectively. China has successfully changed the Tibetan names of cities,

towns, village, mountains, rivers and even the streets into Chinese characters. For example, Tibet

was previously referred to as Bhod, but now it has been changed to Xizang, which means

Western Treasure.

According to Gurr, race, religion, language, or a common homeland are some of the basic

elements of ethnic identity. Further, he says that race in multiracial societies, is almost always a

primary marker of group identity.46 The suppression of Tibetan culture has made the issue of

Tibetan ethnocultural identity highly salient and might prove a critical predictor of future

violence.47

Consistent with Gurrs findings, on March 10, 2008, monks from Drepung and Sera monastery,

TAR, Detsa monastery, Tshoshar TAP, Qinghai, and Lutsang monastery, Tsolho TAP, Qinghai

held peaceful protests in their respective areas to commemorate the 49th anniversary of the

Tibetan uprising day, demanding religious freedom in Tibet. The protest started soon after

Peoples Armed Police (PAP) beat monks from Lhasa Ramoche Temple on March 14, sparking

major unrest in Lhasa. The Chinese officials fear that the incident will escalate to other parts of

Tibetan areas and challenge the long-term stability of Tibet. Unlike Lhasa, most of the

demonstrations were peaceful and spread over many of ethnic Tibetan areas. There is a

conflicting report of death tolls presented by the Chinese government and the TGiE. The Chinese

government claimed that 22 innocent people died during the riot, but the TGiE put the death toll

at 200.48 The protestors were heavily suppressed by the PAP leading to a mass arrests. 49 Chinese

State Councillor, Meng Jianzhu, also head of the Public Security Ministry has visited Tibet and

called for strengthening the Patriotic Reeducation Campaign in the monasteries.50

46Ibid, p. 67.47Timothy Sisk, Power Sharing and International Mediation in Ethnic Conflicts, United States Institute of Peace,2002, p. 14.48 Two Killed at Pro-Tibet Rally in China, http://www.buzzle.com/articles/187712.html, (accessed on April 11,

2008).49 China arrests over 2300 Tibetans in Tibet, Tibetan Center for Human Rights and Democracy (TCHRD), April

05, 2008, http://www.tchrd.org/press/2008/pr20080405b.html, (accessed on April 11, 2008).50 Chinese State Councillor visits Tibet, March 25, 2008, http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-

03/25/content_7856554.htm, (accessed on April 11, 2008).

15


16/28

3.5 Ecological and Environmental Protection:

Tibet is in fact a Western Treasure of 126 different minerals with a significant share of the

entire worlds reserves of gold, chromite, copper, borax and iron.51 Tibet has 15,000 natural lakes

and research figures show that rivers originating in Tibet sustain the lives of 47 percent of the

worlds population and 85 percent of Asias total population. Tibets forests covered 25.2 million

hectares and Tibet has two major oil deposits namely, Tsaidam Basin in Amdo (Qinghai) and

Chang Thang. Tsaidam Basin has oil reserves of 42 billion tons and natural gas reserves of 1,500

billion cubic meters in 22 deposits. Because of its vast ecological and natural resources, China

was inclined to invade Tibet to exploit its rich resources while purporting to be acting in the

interests of the modernization and development of Tibet.52

Ever since the Chinese occupation of Tibet, the Chinese government has predominantly engaged

in exploiting and extracting the rich natural resources of Tibet, which has consequently led to

widespread environmental destruction. Excessive deforestation, uncontrolled mining, water

pollution and nuclear waste dumping has resulted in the degradation of grasslands, extinction of

wildlife, desertification, floods, soil erosion and landslides.53 This irreversible damage is a cause

of great concern not only for the Tibetan people but also for the whole world.

Severe floods now frequently occur not only in Tibet but also in China, India and other Asian

subcontinent countries due to the continual deforestation taking places at the source of the

rivers.54For instance, in summer 1998, a devastating flood of the Yangtze River killed between

3,656 and 10,000 people and affected the lives of l,240 millions with 5.6 million homes

destroyed. It also destroyed 4.8 million hectares of crops and 64 hectares of farmland in China.55

51 Xinhua News Agency, April 06, 2006 reported that Yulong copper mine in the TAR has an estimated 6.5 million

tons of reserves. It will produce 50,000 tons to 100,000 tons of electrolytic copper every year after two phases ofconstruction.52 The Dalai Lama, My Land and My People, McGraw Hill, 1962, p. 224.53 Elmar R. and Gabriella J. Reiter, Tibet: The last Frontier, Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society,

Vol. 62, Issue 1, January 1981, p 8.54 Asian Disasters Blamed Partly on Shrinking Forests Deforestation Leads to Floods, World Tibet Network

News, Friday, August 28, 1998,http://www.tibet.ca/en/newsroom/wtn/archive/old?y=1998&m=8&p=28_1,(accessed on March 29, 2008).

