ReferenceResources

a.Books,bookchapters,andotherdocuments

Arthur,J.,Harrison,T.,Kristjansson,K.,&Davison,I.(2014).MyCharacter:Enhancingfuturemindednessinyoungpeople:Afeasibilitystudy.Retrievedfromhttp://epapers.bham.ac.uk/1948/1/MyCharacter.pdf

Dunkel,C.,&Kerpelman,J.(Eds.).(2005).Possibleselves:theory,research,andapplications.NewYork,NY:NovaSciencePublishers.

Gillham,J.E.(2000).Thescienceofoptimismandhope:ResearchessaysinhonorofMartinE.P.Seligman.Philadelphia,PA:TempletonFoundationPress.

Hock,M.,Schumaker,J.,&Deshler,D.(2003).Possibleselves:Nurturingstudentmotivation.Lawrence,KS:EdgeEnterprisesInc.

Kauffman,D.(1976).Teachingthefuture:Aguidetofuture-orientededucation.PalmSprings,CA:ETCPublications.

Linley,A.P.,&Joseph,S.(Eds.).(2004).Positivepsychologyinpractice(1sted.).UnitedStates:Wiley,John&Sons.

Little,B.,Salmela-Aro,K.,&Phillips,S.(2007).Personalprojectpursuitgoals,action,andhumanflourishing.NewYork,NY:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates.

Lopez,S.J.,&Snyder,C.R.(Eds.).(2011).TheOxfordhandbookofpositivepsychology.NewYork,NY:OxfordUniversityPress.

Lopez,S.J.(2014).Makinghopehappen:Createthefutureyouwantforyourselfandothers.NewYork,NY:Simon&SchusterChildren’sPublishing.

Magolda,M.B.,&King,P.M.(2012).AssessingMeaningMakingandSelf-Authorship:Theory,Research,andApplication:ASHEHigherEducationReport38:3(1sted.).UnitedStates:Wiley,John&Sons.

Magolda,M.B.(1999).Creatingcontextsforlearningandself-authorship:Constructive-developmentalPedagogy.UnitedStates:VanderbiltUniversityPress.

Nuttin,J.(1985).Futuretimeperspectiveandmotivation:Theoryandresearchmethod.Leuven,Belgium:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates.

Osman,M.(2014).Future-minded:Thepsychologyofagencyandcontrol.NewYork,NY:PalgraveMacmillan.

Perkins,D.(2014).FutureWise:EducatingOurChildrenforaChangingWorld.SanFrancisco,CA:Jossey-Bass.

Peterson,C.,&Seligman,M.E.P.(2004).Characterstrengthsandvirtues:Ahandbookandclassification.Washington,DC:AmericanPsychologicalAssociation.

Schulman,P.,Riffle,O.,&Wheatley,T.(2014).Thescienceofprospection:Beingdrawnintothefuture.Retrievedfromhttp://sites.sas.upenn.edu/prospect.

Seginer,R.(2009).Futureorientation:developmentalandecologicalperspectives.NewYork,NY:Springer-VerlagNewYork.

Snyder,C.R.,&Lopez,S.J.(Eds.).(2004).Handbookofpositivepsychology.NewYork,NY:OxfordUniversityPress.

Snyder,C.(2007).Positivepsychology:Thescientificandpracticalexplorationsofhumanstrengths.ThousandOaks,CA:SagePublications.

Zimbardo,P.(2008).Thetimeparadox:Thenewpsychologyoftimethatwillchangeyourlife.NewYork,NY:FreePress.

b.Journalarticlesandabstracts i.Conceptually-relateddocumentsAmericanPsychologist 1AnnalsoftheAmericanAcademyofPolitical&SocialScience 1AustrolasianJournalofEducationalTechnology 1DeathStudies 1DissertationAbstractsInternationalSectionA 3DissertationAbstractsInternationalSectionB 5EducationalPsychologyReview 1EducationalReview 1ElectronicJournalofResearchinEducationalPsychology 1EuropeanJournalofSchoolPsychology 1FrontiersinNeuroscience 1Group&OrganizationManagement 1JournalofAdolescence 1JournalofAdolescentResearch 1JournalofClinicalPsychology 1JournalofExperimentalSocialPsychology 1JournalofPersonality&SocialPsychology 1JournalofSocialandClinicalPsychology 2LearningandIndividualDifferences 1LearningandInstruction 1MotivationandEmotion 1NursingResearch 1PersonalityandSocialPsychologyBulletin 1PerspectivesonPsychologicalScience 1PsychologicalInquiry 1PsychologyintheSchools 1Psychology,Health&Medicine 1SexRoles 1SocialCasework 1TheBehavioralandBrainSciences 1TheCareerDevelopmentQuarterly 1SourceCountbyPublication,forconceptually-relateddocuments.

Beal,S.J.(2011).Thedevelopmentoffutureorientation:Underpinningsandrelatedconstructs.Theses,Dissertations,andStudentResearch:DepartmentofPsychology.Paper32.UniversityofNebraska-Lincoln.Retrievedfromhttp://ezproxy.umsl.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2012-99080-072&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

The current national educational policy agenda is lacking an imperative to educate children socially and ethically. Many organizations and leaders are working to correct this critical deficiency, but they lack the collective will to be an effective force for change. Character.org proposes to convene leaders of related educational organizations to ensure that the school improvement agenda incorporates core ethical and performance virtues consistent with American values and social mores. Through the resulting network of committed organizations, we intend to change the practice of educators to integrate research-supported best practices in character development.

Bechtold,D.A.(2001,March).Theeffectsofpossibleselves,culturalframeofreference,andstructuralbarriersontheeducationaloutcomesofcastelikeandimmigrantminoritystudents.DissertationAbstractsInternational:SectionB:TheSciencesandEngineering.Retrievedfromhttp://ezproxy.umsl.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2001-95006-076&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

Future orientation has been conceptualized in a variety of ways across literatures in psychology, sociology, education, and vocation. The lack of a shared definition and measurement across theoretical perspectives has resulted in a challenge in comparing findings across literatures and organizing results in a way that provides a coherent sense of how future orientation impacts later outcomes. Trommsdorff (1979) provided a comprehensive definition of future orientation that included eight dimensions: extension, detail, domain, affect, motivation, control, sequence of events, and number of cognitions. Study 1 was designed to test this definition using measures from five prominent theories of future orientation in the current literature, using confirmatory factor analyses in a structural equation modeling framework. The findings from Study 1 suggest that items taken from different measures of future orientation can be used as indicators of each of the dimensions proposed by Trommsdorff. However, not all of these dimensions are correlated with one another, and not all of them load onto a higher-order factor, suggesting that future orientation may be several, rather than a single, construct. A second issue within this literature is that studies have previously been designed to use future orientation as a predictor of outcomes of interest, and little attention has been paid to what factors predict future orientation itself. Based on correlated constructs found in previous research, Study 2 was designed to explore what childhood predictors, measured in grades 3 and 6, predicted future orientation in grade 10. Predictors were conceptually organized into constructs related to a capacity for future orientation and those related to individual differences in future orientation. Results suggest that, consistent with Study 1, future orientation should be conceptualized as multidimensional rather than unidimensional, and that different constructs predict each of the dimensions modeled. These findings have important implications for theory and research in future orientation, and practical implications for interventions designed to either improve future orientation or use future orientation as a mechanism for impacting other outcomes.

Bruininks,P.,&Malle,B.F.(2006).Distinguishinghopefromoptimismandrelatedaffectivestates.MotivationandEmotion,29(4),324–352.

Three studies examined the conceptual and psychological differences between hope and related mental states. In Study 1, participants provided definitions of hope as well as optimism, want, desire, wish, and the non-anticipatory state of joy; in Study 2, participants wrote about a time when they had experienced each of these states. These definitions and stories were coded for a number of psycho- logical features that were then used to distinguish the different states. Study 3 mapped the differences among the six mental states into a multidimensional conceptual space. Overall, hope is most closely related to wishing but distinct from it. Most important, hope is distinct from optimism by being an emotion, representing more important but less likely outcomes, and by affording less personal control. The importance of combining a folk-conceptual perspective with a more traditional analysis of appraisal for understanding differences among psychological constructs is discussed.

Bryant,F.B.,&Cvengros,J.a.(2004).Distinguishinghopeandoptimism:Twosidesofacoin,ortwoseparatecoins?JournalofSocialandClinicalPsychology,23(2),273–302.

Structural equation modeling was used to test hypotheses about (a) the dimensionality of measures of dispositional hope (the Adult Hope Scale, AHS) and dispositional optimism (the Life Orientation Test, LOT), (b) the extent and source of conceptual overlap and divergence between hope and optimism, and (c) patterns of discriminant validity for each trait. Separate two-factor models best fit the hope (Agency and Pathways, r = .68) and optimism (Optimism and Pessimism, = -.63) data. Analyzing the combined AHS and LOT data, a measurement model with separate, correlated second-order factors of Hope and Optimism (r =.80) provided a better fit than did a higher-order model with a single second-order factor. Optimism correlated equally with both Agency and Pathways, whereas Pessimism was more strongly correlated with Agency than with Pathways. Confirming hypotheses, second-order Optimism had a stronger influence on the use of positive reappraisal as a coping strategy than did second-order Hope, whereas second-order Hope had a stronger influence on level of general self-efficacy than did second-order Optimism. We suggest that hope focuses more directly on the personal attainment of specific goals, whereas optimism focuses more broadly on the expected quality of future outcomes in general.

