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Performance of Recycled Aggregate Concrete:
Durability
Kevin Paine, BRE Centre for Innovative Construction Materials
Recycled Aggregate Concrete in
South East Asia
About Durability
Photo: Concrete Society
Contents
External attack
Carbonation
Chloride ingress
Aggressive ground
Internal attack
Chlorides and sulfates
Alkali-silica reaction
EXTERNAL ATTACK
The poorer the quality of the aggregate, then
the worse the performance of the concrete.
The poorer the quality of the aggregate, then
the worse the performance of the concrete.
Recycled aggregates are almost always of
poorer quality than natural aggregates.
NATURAL
StandardsNatural
Gravel
Carboniferous
Limestone
Dolomitic
LimestoneGranite Basalt
Flakiness Index BS EN 933-3 12 14 13 14 38
Shape (visual inspection) Rounded Irregular AngularIrregular
AngularAngular
Angular
Flaky
Texture (visual inspection) Smooth Rough RoughCrystalline
RoughRough
Oven dry density, kg/m3 BS EN 1097-6 2570 2680 2620 2610 2730
Loose bulk density, kg/m3 BS EN 1097-3 1520 1440 1430 1450 1460
Compacted bulk density, kg/m3 BS EN 1097-4 1610 1540 1520 1560 1560
Water Absorption, % BS EN 1097-6 1.0 0.8 2.0 0.7 1.5
Los Angeles coefficient, †, % BS EN 1097-2 25 22 25 26 20
micro-Deval value, †, % BS EN 1097-1 20 24 17 12 14
Drying Shrinkage, % BS EN 1374-4 0.03 0.039 0.03 0.016 0.031
Adapted from: Collery, D.J., Paine, K.A. and Dhir, R.K., 2015. Establishing rational use of recycled aggregates in
concrete: a performance-related approach. Magazine of Concrete Research, 67(11), pp.559–574
NATURAL RECYCLED
StandardsNatural
GravelRA-1 RA-2 RA-3 RCA
Flakiness Index BS EN 933-3 12 12 42 26 21
Shape (visual inspection) Rounded AngularIrregular
AngularAngular Angular
Texture (visual inspection) Smooth Rough Rough Rough Rough
Oven dry density, kg/m3 BS EN 1097-6 2570 2400 2370 2430 2440
Loose bulk density, kg/m3 BS EN 1097-3 1520 1190 1250 1270 1180
Compacted bulk density, kg/m3 BS EN 1097-4 1610 1250 1390 1420 1370
Water Absorption, % BS EN 1097-6 1.0 4.4 2.9 3.5 3.0
Los Angeles coefficient, †, % BS EN 1097-2 25 36 21 34 26
micro-Deval value, †, % BS EN 1097-1 20 39 32 37 24
Drying Shrinkage, % BS EN 1374-4 0.03 0.065 0.055 0.06 0.054
Adapted from: Collery, D.J., Paine, K.A. and Dhir, R.K., 2015. Establishing rational use of recycled aggregates in
concrete: a performance-related approach. Magazine of Concrete Research, 67(11), pp.559–574
NATURAL RECYCLED
StandardsNatural
GravelRA-1 RA-2 RA-3 RCA
Flakiness Index BS EN 933-3 12 12 42 26 21
Shape (visual inspection) Rounded AngularIrregular
AngularAngular Angular
Texture (visual inspection) Smooth Rough Rough Rough Rough
Oven dry density, kg/m3 BS EN 1097-6 2570 2400 2370 2430 2440
Loose bulk density, kg/m3 BS EN 1097-3 1520 1190 1250 1270 1180
Compacted bulk density, kg/m3 BS EN 1097-4 1610 1250 1390 1420 1370
Water Absorption, % BS EN 1097-6 1.0 4.4 2.9 3.5 3.0
Los Angeles coefficient, †, % BS EN 1097-2 25 36 21 34 26
micro-Deval value, †, % BS EN 1097-1 20 39 32 37 24
Drying Shrinkage, % BS EN 1374-4 0.03 0.065 0.055 0.06 0.054
Paine, K.A. and Dhir, R.K., 2010. Recycled aggregates in concrete: a performance-related approach. Magazine of Concrete Research, 62(7), pp.519–530
NATURAL RECYCLED
StandardsNatural
GravelRA-1 RA-2 RA-3 RCA
Flakiness Index BS EN 933-3 12 12 42 26 21
