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Recent Research in ComprehensionRecent Research in ComprehensionPresented by Anneta Buenger and Presented by Anneta Buenger and
Clint Neighbors Clint Neighbors
Central Regional Reading FirstCentral Regional Reading FirstTechnical Assistance CenterTechnical Assistance Center
Adapted from: Research Related to Strengthening InstructionAdapted from: Research Related to Strengthening Instructionin Reading Comprehension: Joseph K. Torgesenin Reading Comprehension: Joseph K. Torgesen
Overview of the sessionOverview of the session
1. The relations between reading fluency and reading 1. The relations between reading fluency and reading comprehensioncomprehension
2. Vocabulary instruction and its connection to 2. Vocabulary instruction and its connection to reading comprehensionreading comprehension
3.Direct instruction in comprehension strategies as a 3.Direct instruction in comprehension strategies as a means of improving reading comprehensionmeans of improving reading comprehension
The most important Reading First goals:The most important Reading First goals:
1. I1. Increasencrease the percentage of students reading the percentage of students reading ““at grade levelat grade level”” each year at each grade level each year at each grade level from kindergarten through third gradefrom kindergarten through third grade
2. 2. DecreaseDecrease the percentage of students with the percentage of students with serious reading difficulties each year at each serious reading difficulties each year at each grade levelgrade level
The most important measures of The most important measures of ““grade levelgrade level”” proficiency in reading are proficiency in reading are those that assess a studentthose that assess a student’’s ability to s ability to comprehend the meaning of textcomprehend the meaning of text
Helping students Helping students acquire the acquire the
skills, skills, knowledge, and knowledge, and
attitudes attitudes required for required for
proficiency in proficiency in comprehension comprehension
of text is the of text is the most important most important goal of reading goal of reading
instruction, instruction, PERIOD.PERIOD.
What we know about the factors that What we know about the factors that affect reading comprehensionaffect reading comprehension
Proficient comprehension of text is influenced by:Proficient comprehension of text is influenced by:
Accurate and fluent word reading skillsAccurate and fluent word reading skills
Oral language skills (vocabulary, linguistic comprehension)Oral language skills (vocabulary, linguistic comprehension)
Extent of conceptual and factual knowledgeExtent of conceptual and factual knowledge
Knowledge and skill in use of cognitive strategies to Knowledge and skill in use of cognitive strategies to improve comprehension or repair it when it breaks downimprove comprehension or repair it when it breaks down..
Reasoning and inferential skillsReasoning and inferential skills
Motivation to understand and interest in task and Motivation to understand and interest in task and materialsmaterials
What should comprehension instruction be What should comprehension instruction be instruction of? instruction of? -- Mike PressleyMike Pressley
1. Teach decoding skills1. Teach decoding skills
2. Encourage the development of sight words2. Encourage the development of sight words
3. Teach students to use semantic context cues to 3. Teach students to use semantic context cues to evaluate whether decodings are accurateevaluate whether decodings are accurate
4. Teach vocabulary meanings4. Teach vocabulary meanings
5. Encourage extensive reading5. Encourage extensive reading
6. Teach self6. Teach self--regulated use of comprehension strategiesregulated use of comprehension strategies
Pressley, M. (2000). What should comprehension instruction be thPressley, M. (2000). What should comprehension instruction be the instruction of? In M.L. Kamil, e instruction of? In M.L. Kamil, P.B.Mosenthal, P.D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), P.B.Mosenthal, P.D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research Handbook of reading research (vol. III, pp. 545(vol. III, pp. 545––
561).Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum561).Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum..
Text Reader
Context
Comprehension
Text structure, vocabulary, print style and font, discourse, genre, motivating features
Word recognition, vocabulary, background knowledge, strategy use, inference-making abilities, motivation
Environment, purpose, social relations, cultural norms, motivating features (e.g. school/classroom climate, families, peers)
The role of vocabulary becomes increasingly The role of vocabulary becomes increasingly important as students progress in schoolimportant as students progress in school..
