Reconsidering Reparations web circulation · 1 Táíwò 2018 This draft is a work in progress. Please don’t cite or circulate without permission. Reconsidering Reparations1 Abstract

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ReconsideringReparations1AbstractThereisanextensiveliteratureandhistoricalrecordofagitationforvariousformsofreparationsfromgovernments.Philosophershaverespondedtothisliteratureandhistorybyconsideringargumentsforandagainstreparationsingeneralandinspecifichistoricalcases.Muchofthisdiscussionhascenteredonthecaseofreparationsfortheharmsofthetrans-Atlanticslavetrade,oftenspecificallywithrespecttoBlackpeopleintheUnitedStates.Butthepositionsdevelopedbyphilosophershavelargelyignoredpotentialcontributionsofthereasonsandperspectivesofferedbyactivistsandotherpoliticalactorstothediscussion.Thispaperaimstodemonstratethepotentialfruitsofsuchengagementbypointingtoadistinctivephilosophicalviewmadeavailablebytheirwork.Thatdistinctiveview,whichIcalltheconstructiveviewofreparations,isrootedindistributivejustice.Distributivejusticeisatopicinpoliticalphilosophythatdealswithhowweunderstand,justify,orcondemndistributionsofgoodsandresourcestopeople,andtheprocessesandsocialfactsthatexplainthesedistributions.2Italsoissuesforward-lookingrecommendationsaboutwhetherandhowtochangeourcurrentdistributionofgoodsandresources.Reparationsfitsintothisconversation,giventhatclaimsforreparationscanbedescribedasclaimsabouthowtodistributeresourcesbetweenanaggrievedpartyandapartyheldresponsible.Ibeginbyexaminingmanyofthecurrentviewsofreparationsinphilosophicalliteratureandrelatedones.Then,IsurveyrationalesanddemandsputforwardbyactivistsandthinkersintheAfricandiaspora,contrastingthemwiththeargumentsinpartII.Withbothinhand,Ibrieflysketchthephilosophicalfeaturesofadistributivejustice-basedreconstructionoftheperspectivesofactivistsandpoliticalactorssurveyed,andgestureatreasonstoadoptthisview,whilestoppingshortofafulldefensethereof.

I. Introduction

Thereisanextensiveliteratureandhistoricalrecordofagitationforvariousformsofreparationsfromgovernments.Formerslaveownerswereoftenabletosuccessfullypetitionforredressfortheirlostrevenue,andlegalabolitionwasoftenconditionalontheavailabilityofsuchredress.3Forexample,aftertheHaitianRevolutionendedslaveryontheisland,theyoungnationwasforcedtopayindemnitypaymentstoFranceasaconditionforendingadecades1Thanksto[redacted]2Theterm“resources”inthispaperwillbeusedbroadly.Itwillrefernotjusttomaterialresources,butotherresources,likethosethataresocial,cultural,andepistemic,andotherwisesocial.3[redacted]


longpoliticalandeconomicblockadebytheFrench,theUnitedStates,theBritish,andmanyalliedEuropeanpowers.4TheBritishempire’s1834AbolitionActcreatedaCompensationCommissiontohandlereparationsclaimsfromformerslaveowners.Amongtheover45,000claimswereonesmadebymembersofParliamentandtheBarclaysandLloydfamilies.5TheUSgovernmenthas,fromtimetotime,paidreparationstogroupsofspecificindividuals:forexample,nominalpayoutstotensofthousandsofJapanesecitizenswhohadbeeninternedduringWorldWarII.6

Philosophershaverespondedtothisliteratureandhistorybyconsideringargumentsforandagainstreparationsingeneralandinspecifichistoricalcases.Muchofthisdiscussionhascenteredonthecaseofreparationsfortheharmsofthetrans-Atlanticslavetrade,oftenspecificallywithrespecttoBlackpeopleintheUnitedStates.Butthepositionsdevelopedbyphilosophershavelargelyignoredpotentialcontributionsofthereasonsandperspectivesofferedbyactivistsandotherpoliticalactorstothediscussion.Thispaperaimstodemonstratethepotentialfruitsofsuchengagementbypointingtoadistinctivephilosophicalviewmadeavailablebytheirwork.

Thatdistinctiveview,whichIcalltheconstructiveviewofreparations,isrootedindistributivejustice.Distributivejusticeisatopicinpoliticalphilosophythatdealswithhowweunderstand,justify,orcondemndistributionsofgoodsandresourcestopeople,andtheprocessesandsocialfactsthatexplainthesedistributions.7Italsoissuesforward-lookingrecommendationsaboutwhetherandhowtochangeourcurrentdistributionofgoodsandresources.Reparationsfitsintothisconversation,giventhatclaimsforreparationscanbedescribedasclaimsabouthowtodistributeresourcesbetweenanaggrievedpartyandapartyheldresponsible. InpartII,I’llbeginbyexaminingmanyofthecurrentviewsofreparationsinphilosophicalliteratureandrelatedones.InpartIII,IsurveyrationalesanddemandsputforwardbyactivistsandthinkersthroughouttheAfricandiaspora,contrastingthemwiththeargumentsinpartII.InpartIVIbrieflysketchthephilosophicalfeaturesofadistributivejustice-basedargumentforreparationsthatunitestheperspectivessurveyedinpartIIIinwhatIcallthe“constructiveview”ofreparations,thoughafullelaborationanddefenseofthispositionisoutofthescopeofthispaper.InpartVIconclude.4Michel-RolphTrouillot,Haiti:StateagainstNation(NYUPress,1990).Pgs.50-51.5V.P.Franklin,“COMMENTARY—REPARATIONSASADEVELOPMENTSTRATEGY:THECARICOMREPARATIONSCOMMISSION,”TheJournalofAfricanAmericanHistory98,no.3(2013):363–66,https://doi.org/10.5323/jafriamerhist.98.3.0363;NicholasDraper,“ThePriceofEmancipation,”Slave-Ownership,CompensationandBritish,2013.6IrvinMolotskyandSpecialtotheNewYorkTimes,“SenateVotestoCompensateJapanese-AmericanInternees,”TheNewYorkTimes,April21,1988,http://www.nytimes.com/1988/04/21/us/senate-votes-to-compensate-japanese-american-internees.html.7Theterm“resources”inthispaperwillbeusedbroadly.Itwillrefernotjusttomaterialresources,butotherresources,likethosethataresocial,cultural,andepistemic,andotherwisesocial.


II. RepairViews

Inmyview,considerationofreparationsclaimsdemandsahistoricalviewofdistributivejustice,sincethemotivationsforapresentclaimofreparationsareintrinsicallybackwardlooking.8Iholdthatreparationsclaimsassuchmeeteitherofthesetwocharacteristics:

1) petitionstoredresspastharmor2) petitionsforalterationstoapoliticalstateofaffairsasaresponsetopastactions

(whethertheactionsinquestionareindividualorinstitutional)

Manyaccountsofreparationsdefenditasanaspectofrestorativejustice.ThispositionbestexemplifiedbyMargaretWalkerinherbookMoralRepair,onwhichreparationsareconsideredprimarilyintermsofhowtheyperformat“creatingtrustandhopeinasharedsenseofvalueandresponsibility”.9Onthisview,reparations,whereappropriate,aresuchbecausetheyrepairthemoralrelationshipoftheaggrievedwiththepartyheldresponsible.SomethinglikethisviewisalsoinstantiatedbyShiffrin,KumarandSilver.10Icallthisbroadfamilyofviewstherepairview.

Thisframeworkgivesrisetotwobroadsub-familiesofconceivingofreparationsasaformofrestorativerepair:harm-basedrepairandrelation-basedrepair.

Harm-basedrepairviewstreatpotentialclaimantsofreparations(individualsorcollectives)tohavebeenharmedbypayingparty,andviewreparationsasrepairingtheseharms.Onthisview,theharmedperson’swelfareisthebrokenthingtobefixedbysuccessfullypetitioningforreparations.

Relation-basedrepairviewslikewiseconsidertheclaimantsashavingbeenharmed,butviewtherelationshipbetweenthepartiesastheprimarylocusofimportance.Ontheselatterviews,reparationsaretobeunderstoodasaimingeitheratrepairingtherelationshipbetweenthepartiesbrokenbothbytheharmandsubsequentnon-reparation(whichcancauseadditionalinjury)orrightfullynavigatingwhateverrelationshipremainsbetweenthepartiesbyaperformanceofobligationsarisingoutofthatrelationship.Ontypicalarticulationsofsuch8McGaryarguesthatthisplaysadistinctiveroleinthemoralevaluationofreparationsclaims,wherethisevaluationistakentobeseparablefromanevaluationoffuture-looking,consequence-basedanalyses.Boxilldistinguishesreparationsprograms,whicharenecessarilybackwardlooking,frommerecompensatoryaccounts,whichneedonlybeforwardlooking.HOWARDMCGARY,“RECONCILIATIONANDREPARATIONS,”Metaphilosophy41,no.4(July1,2010):546–62,https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9973.2010.01659.x;BernardRBoxill,“TheMoralityofReparation,”SocialTheoryandPractice2,no.1(1972):113–23.Pg.117.9MargaretUrbanWalker,MoralRepair:ReconstructingMoralRelationsafterWrongdoing(CambridgeUniversityPress,2006).Pg.28.10SeanaValentineShiffrin,“ReparationsforUSSlaveryandJusticeoverTime,”inHarmingFuturePersons(Springer,2009),333–39;RahulKumarandDavidSilver,“TheLegacyofInjustice.WrongingtheFuture,ResponsibilityforthePast,”JusticeinTime:RespondingtoHistoricalInjustice,2004,145–58.


views,reparationsisrequiredbecauseofwhatitcommunicatesbetweentheparties,andinturnthetermsofamicabilityordétentewhichtheyreparationscanhelpthemreach.Iwillreviewobjectionstobothsub-familiesofviews.