Covas,V.L.(2000).Temporalperspective,purposeinlife,andoptimismasfactorsofresiliencyinat-riskmaleadolescents.DissertationAbstractsInternational:SectionB:TheSciencesandEngineering.Retrievedfromhttp://ezproxy.umsl.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2000-95010-123&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

Understanding the dynamics of positive adjustment among at risk adolescents is imperative for the prevention of negative developmental outcomes. This study sought to determine whether purpose in life, time perspective, and optimism were associated with resilient or nonresilient outcomes in 100 at risk adolescents. A battery of questionnaires including Maholick and Crumbaugh's (1976) Purpose in Life Test, Scheier and Carver's (1994) Life Orientation Test - Revised as a measure of optimism, and Zimbardo's (1997) Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory were administered to 50 adolescents who had been defined as resilient and 50 adolescents who were defined as nonresilient. Analyses revealed that the two groups were similar with regard to levels of optimism and sense of purpose in life. However, they differed on the scales of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory. The resilient adolescents utilized a fixture time orientation, whereas the nonresilient adolescents tended to focus on negative circumstances in the past. Directions for fixture research were also addressed.

deBilde,J.,Vansteenkiste,M.,&Lens,W.(2011).Understandingtheassociationbetweenfuturetimeperspectiveandself-regulatedlearningthroughthelensofself-determinationtheory.LearningandInstruction,21(3),332–344.

The present cross-sectional research examined a process underlying the positive association between holding an extended future time perspective (FTP) and learning outcomes through the lens of self-determination theory. High school students and university students (N = 275) participated in the study. It was found that students with an extended FTP regulated their study behaviour on the basis of several internal motives, including feelings of guilt and shame (introjected regulation), personal conviction (identified regulation) and interest (intrinsic motivation). The association with identified regulation was strongest and the association with intrinsic motivation fell below significance when controlling for identified regulation. Moreover, introjected and identified regulation emerged as mediators accounting for the association between FTP and cognitive processing. Further, to the extent that FTP engenders an internally pressuring mode of regulation it was found to be indirectly negatively associated with determination/metacognitive strategy use.

Dunkel,C.,&Anthis,K.(2001).Theroleofpossibleselvesinidentityformation:Ashort-termlongitudinalstudy.JournalofAdolescence,24,765–776.

This study is an attempt to replicate and extend previous findings on the relationship between identity and possible selves. In an effort to assess if the earlier findings by Dunkel (2000, Journal of Adolescence, 23, 513-529) could be generalized, different measures of identity and possible selves were used. Likewise, a longitudinal approach was utilized in order to evaluate the hypothesis that possible selves are a mechanism used in the process of identity formation. As predicted, identity exploration was positively correlated to the number of possible selves generated, and changes in identity exploration predicted changes in the number of possible selves generated. It was also found that identity commitment was associated with the consistency of hoped for possible selves across time, which may reflect the role of commitment in setting and working toward personal goals. Previous results related to identity status and possible selves pruning, balance, and valence were not replicated.

Fraser,K.L.(1997).Hopes,fears,andthearchitectureofadolescence:Thepossibleselvesaspolaroidsandblueprintsofearlyadolescentdevelopment.DissertationAbstractsInternational:SectionB:TheSciencesandEngineering.Retrievedfromhttp://ezproxy.umsl.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=1997-95008-370&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

Adolescents' answers to these questions are an important part of their self-concepts and comprise what Markus and Nurius (1986) have coined the "possible selves". Using two waves of longitudinal interview data, gathered from a racially and economically diverse group of young adolescents, this dissertation described and evaluated the ways in which adolescents' possible selves both reflected, and directed, adolescents' developmental trajectories. Study 1 (N = 1016) identified the systematic changes in the content of adolescents' possible selves between the times they were 12 and 14 years old. Log linear analyses indicated that: (1) adolescents' possible selves were predominantly stable over time; (2) the stability of adolescents' possible selves did not appear to be domain-specific; (3) the content of adolescents' possible selves changed, over time, in ways consistent with normative developmental demands. Study 2 (N = 778) both evaluated the extent to which adolescents' academic possible selves shaped their subsequent academic behaviors, and also identified the position of the possible selves in relation to the expectancy/value model (Eccles et al., 1983) of achievement-related behavioral choices. Regression analyses indicated that 7th-grade adolescents' academic possible selves significantly predicted: (1) increases in adolescents' grades; (2) the academic orientation of adolescents' friends; and (3) adolescents' levels of test anxiety, two years later. Furthermore, path analyses indicated that the effects of the possible selves in predicting these academic outcomes were mediated, in part, by both adolescents' academic ability self-concepts and (consistent with the expectancy/value theory) the value adolescents placed on academic success. Together, Study 1 and Study 2 support the theoretical validity of the possible selves, help identify important areas for future research (including the differential role of the hoped-for and feared possible selves), and reveal ways to improve the methodology of future possible selves studies.

Gillham,J.,&Reivich,K.(2004).Cultivatingoptimisminchildhoodandadolescence.AnnalsoftheAmericanAcademyofPoliticalandSocialScience,591,146–163.

How do optimism and hope develop in young people? How can they be promoted? This article reviews research on the development of optimism and hope and interventions designed to build these qualities in youth. The Penn Resiliency Program is discussed as an example of a school-based intervention that may promote hope and prevent symptoms of depression and anxiety. Limits of existing studies and directions for future research are also discussed.

Grewal,P.K.,&Porter,J.E.(2007).HopeTheory:Aframeworkforunderstandingsuicidalaction.DeathStudies,31(2),131–154.

This article examines C. R. Snyder's (1994, 2000a) theory of hope and its application for understanding suicide. Strengths, weaknesses, and gaps in the suicide literature are outlined, and A. T. Beck's theory of hopelessness is compared with Snyder's hope theory. Hope theory constructs are used to examine the relationship of suicide to hope/hopelessness, goals, pathways thinking, and agency thinking. This critical review is intended to broaden our theoretical understanding of suicide and is meant to form the basis for future empirical investigation of suicide-related behavior using the framework of hope theory. Implications for suicide prevention programs and approaches to treating suicidal individuals are outlined.

Hicks,D.(2001).Re-examiningthefuture:Thechallengeforcitizenshipeducation.EducationalReview,53(3),229–240.

This article begins by noting the importance of citizenship education in the revised national curriculum and stresses the need for this to include a futures perspective. The main part of the article looks at research on how young people conceptualize the future, together with the rationale for, and some of the key components of, a futures perspective within citizenship education.

Kimber,K.,&Wyatt-Smith,C.(2010).Secondarystudents’onlineuseandcreationofknowledge:refocusingprioritiesforqualityassessmentandlearning.AustralasianJournalofEducationalTechnology,26(5),607–625.

In this increasingly convergent and digital world, young people are reportedly using new media with high engagement outside school, yet disengaged in those schools where technology access is low or restricted. Such an apparent disconnection is magnified when predictions of their futures are tied to requisites including technological expertise, adaptability to change, innovative capacities and complex problem-solving abilities. Such future oriented capacities challenge traditional views that basic literate and numerate proficiency is sufficient for academic success. They also raise questions about the sufficiency of digital engagement for developing higher order critical and creative skills. Collectively, these future oriented capacities heighten educational imperatives for improving the quality of young people's learning outcomes in this rapidly changing online world. This article addresses these issues. It draws on diverse literature sources and an Australian research study (2003-2008) into secondary students' curricular digital literacies (Appendix A) to present conceptual advances in understandings about how to recognize, talk about and value signs of quality learning in student-created multimodal products. Finally, the article offers an assessment framework with potential for assisting students and teachers to access core concepts and mobilize those essential capacities for enhancing performance when using and creating knowledge online.

King,L.A.(2001).Thehealthbenefitsofwritingaboutlifegoals.PersonalityandSocialPsychologyBulletin,27(7),798–807.

In a variation on Pennebaker’s writing paradigm, a sample of 81 undergraduates wrote about one of four topics for 20 minutes each day for 4 consecutive days. Participants were randomly assigned to write about their most traumatic life event, their best possible future self, both of these topics, or a nonemotional control topic. Mood was measured before and after writing and health center data for illness were obtained with participant con- sent. Three weeks later, measures of subjective well-being were obtained. Writing about life goals was significantly less upset- ting than writing about trauma and was associated with a significant increase in subjective well-being. Five months after writing, a significant interaction emerged such that writing about trauma, one’s best possible self, or both were associated with decreased illness compared with controls. Results indicate that writing about self-regulatory topics can be associated with the same health benefits as writing about trauma.

Knox,M.,Funk,J.,Elliot,R.,&Bush,E.G.(1998).Adolescents’possibleselvesandtheirrelationshiptoglobalself-esteem.SexRoles,39(1),61-80.

Recent research indicates that adolescent girls’ self-esteem is lower than that of boys, and adolescence has been identified as a particularly problematic period for female self-esteem. However, many studies use global self-esteem measures that mask important differences within the domains of self-concept that contribute to self-esteem. Further, some self-esteem measures assess components of male self-esteem but overlook aspects of female self-esteem. The possible selves approach was used to identify categories of adolescent male and female self-concept that correlate with self-esteem. Subjects were 212 high-school students. The sample was primarily (96%) Caucasian. Results indicate that female self-esteem is related to perceived likelihood of hoped-for and feared possible selves in multiple domains, whereas male self-esteem is related only to the likelihood of one domain of hoped-for possible selves.

Kortsch,G.,Kurtines,W.M.,&Montgomery,M.J.(2008).AMultistageLongitudinalComparative(MLC)DesignStageII:EvaluationoftheChangingLivesProgram(CLP):ThePossibleSelvesQuestionnaire--QualitativeExtensions(PSQ-QE).JournalofAdolescentResearch,23(3),342–358.

The study reported in this paper, a Multistage Longitudinal Comparative (MLC) Design Stage II evaluation conducted as a planned preliminary efficacy evaluation (psychometric evaluation of measures, short-term controlled outcome studies, etc.) of the Changing Lives Program (CLP), provided evidence for the reliability and validity of qualitative measures under development as well as the utility of unifying qualitative (e.g., open coding, theoretical sampling/saturation, etc.) and quantitative (e.g., quasi-experimental designs, advanced statistical analysis, psychometric analysis, etc.) research methods and procedures for evaluating intervention programs. Specifically, when analyzed using Relational Data Analysis, response data from the Future Possible Selves Questionnaire yielded theoretically meaningful categories with robust levels of reliability and construct and concurrent (external) validity. Additionally, the pattern of qualitative change for participants in the intervention condition, the CLP, were found to be positive, significant, and in the hypothesized direction relative to the comparison group, providing support for the feasibility of creating evidence-based youth development programs for promoting positive development in self and identity in troubled youth.