55 Tibet 2000: Environment and Development Issues, DIIR, TGiE, 2000, p. 37.

16
http://www.tibet.ca/en/newsroom/wtn/archive/old?y=1998&m=8&p=28_1http://www.tibet.ca/en/newsroom/wtn/archive/old?y=1998&m=8&p=28_1http://www.tibet.ca/en/newsroom/wtn/archive/old?y=1998&m=8&p=28_1http://www.tibet.ca/en/newsroom/wtn/archive/old?y=1998&m=8&p=28_1


17/28

China sees the Tibetan plateau as its largest forest zone. It has established some 70 state logging

enterprises, which have cut a total of 120 million cubic meters of wood from the forest of eastern

Tibet (Sichuan). It is reported that China succeeded in reducing Tibet's forest cover from 25.2

million hectares to 13.57 million hectares between 1950 and 1985. In August 1998, the central

government's State Council ordered 151 forestry enterprises to halt all logging on the upper

reaches of the Yangtze and the Yellow River in Yunnan, Sichuan and Qinghai. 56 The Chinese

reforestation scheme has so far been ineffective. It has been estimated that the ratio of trees

felled to trees planted is 10:1 and the total reforested areas in the southwestern region is as low as

12.7% of the actual deforested area.57

The Golmud-Lhasa railway has had environmental implications as well. Hen Ji, a researcher at

the Institute of Geography of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Nanjing, said that with the

construction of new railway to Lhasa, the increased number of tourists threaten to make Qinghai

Lake vanish in less than a decade. Less than a month after its opening, the Chinese Railway

Ministry spokesman, Wang Yongping, told the Beijing News that the Golmud-Lhasa railway has

become unstable because the foundations are sinking into the softening permafrost soil.58

The Chinese government has recently realized that the ecological disturbance inside Tibet has

had devastating impact on China and has planned to establish a series of "eco-system protection

zones" and forest reserves in the TAR to curb environmental degradation in the region. The plan

is part of Chinas efforts to strengthen eco-security, said Zhang Tianhua, deputy director of the

regional Environmental Protection Administration. Beijing is expected to allocate 38.7 billion

Yuan, which is equivalent to US$4.84 billion to support the protection of the environment in

Tibet between 2006 and 2020. The budget will also fund programs like the recovery of degraded

grasslands, desertification control and the settlement of herdsmen. Though the government

announced its intent to protect the Tibetan ecosystem, the strategy it intends to employ has yet to

56 Logging Bans in Tibet, World Tibet Network News, January 27, 1999,

http://www.tibet.ca/en/newsroom/wtn/archive/old?y=1999&m=1&p=27_2, (accessed on March 29, 2008).57 Daniel Winkler, Deforestation in Eastern Tibet: Human Impact- Past and Present, Development, Society and

Environment in Tibet, Proc. 7th Sem. Intern. Assoc. Tibetan Studies (IATS) 1995 - Austria, Vienna (1998), pp.79-96.58 Yaks threaten China's 'miracle' train line, The Guardian, Friday, July 28, 2006,

http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2006/jul/28/china.jonathanwatts, (accessed on March 30, 2008).

17
http://www.tibet.ca/en/newsroom/wtn/archive/old?y=1999&m=1&p=27_2http://www.tibet.ca/en/newsroom/wtn/archive/old?y=1999&m=1&p=27_2


18/28

be announced.59

The Dalai Lama has been deeply concerned about the rapid degradation of the fragile ecological

system in Tibet. The protection of Tibet's environment has been an integral part of his Five-Point

Peace Plan for Tibet.

3.6 Humans Rights Violation in Tibet:

In China, human rights merely concentrate on the right to subsistence and calls on the right to

live and develop as the most urgent demand of the Chinese people.60 China maintained that

human rights are essentially an issue within the scope of sovereignty of a country and often

discard criticism of its human rights performance as interference in internal affairs. So,

Chinas sovereignty and security comes before human rights. In Tibet, the right to existence and

development were used to argue that the Tibetans are enjoying basic human rights. 61 But the

Tibetans are denied most rights guaranteed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

including the rights to self-determination, freedom of speech, assembly, movement, expression

and travel. Human rights conditions in Tibet remain dismal. TCHRD based in India, indicated

that the human rights situation in Tibet has worsened in 2007 with threefold increased in

arbitrary arrests and detentions.62 However, the Chinese government has undermined the current

human rights crisis in Tibet by refusing to acknowledge that it was a human rights problem. 63

Tibetan peoples rights to express their views are condemned as a crime to sabotage and to split

the motherland. In 1991, the United Nations Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination

and Protection of Minority Rights adopted a resolution entitled "Situation in Tibet" which shows

concern for the continuing violations of fundamental human rights and freedoms which threaten

the distinct cultural, religious and national identity of the Tibetan people.64 It was reported that

59 Ecological safety zones being established in Tibet, June 12, 2006, http://in.china-

embassy.org/eng/zgbd/t257600.htm, (accessed on March 29, 2008).