A. AgainstHarm-RepairViews

Ontheharm-repairview,weconsidertheaggrievedpartytohaveharmedthevictimby

loweringthemfromsomebaselineofwelfarethattheywouldhaveenjoyedbutfortheoffense.Reparations‘repair’thisdamagebydistributingbenefitstothevictimthatclosethegapbetweentheircurrentstateofwellnessandthispurportedbaseline,perhapswithsomeinterestfortheirtrouble.Thiswayofthinkingabouttheharmresemblesdiscussionsofliabilitycontractandtortlaw–perhapsaccordingly,manyargumentsforreparationsinlegalliteraturetakeaformsomethinglikethis.11Idon’thaveanyobjectiontotheuseoftheharmbasedrepairviewinotherdomainsofpoliticalandlegalphilosophy.However,thisstrategyrunsintodifficultiesindealingwiththereparationsclaimsliketheonesadvancedfortrans-Atlanticslaveryandcolonialism.12

Manyoftheproblemscausedbyarepairviewarecausedbythedifficultyofestablishingabaselineagainstwhichtomakeoutaspecificextentofharm,oreventhatharmhasoccurredatall.Implicitharmframeworksoftenassumethatthecontrastclassofinterestisthewelfarethattheharmedpartywouldhaveenjoyedbutfortheharm.Ifitturnedoutthatamoreappropriatecontrastclasswerethewelfaretheharmedpartycouldhaveenjoyediftheharmingpartyhadactedappropriately–ifweconsiderednotsimplythepossibilitythattherefrainedfromharmbutincludedtheentirerangeofforegonebeneficialpossibilities–thentheharmrepairviewmightnotgetoffoftheground.13Togiveharmviewstheirbestshot,I’llarguethatviewsofreparationsfailevenifthewelfaretheharmedpartywouldhaveotherwiseenjoyedisthemorallyappropriatebasisforestablishingabaselineofharm.

Theconceptualproblemswiththeharmviewaredecisivewhenindividual’slivesaremeanttoprovidethebasisforsuchabaseline.Evenhadreparationsbeenpaidshortlyaftertheabolitionofslavery:howcouldone‘repair’,say,whateverharmwasdonetoachildbornintheconditionofslavery?Forthisindividual’slife,thereisno“before”toreturnto.Putgenerally:objectorsclaimthatitmaybeimpossibletomakesenseofanindividual‘harm’claimontherepairviewiftheactionorprocessbeingchargedwithharmisalsoresponsibleforcreatingtheagentthatclaimstheywereharmed.Accordingtothisobjection,thereisnopossibleworldorrelevantcounterfactualinwhichtheagentisbetteroffwithouttheharming11See,forexample:VinceneVerdun,“IftheShoeFits,WearIt:AnAnalysisofReparationstoAfricanAmericans,”Tul.L.Rev.67(1992):597;JeremyLevitt,“BlackAfricanReparations:MakingaClaimforEnslavementandSystematicDeJureSegregationandRacialDiscriminationunderAmericanandInternationalLaw,”SULRev.25(1997):1.12Verdun,“IftheShoeFits,WearIt:AnAnalysisofReparationstoAfricanAmericans.”13AlbertMemmiconsidersthislineofthoughtinthe“SituationsoftheColonized”chapterofTheColonizerandtheColonized,asdoesDanielButtmorerecently.AlbertMemmi,TheColonizerandtheColonized(Routledge,2013),157–61;DanielButt,“RepairingHistoricalWrongsandtheEndofEmpire,”Social&LegalStudies21,no.2(2012):227–42.


action,becauseeveryworldinwhichtheharmingactiondoesnotexistisaworldinwhichtheagentwhoclaimstheywereharmeddoesnotexisteither.

KumarandSilvertermthisproblemthe“existentialworry”,followingChristopherMorris’treatmentoftheprobleminethicaltheory.14Ifsuccessful,therearenobackward-lookingconsiderationsthatcouldpossiblyestablishthatprocesseslikeslaveryorcolonialismharmedthepeopleformedasaresultofthoseprocesses(thedescendantsofenslavedorcolonizedpeople)andclaimsofharmcannotunderwriteasuccessfulargumentforreparationsfordescendantsofaggrievedparties.15

Otherwaysofmakingoutarepairclaimmightsupposeweoughttobetrackingsocialcollectivesratherthanindividuals.Insteadofconsideringabaselineofwellnessforindividualslikethechildbornintoslavery,wecouldconsiderthebaselineforcollectivesofpeopleinsomesense:perhapsgeographicalregions,acontinent,ornation-states.Thequestionforthereformedrepairtheoristshiftsfromwhataquestionaboutwhatqualityoflifeanindividualwouldhavehadiftheoffensehadn’thappenedtoaquestionaboutwhatqualityoflifeacollectivewouldhavehad.

Butthisstrategydoesnotavoidtheexistentialworry.Morris’argumentappliestoindividualsbutseemsargumentativelyvalidforsetsofindividuals.IfanyarbitrarilyselecteddescendantofpeopleenslavedintheUSwouldnotexistbutfortheparticularcircumstancesengenderedbyslavery,thenthesetofsuchdescendantslikewisewouldnotexist.Then,itshouldalsobetrueforthesetofsuchdescendants–“BlackAmericans”collectively,perhaps-thatthesamesortofcounterfactualproblemexists.

Evenifthereissomeanswertothepreceding,itisunclearwhichcounterfactualstoevaluateandhowtoevaluatethem.Forexample,takethehistoricdebatebetweenJamesBaldwinandWilliamBuckley.BuckleyinvokedthecounterfactualcomparisononwhichBlacks’livesintheUSarecomparedwiththoseofBlackAfricans’atthetime.16Whatif,asBuckleypointedouttoapackedOxfordaudience,BlacksintheUSaresupposedly“betteroff”thantheirAfricancounterparts?17Ifso,reparationsfaceanevenstrongerobjectionthantheexistentialworry:ifaBuckley-styleobjectorisright,there’snoharmtorepair!14ChristopherMorriswithsketchingouttheexistentialworryinethicaltheory:forexample,manydescendantsofslaveswouldnotexistatallbutforthefactsofslavery,whichrendersfalsecounterfactualclaimsconstructedalongthelinesoftherepairview.Subsequenttreatmentsofthephilosophicalproblemhavetermeditthe“non-identityproblem”.KumarandSilver,“TheLegacyofInjustice.WrongingtheFuture,ResponsibilityforthePast”;ChristopherWMorris,“ExistentialLimitstotheRectificationofPastWrongs,”AmericanPhilosophicalQuarterly21,no.2(1984):175–82;MelindaARobertsandDavidTWasserman,HarmingFuturePersons:Ethics,GeneticsandtheNonidentityProblem,vol.35(SpringerScience&BusinessMedia,2009).15KumarandSilver,“TheLegacyofInjustice.WrongingtheFuture,ResponsibilityforthePast.”16Foranilluminatinghistoricalexample,seethe1965debatebetweenJamesBaldwinandWilliamBuckley.JamesBaldwinetal.,Debate:BaldwinvsBuckley(NewYork,NY:NationalEducationalTelevisionandRadioCenter,1965).17Acloselyrelatedstyleofresponseistocredit“theWest”foranypositivedevelopmentsonthecontinent(accesstomoderntechnologyorpublichealth)whileblamingAfricancorruption


Butthisgenreofresponsefacesitsown“existentialworry”.KumarandSilverreconstructanecessaryconditionforharmviaMorris’argumentinthefollowingway:

“ViswrongedbyWviaactAonlyifV,intheabsenceofA:1) Exists2) IsnotinjuredorwrongedbyW”18Ifthisalsogoesforbeingadvantaged:itcouldbereconstructedsimplybyswappingouttheterms:“VisadvantagedbyWviaactAonlyifV,intheabsenceofA,3) Exists4) IsnotadvantagedbyW”19

IftheexistentialworryisareasonthatBlackscouldnothavebeenharmedbyslavery

thenitisalsoareasonthattheycouldnothavebeenbenefittedbyit.Putgenerally:iftheexistentialworryrulesoutcounterfactualsthatestablishharm,itintheverysamewayalsorulesoutthosethatestablishbenefit–eitherforBlacksorwhiteswhoseopportunitiesandlifechances(orlackthereof)owethemselvestoahistoryfueledbyaslavesystemandglobalcolonialcapitalism.

Perhapsdoesn’tnotmeanthatBlacksareadvantagedbyslavery,butsimplythattheywerenotdisadvantagedorharmed.Butconceptualdifficultiesremain.ThedisparitiesinqualityoflifebetweenBlackAmericansandBlackAfricansarethemselvesproducedbytheveryhistoricalprocessthatledtotheclaimsforredress,namelycolonialismandtheslavetrade.ThoseprocessesfigureintotheeconomicdevelopmentofnationsliketheUnitedStatesandtherelativelackthereofinAfrica.Then,theyalsohelpexplaintheverygapinlivingconditionsappealedtobytheBuckley-styleobjector.20orexogenousenvironmentalandculturalfactorsfornegativedevelopments(war,famine).I’mnotsurewhichargumentativestrategyislessphilosophicallyserious,butMazruihasthestuffofareplytothisconcernonpages8-10ofhisMKOAbiolalectureonreparations.AliAMazrui,“GlobalAfrica:FromAbolitioniststoReparationists,”AfricanStudiesReview37,no.3(1994):1–18.18KumarandSilver,“TheLegacyofInjustice.WrongingtheFuture,ResponsibilityforthePast.”Pg.148.19KumarandSilver.Pg.148.20Shiffrinmakesthispointaboutthedependenceofeveryone,notjustdescendentsofslaves,tothehistoricallegaciesofslaveryandcolonialismonpages334-335.But,forsomehistoricaltreatmentsofbothsidesofthecomparison,see:OlufemiTaiwo,HowColonialismPreemptedModernityinAfrica(IndianaUniversityPress,2010);WalterRodney,“HowEuropeUnderdevelopedAfrica,”Bogle-L’OuverturePublications,LondonandDarEsSalaam,1972;EricWilliams,CapitalismandSlavery(UNCPressBooks,2014);Shiffrin,“ReparationsforUSSlaveryandJusticeoverTime”;DanielTettehOsabu-Kle,“TheAfricanReparationCry:Rationale,Estimate,Prospects,andStrategies,”JournalofBlackStudies30,no.3(2000):331–50;SamirAmin,“UnderdevelopmentandDependenceinBlackAfrica—originsandContemporaryForms,”TheJournalofModernAfricanStudies10,no.4(1972):503–24.Pgs.334-335.