Shape (visual inspection) Rounded AngularIrregular
AngularAngular Angular
Texture (visual inspection) Smooth Rough Rough Rough Rough
Oven dry density, kg/m3 BS EN 1097-6 2570 2400 2370 2430 2440
Loose bulk density, kg/m3 BS EN 1097-3 1520 1190 1250 1270 1180
Compacted bulk density, kg/m3 BS EN 1097-4 1610 1250 1390 1420 1370
Water Absorption, % BS EN 1097-6 1.0 4.4 2.9 3.5 3.0
Los Angeles coefficient, †, % BS EN 1097-2 25 36 21 34 26
micro-Deval value, †, % BS EN 1097-1 20 39 32 37 24
Drying Shrinkage, % BS EN 1374-4 0.03 0.065 0.055 0.06 0.054
Silva R.V., de Brito J. and Dhir, R.K. 2015. Properties and composition of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste suitable for concrete productionConstruction and Building Materials 65 (2014) 201–217
NATURAL RECYCLED
StandardsNatural
GravelRA-1 RA-2 RA-3 RCA
Flakiness Index BS EN 933-3 12 12 42 26 21
Shape (visual inspection) Rounded AngularIrregular
AngularAngular Angular
Texture (visual inspection) Smooth Rough Rough Rough Rough
Oven dry density, kg/m3 BS EN 1097-6 2570 2400 2370 2430 2440
Loose bulk density, kg/m3 BS EN 1097-3 1520 1190 1250 1270 1180
Compacted bulk density, kg/m3 BS EN 1097-4 1610 1250 1390 1420 1370
Water Absorption, % BS EN 1097-6 1.0 4.4 2.9 3.5 3.0
Los Angeles coefficient, †, % BS EN 1097-2 25 36 21 34 26
micro-Deval value, †, % BS EN 1097-1 20 39 32 37 24
Drying Shrinkage, % BS EN 1374-4 0.03 0.065 0.055 0.06 0.054
Ma et al. (2019) Durability Studies on the Recycled Aggregate Concrete in China over the Past Decade: A Review. Advances in Civil Engineering, 4073130, 19pp
External surface
Adapted from: Dhir, R.K. and Paine, K.A., 2007. Performance related
approach to use of recycled aggregates. Report to WRAP
0-30%
50%
100%
RA Content, by
mass of coarse
aggregate
Initial surface absorption
Paine, K.A. and Dhir, R.K., 2010. Recycled aggregates in concrete: a performance-related approach. Magazine of Concrete Research, 62(7), pp.519–530
Carbonation
Exposed surface
steel reinforcement
pH >12
CO2 Water
Carbonation
Exposed surface
steel reinforcement
pH >12
CO2 Water
Carbonated layerpH <9
Data points are indicative based on: Ma et al. (2019) Advances in Civil Engineering, Xiao et al. (2013) Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology
11912) 347-359 and Silva, R. V., et al (2015). Cement and Concrete Composites 62, pp.22–32
Natu
ral gra
vel
CCA RA
(where Rb = 100%) Adapted from: Paine, K.A. and Dhir, R.K., 2010. Recycled aggregates in concrete: a performance-related approach. Magazine of Concrete Research, 62(7), pp.519–530
Equal cube strength, 33 MPa
0 to 30% RCA
50% RCA
100% RCA
Higher strength achieved by up to
20 kg/m3 in cement content
Adapted from: Dhir, R K, Limbachiya. M C & Leelawat, T. (1998) Recycled concrete aggregate for use in BS 5328 designated mixes. Report to DETR, CTU/498
Chloride Ingress
Exposed surface
steel reinforcement
Depth
Cl- concentration
Threshold level
Cl- Water
Cover
Data points are indicative only.
For examples of actual data, see: Ma et al. (2019) Advances in Civil Engineering
and Xiao et al. (2013) Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology 11912) 347-359
Paine, K.A. and Dhir, R.K., 2010. Recycled aggregates in concrete: a performance-related approach. Magazine of Concrete Research, 62(7), pp.519–530
Data points are indicative only.