60 Progress in Chinas Human Rights Cause, Information Office of the State Council, PRC, Beijing, March 1997,http://www.china.org.cn/e-white/prhumanrights1996/15-1.htm(accessed on April 11, 2008).

61 New Progress in Human Rights in the Tibet Autonomous Region, Information Office of the State Council, PRC,Feb. 1998, http://www.china.org.cn/e-white/last/l-2.htm, (accessed on April 11, 2008).

62 Human Rights situation in Tibet, Annual Report 2007, TCHRD, 2008, p. 5.63 China: Tibet Not A Human Rights Problem; Protests Continue, VOA News, 12 April 2008,

http://www.voanews.com/english/2008-04-12-voa11.cfm, (accessed April 13, 2008).64 UN Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minority Rights, Resolution 1991/10,

Geneva, August 23, 1991, http://www.tibet.com/Resolution/un91.html (accessed on April 10, 2008).

18
http://www.china.org.cn/e-white/prhumanrights1996/15-1.htmhttp://www.china.org.cn/e-white/prhumanrights1996/15-1.htmhttp://www.china.org.cn/e-white/last/l-2.htmhttp://www.voanews.com/english/2008-04-12-voa11.cfmhttp://www.china.org.cn/e-white/prhumanrights1996/15-1.htmhttp://www.china.org.cn/e-white/last/l-2.htmhttp://www.voanews.com/english/2008-04-12-voa11.cfm


19/28

China uses different means of torturing political prisoners in Tibet, such as beatings, electric

shocks, deprivation of food and drinks, exposure to cold, handcuffing or shackling for long

periods, and denial of medical treatment.65 Currently, there are 119 known Tibetan political

prisoners,of which 43 are serving terms of more than ten years.66

THE MIDDLE WAY APPROACH OF THE TGIE

TGiE, under the leadership of the Dalai Lama, is pursuing the Middle Way Approach to resolve

the Tibetan issue. Until 1979, there was not direct communication between the Chinese

government and the TGiE. This led the exile government to pursue a policy of complete

independence for Tibet. However, in 1978, the Dalai Lama agreed to talk on Tibetan issues other

than independence. Around that time, the Dalai Lama told the BBC that Deng Xiaoping had

invited him to visit Tibet and that he had declined, saying that he would not undertake such a

visit until he was certain that the six million Tibetans were happy and contented under Chinese

rule.67 The Chinese had miscalculated when they believed that the Tibet could be politically

integrated and culturally assimilated into China. The Chinese government was apparently

overconfident and operated under the misimpression that there was no real issue of Tibetan

independence except as a product of the manipulations and exploitation of foreign imperialists.

China attempted to alter Tibetan national identity by defining Tibetans as not a nation but only aminority nationality of the Chinese nation.68

The Dalai Lama is primarily concerned with the welfare of the Tibetan people. He stated that, "If

the six million Tibetans in Tibet are really happy and prosperous as never before, there is no

reason for us to argue otherwise."69 Later in the following year, he was more explicit in

expressing that "the core of the Tibetan issue is the welfare and ultimate happiness of the six

65Tibet: Human Rights and the Rule of Law, International Commission of Jurists, Dec. 1997, p. 247.66Human Rights situation in Tibet, Annual Report 2007, TCHRD, 2008, p. 5.67 Tsering Wangyal, Sino-Tibetan negotiations since 1959, in Barnett/Akiner, Resistance and Reform in Tibet,

Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1994.68 Warren Smith, The Transformation of Tibetan National Identity, in McKay, A, Tibet and Her Neighbours: A

History, Hansjorg Mayer, 2003, p. 207.69 His Holiness the Dalai Lama, collected Statements, Interviews and Articles, Information Office of His Holiness

the Dalai Lama, Dharamshala, 1982 p. 51.

19


20/28

million Tibetans in Tibet."70 The move from the demand for complete independence to genuine

autonomy has served as the roadway to negotiation.71 Dawa Norbu, a well known exiled Tibetan

scholar, gave credit to Deng Xiaoping for his bold initiatives in launching the Sino-Tibetan

dialogue.72

The Chinese leaderships intent was misconstrued. It had narrowed down the welfare concept

into an economic paradigm. Accordingly, Jiang Ping told the Tibetan delegates to concentrate on

the question of "Tibetan happiness" which was explicated by the Dalai Lama in 1978 and 1979.