Then,afullertreatmentofthecausalentanglementsappreciatedbyahistoricalviewshowsthattherearemoreexistentialworriesthanweinitiallybargainedfor.NeithertheUnitedStates,nordevelopedcountries,norAfricancountries,norformerlycolonizedcountries,northevariousgapsbetweenthelifechancesoftheircurrentinhabitants,wouldbewhattheyarebutforcolonialismandtheslavetrade.21Thisisclearbothasanhistoricalandempiricalmatterandalsoconceptuallyspeaking.

Historically:theslavetradesinvolvedatransferoflaborpowerfromtheAfricancontinentsolargethat,by1850,thecontinent’spopulationwashalfofwhatitwouldhavebeenwithoutthem.22Thetrans-Atlanticslavetrade,byvolume,wasresponsiblefordoubletheamountofdepopulationasallotherslavetradesonthecontinentcombined.Thelaborpowerthattheabductedpeoplepossessedthenbecameaneconomicinputinthemacroeconomiesofthecountrieswheretheywereforcedtowork.Thatwasofimmenseeconomicandstrategicimportancetocolonialpowers:forexample,thetotaleconomicvalueofenslavedpeopleintheUSsouthwasgreaterthantheentirecountry’scombinedindustrialcapitaluntilwellintothe19thcentury.23Theincentivestructuregeneratedbytheexistenceofsuchalucrativemarketforkidnappingresultedinthedeclineofpreviouslystablesocieties,thecreationofacontinentalbanditclass,andinter-ethnicdivisionsthatcontinuetounderminepoliticalinstitutionsonthecontinent.24ThesefactorspowerfullyshapethepoliticalcircumstancesandcharacteristicsofAfricannation-statestoday.

Conceptually,theexplanationismuchsimpler:theverysameracializedsocialsystemthatconstitutesapersonasaslave(orpotentiallyso)alsoconstitutesotherpeopleasslaveowners(orpotentiallyso),andthesamecolonialsocialsystemthatconstitutespersonsasmembersofthecolonizedgroupconstitutesotherpeopleasmembersofthecolonizinggroup.

Then,whatpointinwhosehistorycanweappealtoestablishabaselineofharmwithouttriggeringtheexistentialworry?Idon’tthinkthereisasatisfyinganswertothatquestionontheway.25Harm-basedrepairviewsdon’tseemtosurvivetheexistentialworry.

21Shiffrin,“ReparationsforUSSlaveryandJusticeoverTime.”22NathanNunn,“TheLong-TermEffectsofAfrica’sSlaveTrades*,”TheQuarterlyJournalofEconomics123,no.1(February1,2008):139–76,https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.2008.123.1.139.Pg.142oftheNunnpaper.23ThomasPikettyandGabrielZucman,“CapitalIsBack:Wealth-IncomeRatiosinRichCountries1700–2010,”TheQuarterlyJournalofEconomics129,no.3(2014):1255–1310;forlargergeopoliticalcontextseechapters1-3ofWilliams,CapitalismandSlavery.24Rodney,“HowEuropeUnderdevelopedAfrica”;Nunn,“TheLong-TermEffectsofAfrica’sSlaveTrades*.”Chapter4inRodney.25DanielButtoffersanoteworthyattempttodojustthisina2012article,proposinga“doublecounterfactual”whichinvitesustoimagineanyparticularcolonizedcommunitynotsimplywithouttheparticularcolonialpastithasbutwithouthavingbeencolonizedatall.Isuspectthisstrategywillrunintosignificanthurdlesatthecalculationstage,andinanyevent,theconstructiveviewthatwillbeintroducedlaterinthispaperobviatestheneedforitbyshiftingfrom“harm”toamoregeneralsortofexplanation.Butt,“RepairingHistoricalWrongsandtheEndofEmpire.”


B. AgainstRelationship-repairViews

Otherconceptionsofrepairworthmentioningworkonadifferentconceptionofthekindofharmthatcanfoundthedistinctivekindsofreparationsclaimsmadeabouttrans-Atlanticslaveryandcolonialismwithouttriggeringtheexistentialworry.Whateverelseslaveryandcolonialismwere,theywereorinvolvedsignificantmoralharms.Perhaps,then,therightresponseisakindofmoralrepairofasocialorpoliticalrelation,asopposedtothesortofprudentialrepairofanindividualorgroup’swelfarethatthefirstsub-familyofviewsmightprefer.

ManyargumentsforreparationsforUSslaveryinphilosophicalliteraturetreatreparationsclaimsasastraightforwardpaymentofadebt.AnimportantsetofthesefollowaLockeanapproachbasedinaphilosophicalcommitmenttoreparationsasamoralorpoliticalright.Lockethoughtthattherighttoreparationofharmwasanaturalright,onethateachpersonwouldhaveovereveryotherpersoneitherina“commonwealth”oreveninthestateofnature.26Further,onhishistoricalviewofreparations,hearguedthatthechildrenofthosedispossessedbywar,evenwherethewarisjust,retainmoralrightstothepossessionoftheirancestors.27Wheretheirrightstothosepossessions,oranyotherproperty,areinfringed,theclaimantsaretobeconsidered“slavesundertheforceofwar”ratherthanfreepeople.28Thatis,theinfringementoftheirrightsharmsapoliticalrelationbetweentheclaimantsandthebroaderpoliticalcommunityisdegradedintoconflictandadversity,wheretherelationshipcouldandshouldbeacooperativeone.Reparationsrepairbyremovingonesetofthingsbarriersbetweentheclaimantsandthebroaderpoliticalcommunity,andthushelpcreatetheconditionsfornon-adversarialpoliticalrelations.

Findingthesesortsoftheoreticalclaimscongenial,anumberofprominentphilosophershavemadesimilarifnotexplicitlyLockeanargumentsforBlackreparationsintheUnitedStates.ThisviewismostobviouslyexemplifiedbyBernardBoxill,thoughCatherineLu,LawrieBalfour,J.AngeloCortlett,andRobertFullinwideralsoprovidereparationsargumentsthatcouldbefithere.29

InMoralRepair,Walkerarguesthatreparationsconstruedasrestorativejusticeforanti-Blackracismisaimedatthe“restorationofrelationships”betweenBlackcitizensandothercitizens,seeingthealienationofBlacksfromtheir(now)fellowcitizensandfromthegovernmenttheyliveunderasaprimaryharm.30Similarly,Luconsidersreparationsasareconciliatorytask,bothaninterventionuponthevictims’alienationfromtheindividualsthat26BernardBoxillpointstothispassagein“BlackReparations”.JohnLockeandCrawfordBroughMacpherson,SecondTreatiseofGovernment(HackettPublishing,1980);BernardBoxill,“BlackReparations,”StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy,2011.BookII,sec.6-12.27LockeandMacpherson,SecondTreatiseofGovernment.BookXVI,“Conquest”,sec.190-196.28LockeandMacpherson.BookXVI,“Conquest”,sec.192,pg.63.29BernardRBoxill,“ALockeanArgumentforBlackReparations,”TheJournalofEthics7,no.1(2003):63–91;RobertKFullinwider,“TheCaseforReparations,”2000;JAngeloCorlett,“Race,Racism,andReparations,”JournalofSocialPhilosophy36,no.4(2005):568–85;LawrieBalfour,“ReparationsafterIdentityPolitics,”PoliticalTheory33,no.6(2005):786–811.30Walker,MoralRepair:ReconstructingMoralRelationsafterWrongdoing.Pg.224.


harmedthemandalsotheiralienationfromthesocial/politicalorderthatplayedacausalroleintheirharm.31KumarandSilverendorseanexplicitlycontractualistconceptionofsuchmoralharm,arguingthatimposingconditionsonanagentthatviolatelegitimateinterpersonalexpectationsisawayofharmingthem.32Shiffrinendorsesasimilaraccountofharm,arguingthatpeoplecanbeharmedbytheimpositionofconditionsthattheywouldnotrationallywillorarereasonablyalienatedfrom,whichdoesnotrequirethesortsofcounterfactualsthattriggerMorris’objection.33

BoxillandShiffrinalsoconsidercommunicativeeffectsofrefusingtomakereparationswhentheyaredue.Refusaltotakereparativestepswhenonehasinjuredanother(orotherwiseoughtto)cansignalthattheongoingmoralcommitmentthattheinjuredpartymorallydeservedtheirinjuryorneednotberegardedasamoralequal.Refusalcanalsobecriticizedfortheculpablefailuretosignaltheoppositecommitment.34Racialdiscrimination,disrespect,andthecurrentlivingconditionsofmuchoftheBlackworld,totheextentthattheseowetheircharactertoslaveryandcolonialism,wouldqualifyasharmontheseconceptions.