Magaletta,P.R.,&Oliver,J.M.(1999).Thehopeconstruct,will,andways:theirrelationswithself-efficacy,optimism,andgeneralwell-being.JournalofClinicalPsychology,55(5),539–51.

This investigation (N = 204) examined (a) the relations between the hope construct (Snyder, Harris et al., 1991; Snyder, Irving, & Anderson, 1991) and its two essential components, "will" and "ways," and the related constructs of self-efficacy and optimism; and (b) the ability of hope, self-efficacy, and optimism to predict general well-being. Maximum-likelihood factor analysis recovered will, ways, self-efficacy, and optimism as generally distinct and independent entities. Results of multiple regression analyses predicting well-being indicated that (a) hope taken as a whole predicts unique variance independent of self-efficacy and optimism, (b) will predicts unique variance independent of self-efficacy, and (c) ways predicts unique variance independent of optimism. Overall, findings suggest that will, ways, self-efficacy, and optimism are related but not identical constructs.

Margee,K.(1999).Mexican-Americanadolescentidentitydevelopmentandpossibleselvestheory.DissertationAbstractsInternational:SectionB:TheSciencesandEngineering.Retrievedfromhttp://ezproxy.umsl.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=1999-95020-128&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

The process of identity development is an essential task during adolescence. This development has a major impact on an adolescent's performance, interaction with others and his or her behavior. Successful development results in an adolescent being capable of making choices that lead to acceptable school accomplishment, the ability to form healthy relationships with family and others, and behavior that is sanctioned by society. Although most adolescents report participating in risky behavior, for the majority of adolescents this behavior does not become chronic or severe. Poor developmental outcome can result in chronic or serious delinquent behavior including drug use and violence, repeated school failure, and either unemployment or underemployment. Society has a legitimate interest in curbing adolescent delinquent behavior. Effective interventions are an essential element of society's response to adolescent delinquency. Previous research has shown that the process of adolescent identity development includes the ability to generate the possibility of both a positive and negative future self. Studies have shown that successful outcomes can be predicted based on the adolescent's balance between positive and negative selves. Levels of delinquency are related to levels of balance in possible selves. Current research approaches are integrated to explore intra-psychic, interpersonal, and the wider social context to expand understanding of adolescent identity development and behavior. This research project includes proven measures of internal locus of control, identity style, parental bonding, general family function, levels of adolescent risk based on behavior, as well as the balance of possible selves. This dissertation expands prior research to include a population of Mexican-American adolescents. The Mexican-American population has been seriously underrepresented in previous research studies. The participants for this research include adolescents with a range of risk behavior. The subjects include those with high academic performance and no behavioral problems as well as incarcerated adolescents. An improved understanding of an adolescent's delinquent identity development and behavior contributes to the quality of intervention programs. This research makes an important contribution to the understanding of cultural differences in adolescent identity development.

Markus,H.,&Nurius,P.(1986).Possibleselves.AmericanPsychologist,41(9),954–969.

The concept of possible selves is introduced to complement current conceptions of self-knowledge. Possible selves represent individuals' ideas of what they might become, what they would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming, and thus provide a conceptual link between cognition and motivation. Possible selves are the cognitive components of hopes, fears, goals, and threats, and they give the specific self-relevant form, meaning, organization, and direction to these dynamics. Possible selves are important, first, because they function as incentives for future behavior (i.e., they are selves to be approached or avoided) and second, because they provide an evaluative and interpretive context for the current view of self. A discussion of the nature and function of possible selves is followed by an exploration of their role in addressing several persistent problems, including the stability and malleability of the self, the unity of the self, self-distortion, and the relationship between the self-concept and behavior.

Massie,J.(2009).ThepossibleselvesofLatinomalesparticipatingintheupwardboundprogram.DissertationAbstractsInternationalSectionA:HumanitiesandSocialSciences.Retrievedfromhttp://ezproxy.umsl.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2009-99210-594&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

The purpose of this ethnography was to investigate the content and structure and the factors that contributed to the development of the possible selves of Latino male students participating in Upward Bound, which is a federally funded program whose primary purpose is to prepare low-income and/or first-generation high school students for higher education. This qualitative study utilized a total of 19 participants of the Upward Bound Program being conducted at the University of Southern California campus. Since the methodology of this study is qualitative, no causal conclusions were made. However, despite the limitations of this study, the findings are important to increase our collective understanding of the content and structure of the possible selves of Latinos. The description of the possible selves of the participants offers a rich and detailed description of future-oriented self representations that value academic

success, personal and physical development and a clear desire to matriculate on to a university. The influence of the participants’ families were substantial and the participants’ involvement in Upward Bound resulted in the development and sharpening of their academic aspirations.

Miller,D.N.,Gilman,R.,&Martens,M.P.(2008).Wellnesspromotionintheschools:Enhancingstudents’mentalandphysicalhealth.PsychologyintheSchools,45(1),5–15.

Wellness promotion addresses both the reduction of disorder and disease and the enhancement of mental and physical health. There is increasing evidence of a strong and reciprocal relationship between mental and physical health, and linking these two areas may be particularly useful for promoting positive youth development in school contexts. This article discusses the relationship between mental and physical health in children and adolescents, and how to promote both within schools. Topics discussed include the benefits of (a) hope and optimism, (b) structured extracurricular activities, and (c) sport and exercise psychology for school-based health and wellness promotion. These topics are linked in that each has the potential to positively affect both mental and physical health in children and adolescents in schools.

Miller,R.B.,&Brickman,S.J.(2004).Amodeloffuture-orientedmotivationandself-regulation.EducationalPsychologyReview,16(1),9–33.

This article presents a theoretically grounded model of motivation and self-regulation that places personally valued future goals at its core. We attempt to integrate two lines of theorizing and research that have been relatively independent of one another: the social—cognitive perspective on self-regulation (e.g., Bandura, A., 1986) and theories of more future-oriented self-regulation (e.g., Markus, H., and Nurius, P., Am. Psychol. 41: 954-969, 1986; 1986; Nutin, J., Motivation, Planning, and Action: A Relational Theory of Behavior Dynamics, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, 1984; Raynor, J. O., Motivation and Achievement, Winston, & Sons, New York, Chap. 7, pp. 121-154, 1974). We argue that personally valued future goals influence proximal self-regulation through their impact in the development of proximal subgoals leading to future goal attainment. The development of a system of proximal subgoals increases the likelihood that proximal tasks are perceived as instrumental to attaining future goals. Proximal tasks that are perceived as instrumental to reaching personally valued future goals have greater overall incentive value and meaning than proximal tasks lacking this instrumental relationship, and their impact on task engagement is correspondingly greater. Research supporting these claims is reviewed and the implications of this model of future-oriented self-regulation for research and intervention are discussed.

Myers,M.R.(2004).TheChildren’sTimePerspectiveInventory(CTPI):Exploratoryresearchwithtypicalchildrenandchildrenwithattention-deficit/hyperactivitydisorder.DissertationAbstractsInternational:SectionB:TheSciencesandEngineering.Retrievedfromhttp://ezproxy.umsl.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2004-99010-222&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

The Children's Time Perspective Inventory (CTPI) was developed to fulfill the need for a reliable measure of time orientation for children. It is a twenty-item questionnaire (Cronbach alpha = .84) with two factors, "Risk-Taking" (5 items, Cronbach alpha = .73) and "Impatience and Spontaneity" (8 items, Cronbach alpha = .85). The primary goals of this study were to re-establish the CTPI as a reliable and valid questionnaire to measure children's time perspective, as well as to examine the relationship between time perspective and ADHD using the CTPI. Results indicated that children could be classified into present- versus future-oriented categories, with one subset of children classified as extremely future-oriented. The CTPI was reliable and retained the same structure as in the initial study (Myers, 2000). In the present study, compared to typical children, children with ADHD had higher scores on the "Risk-Taking" and "Impatience and Spontaneity" factor scales of the CTPI, as well as higher average total scores on the CTPI, indicating a

present orientation. The Impatience and Spontaneity factor of the CTPI had the best projected use in discriminating amongst those children with ADHD. ADHD diagnosis (not gender, grade, ethnicity, or parent's opinion of impulsivity) was the only significant variable distinguishing those individuals who were present-oriented from those who were future-oriented. The CTPI is a relatively short questionnaire that is easy to score and takes little clinical time. It gives information about the child's risk-taking behavior and the capacity to wait to plan, which should have valuable clinical and educational implications. The CTPI is useful in distinguishing children with clinical levels of impulsivity from children who have typical levels of impulsivity. Most importantly, the CTPI can be used to further explore the field of children's time orientation.

Norman,C.C.,&Aron,A.(2003).Aspectsofpossibleselfthatpredictmotivationtoachieveoravoidit.JournalofExperimentalSocialPsychology,39(5),500–507.

The present research examined a model of the cognitive basis for the motivational impact of hoped for and feared possible selves. In a sample of 116 participants, motivation to attain or avoid an important possible self was significantly predicted by its availability (as measured by degree of detail in a paragraph description of the possible self), its accessibility (as measured by response time to features of that possible self), and the extent to which its attainment or avoidance is perceived as under one’s control (as measured by a self-report scale). Alternative explanations in terms of general individual differences are rendered unlikely because motivation for a non-important possible self was not predicted by these measures.

Nurius,P.S.(1989).Theself-concept:Asocial-cognitiveupdate.SocialCasework,70(5),285–294.

Discusses the components of self-concept and how the coherent and stable features of identity can be reconciled with the mutable experience of self as being different in different situations. The author also describes how hopes and fears of future possibilities are related to the self-concept and to affective, motivational, and behavioral outcomes. The notions of self-schemata, the working self-concept, and possible selves are introduced with supporting evidence from research findings. Uses of the working self-concept framework and possible selves for assessment and treatment are discussed.

Nurius,P.S.,&Majerus,D.(1988).Rethinkingtheselfinself-talk:Atheoreticalnoteandcaseexample.JournalofSocialandClinicalPsychology,6(3-4),335–345.

