RECOGNIZING, ANALYZING, AND CONSTRUCTING ARGUMENTS

The aim of this tutorial is to help you learn to recognize, analyze, and evaluate arguments.

Arguments and issues

Arguments help us to analyze issues and to assess whether positions on issues are reasonable or unreasonable. An issue is an ill-defined complex of problems involving a controversy or uncertainty.

Identifying an issue requires clear thinking as well as good communication skills.

2

© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Rhetoric

When we start with a position statement, rather than with an open-ended question that invites exploration and analysis of an issue, we are using rhetoric.

Rhetoric, also known as the art of persuasion, is used to promote a particular position or world view.

Although it has its uses, rhetoric becomes a problem when it is substituted for unbiased research and logical argumentation. When using rhetoric this way, people only present claims that support their own position.

3

© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Argumentation

Whereas the purpose of rhetoric is to persuade people of what you consider to be the truth, the purpose of argumentation is to discover the truth.

Unlike rhetoric, arguments are open to multiple perspectives.

Good arguments provide evidence and reasons and invite feedback analysis.

44

© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Argument recognition

Arguments are made up of two or more propositions, one of which, the conclusion, is supported by the other(s), the premise(s).

There are two types of arguments Deductive arguments contain a conclusion that necessarily

follows from the premise. In inductive arguments, the premises provide support but not

necessarily proof for the conclusion.

5

© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Propositions, conclusions, and premises

Propositions are statements that express a complete thought. It can either be true or false.

The conclusion of an argument is the proposition that is supported or denied on the basis of other propositions or reasons. Also called claims, viewpoints, and positions, it is what the argument is trying to prove. A conclusion can appear anywhere in an argument.

Premises are propositions that support or give reasons for acceptance of the argument. Reasoning proceeds from the premises to the conclusion.

Good premises are based on fact and experience.

6

© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Types of premises

There are several types of premises.

Descriptive premises are based on empirical facts: scientific observation and/or sensory experience.

Prescriptive premises, in contrast, contain value statements.

Analogical premises take the form of an analogy in which a comparison is made between two similar events or things.

Definitional premises contain a definition of a key term for purposes of precision or clarification.

7

© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Nonarguments: explanations and conditional statements

Sometimes we confuse arguments with explanations and conditional statements.

An explanation is a statement about why or how something is the case.

A conditional statement is an “If…then…” statement that offers no claim or conclusion.

Unlike explanations and conditional statements, an argument tries to prove that something is true.

8

© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Breaking down arguments

Knowing how to diagram and identify parts of an argument allows us to visualize the entire argument, its propositions, and its premise/conclusion relationship.

Before you can diagram an argument, you must first break it down into its propositions. First, bracket the propositions; second, identify the conclusion; third, identify the premises.

99

© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Diagramming arguments using symbols

Diagramming arguments involves the use of specific symbols to identify the different parts of an argument and their relationships to each other. A circled number is used to indicate a proposition and where

it appears in the argument. A broken circle is used to indicate an unstated premise or

conclusion. An arrow is used to indicate the relationship between an

independent premise and the conclusion. A line is used to connect dependent premises. A line with an arrow below it is used to indicate the relationship

between dependent premises and the conclusion.

1010

© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Evaluating arguments

Knowing how to break down and diagram arguments makes it easier for you to evaluate them.

Five criteria are useful for evaluating arguments Clarity Credibility Relevance Completeness Soundness

11

© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Evaluating clarity and credibility

Clarity: Is the argument clear and unambiguous? Clarifying another person’s argument requires good listening skills and openness to ideas that may differ from your own.

Credibility: Are the premises supported by evidence? Examine each premise carefully. Be alert for assumptions that are passed off as facts.

1212

© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Evaluating relevance and completeness

Relevance: Are the premises relevant to the conclusion? In addition to being true, the premises should provide good reasons for accepting the conclusion.

Completeness: Are there any unstated premises and conclusions? This is often the case within arguments that are incompletely researched or loaded with confirmation bias.

1313

© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Evaluating soundness

Soundness: Are the premises true, and do they support the conclusion? A sound argument is one in which the premises are true and they support the conclusion.

1414

© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Constructing an argument

Once you know how to identify, deconstruct, and evaluate arguments, you are ready to construct your own. The following eight steps are a useful guide to help you improve the quality of your arguments.

1515

© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Eight steps to better arguments

Begin by stating the issue. Try to use neutral language. Develop a list of premises. Remain as objective and

open-minded as possible. Eliminate weak or irrelevant premises. Establish a conclusion. Organize your argument. Clearly state your conclusion,

or thesis statement, in the opening paragraph. Test your argument using others. Revise your argument if necessary. If appropriate, act on your conclusion or solution.

16

© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Writing papers using logical arguments

Writing effective college papers requires the use of good structure, both in your argument and in the paper itself.

Use the following approach as a guide: Construct your introduction or first paragraph, which

explains the issue, defines key terms, and briefly states your conclusion.

Present the premises that support your conclusion. End the paper with an expanded version of your

conclusion. Restate the issue, and summarize your argument thoroughly.

1717

© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Conclusions

Arguments are useful tools for making real-life decisions. Skilled critical thinkers employ them to recognize conflict and avoid or defuse it. They also avoid jumping to premature conclusions, only taking a stand after studying an issue from multiple perspectives.

1818

© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.