Ontheseversionsofconstruingharmorinjury,weneedn’tappealtoacolonizedperson’sbeingmade“worse-off”relativetoanactualpastbaselineoracounterfactualscenario.Theseviews,then,avoidtheexistentialworry.Instead,theimportantaspectoftheongoingwrongsofslavery(and,presumably,colonialism)forthesetheoriesistheongoingfailureoftherelevantpartiestorepudiatetheillsofslavery.Thisfailureriskstacitendorsementoforinsufficientdiscontinuitywiththeattitudesofthepast,onwhichAfrican,African-descended,andothercolonizedpeoplesweredeservingofinferiorsocialstatusandtreatment.35Then,thevalueofreparationsistobeunderstoodascommunicative,anexpressionofseriousandsincereregretofthepast.36

Thesesecondviews,however,faceamoreimportantworry.Theydon’texplicitlyruleoutmaterialredress,andtheseauthorsexplicitlysupportmaterialcompensationofsomeform.However,theseviewsdenythatmaterialredressandtheaddressofthepresent-daylivingconditionsoftherecipientsisthepointofreparations.But,formanycontemporaryandhistoricaladvocatesofreparations,itseemstobethepoint.Ireviewmanysuchviewsinthenextsection.

31CatherineLu,“ReconciliationandReparations,”TheOxfordHandbookofEthicsofWar,October2015,https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199943418.013.17.32KumarandSilver,“TheLegacyofInjustice.WrongingtheFuture,ResponsibilityforthePast.”Pgs.149-151.33SeanaValentineShiffrin,“WrongfulLife,ProcreativeResponsibility,andtheSignificanceofHarm,”LegalTheory5,no.02(1999):117–48.Page124.34Boxill,“TheMoralityofReparation”;Shiffrin,“ReparationsforUSSlaveryandJusticeoverTime.”35KumarandSilverarespeakingabouttheUScontextinthissection,butItakeitthatthisspecificpointoftheirsgeneralizes.KumarandSilver,“TheLegacyofInjustice.WrongingtheFuture,ResponsibilityforthePast.”Page152.36Shiffrin,“ReparationsforUSSlaveryandJusticeoverTime.”Page335.


III. Athirdviewonreparations

Outsideofthephilosophicalliterature,manyadvocatesofreparationsfortrans-Atlanticslaveryandcolonialismcausallylinkcurrentconditionsfacedbypeoplelivingtodaytothehistoricalphenomenatheyarerespondingto.Ontheseviews,reparationsareprimarilyconsideredbasedonwhatitishopedthattheywilldofortherecipients’livesinparticular,ratherthanwhatitwilldofortheirrelationshipswithotherparties.Suchviewsnotonlyalsodeservephilosophicalexploration,butseemtorestultimatelyonstrongerargumentativegroundthantheviewstakenupmorecommonlyinphilosophicalandlegalliterature.Whileafulldefenseofthatclaimisoutsideofthescopeofthispaper,Iaimtobothexplainthebasicstructurereconstructedviewandgestureatthecommitmentsafulldefenseofitwouldtakeon.

Whateverthephilosophicalvirtuesoftheharmbasedandrelationshipbasedrepairviews,theyfaceseriouschallengesasinterpretationsofmanyreparationsclaimsespeciallytheonesfortrans-Atlanticslaveryandcolonialismhereconsidered.It’sinstructive,here,torecallDr.MartinLutherKingJr’sexhortationfromhisbookWhyWeCan’tWait:

TheNegrotodayisnotstrugglingforsomeabstract,vaguerights,butforconcreteandpromptimprovementinhiswayoflife.Whatwillitprofithimtobeabletosendhischildrentoanintegratedschoolifthefamilyincomeisinsufficienttobuythemschoolclothes?Whatwillhegainbybeingpermittedtomovetoanintegratedneighborhoodifhecannotaffordtodosobecauseheisunemployedorhasalow-payingjobwithnofuture?Duringthelunch-countersit-insinGreensboro,NorthCarolina,anightclubcomicobservedthat,hadthedemonstratorsbeenserved,someofthemcouldnothavepaidforthemeal…Thestruggleforrightsis,atbottom,astruggleforopportunities.”37

Speakingspecificallyaboutreparations,FrantzFanonexplicitlyrejectsamoralrepair

criterion,saying:“[m]oralreparationfornationalindependencedoesnotfoolusanditdoesn’tfeedus”,preferringaconceptionofmaterialandtechnicalaidas“justreparation”forcolonialexploitationoftheThirdWorld.38

Perhapssomeofthosewhoappealforreparationsareinitforanapology.Butwhyshouldthatbethepoint?

Activists,organizationleaders,andactorsinmultinationalorinternationalcontextsseemtoadvocateadifferentpurposeforreparationsthanmanyphilosophershave.Despitedifferentjustifications,argumentstyles,andconcretegoals,athemethatemergesamongthesedisparateviewsisafocusonthechangesreparationscouldmaketothelivesofrecipientsinmaterialterms,andthepowerstructuresthatAfricandescendedcommunitiesandtheinstitutionsthat(oughtto)servethemoperatewithin.Thisstrategicstandsinstarkcontrastbothtothemoralizing,obligation-basedargumentsofharm-repairviewsandthesymbolicandcommunicativevalueemphasizedinmanyversionsoftherelation-repairviews.

Asystematicempiricalreviewofactivists,academic,experts,andother“elites”ontheAfricancontinentfoundthat,thoughthesymbolicsignificanceofreparationswerebroadly37MartinLutherKing,WhyWeCan’tWait(Penguin,2000).Pg129.38FrantzFanon,“TheWretchedoftheEarth.1961,”Trans.RichardPhilcox.NewYork:Grove,2004.Pgs58-59.


appreciated,eventhisaspectwasconsideredpracticallybytheseactors,intermsofitsfuturelookingconsequentialimplicationsforfutureinteractions.39Afirmconsensusemerged:thepointofreparationswasto“developandrehabilitateAfrica”-afuturelookingconsiderationdirectedatcollectivewellbeing.40

Myownreviewofsuchfiguresisconsistentwiththepossibilitythatthereisbroadsupportforaviewofreparationsthatislikeneitheroftherepairmodelsexploredinphilosophicalliteraturesofar.Forexample,MireilleFanon-MendesandtheUnitedNations’WorkingGroupofExpertsonPeopleofAfricanDescent,arguedsimilarlyinastatementpressuringtheUnitedStatesinparticulartoprovidematerialreparationsforBlackpeople.41VereneShepherd,alsooftheUnitedNations’WorkingGroupofExpertsonPeopleofAfricanDescentlinkedhistoricalinjusticesandcolonialismtopresentdaypovertyamongAfricandescendedpeoplesandothercolonizedpeoples,arguingthatreparationsareneededtocombateconomicdisenfranchisementandexploitationthatrepresentongoingeffectsofslaveryandcolonialism.42

StategovernmentsandofficialactorshavealsoarticulatedreparationsclaimsinwaysthattheUSphilosophicalliteratureonreparationshaveyettosubstantivelytakeup.IntheUnitedStates,BlackpoliticalactorsandgovernmentofficialspushedformaterialconcessionstoBlackpeoplefreedfromslaveryduringandaftertheUSCivilWar.43GeneralWilliamTecumsehShermanissuedSpecialOrderFifteen,whichunsuccessfullyaimedtoallotfortyacresoflandperBlackfamilyinthedefeatedSouth.44Inthelegislature,CongressmanThaddeusStevensledradicalRepublicansinadvocatingfortheprovisionofmaterialresourcestonewlyfreedBlacksinthesouth.45Partiallyduetohisefforts,Congresscreatedaseriesofbureaus(firsttheBureau39AnthonyPLombardoandRhodaEHoward-Hassmann,“AfricansonReparations:AnAnalysisofEliteandActivistOpinion,”CanadianJournalofAfricanStudies/LaRevueCanadienneDesÉtudesAfricaines39,no.3(2005):517–48.Pgs.533-536.40LombardoandHoward-Hassmann.Pg543.41“OHCHR|StatementtotheMediabytheUnitedNations’WorkingGroupofExpertsonPeopleofAfricanDescent,ontheConclusionofItsOfficialVisittoUSA,19-29January2016,”accessedJuly8,2017,http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=17000&LangID=E.42VereneShepherd,“ReparationandtheRighttoDevelopment”(UnitedNationsOfficeoftheHighCommissioneronHumanRights,2015),http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Racism/WGEAPD/Session16/VereneShepherd.pdf;VereneShepherd,“JusticeRequiresFormerColonialistsPayReparations,”TheNewYorkTimes,accessedJune21,2017,https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2015/10/08/are-transatlantic-slave-trade-reparations-due/justice-requires-former-colonialists-pay-reparations?mcubz=1.43ManningMarable,TheGreatWellsofDemocracy:TheMeaningofRaceinAmericanLife(BasicBooks,2003).Pgs.225-226.44NellIrvinPainter,Exodusters:BlackMigrationtoKansasafterReconstruction(WWNorton&Company,1992).Pgs.x-xi.45WilliamEdwardBurghardtDuBois,BlackReconstructioninAmerica:TowardaHistoryofthePartWhichBlackFolkPlayedintheAttempttoReconstructDemocracyinAmerica,1860-1880


ofRefugees,Freedmen,andAbandonedLands,thenmorefamousFreedmen’sBureau),chargedwithprovidingfortyacrestoeachfamilyofnewlyfreepeople.Complicationsincludingflooding,widespreadpovertyanddispossessioncausedbytheCivilWar,avetoofastrongerFreedman’sBureaubythenPresidentAndrewJohnson,lobbyingbyrailroadcompaniescompetingforland,andviolentracialriotsresultinginthemurderofmanyfreedmen,preventedfollowthroughonthispoint.46