Describes revisions in traditional formulations of the self-concept that serve to enhance its compatibility with current cognitively oriented clinical therapies. A case study of a 26-yr-old female with no psychiatric history illustrates the integration of the formulation into existing intervention procedures. Three dimensions of change within the self-concept are emphasized: (1) access variation of different self-schemata through the working self-concept; (2) cognitive representations of motivation in the form of possible selves, hoped for and feared; and (3) the relative degree of elaboration of self-conceptions. Client-anchored Likert-type scales are used to observe change over the course of treatment and to serve as heuristic self-monitoring devices for the client.

O’Connor,R.C.,Connery,H.,&Cheyne,W.M.(2000).Hopelessness:Theroleofdepression,futuredirectedthinking,andcognitivevulnerability.Psychology,Health&Medicine,5(2),157–161.

Previous research has suggested that parasuicides are impaired in their ability to generate positive future experiences. This study aimed to look at the relationship between future experiences, cognitive vulnerability and hopelessness in parasuicides and matched hospital controls. Parasuicides (N5 20) and matched hospital controls (N5 20) were assessed the day following an episode of deliberate self-harm on measures of hopelessness, depression, anxiety, cognitive vulnerability and future directed thinking. The

parasuicides differed from hospital controls on measures of depression, hopelessness and negative cognitive style in the predicted direction. Future positive thinking, depression and negative cognitive style explained 70.5% of the hopelessness variance. Future positive thinking was not correlated with either depression or negative cognitive style, whereas negative cognitive style was correlated with depression and hopelessness. Future directed thinking contributes to hopelessness independently of depression and does not seem to be associated with cognitive vulnerability.

Osman,M.(2012).Theeffectsofself-setorexternally-setgoalsonlearninginanuncertainenvironment.LearningandIndividualDifferences,22(5),575–584.

Monitoring refers to online awareness and self-evaluation of one's goal-directed actions, while Control refers to the generation and selection of goal-directed actions (Osman, 2010a). The present study examines the extent to which external estimations of performance influence monitoring and control behaviors. To achieve this, a complex dynamic decision making task was used in which three different cues were manipulated in order to control three outcomes. The experiment was divided into two conditions. The Externally guided-condition received information designed to influence people's evaluation of control performance, whereas the Self-guided-condition was not provided this information. The findings revealed that control performance differed according to whether the success of one's actions was evaluated against external or self-guided estimations of performance. This article proposes that Monitoring behaviors can strongly influence control behaviors and this is achieved according to the way in which outcomes of decisions are evaluated. Finally, with respect to adult learning, the findings from this study suggest that setting one's own goals do not lead to improvements in learning when the task is a complex one.

Park-Taylor,J.,&Vargas,A.(2012).Usingtheconstructsmultifinality,workhope,andpossibleselveswithurbanminorityyouth.TheCareerDevelopmentQuarterly,60(3),243–253.

This article describes and highlights the potential contributions that the constructs multifinality, work hope, and possible selves make for designing career counseling interventions and for better understanding possible career-related factors associated with academic engagement and achievement among urban minority youth. Multifinality may serve as a superordinate orientation because it conceptualizes development as discontinuous and relatively plastic, allowing for youth deemed at risk to follow more hopeful pathways. Work hope and possible selves emphasize the utility of providing urban minority youth with space to answer questions related to what they might achieve and do in the future and who they might become. Together, multifinality, work hope, and possible selves provide a hopeful conceptual framework for career researchers and practitioners.

Pezzulo,G.,&Rigoli,F.(2011).Thevalueofforesight:Howprospectionaffectsdecision-making.FrontiersinNeuroscience,5(79),1–15.

Traditional theories of decision-making assume that utilities are based on the intrinsic value of outcomes; in turn, these values depend on associations between expected outcomes and the current motivational state of the decision-maker. This view disregards the fact that humans (and possibly other animals) have prospection abilities, which permit anticipating future mental processes and motivational and emotional states. For instance, we can evaluate future outcomes in light of the motivational state we expect to have when the outcome is collected, not (only) when we make a decision. Consequently, we can plan for the future and choose to store food to be consumed when we expect to be hungry, not immediately. Furthermore, similarly to any expected outcome, we can assign a value to our anticipated mental processes and emotions. It has been reported that (in some circumstances) human subjects prefer to receive an unavoidable punishment immediately, probably because they are anticipating the dread associated with the time spent waiting for the punishment. This article offers a formal framework to guide neuroeconomic research on how prospection affects decision-making. The model has two characteristics. First, it uses model-based Bayesian inference to describe anticipation of cognitive and motivational processes. Second,

the utility-maximization process considers these anticipations in two ways: to evaluate outcomes (e.g., the pleasure of eating a pie is evaluated differently at the beginning of a dinner, when one is hungry, and at the end of the dinner, when one is satiated), and as outcomes having a value themselves (e.g., the case of dread as a cost of waiting for punishment). By explicitly accounting for the relationship between prospection and value, our model provides a framework to reconcile the utility-maximization approach with psychological phenomena such as planning for the future and dread.

Phan,HP.(2009).Futuretimeperspectiveinsocioculturalcontexts:Adiscussionpaper.ElectronicJournalofResearchinEducationalPsychology,7(2),761–778.

Future time perspective (FTP) serves as a strong motivational force for individuals to engage in activities that may be instrumental in future outcomes. There has been a voluminous body of research studies, to date, that explored the importance of FTP. This article discusses FTP from sociocultural perspectives. Based on previous empirical evidence, we contend that FTP is related closely to a person's sociocultural identity. We situate our theoretical discussion within the context of the Pacific and argue that a person's FTP is shaped by his/her cultural identity, class and historical origin. Drawing from the evidence cited, we also raise a number of issues and offer directions for future research in this area of inquiry.

Seligman,M.E.P.,Railton,P.,Baumeister,R.F.,&Sripada,C.(2013).Navigatingintothefutureordrivenbythepast?PerspectivesonPsychologicalScience,8(2),119–141.

Prospection (Gilbert & Wilson, 2007), the representation of possible futures, is a ubiquitous feature of the human mind. Much psychological theory and practice, in contrast, has understood human action as determined by the past and viewed any such teleology (selection of action in light of goals) as a violation of natural law because the future cannot act on the present. Prospection involves no backward causation; rather, it is guidance not by the future itself but by present, evaluative representations of possible future states. These representations can be understood minimally as “If X, then Y” conditionals, and the process of prospection can be understood as the generation and evaluation of these conditionals. We review the history of the attempt to cast teleology out of science, culminating in the failures of behaviorism and psychoanalysis to account adequately for action without teleology. A wide range of evidence suggests that prospection is a central organizing feature of perception, cognition, affect, memory, motivation, and action. The authors speculate that prospection casts new light on why subjectivity is part of consciousness, what is “free” and “willing” in “free will,” and on mental disorders and their treatment. Viewing behavior as driven by the past was a powerful framework that helped create scientific psychology, but accumulating evidence in a wide range of areas of research suggests a shift in framework, in which navigation into the future is seen as a core organizing principle of animal and human behavior.

Sharp,E.H.(2007).Futureperspectiveinadolescence:Validationofanewmeasureandindividualandcontextualdevelopmentalcorrelates.DissertationAbstractsInternationalSectionA:HumanitiesandSocialSciences.Retrievedfromhttp://ezproxy.umsl.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2007-99003-152&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

Adolescents' future perspective is thought to play an important role in motivation and behavior; however studies that examine adolescent future perspective are sparse. The lack of theoretically driven, reliable, and valid measures of future perspective may contribute to the limited research in this area. The purpose of study 1 was to provide reliability and validity estimates for the Future Perspective Questionnaire (FPQ), a newly designed self-report measure of how adolescents think about, feel about, and prepare for their futures. Measurement development using exploratory Principal Axis Factor analysis with oblique rotation was conducted with a sample of 116 high school students. Results produced a 4-factor model that accounted for 72% of the variance. Confirmatory Factor Analysis using data from a separate sample of 401

undergraduate students confirmed that the 4-factor model fit the data well. The four dimensions were named: Clarity of future goals and plans, Importance of future goals and plans, Optimism toward the future, and Preparation for the future. These dimensions showed moderate convergent validity with other measures of future perspective and positive identity and discriminant validity with dimensions of a religiosity scale with the high school sample. The FPQ shows promise as an assessment of cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects of future perspective for both high school and college students. Study 2 examined the links between adolescents' leisure-related identity experiences, family support and challenge, parental socialization of future perspective, and economic resources and community opportunities and the four dimensions of future perspective. Results of regression analyses using data from 116 high school students indicated that the individual and contextual variables accounted for significant variance in each of the future perspective indices, but these relations varied by dimension. After accounting for variance due to background variables and general activity involvement, adolescents' leisure-related identity experiences provided consistent and independent prediction of each dimension of future perspective. After accounting for family support and challenge, parental socialization of future perspective was a positive, unique predictor of the dimension of preparation for the future. Mother's education was a negative, unique predictor of clarity of future goals and plans, and adolescents' perception of community opportunity was a positive, unique predictor of optimism toward the future after accounting for other individual and contextual correlates. Implications of this study include the importance of (1) studying multiple dimensions of future perspective independently; (2) assessing leisure-related identity experiences in the study of adolescent future perspective; and (3) considering the role of contextual factors in adolescent future perspective. Implications for interventions promoting positive youth development are discussed.

Snyder,C.R.(2015).HopeTheory :RainbowsintheMind.PsychologicalInquiry,13(4),249–275.

Hope is defined as the perceived capability to derive pathways to desired goals, and motivate oneself via agency thinking to use those pathways. The adult and child hope scales that are derived from hope theory are described. Hope theory is compared to theories of learned optimism, optimism, self-efficacy, and self-esteem. Higher hope consistently is related to better outcomes in academics, athletics, physical health, psychological adjustment, and psychotherapy. Processes that lessen hope in children and adults are reviewed. Using the hope theory definition, no evidence is found for “false” hope. Future research is encouraged in regard to accurately enhancing hope in medical feedback and helping people to pursue those goals for which they are best suited.

Stein,K.R.,&Markus,H.R.(1998).Self-schemasandpossibleselvesaspredictorsandoutcomesofriskybehaviorsinadolescents.NursingResearch,47(April),96–106.