Seventh GradeSeventh GradeVocabulary = 51%Vocabulary = 51%ORF = 43%ORF = 43%
Tenth GradeTenth GradeVocabulary = 52%Vocabulary = 52%ORF = 32%ORF = 32%
First GradeFirst GradeVocabulary = 20%Vocabulary = 20%ORF = 61%ORF = 61% Second GradeSecond Grade
Vocabulary = 31%Vocabulary = 31%ORF = 61%ORF = 61% Third GradeThird Grade
Vocabulary = 36%Vocabulary = 36%ORF = 50%ORF = 50%
““Fluency is the ability to read text quickly, Fluency is the ability to read text quickly, accurately, and accurately, and with proper expressionwith proper expression””National Reading PanelNational Reading Panel
The most widely accepted definition of fluencyThe most widely accepted definition of fluency
Fluency is the ability to read text quickly, Fluency is the ability to read text quickly, accurately, and with accurately, and with good good comprehensioncomprehension
Prosody is at least partially an index of Prosody is at least partially an index of comprehensioncomprehension……
However, because it is difficult to measure However, because it is difficult to measure both prosody and comprehension with a both prosody and comprehension with a brief brief testtest on a on a large scalelarge scale,,
Most states have set their endMost states have set their end--ofof--year year targetstargets, or , or benchmarksbenchmarks for reading fluency in for reading fluency in terms of terms of oraloral reading ratereading rate -- the number of the number of words per minute that can be read correctly words per minute that can be read correctly on a grade level passageon a grade level passage
and because reading rate is strongly correlated and because reading rate is strongly correlated with comprehensionwith comprehension……..
Why is reading Why is reading raterate so strongly so strongly related to reading related to reading comprehension?comprehension?
N=218
R=.76
Current research in reading development provides Current research in reading development provides support for two ways in which individual differences in support for two ways in which individual differences in reading fluency are reading fluency are causallycausally related to differences related to differences among students in reading comprehensionamong students in reading comprehension
Efficient, or automatic, identification of words Efficient, or automatic, identification of words allowsallows the reader to focus more attention on the the reader to focus more attention on the meaning of the passagemeaning of the passage
Comprehension processes themselves may Comprehension processes themselves may causecauseindividual differences in reading rate. These individual differences in reading rate. These comprehension processes influence both fluency comprehension processes influence both fluency and comprehension tasks. and comprehension tasks.
Jenkins, J.R., Fuchs, L.S., van den Broek, P., Espin, C., & DenoJenkins, J.R., Fuchs, L.S., van den Broek, P., Espin, C., & Deno, S.L. (2003). , S.L. (2003). Sources of individual differences in reading comprehension and rSources of individual differences in reading comprehension and reading fluency. eading fluency. Journal of Educational Psychology,Journal of Educational Psychology, 95,95, 719719--729.729.
December, 3rd Grade
Correct word/minute=60
19th percentile
The Surprise PartyThe Surprise Party
My dad had his fortieth birthday last month, so my mom My dad had his fortieth birthday last month, so my mom planned a big surprise party for him. She said I could assist wplanned a big surprise party for him. She said I could assist with ith the party but that I had to keep the party a secret. She said Ithe party but that I had to keep the party a secret. She said Icouldncouldn’’ t tell my dad because that would spoil the surprise. t tell my dad because that would spoil the surprise.
I helped mom organize the guest list and write the I helped mom organize the guest list and write the invitations. I was responsible for making sure everyone was invitations. I was responsible for making sure everyone was included. I also addressed all the envelopes and put stamps andincluded. I also addressed all the envelopes and put stamps andreturn addresses on themreturn addresses on them……....
December, 3rd Grade
Correct word/minute=128
78th percentile
The Surprise PartyThe Surprise Party
My dad had his fortieth birthday last month, so my mom My dad had his fortieth birthday last month, so my mom planned a big surprise party for him. She said I could assist wplanned a big surprise party for him. She said I could assist with ith the party but that I had to keep the party a secret. She said Ithe party but that I had to keep the party a secret. She said Icouldncouldn’’ t tell my dad because that would spoil the surprise. t tell my dad because that would spoil the surprise.