For examples of actual data, see: Ma et al. (2019) Advances in Civil Engineering
and Xiao et al. (2013) Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology 11912) 347-359
Practical implications
Tošić, N., Torrenti, J.M., Sedran, T. and Ignjatović, I., 2020. Toward a codified design of recycled aggregate concrete
structures: Background for the new fib Model Code 2020 and Eurocode 2. Structural Concrete, (August), pp.1–23.
steel reinforcement
Suggestions to be conservative
and increase cover by 5 mm
(carbonation) or up to 10 mm
(chloride ingress) when using
recycled aggregates.
CO2 Water Cl-
Performance-
related
approach
Paine, K.A. and Dhir, R.K., 2010. Recycled aggregates in concrete: a performance-related approach. Magazine of Concrete Research, 62(7), pp.519–530
Aggressive ground (sulfate ingress)
A much less widely
researched field.
However, in general, the
choice of cement dominates.
(As you would expect).
For example see: Zega, C. J., G. S. Coelho Dos Santos, Y. A. VillagránZaccardi, and A. A. Di Maio. 2016. “Performance of recycled concretes exposed to sulfate soil for 10 years.” Constr. Build. Mater. 102 (Jan): 714–721.
INTERNAL ATTACK
NATURAL
StandardsNatural
Gravel
Carboniferous
Limestone
Dolomitic
LimestoneGranite Basalt
Acid- soluble sulfates % BS EN 1744-1 0.1 ND ND 0.1 ND
Acid- soluble chlorides % BS EN 1744-5 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.02
Water- soluble chlorides % BS EN 1744-1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Adapted from: Collery, D.J., Paine, K.A. and Dhir, R.K., 2015. Establishing rational use of recycled aggregates in
concrete: a performance-related approach. Magazine of Concrete Research, 67(11), pp.559–574
RECYCLED
Standards RA-1 RA-2 RA-3 RCA
Acid- soluble sulfates % BS EN 1744-1 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.3
Acid- soluble chlorides % BS EN 1744-5 0.1 0.1 0.11 0.1
Water- soluble chlorides % BS EN 1744-1 0.01 0.09 0.01 0.01
WASHING PLANT A B C D E G H I L M
COMPOSITION
Rb, % 1 7 1 1 1 10 0 7 7 3
Rc, % 3 15 9 4 27 13 0 11 5 5
Ru, % 96 74 89 93 68 76 100 75 84 89
Ra, % 0 1 1 2 4 1 0 7 3 3
Rg, % 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Rc + Ru, % 99 89 98 97 95 89 100 86 89 94
PROPERTIES
Water-soluble chlorides, % 0.01 nd nd nd 0.01 0.01 nd nd 0.03 nd
Water-soluble sulfates, % 0.01 0.21 0.13 0.02 0.08 nd 0.01 0.12 0.34 0.01
Acid-soluble sulfates, % 0.02 0.61 0.48 0.05 0.28 0.62 0.05 0.44 1.48 0.07
Adapted from: Dhir, R K, Paine, K A, Halliday, J E. (2008) Facilitating the wider use of coarse and fine recycled aggregates from washing plants. Report to WRAP, AGG 105-003
Alkali-silica reaction
Aggregates:
Reactive silica
Cement:
Alkalis (K+, Na+)
Expansive gel in hardened concrete
Aggregates:
Reactive silica
Cement:
Alkalis (K+, Na+)
‘Gel’ formed in fresh concrete
MITIGATION
Pozzolanic SCM:
(Reactive Si, [Al])
Recycled aggregates
Unknown rock
(reactive silica?)
Unknown cement
(alkali content?)
Only way to know for sure is to test (Expensive)
Recycled aggregates
(unknown reactivity)
Cement:
Alkalis (K+, Na+)
MITIGATION
Pozzolanic SCM:
(Reactive Si, [Al])
‘Gel’ formed in fresh concrete
Final remarks
Recycled aggregates can be used to make high quality concrete that is
durable and they could potentially be used for all applications of concrete.
However, for some applications there will be necessary additional
considerations (particularly in concrete mix design) that will need to be
accounted for.
About Durability
Photo: Concrete Society
Thank You