He informed them that the Chinese government had improved the living standard of the Tibetan

people and had brought an overall development to Tibet.73 Warren Smith, a Tibetologist, felt that

the happiness approach by the Dalai Lama was not the main issue, rather it was the Tibetan

identity which was crucial for the dialogue to proceed.74

The Middle Way Approach was initially adopted by the Dalai Lama and was later approved by

the Tibetans in the diaspora through democratic participation as a means to resolving the Tibetan

problem.75 In 1987, the Dalai Lama delivered his Five Point Peace Plan at the Congressional

Human Rights Caucus in Washington DC. He asked for the earnest negotiation of the future

status of Tibet in order to resolve the Sino-Tibetan conflict. After he failed to get a favorable

response for the Chinese government, the Dalai Lama later proposed a referendum in 1996 and

1997 on the theory that the Tibetan people should decide their fate of Tibet. A preliminary

opinion poll was conducted in which more than 64% of the total opinion letters received

expressed their support for the Middle-Way Approach, or whatever decision the Dalai Lama took

in response to the changing political situation in China. To this effect, the Tibetan Parliament in

Exile (TPiE) adopted a unanimous resolution on September 18, 1997, in favor of the Middle

70 ibid, p. 59.71Ted Gurr argued that the ethnonationalists are more likely to regard autonomy as an acceptable alternative toindependence, People vs. States, Minorities at Risk in the New Century, United States Institute of Peace, 2002, P.196.72 Dawa Norbu, Chinas Dialogue with the Dalai Lama 1978-90: Pre-negotiation state of Dead End? Pacific

Affairs, Vol. 64, No. 3, Autumn, 1991, p. 352.73 ibid, p. 359; Jiang Ping is a legal scholar in China. He was the President of China University of Political

Science and Law, and a member of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress.74 Warren Smith, The Transformation of Tibetan National Identity, in McKay, A, Tibet and Her Neighbours: A

History, Hansjorg Mayer, 2003, p. 207.75 The Middle-Way Approach: A Framework for Resolving the Issue of Tibet, DIIR, TGiE, August 2006.

20


21/28

Way Approach. The Dalai Lama responded that, "The Middle-Way Approach is the most

realistic and pragmatic course to resolve the issue of Tibet peacefully. This approach meets the

vital needs of the Tibetan people while ensuring the unity and stability of the Peoples Republic

of China."76 Taking into account the opinion of the Tibetan people and a unanimous resolution

passed by the TPiE, this policy was adopted.

The Chinese leadership remained more concerned with the past history. The PRC continues to

claim that Tibet is historically part of China. It claims that Tibet was a part of China prior to the

liberation of Tibet in 1951. The invasion of Tibet was based on the ideological claim that it

was motivated by anti-imperialism. The Chinese leaders are therefore paranoid about the

slightest implication that Tibet was ever an independent state in the past. For them, it was merely

a stage in the realization of the Communist Revolution wherein the benefits of Communism were

spread to the entirety of its domain.77 In contrast, the Dalai Lama is primarily focused on the

future prospects of preserving Tibetan culture, religion and Tibetan identity whereby Tibetans

can live happily with the Chinese. Lodi Gyari, Special Envoy of His Holiness the Dalai Lama,

emphasized that the Middle Way Approach represents the Dalai Lamas commitment to focus

onto the future, instead of the past, to find a solution that will provide maximum autonomy for

the Tibetan people and bring peace and stability to the PRC and the entire region.78

After several rounds of talks in the 1980s, the formal dialogue ceased in 1993 due to the lack of

political will on the part of Chinese leaders. The Dalai Lama persisted in engaging in a dialogue.

The Dalai Lama tried to seek an informal channel of communication with the Chinese officials

and thereafter succeeded in holding three rounds of meetings. But in 1998, all the

communication came to an end. Repressive policies in Tibet soon followed. However, in 2002,

meetings with Chinese officials concerning the Chinas policy in Tibet resumed and, since then,

the Tibetan delegations were allowed to visit various places in Tibet and China.

One of the ideological differences between the Dalai Lama and the PRC is that the TGiE

76 Statement of His Holiness the Dalai Lama on the Thirty-NinthAnniversary of the Tibetan National Uprising Day,10 March 1998, http://www.tibetgov.net/en/ohhdl/statements/10march/1998.html (accessed on March 30, 2008).77 ibid, p. 35678 Statement of Special Envoy Lodi Gyari at Brookings Institution, Washington DC. November 14, 2006,,

http://www.tibetgov.net/en/diir/sino/sstd/envoystat.html#9, (accessed on March 30, 2008).