Although there is extensive evidence that the self-concept changes in many important ways during the adolescent years and that these changes influence behavioral choices, the majority of studies completed to date have been based on a static model in which the self-concept is viewed solely as an antecedent of the risky behaviors. Objectives: To investigate the pattern of relationships between three components of the self-concept-the popular, the conventional, and the deviant selves-and risky behaviors in a sample of middle adolescents during their transition from junior high to high school. Methods: A sample of 160 adolescents completed questionnaires measuring the content of their self-schemas and possible selves and involvement in four risky behaviors (tobacco and alcohol use, sexual intercourse, poor school performance) during the winter of eighth and ninth grades. Results: Popular self-schema score in the eighth grade positively predicted ninth grade risky behaviors. Risky behavior involvement in the eighth grade predicted ninth-grade deviant self-schema and possible self-scores. Conclusions: These findings suggest that the self-concept may not only play a role in the early stages of engagement in the risky behaviors but may also be one means through which the behaviors become structuralized into potentially enduring aspects of the self.

Suddendorf,T.,&Corballis,M.C.(2007).Theevolutionofforesight:Whatismentaltimetravel,andisituniquetohumans?TheBehavioralandBrainSciences,30(3),299–313;discussion313–51.

In a dynamic world, mechanisms allowing prediction of future situations can provide a selective advantage. We suggest that memory systems differ in the degree of flexibility they offer for anticipatory behavior and put forward a corresponding taxonomy of prospection. The adaptive advantage of any memory system can only lie in what it contributes for future survival. The most flexible is episodic memory, which we suggest is part of a more general faculty of mental time travel that allows us not only to go back in time, but also to foresee, plan, and shape virtually any specific future event. We review comparative studies and find that, in spite of increased research in the area, there is as yet no convincing evidence for mental time travel in nonhuman animals. We submit that mental time travel is not an encapsulated cognitive system, but instead comprises several subsidiary mechanisms. A theater metaphor serves as an analogy for the kind of mechanisms required for effective mental time travel. We propose that future research should consider these mechanisms in addition to direct evidence of future-directed action. We maintain that the emergence of mental time travel in evolution was a crucial step towards our current success.

VanDijk,W.W.,VanDillen,L.,Seip,E.C.,&Rotteveel,M.(2012).Emotionaltimetravel :Emotionregulationandtheoverestimationoffutureangerandsadness.EuropeanJournalofSchoolPsychology,42(1),308–313.

In the present study we examined the role of four specific forms of reappraisal in people’s overestimation of their future experiences of anger and sadness. Results show that forecasters predicted to experience more intense anger and sadness following social exclusion than experiencers actually felt. This impact bias was shown in both the overall intensity of these emotions and their associated response tendencies. Results also show that forecasters indicated less reappraisal of the situation than experiencers actually employ. Moreover, for experiencers, reappraisal (i.e., relativisation) of social exclusion decreased their experience of anger, whereas forecasters’ predicted reappraisal was not related to their forecasted experience of anger. These findings add importantly to earlier research by indicating how a specific emotion regulatory process (i.e., reappraisal) is related to the impact bias in affective forecasting.

Weiner,B.(2011).Ultimateandproximaldeterminantsofmotivationgivenanattributionperspectiveandthemetaphorsguidingattributiontheory.Group&OrganizationManagement,36(4),526–532.

Attribution theory includes mastery and maintenance of society among its ultimate determinants of action and a variety of information sources and emotions as the proximal or immediate determinants of motivation. These goals are guided by two metaphors: the person as a scientist and the person as a judge. I discuss these positions and point out some of the perceived limitations of the articles in this special issue.

Zimbardo,P.G.andBoyd,J.N.(1999).Puttingtimeinperspective:Avalid,reliableindividual-differencemetric.JournalofPersonality&SocialPsychology,77(6),1271–1288.

Time perspective (TP), a fundamental dimension in the construction of psychological time, emerges from cognitive processes partitioning human experience into past, present, and future temporal frames. The authors' research program proposes that TP is a pervasive and powerful yet largely unrecognized influence on much human behavior. Although TP variations are learned and modified by a variety of personal, social, and institutional influences, TP also functions as an individual-differences variable. Reported is a new measure assessing personal variations in TP profiles and specific TP "biases." The 5 factors of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory were established through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses and demonstrate acceptable internal and test-retest reliability.

ii. Intervention-relateddocuments

AcademyofManagementLearning&Education 1BasicandAppliedSocialPsychology 1CanadianJournalofCounseling 1CognitiveDevelopment 1DissertationAbstractsInternationalSectionA 1DissertationAbstractsInternationalSectionB 1FamilyRelations 1JournalofAdolescence 1JournalofEducationResearch 1JournalofPersonality&SocialPsychology 2JournalofResearchinPersonality 1ResearchQuarterlyforExerciseandSport 1SourceCountbyPublication,forintervention-relateddocuments.

Atance,C.M.,&Meltzoff,A.N.(2005).Myfutureself:Youngchildren’sabilitytoanticipateandexplainfuturestates.CognitiveDevelopment,20(3),341–361.

Two experiments examine preschool-aged children’s ability to anticipate physiological states of the self. One hundred and eight 3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds were presented with stories and pictorial scenes designed to evoke thought about future states such as thirst, cold, and hunger. They were asked to imagine themselves in these scenarios and to choose one item from a set of three that they would need. Only one of the items could be used to address the future state. In both experiments, developmental differences were obtained for correct item choices and types of verbal explanations. In Experiment 2, the performance of the 3- and 4-year-olds was negatively affected by introducing items that were semantically associated with the scenarios but did not address the future state, whereas the 5-year-olds’ performance was not. Results are discussed with respect to children’s understanding of the future, theory of mind, and inhibitory control skills.

Fourez,M.(2010).Impoverishedstudents’perspectivesoftime.DissertationAbstractsInternationalSectionA:HumanitiesandSocialSciences.Retrievedfromhttp://ezproxy.umsl.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2010-99110-296&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

The purpose of this study was to examine possible differences between impoverished and non-impoverished students’ perspectives of time. Specifically, the study examined students’ academic future time perspectives defined as their ability to plan ahead to complete academic tasks and to judge their effectiveness in completing such tasks. A causal/comparative research design utilizing a survey instrument with a purposive sample of 60 impoverished and 60 non-impoverished fifth grade students was implemented. The data was analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics to compare the means of each group for each survey item. The results suggests a difference does exist between impoverished and non-impoverished students’ academic perspectives of time as measured as their self-reported behaviors concerning planning and prioritizing to complete academic tasks, and as measured as their judgments regarding their effectiveness in completing academic tasks. Four conclusions have been drawn from the data: impoverished students are more focused on the present moment than their more future oriented non-impoverished peers; impoverished students do not see the future value inherent in completing and submitting homework and assignments; impoverished students do not honor commitments to time; and

gender is not a confounding variable and does not interfere with impoverished students’ academic future time perspective.

Gonzales,M.H.,Burgess,D.J.,&Mobilio,L.J.(2010).Theallureofbadplans:Implicationsofplanqualityforprogresstowardpossibleselvesandpostplanningenergization.BasicandAppliedSocialPsychology,23(2),87–108.

Two studies examined the influence of plan quality on participants’ postplanning affective self-reports. Most Study 1 participants reported positive affect after planning for self-change; such positive reports were more prominent among those who constructed vague, unstructured plans than among those who constructed detailed, structured plans. Experimental Study 2 demonstrated that the relation between plan quality and consequent affect is mediated in part by planners’ perceptions of imminent goal attainment, that poor planning confers the benefit of energization, and that good planning confers the affective liability of anxiety and agitation. Results of both studies suggest that the act of constructing a vague self-change plan provides immediate affective and cognitive benefits. Thus, plan construction can be a reinforcing activity, in and of itself.

Hock,M.F.,Deshler,D.D.,&Schumaker,J.B.(2011).Enhancingstudentmotivationthroughthepursuitofpossibleselves.JournalofEducationResearch5(3),17.

Enhancing the academic motivation and commitment of students who have lost the desire to engage in learning in a meaningful way is a major challenge for many teachers, counselors, and parents. In an effort to address this challenge, the Possible Selves Program was developed to nurture academic and personal motivation in elementary through post-secondary students. Program activities guide students through the process of thinking about their hopes, expectations, and fears for the future. The program includes activities that help students identify short and long-term goals that they value and to develop and pursue action plans that lead to goal attainment. Studies conducted with middle and high school students and university student-athletes indicate that Possible Selves can be effective in increasing the number of roles students identify as possible for them in the future and the number and diversity of career, learning, and personal goals they wish to achieve. Also, Possible Selves has resulted in higher academic performance, higher retention rates, and higher graduation rates for university student-athletes than for student-athletes in control conditions.

Kortsch,G.A.(2003).Thepossibleselvesmethodinevaluatingyouthdevelopmentinterventions:Theuseofintegratedqualitative/quantitativedataanalyticstrategies(IQ-DAS).DissertationAbstractsInternational:SectionB:TheSciencesandEngineering.Retrievedfromhttp://ezproxy.umsl.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2003-95018-313&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

This study investigated the feasibility of using qualitative methods to provide empirical documentation of the long-term qualitative change in the life course trajectories of "at risk" youth in a school based positive youth development program (the Changing Lives Program-CLP). This work draws from life course theory for a developmental framework and from recent advances in the use of qualitative methods in general and a grounded theory approach in particular. Grounded theory provided a methodological framework for conceptualizing the use of qualitative methods for assessing qualitative life change. The study investigated the feasibility of using the Possible Selves Questionnaire-Qualitative Extension (PSQ-QE) for evaluating the impact of the program on qualitative change in participants' life trajectory relative to a non-intervention control group. Integrated Qualitative/Quantitative Data Analytic Strategies (IQ-DAS) that we have been developing a part of our program of research provided the data analytic framework for the study. Change was evaluated in 85 at risk high school students in CLP high school counseling groups over three assessment periods (pre, post, and follow-up), and a non-intervention control group of 23 students over two

assessment periods (pre and post). Intervention gains and maintenance and the extent to which these patterns of change were moderated by gender and ethnicity were evaluated using a mixed design Repeated Measures Multivariate Analysis of Variance (RMANOVA) in which Time (pre, post) was the within (repeated) factor and Condition, Gender, and Ethnicity the between group factors. The trends for the direction of qualitative change were positive from pre to post and maintained at the year-end follow-up. More important, the 3-way interaction for Time x Gender x Ethnicity was significant, Roy's =. 205, F(2, 37) = 3.80, p <.032, indicating that the overall pattern of positive change was significantly moderated by gender and ethnicity. Thus, the findings also provided preliminary evidence for a positive impact of the youth development program on long-term change in life course trajectory, and were suggestive with respect to the issue of amenability to treatment, i.e., the identification of subgroups of individuals in a target population who are likely to be the most amenable or responsive to a treatment.

