Introducing different methods/approaches to teaching and developing active understanding of them

Deriving implications for ELT classroom practices

Background: Known also as the Army method, it was very popular during World War 2. It’s the first well-informed/established in the history of ELT. It lasted for decades (till 1670s) Language and Learning: Stracturalist view of language: Language is a system of rule-governed structures hierarchically arranged. Meaning that the curriculum should be linear Behaviorist approach to learning: “a conditioned habit formation” stimulus->response->reinforcement (+ or -) Learning a language should start with listening->speaking->reading->writing ALM Principles/goals:

Speech is overrated than writing Languages are totally different. Thus L1 is a hindrance/an enemy/another whole different system that interferes

with TL mastery Native speakers are the reference of any language. Accordingly, learners should attain/produce a native-like

language (pronunciation…) The teachers’ objective must be “forming new habits in TL and stepping over old habits (NL)” Other objectives include: control and full knowledge of the structures (sound, form and order…) that result in

native-like mastery of language. The Teacher’s Role vs. Student’s Role:

Teacher is a Learner is a

Controller Class orchestrator Model Reference of language Stimulus/input/material generator -/+ reinforcer

Tabula rasa Imitator Responder to stimuli Follower Passive

The teaching/learning Process: o It’s teacher-centered o New input (mainly vocabulary and structures) is introduced through dialogs o Grammar is taught inductively/implicitly o Dialogues and drills, repetition, imitation and memorization pattern practice. o Reinforcement, positive or negative, (feedback) is an essential part of leaning o Errors are signs of bad habits (failure to learn) and therefore must be AVOIDED /corrected on the spot (teacher

correction prevails) o Students needs/feelings aren’t part of the learning equation

Advantages and limitations: +Students use TL at all times and never resort to NL +Students demonstrate advanced levels in accuracy language areas (spelling, pronunciation, structures…) +Students use speaking and listening (oral-aural) so often that they demonstrate the ability to produce language early -Students’ needs and feelings are not considered -Students tend to face sociolinguistic/pragmatic issues related to TL -lack of autonomy and creativity on the part of the learner (always imitation and memorization) -Learning is mechanical not meaningful; it is not sustained outside classroom walls -Accuracy is overrated -learners are dealt with the same way (homogeneous conception of learners). “One size fits all”

Background: TPR is a teaching approach that has been used in many disciplines other than ELT. The core motto of this approach is that the coordination of speech and action is the key to a better and more comfortable learning. James Asher, psychologist, is the figure that’s widely associated to TPR Language and Learning: Stracturalist / grammar based view of language. TL is learned the same way as NL; comprehension precedes production, is imprinted through carrying out commands (right brain functioning) in a stress-free environment. Three hypotheses: 1) Language is learned primarily by listening, = (BIO-Program) 2) Language learning must engage the right hemisphere of the brain, = (Brain Lateralization) 3) Learning a language should not involve any anxiety, rather, enjoyable learning experience (Affective Filter) TPR Principles/goals:

To teach oral proficiency (at a beginning level), and the ultimate aim is to teach basic speaking skills To produce learners who are capable of free communication, which is understandable to a native speaker To provide an enjoyable learning experience, having less anxiety To encourage students to persist in their study beyond a beginning level of proficiency. Grammar is taught inductively and not necessarily sequenced. Reading and writing is taught after grammar and vocabulary. Teaching is sentence-based with grammatical and lexical criteria being primary, but focus on meaning not form. Evaluation is observation-based

The Teacher’s Role vs. Student’s Role:

Teacher is a Learner is a

Physically active Stage director Actor

Physically engaged/performer Producer when ready(10-20h) Monitor and evaluate their progress actor

Nature of interaction Pattern: “parent-child like”, first T->S then S->T or S<->T and later S<->S TPR techniques:

Commands: Ss listen, internalize and perform

Listening and transferring/transforming: listen then put pics in order or from speech to diagrammatic display (charts, tables...)

Action Sequence: Ss perform many actions (one procedure though)

Role Reversal: when Ss initiate speech and start directing their own learning scenes/stages Advantages and limitations: + Student centered at its late stages + Active learning by the students as input comprehension is entailed + Approaching L2 naturally + Error is part of studying, + Very engaging especially for students who feel insecure + Highly satisfactory for kinesthetic/hyper active learners -TPR is effective in the beginning level of language proficiency. Not enough for advanced learners - It emphasizes mostly listening and speaking. - Disturbing for interpersonal learners - TTT is dominant over STT. - It is applicable in classrooms with limited number of students. - Not encompassing other forms of communication: conversations, debates, posters…

Background: As in other disciplines, Cooperative language learning adopts a naturalistic and pluralistic perspective to the human learning experience. Among other theories supporting this claim stands socio-constructivism apparent. Yet, John Dewey is the first educator to present and implement the whole team-work learning concept in a more systematic and organized manner. “Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other's learning” (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1993). Language and Learning: Language is highly a cooperative interactive process. Language is a social behavior. Pluralistic view of language learning: Learning is, by nature, a cooperative task/responsibility. Learning is the development of social skills and socially established rules. ALM Principles/goals:

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): it’s simply TEAM as in “Together Everyone Achieves More” Scaffolding is a prominent concept which underlies the support a more skilled learner (or even teacher) offers to

a less skilled one. Responsibility / Individual accountability: everyone should be held responsible for the task he/she is assigned.