21
http://www.tibetgov.net/en/ohhdl/statements/10march/1998.htmlhttp://www.tibetgov.net/en/diir/sino/sstd/envoystat.html#9http://www.tibetgov.net/en/ohhdl/statements/10march/1998.htmlhttp://www.tibetgov.net/en/diir/sino/sstd/envoystat.html#9


22/28

demands democratic reforms in Tibet. The Dalai Lama, in his 1988 Strasbourg Proposal,

proposed that, The whole of Tibet including all the three provinces should become a self-

governing democratic political entity founded on law by agreement of the people for the

common good and the protection of themselves and their environment, in association with the

People's Republic of China.79Since China has a communist regime, the proposal is unacceptable

for them. They suspect, as Sha Zhou has written that, such sentiment would be expected from a

western political figure but is an absurdity coming as it does from a representative of feudal

serfdom. By such statements, the Dalai Lama is attempting to sing the praises of the western

capitalist system and negate socialism.80 If the One country-Two system approach to Hong

Kong and Macau, both of which were previously part of democratic countries that have since

been incorporated into China worked, it can probably work in Tibet. China should look into this

option for Tibet as these facilities are provided for by the Chinese constitution.

Further, the issue of not only a democratic Tibet, but also a democratic China has been discussed

to resolve the Sino-Tibetan problem. Xu Mingxu wrote that a united China based on democratic

ideals will make genuine autonomy for Tibet possible by taking appropriate policies on ethnic

autonomous governance towards the Tibetans and other Chinese ethnic minorities.81

Interestingly, democratic transitions have contributed to the negotiated settlement of a number of

ethnopolitical wars.82Chinese dissidents and scholars have shown their solidarity with the Dalai

Lamas proposal of genuine autonomy within the PRC.83

Another hindrance to negotiation is the reunification of the areas in which the Tibetan populaces

79 Strasbourg Proposal, His Holiness the Dalai Lama's Address to the Members of European Parliament at

Strasbourg, June 15, 1988, http://www.tibetgov.net/en/diir/sino/imptshhdl/sp.html, (accessed on March 30,2008).

80 Sha Zhou, What is it Behind the Dalai Lamas Plan? Beijing Review, Febraury 19-25, 1990, p.23.81 Xu Mingxu, Complete autonomy: The best approach to peaceful resolution of the Tibet problem, Journal of

Contemporary China, July 01, 1998, pp. 369-370.82 Ted Gurr. People vs. States, Minorities at Risk in the New Century, United States Institute of Peace, 2002, p.

204; Timothy Sisk, Power Sharing and International Mediation in Ethnic Conflicts, United States Institute ofPeace, 2002, p. ix

83 Twelve Suggestions for Dealing with the Tibetan Situation, by 30 Chinese Dissidents on March 22, 2008,http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=20056&article=China+dissidents+call+for+direct+dialogue+with+Dalai+Lama&t=1&c=1 (accessed on March25, 2008);What the Chinese scholars say about Tibet,http://www.tibet.com/China/index.html(accessed onMarch 26, 2008).

22
http://www.tibetgov.net/en/diir/sino/imptshhdl/sp.htmlhttp://www.tibetgov.net/en/diir/sino/imptshhdl/sp.htmlhttp://www.tibetgov.net/en/diir/sino/imptshhdl/sp.htmlhttp://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=20056&article=China+dissidents+call+for+direct+dialogue+with+Dalai+Lama&t=1&c=1http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=20056&article=China+dissidents+call+for+direct+dialogue+with+Dalai+Lama&t=1&c=1http://www.tibet.com/China/index.htmlhttp://www.tibet.com/China/index.htmlhttp://www.tibet.com/China/index.htmlhttp://www.tibetgov.net/en/diir/sino/imptshhdl/sp.htmlhttp://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=20056&article=China+dissidents+call+for+direct+dialogue+with+Dalai+Lama&t=1&c=1http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=20056&article=China+dissidents+call+for+direct+dialogue+with+Dalai+Lama&t=1&c=1http://www.tibet.com/China/index.html


23/28

actually live, which include those places in Qinghai, Sichuan, Yunnan and Gansu. Sisk stated

that conflicts in which groups claim exclusive title of territory for control or access are

generally perceived to be more intractable than those in which there is a high degree of

interdependence and integration. He summed up by saying that conflict over territory is usually

a zero sum game.84

There has never been any consensus among the Chinese leaders over the issue of the dimensions

of Tibetan territory. In 1981, Hu Yoabang told Gyalo Thondup, elder brother of the Dalai Lama,

that this is a new idea which needs to be considered. Ulan Fu, then the Vice President of PRC,

also supported the Tibetan demand, when he recalled that in 1951, the late Zhou Enlai assured

the Tibetan delegates that, in compliance with the 17 Point Agreement, the question of

reunification of inner and outer Tibet would be separately looked into.85 However, Xu Mingxu

argued that the Dalai Lama's claim for Greater Tibet is too greedy and it would be more

realistic if the Dalai Lama limited his demands for genuine autonomy to the territory of TAR.86