Luthans,F.,Avey,J.B.,&Patera,J.L.(2008).Experimentalanalysisofaweb-basedtraininginterventiontodeveloppositivepsychologicalcapital.AcademyofManagementLearning&Education,7(2),209–221.

Psychological capital with components of hope, self-efficacy, optimism, and resiliency has recently emerged as a core construct in taking positive psychology to the workplace. A distinguishing feature is that it is "state-like" and thus open to development. We analyze whether such psychological capital can be developed through a highly focused, 2-hour web-based training intervention. Using a pretest, posttest experimental design (n = 187 randomly assigned to the treatment group and n = 177 to the control group), we found support that psychological capital can be developed by such a training intervention.

Moore,B.,Mischel,W.,&Zeiss,A.(1976).Comparativeeffectsoftherewardstimulusanditscognitiverepresentationinvoluntarydelay.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,34(3),419–424.

Psychological capital with components of hope, self-efficacy, optimism, and resiliency has recently emerged as a core construct in taking positive psychology to the workplace. A distinguishing feature is that it is "state-like" and thus open to development. We analyze whether such psychological capital can be developed through a highly focused, 2-hour web-based training intervention. Using a pretest, posttest experimental design (n = 187 randomly assigned to the treatment group and n = 177 to the control group), we found support that psychological capital can be developed by such a training intervention.

Oyserman,D.,Brickman,D.,&Rhodes,M.(2007).Schoolsuccess,possibleselves,andparentschoolinvolvement.FamilyRelations,56(5),479–489.

Increased parent school involvement is associated with better academic outcomes; yet, proximal contributors to this effect remain understudied. We focus on one potential proximal contributor, youth's positive and negative future self-images or “possible selves,” reasoning that if parent school involvement fosters possible selves, then interventions aimed at enhancing youths' possible selves should moderate the negative effect of low parent school involvement. We examine a 2-year follow-up of a randomized clinical trial of a possible self-based intervention (N = 239), demonstrating with regression equations that the intervention moderated the association of low parent school involvement with worse grades and less school-engaged behavior. Low parent school involvement negatively influenced achievement among control, not intervention youth, suggesting that school-based, possible self-focused interventions can moderate the undermining effect of low parent school involvement.

Oyserman,D.,Bybee,D.,&Terry,K.(2006).Possibleselvesandacademicoutcomes:Howandwhenpossibleselvesimpelaction.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,91(1),188–204.

Puzzled by the gap between academic attainment and academic possible selves (APSs) among low-income and minority teens, the authors hypothesized that APSs alone are not enough unless linked with plausible strategies, made to feel like "true" selves and connected with social identity. A brief intervention to link APSs with strategies, create a context in which social and personal identities felt congruent, and change the meaning associated with difficulty in pursuing APSs (n = 141 experimental, n = 123 control low-income 8th graders) increased success in moving toward APS goals: academic initiative, standardized test scores, and grades improved; and depression, absences, and in-school misbehavior declined. Effects were sustained over a 2-year follow-up and were mediated by change in possible selves.

Oyserman,D.,Bybee,D.,Terry,K.,&Hart-Johnson,T.(2004).Possibleselvesasroadmaps.JournalofResearchinPersonality,38(2),130–149.

Possible selves, expectations, and concerns about the coming year, can promote feeling good (‘‘I may not be doing well in school this year, but I will next year.’’) or can promote regulating for oneself (‘‘I may not be doing well in school this year, but to make sure I do better next year, I have signed up for summer tutoring.’’). We hypothesized that improved academic outcomes were likely only when a possible self could plausibly be a self-regulator. Hierarchical regression analyses supported this conclusion, with more support for the influence of self-regulation on change in behavior and academic outcomes than on affect regulation. N 1⁄4 160 low- income eighth graders improved grades, spent more time doing homework, participated in class more, and were referred less to summer school (controlling for fall grades and the dependent variable of interest) when academic possible selves were plausibly self-regulatory.

Oyserman,D.,Terry,K.,&Bybee,D.(2002).Apossibleselvesinterventiontoenhanceschoolinvolvement.Journalofadolescence,25(3),313-326.

We developed a 9-week after-school, small group, activities-based intervention focused on enhancing youth's abilities to imagine themselves as successful adults and connecting these future imagines to current school involvement. We describe and evaluate this programme comparing three cohorts of urban African American middle school students (n=62 experimental, n=146 control), controlling for sex and previous school involvement. By the end of the school year, intervention youth reported more bonding to school, concern about doing well in school, "balanced" possible selves, plausible strategies to attain these possible selves, better school attendance, and for boys, less trouble at school.

Shepard,B.,&Marshall,A.(1999).Possibleselvesmapping:Life-careerexplorationwithyoungadolescents.CanadianJournalofCounseling,33(1),37–54.

Possible selves are cognitive manifestations of goals, aspirations, values, and fears. Although relevant to adolescents' exploration of future personal and career roles, most research and practical application involving possible selves has been with adults. An interview called the Possible Selves Mapping Interview (PSMI) was developed and employed with 42 young adolescents aged 11 to 13. All participants generated at least two hoped-for and two feared selves. Occupational hoped-for and safety feared selves were the most prevalent themes. Only a few gender differences were noted. Implications for counselors are discussed, including the use of possible selves mapping in personal and career counseling.

Walsh,D.(2008).Helpingyouthinunderservedcommunitiesenvisionpossiblefutures:AnextensionoftheTeachingPersonalandSocialResponsibilitymodel.ResearchQuarterlyforExerciseandSport,79(2),209–221.

Empowering youth through the exploration of their possible futures is afresh and innovative approach to the Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility model (TPSR). The purpose of this study was to examine the combination of TPSR with the theory of possible selves. This combination, called the Career Club, was a program specifically designed to better assist students in understanding and facilitating reflective discussions on their future decisions. Career Club was taught weekly for nine sessions, 90 min each, at an inner city elementary school in a large metropolitan city. Participants comprised 12 seventh- and eighth-grade boys and girls who had at least 1 year and up to 5 years of experience in a TPSR program. Data sources included document analysis, lesson observations, formal interviews, and observational field notes. Themes were classified into the following categories: hoped- for-selves and feared selves-a delicate balance, coaching as a necessary component, and coming to understand possible futures. These results indicated that Career Club was effective in providing the participants a meaningful career exploration in coaching. Data also suggested these coaching experiences facilitated reflective discussions on realizing their future orientation choices.

iii.LiteraturereviewdocumentsAnnalsoftheAmericanAcademyofPolitical&SocialScience 1BritishEducationalResearchJournal 1CanadianPsychology 1ChildrenandYouthServicesReview 1Cognition,Brain,Behavior 1DissertationAbstractsInternationalSectionA 1DissertationAbstractsInternationalSectionB 2EconomicsofEducationReview 1EducationalPsychologyReview 1Emotional&BehavioralDifficulties 1JournalfortheEducationoftheGifted 1JournalofAdolescentResearch 1JournalofCareerDevelopment 1JournalofPersonality&SocialPsychology 1JournalofResearchinPersonality 1JournalofYouthStudies 1Megamot 1PossibleSelves:Theory,ResearchandApplication 1TheJournalofSchoolNursing 1Youth&Society 1SourceCountbyPublication,forliteraturereviewdocuments.

Garg,R.,Kauppi,C.,Lewko,J.,&Urajnik,D.(2002).Astructuralmodelofeducationalaspirations.JournalofCareerDevelopment,29(2),87–108.

Developed and tested a model to predict educational aspirations of 4,034 Canadian adolescent students (aged 13-19 yrs). Results of a modified structural model included three sets of influences: a) a background factor comprised of parental occupation and education; b) a family involvement factor consisting of parental personal and school-based involvement with adolescents; and c) a personal factor with school marks, school and course perceptions, extracurricular reading and parental educational expectations as indicator measures. Educational aspirations was the main outcome variable. Results indicated that the personal factor had a strong direct influence on educational aspirations. The effects of the background and family involvement factors on educational aspirations were mediated through the personal factor. Additional analyses performed in order to test the relationships obtained in the model, revealed several significant interactions amongst the three predictor factors and educational aspirations. The findings emphasize the importance of efforts to enhance the educational aspirations of adolescents through targeted change of modifiable environmental and personal factors.

Gillham,J.,&Reivich,K.(2004).Cultivatingoptimisminchildhoodandadolescence.AnnalsoftheAmericanAcademyofPoliticalandSocialScience,591,146–163.

How do optimism and hope develop in young people? How can they be promoted? This article reviews research on the development of optimism and hope and interventions designed to build these qualities in youth. The Penn Resiliency Program is discussed as an example of a school-based intervention that may promote hope and prevent symptoms of depression and anxiety. Limits of existing studies and directions for future research are also discussed.

Guay,F.,Ratelle,C.F.,&Chanal,J.(2008).Optimallearninginoptimalcontexts:Theroleofself-determinationineducation.CanadianPsychology,49(3),233–240.

This literature review provides an overview of education studies that have been guided by self-determination theory (SDT). First, the authors examine studies that have assessed motivation based on SDT. Second, the authors detail research that has focused on the linkages between motivation types and students' behavioural, affective, and cognitive outcomes. Third, the authors present studies on how learning contexts (parents, teachers) contribute to students' motivational resources. The authors conclude that the motivation types proposed by SDT are important for understanding how students thrive and succeed at school. The authors also highlight the significant role played by teachers and parents in the development of student motivation. The authors conclude with a summary of the benefits of self-motivation for learning and offer some recommendations for the field.