Inthewesternhemisphere:CaribbeangovernmentsformedtheCaribbeanCommissiononReparations,CARICOM,whosetenpointplanconceivesofitsnation-statetargetsas“thebeneficiariesofenrichmentfromtheenslavementofAfricanpeoples,thegenocideofindigenouscommunitiesandthedeceptivebreachofcontractandtrustinrespectofIndians,andotherAsians”butseesthegoalofitsprogramasrepairofthepresentdaypublichealthcrisisintheCaribbean,literacylevels,andpsychological“healingandrepair”forcurrentlylivingpeoplesdescendedfromtheformallycolonized.47

In1978Brazil,theMovimentoNegroUnificadomarchedonSãoPaolointhetensofthousandsandreadanopenletterdemandingmaterialresourcesintheformofemployment,socialservices,andlandreformthatwouldprotectquilombos(autonomousregionscreatedbyescapedAfricansduringlegalslavery).48AfuturemovementclaimingcontinuitywiththeMNUwouldin2014demandhistoricalandhumanitarianreparationsforBlackpeople.49

IntheUS,CongressmanJohnConyersadvancedacongressionalbillcallingforaCongressionalinvestigationintopossibleUSgovernmentliabilityforreparations,whichearnedthesupportofacoalitionofBlackorganizations,theNationalCoalitionofBlacksforReparationsinAmerica(NCOBRA).50(TransactionPublishers,2013);Verdun,“IftheShoeFits,WearIt:AnAnalysisofReparationstoAfricanAmericans.”Pgs.432-434.46Painter,Exodusters:BlackMigrationtoKansasafterReconstruction;ClaudeFOubre,“‘FortyAcresandaMule’:LouisianaandtheSouthernHomesteadAct,”LouisianaHistory:TheJournaloftheLouisianaHistoricalAssociation17,no.2(1976):143–57;Verdun,“IftheShoeFits,WearIt:AnAnalysisofReparationstoAfricanAmericans”;Levitt,“BlackAfricanReparations:MakingaClaimforEnslavementandSystematicDeJureSegregationandRacialDiscriminationunderAmericanandInternationalLaw.”Pgs.8-10.47“ReparationsforNativeGenocideAndSlavery—CaribbeanCommunity(CARICOM)Secretariat,”accessedJuly11,2017,http://www.caricom.org/reparations-for-native-genocide-and-slavery.48MirianCristinadeMouraGarrido,“MovimentoNegroUnificadoePolítica:SobreaPossibilidadedeApreenderMilitantesComoProtagonistasPolíticos(1978-1988).,”Identidade!21,no.1(2016):33–42;FlaviaRios,“OProtestoNegroNoBrasilContemporâNeo(1978-2010),”LuaNova:RevistadeCulturaePolítica,2012,41–79;MichaelGeorgeHanchard,OrpheusandPower:The"MovimentoNegro"ofRiodeJaneiroandSaoPaulo,Brazil1945-1988(PrincetonUniversityPress,1998).Pgs.124-126.49“MovimentoNegroUnificadoBa,”MovimentoNegroUnificadoBa,accessedJuly13,2017,https://movimentonegrounificadoba.wordpress.com/.50“NCOBRA:JohnConyersIntroducesNewHR40ReparationsBill,”NationalCoalitionofBlacksforReparationsinAmerica(NCOBRA)(blog),January15,2017,


MKOAbiola-soonafterPresident-electofNigeria-headedupa“GroupofEminentPersons”withtheOrganizationforAfricanUnity,apredecessortowhatisnowthenowAfricanUnion.51ThisgroupconvenedthePan-AfricanConferenceonReparations,whose“AbujaProclamation”deniedthatthe“damagesustainedbyAfricanpeoples”wasnota“thingofthepast”butrather“[p]ainfullymanifestinthedamagedlivesofcontemporaryAfricansfromHarlemtoHarare”.52Thedocumentcallsforcapitaltransfers,debtcancellation,andrepresentationofAfricanpeoplesinmultinationaldecisionmakingbodies.53

Activistshaveshowedasimilarfocusonthepotentialmaterialredistributivebenefitsofreparationsovertheirsymbolicorcommunicativevalue.QueenMotherAudleyMooreisoftencreditedasthemotherofreparationsmovementsinthe20thcenturyinthewesternhemisphere,arguingthatreparationsoughttobeusedtoendpovertyintheBlackcommunityandcounteractemploymentdiscrimination.54Heradvocacyandworkforreparationsinfluencedagenerationofsubsequentorganizationsthatalsoadvocatedforreparationsinsomeformorother,includingtheRevolutionaryActionMovement,andBlackPantherPartyforSelfDefense.55JamesFormanofStudentNonviolentCoordinatingCommittee(SNCC)famouslyinterruptedaSundaymorningserviceatRiversideChurchinNewYorkCitytoreadtheBlackManifestodevelopedbyhimandtheNationalBlackEconomicDevelopmentconference,whichdemanded$500milliondollarsfromchurchesandsynagogues,or“15dollarspernigger”,for“aidingandabetting”acapitalistsystemthatforcedBlacksto“liveascolonizedpeople”.56Intoday’sUSactivism,theMovementforBlackLivespolicyplatformexplicitlytiesspecificformsofreparationstospecificwaysinwhichcontemporaryBlacksinAmericatodayareharmedordisadvantaged,andconceivesreparationsasbeingtaskedwithspecificsolutionstothoseharms.57http://www.ncobraonline.org/congressman-john-conyers-introduces-new-hr40-reparations-bill/.51MarthaBiondi,“TheRiseoftheReparationsMovement,”RadicalHistoryReview87,no.1(2003):5–18;RhodaEHoward-Hassmann,“ReparationstoAfricaandtheGroupofEminentPersons,”Cahiersd’EtudesAfricaines,no.1(2004):81–97.52NationalCoalitionofBlacksforReparationsinAmerica(NCOBRA),“TheAbujaProclamation(Pan-AfricanConferenceonReparations-1993Abuja,Nigeria),”accessedJuly11,2017,http://www.ncobraonline.org/the-abuja-proclamation/.53NationalCoalitionofBlacksforReparationsinAmerica(NCOBRA).54CharlesJOgletreeJr,“RepairingthePast:NewEffortsintheReparationsDebateinAmerica,”Harv.CR-CLLRev.38(2003):279.AshleyFarmer,“SomebodyHastoPay:AudleyMoore,MotheroftheReparationsMovement–AAIHS,”accessedJuly12,2017,http://www.aaihs.org/somebody-has-to-pay-audley-moore-mother-of-the-reparations-movement/.55Farmer,“SomebodyHastoPay.”56JamesForman,“TheBlackManifesto,”AfricaToday16,no.4(1969):21–24;Levitt,“BlackAfricanReparations:MakingaClaimforEnslavementandSystematicDeJureSegregationandRacialDiscriminationunderAmericanandInternationalLaw.”Page12.57“Reparations,”TheMovementforBlackLives,accessedJuly21,2017,https://policy.m4bl.org/reparations/.


Scholarshaveshowedasimilarfocusonthosewhoarealivenowandtheirfutureprospects.HenryEkiyor,formercoordinatoroftheMovementforReparationsinBarbados,arguessimilarly,butlinkstheslavetradewithunderdevelopmentoftheAfricancontinentandpovertyamongstthepeoplesoftheAfricaandthediasporamoregenerally.58DanielOsabu-KlearguesthatreparationsaredueasaresponsetocurrentunderdevelopmentofAfricaiscausallyattributabletothetrans-Atlanticslavetrade,relatedcolonialistadventurism,thestructureofAfricaneconomiesinresponse,andthesubsequentexploitationofthatstructuretothebenefitofdevelopedcountriesbytheIMFandWorldBank.59

Relatedly,intheveryfirst(aptlynamed)annualMKOAbiolalecture,eminentscholarAliMazruidiagnosesnotonlydeprivationsinmaterialconditionsforindividualAfricans,butdeficitsinpowerinmultinationalinstitutionsliketheIMFandtheWorldBankasdownstreamofcolonialinjusticesandthingstobespecificallyremediedbycomprehensiveschemesofreparationsthattransfervotingpowerinthoseinstitutionsaswellascapitalandskills.60Ta-NehisiCoatesrecentlypublishedawell-readlongformarticleadvocatingthepassageofthatbillinTheAtlanticlinkingcurrentpovertyandvulnerabilitytodeathandviolenceamongBlackAmericanstoslaveryandsubsequentpatternsofracistpoliciesandstateviolence.61

CurrentstrandsofreligiousandphilosophicalthoughtinfluencedbyMarcusGarvey,includingtheRastafarianmovement,endorserepatriationofAfricandescendedpeoplesfrom“Babylon”-formerBritishcolonieslikethoseintheCaribbean-backtotheAfricancontinent.62Inspiredbysimilarviews,hundredsofAfricandescendedpeoplesconvenedanAfrikanEmancipationDayReparationsMarchinthehistoricallyblackneighborhoodofBrixton,Londonin2017todemandthatthisbefinancedbytheUnitedKingdom,giventheroletrans-AtlantictraffickingofAfricanshadinthepresentdayexposuretopoverty,ill-health,andexposuretodiscriminationofAfrican-descendedpeopleintheworldtoday.63IntheUnitedStates,avarietyoforganizationssupportreparations,including:BlackYouthProject100,NationalCoalitionof

58HenryAEkiyor,“MakingaCaseforReparation,”JournalofPanAfricanStudies1,no.9(2007):103–16.59Osabu-Kle,“TheAfricanReparationCry:Rationale,Estimate,Prospects,andStrategies.”60Mazrui,“GlobalAfrica:FromAbolitioniststoReparationists.”61Ta-NehisiCoates,“TheCaseforReparations,”TheAtlantic,June2014,https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/;Ta-NehisiCoates,BetweentheWorldandMe(Textpublishing,2015).62SteedDavidson,“LeaveBabylon:TheTropeofBabyloninRastafarianDiscourse,”BlackTheology6,no.1(2008):46–60.63“EmancipationDayMarch:HundredsTaketoStreetsofBrixtonCallingforSlaveryReparations|LondonEveningStandard,”accessedJune21,2017,http://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/reparations-march-hundreds-take-to-the-streets-of-brixton-calling-for-amends-for-generations-of-a3309246.html;“Petition·STOPTHEMAANGAMIZI:WECHARGEGENOCIDE/ECOCIDE·Change.Org,”accessedJune21,2017,https://www.change.org/p/stop-the-maangamizi-we-charge-genocide-ecocide.