I helped mom organize the guest list and write the I helped mom organize the guest list and write the invitations. I was responsible for making sure everyone was invitations. I was responsible for making sure everyone was included. I also addressed all the envelopes and put stamps andincluded. I also addressed all the envelopes and put stamps andreturn addresses on themreturn addresses on them……....
How much fluency (rate) is enough to How much fluency (rate) is enough to facilitatefacilitate good reading comprehension?good reading comprehension?
N=218
R=.76
How much fluency (rate) is enough to How much fluency (rate) is enough to facilitate good reading comprehension?facilitate good reading comprehension?
DIBELS BenchmarksDIBELS Benchmarks11stst Grade Grade –– 40 correct words per minute40 correct words per minute22ndnd GradeGrade-- 90 correct words per minute90 correct words per minute33rdrd Grade Grade –– 110 correct words per minute110 correct words per minute
How were these benchmarks established?How were these benchmarks established?
They were set empirically at a level that insured a They were set empirically at a level that insured a high probability (approx. 80%) of success on high probability (approx. 80%) of success on measures of reading comprehensionmeasures of reading comprehension
5%46%48%117.8200+
6%48%49%113.8190-199
1%56%55%112.5180-189
2%47%50%111.5170-179
4%51%57%109.2160-169
5%57%58%106.5150-159
6%62%62%104.1140-149
7%64%65%101.9130-139
9%68%68%99.8120-129
11%71%69%97.8110-119
12%74%72%95.6100-109
12%75%72%94.190-99
16%78%74%92.180-89
16%80%76%90.370-79
18%82%77%88.560-69
21%84%78%87.150-59
24%85%79%84.340-49
24%86%80%82.130-39
28%84%80%79.720-29
30%85%81%75.710-19
36%88%83%69.90-9
% ELL% FRL% MinorityMean PPVTA3 ORFRelationship of
performance levels on ORF to other student characteristics 3rd Grade
ORF level correlation with:Vocabulary = .99%FR lunch = -.97%Minority = -.97
% ELL = -.96
84
92
100
79
74
67
84
78
68
23
15
9
0102030405060708090
0-9 20-29
40-49
60-69
80-89
100-109
0-910--1920-2930-3940-4950-5960-6970-7980-8990-99100-109
Percent of students performing at grade level and above on the FCAT at various levels of performance on Oral Reading
Fluency-Assessment 3 (Feb) in Florida)
0-9 10- 20- 30- 40- 50- 60- 70- 80- 90- 100-19 29 39 49 59 69 79 89 99 109
15%
57%86%
If target for oral reading fluency was set at If target for oral reading fluency was set at the 40the 40thth percentile and above, what would percentile and above, what would the endthe end--ofof--year year ““benchmarksbenchmarks”” be?be?
DIBELS normsDIBELS norms H&T normsH&T norms Aimsweb normsAimsweb norms
11stst 45wpm45wpm 43wpm43wpm 45wpm 45wpm
22ndnd 91wpm91wpm 79wpm79wpm 85wpm 85wpm
33rdrd 110wpm110wpm 96wpm96wpm 102wpm 102wpm
5954
36
59
4641
61
38
45
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1st 2nd 3rd
R. CompORFVoc
Percent of Students at “grade level” in Reading Comprehension, Oral Reading Fluency, and Oral Vocabulary in grades 1-3
Rcomp = SAT10ORF = DibelsVoc = PPVT
59
50
36
59 59
41
61
54
45
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1st 2nd 3rd
R. CompORFVoc
Percent of Students at “grade level” in RC, ORF, and Vocab in grades 1-3 using Hasbrook and Tindal ORF norms and 40th percentile as goal
Rcomp = SAT10ORF = DibelsVoc = PPVT
What are the What are the big ideasbig ideas that should guide our that should guide our work to build reading fluency in young work to build reading fluency in young children?children?
Reading first students need many opportunities to Reading first students need many opportunities to acquire sight word representations for high frequency, acquire sight word representations for high frequency, high utility words high utility words –– working to expand studentworking to expand student’’s s ““sight sight word vocabularyword vocabulary”” as fast as possibleas fast as possible
Reading First students need powerful instruction in Reading First students need powerful instruction in strategies for accurate word identification (phonemic strategies for accurate word identification (phonemic decoding) in first grade and extending into complex decoding) in first grade and extending into complex skills in second gradeskills in second grade. .