Self-determination does not necessarily mean secession.The Chinese policy of assimilation and

integration only exacerbates tensions between China and Tibet. Many events like the recent

demonstrations and protests that occurred in Tibet, have escalated into ethnic conflicts. In order

to de-escalate the conflict, Envoy Kelsang Gyaltsen emphasized that the task entrusted to the

delegation was two fold: First, to re-establish direct contact with the leadership in Beijing and to

create a conducive atmosphere enabling direct face-to-face meetings on a regular basis in future.

Secondly, to explain His Holiness the Dalai Lamas Middle Way Approach towards resolving

the issue of Tibet.87 The prenegotiation, or talks about talks explores a potentially positive

outcome by creating conducive environments for direct negotiation.88

84 Timothy Sisk, Power Sharing and International Mediation in Ethnic Conflicts, United States Institute of Peace,

2002, p. 18.85 Dawa Norbu, Chinas Dialogue with the Dalai Lama 1978-90: Prenegotiation state of Dead End? Pacific

Affairs, Vol. 64, No. 3, Autumn, 1991, p. 358.86 Xu Mingxu, Complete autonomy: The best approach to peaceful resolution of the Tibet problem, Journal of

Contemporary China, July 01, 1998, p. 375.87 Address of Envoy Kelsang Gyaltsen at the 4th World Parliamentarians' Convention on Tibet, Edinburgh, 19

November 2005, http://www.tibetgov.net/en/diir/sino/sstd/envoystat.html#7 (accessed on March 26).88Timothy Sisk, Power Sharing and International Mediation in Ethnic Conflicts, United States Institute of Peace,2002, p. 24.

23
http://www.tibetgov.net/en/diir/sino/sstd/envoystat.html#7http://www.tibetgov.net/en/diir/sino/sstd/envoystat.html#7


24/28

After the Dalai Lama was conferred the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989, the international support for

Tibet has increased all over the world. Resolutions have been passed in different countries and

actions have been taken to mobilize support for the Tibetan cause.89 Many governments, non-

governmental organizations, and individuals empathize with the Tibetan plight and have

appealed the PRC to talk with the TGiE. The international solidarity movement for Tibet has

played a significant role in trying to restore Tibets engagement with the Chinese government.

Sisk has noted that ethnic conflicts are often internationalized as a result of cross-border kinship

ties, diaspora politics, humanitarian concerns and environmental fallout.90 Clearly, this has been

the case with regard to Tibet.

CONCLUSION

The concept of unity and stability is the focal issue for the Chinese Government. It is the prime

reason that they have maintained their iron grip in Tibet. Even though there were several talks in

the past, the principle position on Tibet remains unchanged. The ongoing visits of the Tibetan

delegations since 2002 witnessed the fundamental differences between China and TGiE.91 For

example, China demands as a precondition to negotiations that the Dalai Lama must accept that

Tibet is an inseparable part of the PRC. Moreover, they forcefully reiterated that His Holiness

must accept Taiwans status as a province of China. The difference over the unification of

greater Tibet (3 traditional province of Tibet) remains the strongest challenge for the negotiation.

Sisks view that the territorial dimension of ethnic conflicts tends to be a zero sum game, it does

not have application to the Tibetan case. In the Tibetan case, the Tibetans are seeking a territorial

autonomy within the PRC, which is facilitated by the Chinese Constitution. This is not a case of

secession but rather a regional autonomy. Hence, the PRC is loosing no territory, merely

permitting the Tibetan government unified control on issues specifically threatening the Tibetan

culture, language and religion.

89 Resolutions on Tibet, http://www.tibet.com/Resolution/index.html, (accessed on April 01, 2008).90 Timothy Sisk, Power Sharing and International Mediation in Ethnic Conflicts, United States Institute of Peace,

2002, p. 19.91 Statement of Special Envoy of His Holiness the Dalai Lama Kasur Lodi Gyari, Head of the Tibetan Delegation,

for the Fourth Round of Meetings with the Chinese Leadership, Dharamshala, 7 July 2005,http://www.tibetgov.net/en/diir/sino/sstd/envoystat.html#6, (accessed on April 01, 2008).