BlacksforReparationsinAmerica(NCOBRA),ChairmanOmaliYeshitelaoftheUhuruMovementandtheBlackisBackCoalition.64

Notalloftheaforementionedacademic,activist,governmental,andotherpersonsandgroupshaveastatementindicatingacomprehensiverationaleorsetofmotivationsforreparations.Betweenthosethatdo,therearemanydisagreementsanddiscontinuities.Butthesecallsforreparationslargelyderivetheirmoralraisond’etrefrompastharmsbutitscontent,direction,andpoliticalurgencyfromtheneedsofcontemporaryBlackpeoplefullstop,notintheirrelationshipstonon-Blackpeopleorinheritancefromwrongedancestors.

IV. TowardsTheConstructiveView

a. ReparationsasDistributiveJustice

Therearemanydifferencesbetweentheseviews,buttheyallshareacommitmenttoaconceptionoftheimportofreparationsasprimarilyemanatingfromaconcernwiththepresentmaterialandsocialconditionsofBlacksacrossthediasporatoday.Thehistoricalcausesofthoseconditionsfigureprominently,butlessoftenasmoreoftenasajustificationforthenatureandcostlinessoftheremediesdemandedbytheimprintofthepastonthoselivinginthepresentdayand,mostimportantly,whoistakentoberesponsibleforbearingthecostsofthoseremedies.

IncontemporaryUSpoliticalphilosophy,atopicwellsuitedtocharacterizingsuchclaimsandtherebydrawingoutthecontrastbetweentheconstructiveviewandtheprevailingviewsofreparationsinthephilosophicalliteratureisdistributivejustice.Inthissection,Igiveabriefoverviewofacriticalreconstructionoftheargumentsandstrugglessurveyedintheprevioussectionusingtheconceptofdistributivejustice.Thoughafulldefenseofthispositionisataskforafuturepaper,Igestureatafewoftheview’supshotsandconsidersomepreliminaryobjections.

Asmentionedintheintroductiontothispaper,principlesofdistributivejusticegovernhowweunderstand,justify,orcondemndistributionsofgoodsandresourcestopeople.65Itispossibletostopthere.Asnapshotviewofdistributivejusticeconceptually‘startsover’andanalyzestheappropriatenessofthecurrentdistributionofwealth,resources,andsocialgoodsinabstractionfromthehistoricalprocessesthatproducedthedistributioninquestionasnapshotviewofdistributivejustice.66Onsuchaview,theonlyconsiderationsthatoughtto64“OurDemands:StoptheCopsandFUNDBlackFutures,”BYP100(blog),accessedJuly21,2017,http://byp100.org/what-we-want/;“NationalTownHallMeetingonReparationsSet:ChairmanOmalitoBePanelist,”accessedJuly21,2017,//www.theburningspear.com/2011/05/national-town-hall-meeting-on-reparations-set-chairman-omali-to-be-panelist.65Theterm“resources”inthispaperwillbeusedbroadly.Itwillrefernotjusttomaterialresources,butotherresources,likethosethataresocial,cultural,andepistemic,andotherwisesocial.66Rawls’ATheoryofJusticegivesafamousidealtheoryofpoliticalphilosophythatgivesconsiderableattentiontodistributivejustice,butnottocorrectivejustice.CharlesMillspoints


bearonreparationsarefuture-looking–forexample,disincentivizingthepastaggressortotakefutureharmfulactions,orcreatingthepossibilityoffuturemoralrelationsbysignalingtheaggressorparty’sstanceonpastinjustices.67Someinthephilosophicalliteraturehavedefendedsuchaview.68

Whatevertheiroverallvirtues,snapshotviewsofdistributivejusticearen’tuptothejobofgroundingphilosophicalreconstructionsofreparationsclaims.Thisisbecausereparationsclaims,asdefinedinPartII,gaintheirmoralforcefrombackward-lookingconsiderations.Debatingtheoverallmeritsanddemeritsofthesnapshotviewisoutofthescopeofthispaper.Fornow,it’senoughtosaythatadifferentviewofdistributivejusticewillberequiredtogroundreparationshere.69

Moreover,theviewofdistributivejusticeimplicitlyheldbytheactivistsandthinkersinpartIIIexplicitlyappealtobackwardlookingconsiderationsofpastracialdominationandviolencetoexplaintheirreparationsdemands.Ahistoricalviewofdistributivejusticetakesintoaccountbothwelfaristconsiderationsthesnapshottheoristwouldconsider(howwellthedistributioninquestionmeetstheneedsofthepeopleitaffects),butalsohistoricalconsiderationsexplaininghowthatdistributionwasfairlyorunfairlyestablishedarerelevant.FiguresinpoliticalphilosophylikeRawlshavedefendedrecognizablyhistoricalviewsofdistributivejustice.70EvenNozick,famedexpositorofthelibertarianpoliticaltheoryoftheoutthatRawlsdoesnotexplicitlydiscussrectificatoryjusticeandseemstoopenlyadmitthattheprinciplesheoutlineswillbeoflimitedapplicationto(whatMillsterms)“ill-formed”societies,thosewhoseactualhistorydoesnotsufficientlyresemblethe“wellformed”society.ThereissomedisagreementintheliteratureaboutwhethertheviewRawlsdevelopscanadequatelyaccountforcorrectivejustice:forexample,seetheexchangebetweenTommieShelbyandCharlesMills,withShelbydissenting,preferringaviewthatRawls’theoryprovidesadequateresourcesforthecorrectivejusticeneededforracialjusticespecifically.JohnRawls,ATheoryofJustice,RevisedEdition(Cambridge:Harvarduniversitypress,1999);TommieShelby,“RaceandSocialJustice:RawlsianConsiderations,”FordhamL.Rev.72(2003):1697;CharlesWMills,“RetrievingRawlsforRacialJustice?ACritiqueofTommieShelby,”CriticalPhilosophyofRace1,no.1(2013):1–27;CharlesWMills,BlackRights/WhiteWrongs:TheCritiqueofRacialLiberalism(OxfordUniversityPress,2017).67LeifWenar,“ReparationsfortheFuture,”JournalofSocialPhilosophy37,no.3(2006):396–405.Pgs.403-405.68Wenar.Pgs396-397.69Rawlsseemstoofferastrongerclaim,onethatimpliesthattheviewsI’velabeled“snapshot”viewsaresomehowincoherent:“Thusinthiskindofproceduraljusticethecorrectnessofthedistributionisfoundedonthejusticeoftheschemeofcooperationfromwhichitarisesandonansweringtheclaimsofindividualsengagedinit.Adistributioncannotbejudgedinisolationfromthesystemofwhichitistheoutcomeorfromwhatindividualshavedoneingoodfaithinthelightofestablishedexpectations.”Iwon’tleanonaclaimthisstronghere.Rawls,ATheoryofJustice.Pg76.70Nozick’s“entitlementtheoryofacquisition”countsashistoricalinthetechnicalsenseconsideredhere.RobertNozick,Anarchy,State,andUtopia,vol.5038(Basicbooks,1974),150–51;Rawls,ATheoryofJustice.


minimalstate,heldahistoricalviewthatone’scurrentholdingsinheritthenormativestatusoftheprocessresponsiblefortheacquisitionofthoseholdings,whichismorethancongenialtoclaimsforreparations.71

b. Layingouttheconstructiveview

Armedwithasuitabledistinctioninsensesofdistributivejustice,theconstructiveview

thenoffersadivisionoflaborbetweensnapshotconsiderationsofdistributivejusticeandhistoricalones.Withahistoricalviewofdistributivejusticeasabackgroundassumption,reasoningabouttheglobaldistributionofresourcesproceedsasfollows:

Atthefirststage,snapshotviewsofdistributivejusticeidentifyareasofexcessandofdearthintheglobaldistributionofresources,answeringquestionsaskedbydistributivejusticelike“isthereenoughinthiscommunity,allthingsconsidered?”,or“isthereaproblemwithhowmuchthiscommunityhas?”

Then,attheintermediatestage,weask:“whydotheseproblemswiththedistributionexist?”Historicalanalysishelpsusexplainsitesoflackandsitesofexcess,inconnectionwithalloftheotherpartiesinvolved.Itmaybethatsomecommunitiesornationsaresimplymoreindustriousthanothers,orhavehadsomesortofmorallyunproblematicgoodluck,throughhavingaccesstoparticularlyusefulnaturalresourcesorluckofanevenmorebasicstochastickind.However,ontheotherhand,therightexplanationoftheexcessthatacommunityhasmaybethattheyhaverelatedtoothercommunitiesinparasiticways,andtheremayfurtherbeaunitybetweentheexplanationofonecommunity’sexcessandanother’slack.Thesearethecaseswherereparationsarecalledfor.