Gulley,T.(2013).TimeperspectiveandphysicalactivityamongcentralAppalachianadolescents.TheJournalofSchoolNursing,29(2),123–131.

Time perspective is a cultural behavioral concept that reflects individuals’ orientations or attitudes toward the past, present, or future. Individuals’ time perspectives influence their choices regarding daily activities. Time perspective is an important consideration when teaching adolescents about the importance of being physically active. However, little is known about the relationship between time perspective and physical activity among adolescents. The purpose of this study was to determine the time perspective of central Appalachian adolescents and explore the relationship between time perspective and physical activity. This study was guided by The theory of planned behavior (TPB). One hundred and ninety-three students completed surveys to examine time perspective and physical activity behaviors. Data were collected in one school. Results of this study can inform school nurses and high school guidance counselors about the importance of promoting a future-oriented time perspective to improve physical activity and educational outcomes.

Halfond,R.,Corona,R.,&Moon,A.(2013).Latinoparentandadolescentperceptionsofhoped-forandfearedpossibleselvesforadolescents.JournalofAdolescentResearch,28(2),209–240.

The authors examined Latino parent and adolescent reports of hoped-for and feared possible selves for adolescents. Twenty-nine Latino parents (18 mothers, 11 fathers) and their 18 adolescents participated in semi-structured individual interviews. Interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed, and coded for themes via content analysis. Themes that emerged included achievement, interpersonal, personal characteristics, financial-material, cultural roots, and risk behaviors. More parents than adolescents mentioned feared interpersonal selves such as being a teenage parent. Findings suggest that Latino parents and adolescents express hopes and fears for future outcomes that are not consistent with the high rates of school dropout and teen pregnancy among Latino adolescents. Results shed light on strategies for program and policy prevention efforts.

Hamed,H.M.(2013).Therelationshipbetweenself-efficacybeliefsandsocial-emotionalcompetenceinat-riskgirls.DissertationAbstractsInternationalSectionA:HumanitiesandSocialSciences.Retrievedfromhttp://ezproxy.umsl.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2013-99110-521&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

Little is known about the relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and social-emotional competence in ethnic minority middle school girls. These children face a number of challenges related to their minority status, peer relationships, school transition, and entry into adolescence. School psychologists have attempted to increase the chances of success among this population by trying to build their resilience. Unfortunately, there is little prior research on the relationship between protective factors such as self-efficacy, optimism, social skills, and pro-social classroom behaviors for this unique population. A goal of this study was to generate data that would appropriately inform social and emotional interventions. This study examined the relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and social-emotional competence in 16 at-risk 7[sup]th[/sup] and 8[sup]th[/sup] grade students over the course of one school year. A cross-lagged panel design determined the trajectory of change among self-efficacy beliefs and social-emotional competence variables over time. Crosstab and chi-square analyses examined relationships among variables on an individual level. The strongest relationships were found among the same variables over time, indicating that interventions should focus on a single skill set of concern for the greatest improvement in that skill set over time. Some data suggest a relationship between optimism and social-emotional competence, which would indicate that optimism interventions may be helpful in improving social-emotional competence for this population. Optimism may be necessary but not sufficient for improvement in social-emotional competence. Future research may benefit from examining these relationships across a longer period of time and examining how different cultural variables may impact our understanding of the relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and social-emotional competence.

Harrist,S.,Carlozzi,B.L.,McGovern,A.R.,&Harrist,A.W.(2007).Benefitsofexpressivewritingandexpressivetalkingaboutlifegoals.JournalofResearchinPersonality,41(4),923–930.

This study employed a 2 (writing vs. talking) × 2 (life goals vs. daily schedule) fully crossed, factorial design to examine whether health benefits might accrue for talking and/or writing about life goals. Participants assigned the life goals topic had fewer illness-related health center visits, regardless of mode of expression, compared to participants assigned the non-emotional topic. Counter to expectation, optimism did not moderate the effect of topic on illness-related health center visits. Participants in talking groups

rated post-intervention mood as less negative than those in writing groups and participants rated talking about life goals as more difficult than writing about life goals.

Knox,M.S.(1997,December).Thepossibleselvesofadolescents.DissertationAbstractsInternational:SectionB:TheSciencesandEngineering.Retrievedfromhttp://ezproxy.umsl.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=1997-95024-184&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

Numerous recent studies have reported a decrease in girls' global self-esteem at adolescence. However, inconsistencies in researchers' definitions of adolescent female self-esteem and a subsequent lack of standard methods for measuring the construct make it difficult to synthesize and interpret results of various studies addressing this topic. Some data suggest that self-esteem may be need to be defined differently according to gender and developmental stage. Further, typical definitions of self-esteem may reflect male rather than female experience of self-worth. Research on adolescent female self-esteem and self-concept will be enhanced by improved measurement of these constructs for this particular population. The present study defines self-esteem as the level of general, comprehensive regard that one has for the self. Self-concept is used to refer to a person's descriptive self-views, such as beliefs about one's characteristics or abilities in various domains. Possible Selves questionnaires were administered to 212 high school students. The Possible Selves approach was used to describe and evaluate adolescent female self-concept and self-esteem and to compare adolescent female self-views with those of adolescent males. Two variables, self-rated likelihood and hopedforness/fearedness of possible selves, were used to strengthen the method of measuring adolescent self-concept using the possible selves approach. Further, relationships between possible selves variables and global self-esteem using existing measures were examined. Domains related to adolescent self-esteem were found to differ significantly according to gender. For both males and females, self-esteem was found to be related to likelihood of hoped-for selves. Girls' self-esteem was also found to be related to aspects of feared possible selves. Suggestions are made regarding the use of the possible selves approach in the prevention and treatment of self-esteem problems in adolescents.

Mainwaring,D.,&Hallam,S.(2010).“PossibleSelves”ofyoungpeopleinamainstreamsecondaryschoolandapupilreferralunit:Acomparison.Emotional&BehaviouralDifficulties,15(2),153–169.

This research uses the psychological construct of "possible selves" to investigate the aspirations of 25 students in Year 11. "Possible selves" provide a conceptual link between self-concept and motivation. The study compared the positive, negative and impossible possible selves of Pupil Referral Unit (PRU) attendees with participants from a secondary school. Whereas 100% of the school students generated positive possible selves, only 69% of the PRU participants did so. The school students were more able to provide sub-goal strategies to achieve positive possible selves and could articulate alternatives if their first aspiration eluded them. PRU participants generated divergent impossible selves. The findings suggest that in comparison with those in school, PRU attendees have fragile positive selves and more negative perceptions of their prospects. This may indicate a lack of internalization of positive future options. There are implications for practice as those who work in the PRU context aim to provide meaningful experiences.

McInerney,D.M.(2004).Adiscussionoffuturetimeperspective.EducationalPsychologyReview,16(2),141–151.

A growing area of research in educational psychology is future time perspective and its relationship to desired educational outcomes. This article discusses and critiques five reviews of current research on future time perspective. Key questions addressed are when do individuals begin to articulate a future, how far into the future does this articulation extend, what is the nature of the future that individuals articulate for

themselves, what is the relationship between future time perspective and other important psychological processes such as motivation and self-regulation, what is the relationship of future time perspective to gender, culture, and socioeconomic status, and how does future time perspective change over time as individuals grow and develop intellectually and socially? These key questions are fundamental to understanding the relevance and usefulness of future time perspective for interpreting and explaining variations in educational achievement across diverse group of learners internationally.

Mello,Z.R.,&Worrell,F.C.(2006).Therelationshipoftimeperspectivetoage,gender,andacademicachievementamongacademicallytalentedadolescents.JournalfortheEducationoftheGifted,29(3),271–289.

Time perspective is a. useful psychological construct associated with educational outcomes (Phalet, Andriessen, & Lens, 2004) and may prove fruitful for research focusing on academically talented adolescents. Thus, the relationship of time perspective to age, gender, and academic achievement was examined among 722 academically talented middle and high school students. Time perspective was measured using the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI; Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Regression analyses yielded several significant results: An increase in age was associated with present hedonism, females had fewer negative thoughts about the future than males, and academic achievement was negatively associated with present fatalistic attitudes and positively associated with future positive attitudes. Findings support the examination of time perspective as a multidimensional construct including past, present, and future orientations in academically talented populations. Implications of these results for educational and developmental theory and practice are discussed.

Oyserman,D.(2013).Notjustanypath:Implicationsofidentity-basedmotivationfordisparitiesinschooloutcomes.EconomicsofEducationReview,33,179–190.

Low-income and minority children aspire to school success and expect to attend college. These aspirations and expectations matter – predicting college attendance and graduation when present and failure to attend college otherwise. But aspiring to college does not necessarily result in relevant behavior; many children with high aspirations do not take sufficient action to work toward their school goals. This paper uses identity-based motivation theory (IBM, Oyserman, 2007, 2009a) to predict that school-focused expectations and aspirations predict action if at the moment of judgment, they are accessible (come to mind) and feel relevant. Relevance is operationalized in three ways. (1) Feeling congruent with important social identities (e.g., race-ethnicity, social class), (2) feeling connected with relevant behavioral strategies (studying, asking questions), and (3) providing an interpretation of difficulties along the way as implying task importance, not impossibility. Family assets and child savings are likely to influence each element of identity relevance.

Oyserman,D.,&Fryberg,S.(2006).Thepossibleselvesofdiverseadolescents:Contentandfunctionacrossgender,raceandnationalorigin.PossibleSelves:Theory,Research,andApplication,1–23.