The group is not a hideout Task distribution Rationalized grouping: grouping should be normed or criterion-based not random if better outcomes are

expected Fostering positive relationships: enhancing positive attitudes of individual towards each other founded on

respect and Maximize students’ security and comfort: most individuals feel more secure within a group and hence express

themselves more freely and more spontaneously. Student-centered setting replacing teacher-fronted one Cooperation not competition. Social skills are especially encouraged: those include negotiation, interacting, decision making, conflict

resolution, leading, renouncing… The Teacher’s Role vs. Student’s Role:

Teacher is a Learner is a

Supporter coach / monitor learning facilitator preparer of the right arrangements/tasks

A Resource for others A member of the group A contributor to learning Director of his/her own learning (planning, presenting, and evaluating) A tutor

Nature of interaction Pattern: “novice learner-expert like” Types of CLL Groups

Formal CL Groups Informal CL Groups Cooperative Base Groups

These last from one class period to several weeks. These are established for a specific task and involve students working together to achieve learning goals.

ad-hoc groups Last from a few minutes to a class period purpose: 1) focus student attention 2) facilitate learning during direct teaching.

Long term groups Meant for at least a year Heterogeneous group members Stable membership Primary purpose: exchange assistance needed to succeed academically.

Bruce Tuckman’s Team-building model

Team members selected exchanging ideas ideas and goals agreed-upon synergized dynamics Groups are formed how to work collectively setting rules and roles constructing outcome

CLL Activities: Conversations Role-plays Jigsaw, Open-ended free conversations Information-gap activities, Problem solving, Storytelling, Cooperative projects, Think-Pair-Share Numbered Heads Together Rally Robin Rally table

Three-Step Interview Stand up Hand up Pair up Advantages and limitations: + it maximizes students interaction = Higher STT= Lower TTT +Anxiety-free, Security and Belonging +Encouraging for lower achievers +Peer-learning is sometimes better that teacher-fronted instruction - Disturbing for interpersonal learners - TTT is dominant over STT. - Difficult to follow up with large classrooms. -Uncontrolled overuse of L1

Background and language learning view: «Task-based learning is not a new method. Rather, it simply puts tasks at the center of one’s methodological focus.» Brown 1994 This way, TBLT is an approach to learning language through engagement in task resolution with interaction with fellow learners when necessary. TCLT argues that language can be learned effectively through non-linguistic channels which revolve around task completion. By doing so, students are granted learning opportunities where language is a vehicle to complete tasks and therefore language learning takes place subconsciously, meaning more effectively. Language is a problem-solving process/task. WHAT A TASK in TBLT is: “An activity which required learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allowed teacher to control and regulate that process”. Prabhu (1987) “A Task is an activity where the target language is used by by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome” Jane Willis It differs from exercises in that the latter are more controlled, highly predictable, and usually homogeneous in terms of outcome. TBLT Objectives and Principles: o Using the target language for a communicative purpose by making the language in the classroom truly

communicative. Providing natural real life-like contexts, via authentic materials, for classroom language use. o Language learning lies at the heart of problem-solving negotiation between knowledge that learners hold and new

knowledge. o It results in language used in the real world. o Task-based learning provides an alternative approach to focusing on language. o Development of social and cognitive skills through the task process is as important as language learning o Accrediting students’ initiation, creativity and imagination. o Assessment should be outcome-based as well as process-based

Teacher’s Role vs. Student’s Role

Teacher is a Learner is a

- preparer of tasks --Selector of tasks - Facilitator -Provide feedback - Manager of group or pair work -Language monitor -Monitor / Guide

- Group Participant -independent - Gather and organize information - sharer of outcome with class audience - Risk-Taker and creative

Jane’s Willis Task Cycle:

Background: Appearing in the 1970s , CLT stood as a reaction to the Audio-lingual method in US and the Situational Approach in UK. Heavy criticism was oriented to both. In parallel, the political need for English learning in Europe for negotiation purposes paved the way for the birth of CLT as it has always viewed communication as the end as well as the means of language learning. The era was also effected by leading authorities in applied linguistics such as Dell Hymes who developed the notion of the communicative competence reacting to Chomsky’s grammatical competence. Theory of Language and Learning: Language is a means for communication, through which the speaker’s needs or purposes are met. Language is a vehicle to convey meaning. Language use is more important than usage. Learning takes place when it’s personalized, interactional, communicative, meaningful, authentic and appreciated. Learning is a humanistic, naturalistic and pluralistic process. CLT Principles/goals:

Interacting with integrative and meaningful contents/activities. Developing learners who could function communicatively and successfully in unrehearsed/real life situations The teaching learning process is highly an affective one: building rapport, stress-free… Teaching is recommended to respond to students’ needs and interests. The ultimate goal to attain is communicative competence Contextualization

In the same regard, Nunan introduced five features or principles permeating CLT: (1)INTRACTION: An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language. (2)AUTHENTICITY: The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation. (3)META-LAERNING: The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on the language but also on the learning process itself. (4)PERSONALIZATION: An enhancement of the learner's own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning. (5)TRANSFER/APPLICATION: An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom CLT Syllabus:

Syllabus and content Materials Teacher’s roles Students’ roles Errors

Non-linear, spiral or cyclic, functional, communicative Motivating, appealing, inductive, Student-generated…

Task-based Text-based Student-oriented Student-generated Realia authentic

Learning facilitator Coach, researcher Learner, need analyst, agent of change, group organizer

Peer teacher Negotiator, communicator, Cooperator not competitor

Signs of learning in progress. Auto-correction then peer-correction then T-correction

Samples of CLT activities: Role plays – information gap activities – games – Jigsaws- find someone who – -Conversation -Discussion session-dialogs – contextualized simulations-skits-improvisations… Assessment: Assessment is not only accuracy-oriented, but it is also fluency-based. Assessment is equally process and performance-based. CLT assessment goes beyond conventional paper and pen assessment forms and introduces more credible alternatives such as: Project-work Posters Integrative tests Portfolios Peer or Self-assessment Journal assessment Checklist Oral participation Short quizzes