24
http://www.tibet.com/Resolution/index.htmlhttp://www.tibet.com/Resolution/index.htmlhttp://www.tibetgov.net/en/diir/sino/sstd/envoystat.html#6http://www.tibet.com/Resolution/index.htmlhttp://www.tibetgov.net/en/diir/sino/sstd/envoystat.html#6


25/28

China has condemned the Dalai Lama for disguising his demand for an independent Tibet by

proposing genuine autonomy. Since 1979, the Dalai Lama has consistently advocated the Middle

Way Approach in resolving the Tibetan issues. Gurr claims that the authenticity of leadership

may be most critical factor for the mobilization process in an ethnopolitical conflict, where the

leader is perceived as representing the most essential values and aspirations of the group.92An

authentic leader is also essential to successful negotiations as his followers are more likely to

accept the outcome.93 In the Tibetan case, the Dalai Lama is a seasoned leader who seeks

genuine autonomy for the Tibetans. Gurrs conception of authenticity of leadership does not

apply to the Tibetan case in so far as he argues that authentic leaders can lose legitimacy, if they

lose power. The Dalai Lamas leadership is not based on the wielding of power but rather on his

moral authority both among Tibetans and in the international community.94

China believes that the best way to avoid the question of Tibet is by playing the waiting game.

Hardliners maintain that the Dalai Lama is the head of the serpent and once his head is chopped

off, the Tibetan issue will die off simultaneously. But liberal leaders and many Chinese scholars

believe that the Dalai Lama is the key to resolving the issue of Tibet and once the Dalai Lama

dies, the resolution of the Tibetan issue will be much more complicated. China should not take

the risk of losing the Dalai Lama. He is the key to reaching a resolution on the Tibetan issue

because he alone possesses the moral authority to negotiate on behalf of the Tibetan people.

Presently, the Chinese government is pursuing a hard line strategy that makes the Tibetan plateau

the least autonomous region of China. As a result of large-scale development projects in Tibet,

Beijing is increasingly controlling Tibet while depriving Tibet of the benefits of regional

autonomy. During Hu Yaobangs tenure as a Party Secretary, Wu Jinghua, then TAR Party

Secretary promoted cultural liberalization in Tibet. Weng Meng, Minister of Culture under Hu

Yaobang, argued that traditional culture could be channeled in useful ways to promote

modernization.95 Gurr argues that, combination of disadvantages and overtly discriminatory

92 Ted Gurr, People vs. States, Minorities at Risk in the New Century, United States Institute of Peace, 2002, p. 78.93Timothy Sisk, Power Sharing and International Mediation in Ethnic Conflicts, United States Institute of Peace,2002, p. 82-83.94Ted Gurr, People vs. States, Minorities at Risk in the New Century, United States Institute of Peace, 2002, p. 78.95 Solomon M. Karmel, Ethnic and the Struggle for Order: Chinas Policies in Tibet, Pacific Affairs, Vol. 68, No.

4, Winter 1995-1996, p. 486.

25


26/28

policies gives power incentives for action because the combination focuses their resentment on

the agents of discrimination.96 The approach of cultural liberation had the potential for diffusing

tensions in Tibet since this was the very matter with which Tibetans are most concerned.

However, after the western development project was implemented, many Han Chinese settled in

Tibet to better their economic situation. The result has been more open opposition and greater

disorder. The Chinese policy of modernization adopted since 1980 could not legitimize Chinese

rule in Tibet.97 Economic and social liberalization has allowed autonomous social forces to

reemerge and inevitably has had the unintended effect of reviving ethnic nationalism. Fa Mingfu,

then chief of the Communist Partys United Front Department, stated that the consciousness of

the Tibetan minority, their sense of pride, nationalism and self-respect was getting stronger.

Indeed, ethnic tension in Tibet has been growing as a result of economic injustice and social

discrimination against persons of Tibetan nationality. The fear of Chinese immigrants becoming

the dominant social force in Tibet is overwhelming to Tibetans. The current situation is not

dissimilar from what had happened in the Basque Country in the 1950s. The Basque Country

was dominated by the Castilian- speaking immigrants, which had the effect of eroding the

Basque language and culture.98 But later, with the formation of new democratic Spain, the

Basque were granted the full autonomy that had also been granted to Catalonia and Galicia.

The ideological differences between Tibet and China lie at two extremes. China must know,

however, that past history is not subject to change. Chinese leaders should focus on the future.

Although Gurr argues that there is no model charter for autonomy arrangements, in the case of

Tibet, the issues of education, language rights, religious freedom, environment and control of

land and resource have to be delegated to the Tibetans. The Chinese government must address

the Tibetan problem, which involves six million Tibetan people seeking the right to preserve

their culture, tradition and identity.99 The concern of such a large number of individuals cannot

simply be ignored.