Provides an overview of what is known about content of possible selves and implications of possible selves for outcomes for male and female teens differing in race/ethnicity (African American, Asian American, Latino, Native American, and white teens). Although findings are somewhat ambiguated by heterogeneity in time focus (e.g. ‘next year’, ‘when you are an adult’, ‘in five years’), it appears that expected possible selves for the near future most commonly focus on academic and interpersonal domains, while fears are more diverse. There is some evidence that number of academic possible selves declines across the transition to middle school and from middle to high school. Low income, rural and Hispanic youth are at risk of having few academic or occupational possible selves, or having such general possible selves in these

domains that they are unlikely to promote self-regulation. For a number of reasons, possible selves of girls may function more effectively as self-regulators. Moreover, there is at least some evidence that content of possible selves and especially the existence of strategies to attain these selves is predictive of academic attainment and delinquent involvement.

Oyserman,D.,Gant,L.,&Ager,J.(1995).AsociallycontextualizedmodelofAfricanAmericanidentity:Possibleselvesandschoolpersistence.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,69(6),1216–1232.

Schooling, critical to the transition to adulthood, is particularly problematic for urban and minority youths. To explore predictors of school persistence the authors propose a socially contextualized model of the self. Strategies to attain achievement-related possible selves were differentially predicted for White and Black university students (Study 1, n = 105). For Whites, individualism, the Protestant work ethic, and "balance" in possible selves predicted generation of more achievement-related strategies. For Blacks, collectivism, ethnic identity, and low endorsement of individualism tended to predict strategy generation. In middle school, performance was predicted by "gendered African American identity schema," particularly for females (Study 2, n = 146), and the effects of social context appeared gendered (Study 3, n = 55). Balance in achievement-related possible selves predicted school achievement, especially for African American males (Study 4, n = 55).

Prince,D.(2014).Whataboutplace?Consideringtheroleofphysicalenvironmentonyouthimaginingoffuturepossibleselves.JournalofYouthStudies,17(6),697–716.

Identity research indicates that the development of well-elaborated cognitions about oneself in the future, or one's possible selves, is consequential for youths' developmental trajectories, influencing a range of social, health, and educational outcomes. Although the theory of possible selves considers the role of social contexts in identity development, the potential influence of the physical environment is understudied. At the same time, a growing body of work spanning multiple disciplines points to the salience of place, or the meaningful physical environments of people's everyday lives, as an active contributor to self-identity. Bridging these two lines of inquiry, I provide evidence to show how place-based experiences, such as belonging, aversion, and entrapment, may be internalized and encoded into possible selves, thus producing emplaced future self-concept. I suggest that for young people, visioning one's self in the future is inextricably bound with place; place is an active contributor both in the present development of future self-concept and in enabling young people to envision different future possible places. Implications for practice and future research include place-making interventions and conceptualizing place beyond ‘neighborhood effects.

Prince,D.,&Nurius,P.S.(2014).Theroleofpositiveacademicself-conceptinpromotingschoolsuccess.ChildrenandYouthServicesReview,43,145–152.

Identity research argues for enhancing students' current and future positive academic self-concepts to strengthen educational success. However, multiple factors from youths' home and school ecologies, as well as structural disadvantage, influence this relationship. Using the data from the Beyond High School Study (N = 9658), this analysis examines the role of academic self-concept in predicting school success over and above co-occurring contributors. The effects of positive academic self-concept on future educational aspirations, accessing educational guidance counseling, and student GPA were tested using stepped linear regression, controlling for student socio-demographics, school environment factors, and parental support.

Results confirmed hypotheses for each academic indicator, with positive academic self-concept demonstrating the strongest coefficient. Implications for school-based intervention are discussed, linking to social psychological literature on future-oriented self-cognitions and strengthening motivational and regulatory function, particularly among youth facing systemic challenges.

Puddester,L.M.(2012).Theimplicationsoffuturetimeperspectiveandplanningabilityforchildren’semotionregulation.DissertationAbstractsInternational:SectionB:TheSciencesandEngineering.Retrievedfromhttp://ezproxy.umsl.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2012-99080-291&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

Studying emotion regulation in childhood has particular importance for understanding the developmental trajectory of these abilities, as well as for informing preventative work that could offset later psychopathology. Gross (1998a) has distinguished between antecedent- and response focused emotion regulation strategies, and has shown that emotion regulation strategies that occur earlier in the emotion generative process have more favorable outcomes. The first step in antecedent emotion regulation is situation selection, which involves seeking out or avoiding certain situations or environments in order to regulate emotion. In fact, there is a growing psychological literature on children's environmental choices, or environmental niche picking, and how they may affect self-regulatory processes such as emotion regulation. To date, most research has focused on environmental choices for preferred (favorite) environments, and little attention has been focused on non-preferred environments, namely the school playground - the predominant social environment in which children spend their formative years. One's ability to plan, think about the future, and delay immediate gratification are also thought to be important factors in antecedent focused emotion regulation, as such skills allow an individual to move beyond immediate concerns. Few studies have investigated the relationship between emotion regulation and children's future time perspective and planning ability. The present study sought to add to existing research on emotion regulation by investigating the mechanisms by which children develop healthy emotion regulation skills. It was hypothesized that children who scored higher on future time perspective and planning ability would demonstrate better emotion regulation and be rated by peers as less aggressive. It was also hypothesized that any relationship between emotion regulation and aggression would be mediated by future time perspective and/or planning ability. Participants were 82 elementary school students in grades 3 (13 females, 15 males), 4 (17 females, 13 males), and 5 (17 females, 7 males). Parents and homeroom teachers of children also participated by completing the Lability/Negativity scale of the Emotion Regulation Checklist (Shields and Cicchetti, 1997). Children completed peer nomination measures of social behavior using the Revised Class Play (Masten, Morrison, and Pellegrini, 1985) and one measure of emotion regulation, the Environmental Choices task (Ledingham, Rafter, & Genot, 1995). Children also completed two measures of means-end thinking: the Children's Time Perspective Inventory (Myers, 2000), and the Woodcock-Johnson III Test of Cognitive Abilities - Planning subtest. Results indicated that children as young as the age of 7 could be classified as having a future time perspective, and that future time perspective significantly predicted peer nominations of children's aggression. In addition, children's planning ability, as measured by the Woodcock-Johnson, played a significant role not only in predicting children's self-reported emotion regulation reasons for environmental choices, but also in accounting for parent ratings of children's emotion regulation. This study also highlighted the importance of environmental niche picking for emotion regulation, with a majority of children indicating that they actively used different locations on the playground to help them regulate their negative emotional states. Contrary to hypotheses, there was no evidence that future time perspective or planning ability mediated the relationship between emotion regulation and aggression. Limitations and implications of the current findings are discussed.

Purtell,K.M.,&McLoyd,V.C.(2013,).Alongitudinalinvestigationofemploymentamonglow-incomeyouth:Patterns,predictors,andcorrelates.Youth&Society,45(2),243-264.

Drawing on previous research linking patterns of adolescent employment-defined in terms of duration and intensity-to educational and occupational outcomes later in life (Staff & Mortimer, 2008), the present study (a) examined positive social behavior and academic variables as longitudinal predictors of pattern of adolescent employment during the school year in a low-income, ethnically diverse sample and (b) assessed patterns of employment as correlates of adolescents' optimism for the future and perceived efficacy. Results revealed a predictive relationship between youths' autonomy and steady employment 3 years later. Furthermore, steady employment during adolescence was related to greater optimism about the future and higher levels of efficacy.

Seginer,R.(2001).Youngpeoplecharttheirpathintoadulthood:ThefutureorientationofIsraeliDruze,ArabandJewishadolescents.Megamot,41(1-2),113–147.

Compared the future orientation of Israeli Arab and Druze adolescents to the future orientation of Israeli Jewish adolescents. Ss were 396 Arab and Druze male and female 11th graders and 405 Jewish male and female 11th graders in Israel. Ss were administered the Hopes and Fears Questionnaire and the Prospective Life Course Questionnaire. The results of analyses showed that Arab and Druze adolescents generally invested less effort in their prospective life course domains (i.e., active, goal-directed domains such as education and career), and more in the existential domains (nonspecific, non-goal directed hopes and fears concerning the self, others, and collective issues). On the other hand, Arab (especially girls) and Druze adolescents invested more effort in the higher education domain than their Jewish counterparts. The correlation between nationality and educational exploration indicates that Arab (especially girls) and Druze adolescents explore their education prospects more vigorously than Jewish adolescents. Using the findings as a starting point for an educational intervention program for Arab and Druze adolescents is discussed.

Sica,L.S.(2009).Adolescentsindifferentcontexts:Theexplorationofidentitythroughpossibleselves.Cognition,Brain,Behavior:AnInterdisciplinaryJournal,13(3),221–252.

The research studied the role of context in identity exploration during adolescence. In particular, the research investigated whether the belonging to an “at risk” context has an impact on self perception construction as well as on possible-selves exploration. Two questionnaires—Self Perception Profile for Adolescents (SPPA, Harter, 1985) and Possible Selves Questionnaire (PSQ, Oyserman & Markus, 1990)—were administered to 105 participants (21% male and 79% female) from an Italian city (Naples), aged between 14 –18. Youths were taken from two sub-samples, which were distinguished by life contexts. This research used a mixed approach. The results showed different productions of possible selves in function of the context, thus agreeing with our hypothesis. The impact of context was more evident in the dimension of the feared self in particular for the 'at risk' participants. The role played by the feared self in the identity construction of participants belonging to the "at risk" context was complex. The results are useful in planning intervention projects for the 'at risk' schools.

Stevenson,J.,&Clegg,S.(2011).Possibleselves:Studentsorientatingthemselvestowardsthefuturethroughextracurricularactivity.BritishEducationalResearchJournal,37(2),231–246.

This paper explores the under-researched area of extracurricular activity undertaken by students through the lens of the possible selves literature, which has largely been developed in the North American context. In the UK the employability agenda assumes an orientation towards the future and employers are increasingly

expecting students to display capacities beyond those of simply achieving a degree. Extracurricular activity is one site where students might be able to develop these additional capacities towards their future imagined selves. Our case study, based on in-depth interviews with 61 students, found different orientations towards the future, with only some displaying future selves attuned to employability. Other students were more firmly orientated to the present and developing student identities or unable to elaborate or act on imaged futures because of the contingencies of the present. We conclude that paying attention to differing temporalities and to the insights derived from the possible selves literature are likely to be fruitful for further research on extracurricular activity.