Atthefinalstageweaskprescriptivequestions,like“whatshouldwedoaboutthesesitesofexcessandlack?”Tomovefromthisglobaldistributionofresourcestoonewherethebenefitsofinternationaleconomicandpoliticalinteractionaresharedmorejustlywillimposecostsandburdens.Afterall,theburdensoftransitionthemselvesmustbedistributed.Whooughttoshoulderthem,andtowhatextent?Asgesturedatintheintermediatestage,theexcessandlackidentifiedinthesnapshotstagemaygenerateverydifferentobligationsofredistributionifitgeneratesanyatall:ifdisparitiesaredownstreamofluck,theymaygenerateweakredistributiveobligationsonpurewelfaristandegalitariangrounds.Butiftheyaredownstreamofexploitation,theygeneratethekindofredistributiveobligationsthatreparationsclaimsareparticularlyconcernedwith:thoseofreparatoryorrectificatoryjustice.72Theconstructiveviewthussharplydistinguishestwoquestionsaboutdistributivejusticethatarealltoooftenruntogether:diagnosticquestionsidentifyingproblemswithhowresourcesaredistributedinthestatusquo(stages1and2)fromprescriptivequestionsaboutdistributivejusticethataskwhatweshoulddoaboutourcurrentdistributionofresources.Further,itprovidesawayofrelatingthemtoeachotherthatclarifieswhattheyhavetodowithone

71Nozickdevelopsawholeconceptionofdistributivejusticebasedlargelyonthis“entitlementtheory”ofacquisition.Nozick,Anarchy,State,andUtopia.Pgs.150-151.72Sortingoutwhatsortsofobligationstheseareispartofthetaskforafulldefenseoftheview,whichIwillnottakeuphereintheinterestsofspace.


another.

c. IllustratingtheConstructiveView

ReparationspaidbyGermanyforthecrimesoftheHolocausttothestateofIsraelprovideaclearhistoricalexampleofsomethingliketheconstructiveviewinaction.73TheatrocitiesoftheHolocaust–likethoseofthetrans-AtlanticslavetradeandofEuropeancolonialism–involvedincalculablehumansuffering.74ThereparationspaidIsrael,however,neitherrepresentedanattempttocalculateit(asonemightontheharm-repairview)norprimarilyamakingofamends(asonrelationship-repairview).Nordidtheyrepresenttheresponsibilitiesofjustanywelloffcountrytojustanydisplacedandaggrievedpeople.Instead,thereparationspaymentwascalculatedbasedontheestimatedcostsofresettlingthosewhowouldbecomecitizensofIsrael–thatis,accordingtoforward-lookingconsiderationsthataimedtobringaboutaspecificpoliticaloutcomeinthefuture.75Furthermore,thepartiesofthistransferwerealsonon-accidentallyrelatedtothehistorythatproducedthereasonforthetransfer.Snapshotconsiderationsestablishedtheoutcomethatneededtobepursued(resettlement)andhistoricaldistributivejusticeprinciplesidentifiedGermanyasthepartythatoughttobearthecosts.

Settlingtheamountofreparationstobedemandedisanimportantquestion.Some,evenamongthosesurveyedinpartIII,arguethattheamountofreparationthatshouldbedemandedshouldbesufficienttoreturnthetotalamountofwealthgeneratedduetotrans-Atlanticslaveryandcolonialism,whichwouldundoubtedlybeanastronomicalamountonanyseriouscalculation.Butonthemostnaturalextensionofthephilosophicallyreconstructedversionoftheconstructiveview,backwardlookingconsiderationsonlyestablishwho:whoistobeburdened(andhow)withthecostsofcorrectingthedistributionofgoodsandresourcesandwhoistobebenefited.Theydonotestablishtheextenttowhicheachsideistobeburdenedandbenefited–thattargetissetbythefuturelookingconsiderationsthataimtoestablishajustdistributionofresourcesandgoods.Then,wealthandcapitaltransferdemandedbycorrectivejusticeasIhaveconstrueditherewouldnotbequeuedtotheimmeasurableamountofvalueplunderedfromcolonizednationsbycolonizingnations,butrathertowhateveramountisrequiredtoproduceajustfuture.

Admittedly,thiswayofphilosophicallyreconstructingtheviewraisessometensionsbetweenindividualelementsoftheclustersofargumentsthatareoftenadvancedfor73PointingoutthisrespectinwhichthefinancialrelationshipbetweenGermanyandIsraelontheresettlementquestionisnottoendorsewhereandunderwhatcircumstancesthenow-Israeliswereresettled.74FrederickHonig,“TheReparationsAgreementbetweenIsraelandtheFederalRepublicofGermany,”TheAmericanJournalofInternationalLaw48,no.4(1954):564–78,https://doi.org/10.2307/2195023.75Ireferherespecificallytotherationalefortheresettlementpayments,nottheselectionoflandforresettlement,whichneedstobejustifiedonindependentgrounds.Assuch,thispointprovidesnodefenseforeitherIsrael’sortheinternationalcommunity’streatmentofPalestinians.I’mindebtedto[personalcommunicationredacted]forthispoint.


reparations,mostnotablywithrespecttoargumentsattemptingtoestablishhowlargethecostsofreparationsoughttobe.ThoughthebroadcontoursoftheargumentsforreparationsconsideredinpartIIIareconcernedwithdistributivejustice,rationalesfortheamountsdemandedoftenproceedontheharm-repairmodel,whichIhaverejectedhere.Forexample,theaccountgivenoftheconstructiveviewherecouldn’tsupportconceptionsofreparationsthatconstruethemasbackwagesforunpaidlaborduringslavery,aconceptionwhichsociologistDaltonConleyattributestoBlackPowermovementsintheUnitedStatesinthe60sand70s,whonotesotherconceptualdifficultiesraisedbythisstrategy.76

Itispossibletoreadthistendencyandsomeoftheothersintensionwiththeconstructiveviewasrhetoricalorothersortsofconcessionstonon-idealpoliticalrealities.Afterall,thereseemtobesafecontextualizingassumptionsthatmotivatethisreadingofparticularcases:forexample,thattheUS’moralliabilityforslaveryandcolonialismiswellunderstoodbythegeneralpublicandthatotherconceptslikedistributivejusticearen’t.However,afulldiscussionofthiscomplicationisoutofthescopeofthispaper.Ihopetoreturntothesequestionsinsubsequentworkandgiveafullerdiscussionofthedistinctivephilosophicalandpoliticalproblemsassociatedwiththe“calculusofcausality”inslaveryandcolonialism.77

d. Answerstoobjections

Havinggivenabriefcharacterizationofthereconstructedview,Inowofferafew

objectionsandrepliestoit.ThoughIstopshortofafulldefensehere,Iaimtomotivatetheconclusionthattheconstructiveviewisapotentialadvancerelativetotheviewssofarconsideredintheliterature;failingthat,atleastaworthycompetitortotheotherviewsonofferthatmeritsfurtherexploration.

Anobjectortothewholeprojectofreparationsfortrans-Atlanticslaveryandcolonialismmightarguethatadvancesinbiologicalscienceshowthatrace–oftenthesoleorprimarybasisformakingoutwhooughttoreceivereparations–eitherfailstobe“real”insomerelevantsense,orthatitsboundariesdonotpickouttherightpeoplebecausetheconnectionstoanyparticularcountry’shistoryofslaveryandcolonialismarecontingent.UsingtheUSasanexample:someBlackAmericansarepresumablydescendedpartiallyorwhollyfromthepopulationoffreeBlacksduringslavery,andsomeBlackAmericansareimmigrantsfromcountrieswhoseancestorswerenotenslavedatall,orenslavedbysomepowerthatwasnotcontrolledorregulatedbytheUnitedStates.78Ineithercase,itwouldbeargued,thusthereisnoprincipledbasisforestablishingwhoreparationsshouldbenefitandwhoshouldpayitscosts.NaomiZackisoneexpositorofsuchaposition.7976DaltonConley,“FortyAcresandaMule:WhatIfAmericaPaysReparations?,”Contexts1,no.3(2002):13–20.77ThistermisMazrui’s.Mazrui,“GlobalAfrica:FromAbolitioniststoReparationists.”78Notethatthisismorecarefulthantheobjectionisusuallyput:Iaimtogivethisobjectionit’sbestshot.79WhileZackclaimsonpagethat149that“evenonatheoreticallevel”the“caseforreparationsflounders”,sheneverthelessendorsesabroaderprojectof“rectification”.Zackseemstohaveinmindtransferstoindividualclaimants,whichIwouldarguethatonecould


Thiskindofobjection,asananswertotheconstructiveview,wouldrestonanumberofmistakes.First,whetherraceisanaturalkindornotisatbestirrelevantforthekindofcausalityatissueontheconstructiveview.Totheextentthatraceascommonlyoreventheoreticallyunderstoodisrelevantatall,itisasananswertoexplanationofthecurrentdistributionofresources.Allthatneedstobetrueofitisthatitisnon-accidentallyrelatedtowhocurrentlyhashowmuchintheglobaldistributionofresources–thecaseforwhichcouldbeverymodestlydescribedas“overwhelming.”Ifanything,thefactthatraceisnotanaturalkindbolsterstheargumentthatitsroleinexplainingproblemsintoday’sdistributionofresourceswillnotbetheinnocuouskind–helpingtorenderraciallyexplainedmaterialinequalitiesthesortthatthesecondstageoftheconstructiveviewwillflagforscrutinyatthethirdstage.