96Ted Gurr. People vs. States, Minorities at Risk in the New Century, United States Institute of Peace, 2002, p. 71.97 Warren Smith, Chinas Tibetan Dilemma, Fletcher World Affair, 77, 1990, p. 83.98 Monstserrat Gubernau, Spain: Catalonia and the Basque Country, Oxford University Press, Volume

53, Number 1, 1 January 2000, p. 56.99 Timothy has written that, Until there is a significant changes in the current bias against the dissolution of

multiethnic states, the grievances of ethnic groups will haveto be accommodated with the political institutions ofexisting countries. Timothy Sisk, Power Sharing and International Mediation in Ethnic Conflicts, United StatesInstitute of Peace, 2002, p. 2.

26


27/28

China must move forward by negotiating with the TGiE within the lifetime of Dalai Lama. At

present, the Dalai Lama is the legitimate leader of Tibetans both inside and outside Tibet. China

needs to understand the fact that the Dalai Lama has the credibility to decide upon the issues and

the ability to mobilize Tibetans in support of the outcome of any negotiations with the Chinese

government.100 The international pressure on China is also mounting. There is huge support for

the Dalai Lamas Middle Way Approach. The Tibetan nonviolent struggle was structured by the

Dalai Lamas philosophy of compassion. The commitment of the Tibetan people to the Dalai

Lama should be considered while resolving the issues. As a matter of fact, it is beneficial to the

Chinese to act swiftly to resolve the Tibetan issues within the lifetime of present Dalai Lama. If

they succeed, the institution of the Dalai Lama can aid in maintaining unity and stability. The

Dalai Lama has been advocating non-violent actions and his concept of Genuine Autonomy

seeks to fulfill Chinese demands for co-existence and unity between Tibetans and Chinese. 101

China has to be sincere in their negotiation in resolving the Tibetan issues by forgoing the

waiting game. Waiting on the Dalai Lamas death might prove futile as it may cause future

instability in China. Hu Jintao has the chance to build his legacy by resolving the Tibetan issue.

He is the only Premier to date who has also served as the Party Secretary of the TAR and knows

much about the problems of Tibet. If Hu Jintao solves the Tibetan problem during his tenure, this

will be his greatest contribution to his harmonious socialist state. The Dalai Lama, in his recent

appeal to the Chinese people after the riot in Tibet on March 27, 2008, stated that he respects

President Hu Jintaos policy of creating a harmonious society. But he argues that it can only be

founded on the basis of mutual trust and an atmosphere of freedom, including freedom of speech

and the rule of law. If these values are embraced, many important problems relating to minority

nationalities can be resolved.102

With the growing international pressures on China, along with the frequent and sustained

mobilization, Tibetans are more likely to win concessions and greater access to power over their

100 ibid, p. 66.101 The Middle-Way Approach: A Framework for Resolving the Issue of Tibet, DIIR, TGiE, August 2006,

http://www.tibetgov.net/en/diir/sino/std/imwa.html, (accessed on April 01, 2008).102 The Dalai Lama, An appeal to the Chinese People, http://www.dalailama.com/news.220.htm, (accessed on

April 01, 2008).

27
http://www.tibetgov.net/en/diir/sino/std/imwa.htmlhttp://www.dalailama.com/news.220.htmhttp://www.dalailama.com/news.220.htmhttp://www.tibetgov.net/en/diir/sino/std/imwa.htmlhttp://www.dalailama.com/news.220.htm


28/28

own affairs.103 It is hopeful that the ongoing talks and confidence building measures started in

2002 will move forward to a successful negotiation.

In resolving the ethnonational conflicts, a rapprochement between the Chinese government and

the TGiE could lead to a negotiated settlement like that of Canadas Inuit who won control of

their territory without any acts of violence.104 The suppression of Tibetan people will incite more

violence and social disorder in Tibet. As Gurr says, negotiation should begin as early as possible

in the conflict, before positions become hardened by protracted warfare.105 The Chinese

government needs to revise its policy on Tibet and must arrive at a successful autonomy

arrangement before events get out of their control. The Chinese leadership have to act more

realistically to resolve the Tibetan issues. In the recent days, Tibetans from all over Tibet and the

Tibetan diaspora raised their grievances against the Chinese government, which utterly shows

that repression has not led to a rapprochement between Tibet and China. In order to achieve a

long-term peaceful solution, genuine autonomy for Tibetans is the most viable solution to the

Sino-Tibetan crisis.

103 ibid, p. 74.104With the establishment ofNunatsiavutin 2005, all the traditional Inuit lands in Canada are now covered by landclaims agreement providing for regional autonomy.105Ted Gurr. People vs. States, Minorities at Risk in the New Century, United States Institute of Peace, 2002, p.196.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nunatsiavuthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nunatsiavuthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nunatsiavut

Documents

Regional Autonomy for Tibet