Anotherobjector,moreattentivetothespecificitiesoftheconstructiveview,mightargueinoppositiontorecastingthereparationsdebateondistributivejusticegroundsbywayofdefendingasnapshotviewofdistributivejustice.TheymightarguethatfocusingonthecurrentlivingconditionsandmaterialcircumstancesofAfricandescendedpeoplesimpliesanaccountthatisentirelyfuture-looking,andassuchhaslosttrackofthedistinctivenatureofreparationsclaims.Iftheproblemtobesolvediseconomicandsocialdisenfranchisementandexploitation,whydoweneedthehistorylesson?WhynotjustargueforaidtotheAfricandiasporaonwelfaristorconsequentialistgrounds?Putanotherway,whydistinguishreparationsclaimsfromotherredistributiveschemes?80

Iarguethatthisobjectionrestsonpreciselytheconflationtheconstructiveviewaimstoavoid.There’sonesetofquestionstoaskaboutwhethereveryonehaswhatandasmuchastheyshouldhaveasthingsstand,relativetosomedistributionthatisidealonegalitariangrounds.Wecouldaskhowfarwearefromthatidealpicture,diagnosticquestionsaboutdistributivejusticethatallowustoidentifyfailuresofourcurrentdistributionofjustice.Thatispreciselythesetofquestionsengagedinstage1.Snapshotconsiderationsaboutdistributivejusticeareperhapsenoughtoanswerthosequestions,andthussuchconsiderationswouldenableustotakeissuewiththerampantpovertyandeconomicexploitationofAfricandescendedpeopleacrosstheglobequiteindependentlyofananalysisofhistoricalcolonialism.Buttheseconsiderationswouldonlygenerategenericreasonsthatinequalityshouldbesolved–theywouldnotgeneratedirectedclaimsthatcouldbeusedtoidentifywhospecificallyoughtbearthecosts,orthatcouldgroundaprincipledbasisfortheglobaldistributionofcostsotherthanthatbasisprovidedbydifferentialabilitytopay.Stages2and3oftheconstructiveviewaremeanttoclarifymattersonthatterrain.

Eveniftheconstructiveviewwereto,forexample,generateexactlythesamelistofcountriesorcommunitiesthatshouldpayandcountriesorcommunitiesthatshouldreceivepaymentfortrans-Atlanticslaveryandcolonialism,itwouldn’tfollowthattheconstructiveviewistriviallydifferentfromanygeneralegalitarianimpulsetomakethosewithmorewealthandresourcesbearmoreoftheburdensofasocialenterprisethanthosewithless.Thisisphilosophicallyobviousfortworeasons.rejectwhilestillendorsingreparationsforslaveryoperationalizedsomehowelse.NaomiZack,“ReparationsandtheRectificationofRace,”TheJournalofEthics7,no.1(2003):139–51.80ThecomparisonofreparationandcompensationisBoxill’s.Boxill,“TheMoralityofReparation.”Pg.118.


First,insofarasreasonsmatter–on,really,anyviewofwhytheymight–thefactthatconstructiveviewandthekindofgeneralegalitarianismthatpromotesprogressivetaxationcallfordistributiontoAfricandescendedpeoplesandtheglobalSouthfordifferentreasonsisenoughmotivationtowedgethemapartfromeachotherin,atleast,thecontextoftheorizing.

Secondly,amoment’simaginationoncounterfactualswillrevealthattheconstructiveviewandgeneralegalitarianwillmakedifferentrecommendationsinotherpossiblecases.Forexample,imaginetwopossibleworldsAandB.InworldA,lettheglobaldistributionofresourcesisunjustbecausecountryXunluckilyfellonhardtimes,duetoadroughtratherthanunjusthumaninterference,andalltheothercountriesaredoingwell.Onboththeconstructiveviewandthegeneralegalitarianimpulse,whateverobligationstherearetocorrectthiswouldapplytoalloftherestoftheworld’scountries,ifany.InworldB,lettheglobaldistributionofresourcesbeunjustbecausecountryXfellonhardtimes,andthesehardtimeswereengineeredbythecolonialdominationofcountryY,whileYandalltheothercountriesaredoingwell.WhateverthedistributionofthereparativeburdenacrossYandtheothercountriesiscalledfor,itissensitivetothefactthatYistheexplanationforX’shardtimesandisdesignedtomakeoutwhyYoughttoshouldermoreoftheburdenthan,say,countryZ.Thegeneralegalitarianimpulsecannotdothis.

WhileI’veusedformallanguagetobringoutthegeneralityofthispoint,realworldexamplesaboundwhenwethinkofreparationsmoregenerallythanthespecificcaseconsideredinthispaper:itseemsreasonabletopresume,Libya(orLibyans)areowedreparationsbyNATOcountriesspecificallyandnotsimplybecausetheyarericherthanLibyaisafterbeingbombedtohell.Anytheoryunabletosomuchassaythatthisisthecase(muchlesshelpestablishtowhatextentitmightbeimportant)isnotworththeinkit’sprintedon.

Thisobjectionislessthanimpressiveargumentatively.Butanotherimportantthingtosayaboutthisobjectionisthatitisperhapsdownstreamofamoralmistakeinone’srelationshiptothepoliticalactorsconsideredhere,specificallyinone’sobligationstorelatetothemasmoralclaimmakersandco-inhabitantsofthespaceofreasons.Whiletheconstructiveviewmayhavebeenbuiltoutofengagementwithaspecificgroup’sadvocacyforreparations,itisitselfafullygeneralviewofdistributivejustice.Anobjectorwhomakesthisobjectionmighthavedonesobecausetheyaretreatingthereasonsandjustificationsassuchastrivial,whichisonewayofexplainingwhytheobjectorseemstotreatthefunctionalroleoftheclaimsinthestrugglefromwhichtheconstructiveviewasexhaustingtheirvalue,treatingprincipledadvocacyasmerelypurposiveandrhetoricalpoliticalspeech.Inthelonghistoryofthedisciplineofphilosophy,itwouldnotbethefirsttime.

V. Conclusion

Theharm-repairandrelationshipcommunicativeandexpressivereparationsargumentconfusedeterminationsthatmayhelpidentifywhomaybesaddledwiththeburdensofreparationandwhooughttobenefitwiththepurposereparationsfororaimat.Thoughtheoristsofharm-repairandrelationshiprepairlikeKumarandSilver,Boxill,andShiffrinarecarefultodemandprovisionsofmaterialresources,theydosoasameasureandtruthmakerofseriousintenttorepudiatepastinjustices.Theseviewsarecalibratedtoimputedpsychological,


political,orideologicalneedsoftherecipientsratherthanmaterialneeds–thatis,totheextenttheneedsoftherecipientsassuchareconsideredatall.

Incontrast,I’veofferedaconstructiveviewofreparationsinpartIV.Thisview,asarticulatedhere,isacriticalreconstructionoftheviewsoftheactivistssurveyedandnotasummary.Itdoesnotmakesenseofeverypartofeveryargumentorclaimadvancedbythoseactors.Infact,itclashesdirectlywithsomewaysofmakingouttheharmsofslaveryand,especially,theextentofreparationsowedthathavebeenarticulatedbythesepeoples.Hopefully,however,itsucceedsatstemmingfromacommonguidingethosaboutwhatreparationsareforthatisidentifiableinthebroadstrokesofmanystrandsofadvocacyforreparations.

Fromthisinterpretiveviewpoint,reparationsclaimsdonotseekcentrallytosavethemoralsoulofthedescendantsofcolonizers,ofthestatesbuiltwithanduponourancestors,orofthemoralrelationshipsofthecolonizedtoeitherofthepreceding.Afterall,thoseseemlikeliesttobeprimaryconcernsforthekindofpeoplewhoknowwheretheirnextmealiscomingfrom,andfurtherthatthey’llbeeatingitinpeace.Meanwhile,manyAfricandescendedpeoplesareexcludedfromevenbasicformsofeconomicandsocialsecurity.Nearlyhalfofchildreninsub-SaharanAfricaliveontheequivalentoflessthan$1.90aday,theWorldBank’schosenfigureforestablishingextremepoverty.81Foreignmultinationalcorporationsandlocalmafiososcontinuecenturiesoldtraditionsofexploitation,protectedbyinternationallawandthesystemmanagedbyandtotheadvantageof“former”imperialnationsthatunderwritesaidlaw,togethercreatingtheincentivestructuresthatresultinsustainedandegregiousformsofenvironmentalandeconomicpredationandpiracy.Forexample,theOgonipeoplelivingintheNigerDeltahavefaceddecadesofunrelentingoilspills,poisoningthewaterwith900timesthesafeamountoflethalcarcinogensandruiningcriticalfarmland.82Thisdeath,destruction,andexploitationhasbeenfunctionallyignored-whennotactivelyfundedandsupported-bythemostinfluentialmembersofinternationalcommunity.

Maybethedescendantsofthecolonizersandinheritorsoftheirspoilsaresorry,maybetheyarenot.Maybewe’llbebosombuddies,maybewewon’t.Maybepayingreparationswillconferpoliticalandmorallegitimacyonthepayingstates,perhapsitwillnot.

Eitherwaythesego,IsuspectAfricansonthecontinentorinthediasporawillsettleforvegetablesthatdonotexplode.

Reparationsareonewaytofinallytakeuptheburdenofpositivelyeffectingthematerial,sociallivesofthedescendantsofthecolonized,livesthatcontinuetobeshapedbypastandongoingracismandcolonialism,andasanaspectofanoverallstrategythataimsmakesurethatthebenefitsandburdensofatransitiontothatbetterworldarespreadappropriately.ItseemsthatthesearethefactsthatanimateCoates,Shepherd,thepeopleofFrenchGuiana,andthelong,variedhistoryofactivismforreparations.Andtheyseemtohavesaidso.

81DavidLockeNewhouse,PabloSuarez-Becerra,andMartinEvans,“NewEstimatesofExtremePovertyforChildren,”2016.82“ShellSuedinUKfor‘decadesofOilSpills’inNigeria,”accessedJuly8,2017,http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/11/shell-sued-uk-decades-oil-spills-nigeria-161122193545741.html.



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