Children must become Children must become accurateaccurate readers as a first step readers as a first step toward becoming toward becoming fluentfluent readers.readers.
Supervised, repeated reading practice is one efficient way to Supervised, repeated reading practice is one efficient way to do this do this –– direct direct ““sight wordsight word”” practice for very low readerspractice for very low readers
What are the What are the big ideasbig ideas that should guide our that should guide our work to build reading fluency in young work to build reading fluency in young children?children?
Reading First students should be encouraged to attend to Reading First students should be encouraged to attend to meaning in meaning in all their reading assignmentsall their reading assignments
Encouraging students to read with prosody will lead them to Encouraging students to read with prosody will lead them to attend to meaningattend to meaning
Repeated practice in reading for meaning supports the Repeated practice in reading for meaning supports the growth of growth of ““automatic comprehension processesautomatic comprehension processes”” which are which are important for both fluency and comprehensionimportant for both fluency and comprehension
Encouraging students to check the accuracy of their Encouraging students to check the accuracy of their decoding attempts with unfamiliar words by asking if their decoding attempts with unfamiliar words by asking if their initial guess initial guess ““makes sensemakes sense”” in the context of the sentence will in the context of the sentence will lead them to attend to meaning.lead them to attend to meaning.
Lets now turn to VocabularyLets now turn to Vocabulary……
The topics to be discussedThe topics to be discussed
1. What is the nature of the relationship between 1. What is the nature of the relationship between vocabulary and reading comprehension?vocabulary and reading comprehension?
2. How many words do children need to know? 2. How many words do children need to know? The instructional challenge for Reading First The instructional challenge for Reading First schoolsschools
4. An important, unresolved issue about effective 4. An important, unresolved issue about effective approaches to vocabulary instruction in Reading approaches to vocabulary instruction in Reading First schoolsFirst schools
3. What do we know from research about the best 3. What do we know from research about the best ways to teach vocabulary?ways to teach vocabulary?
Some Definitions and distinctionsSome Definitions and distinctions……..Vocabulary Vocabulary –– knowledge of words and word knowledge of words and word meaningsmeanings
Complications:Complications:
Oral vs. writtenOral vs. writtenReceptive vs. expressiveReceptive vs. expressive
Breadth, Depth, FluencyBreadth, Depth, Fluency
Confusions:Confusions:
Sight word vocabularySight word vocabulary as in words students can as in words students can recognize by sightrecognize by sight
VocabularyVocabulary as in words that students know the as in words that students know the meaning of.meaning of.
“Sight words are words that readers have read Sight words are words that readers have read accurately on earlier occasions. They read the words by accurately on earlier occasions. They read the words by remembering how they read them previously. The term remembering how they read them previously. The term sight indicates that sight of the word activates that word sight indicates that sight of the word activates that word in memory, including information about its spelling, in memory, including information about its spelling, pronunciation, typical role in sentences, and meaningpronunciation, typical role in sentences, and meaning””(Ehri, 1998)(Ehri, 1998)
What is a What is a ““sight wordsight word””??
“ Sight of the word activates its pronunciation and Sight of the word activates its pronunciation and meaning in memory immediately without any sounding out meaning in memory immediately without any sounding out or blending required. Sight words are read as whole units or blending required. Sight words are read as whole units with no pauses between soundswith no pauses between sounds”” (Ehri, 2002))(Ehri, 2002))
Levels of Word Knowledge(Stahl, 2003)
• I never saw it before
• I’ve heard of it but I don’t know what it means
• I recognize it in context—it has something to do with…
• I know it.
““Of the many compelling reasons for providing Of the many compelling reasons for providing students with instruction to build vocabulary, none students with instruction to build vocabulary, none is more important than the contribution of is more important than the contribution of vocabulary knowledge to reading comprehension. vocabulary knowledge to reading comprehension. Indeed, one of the most enduring findings in Indeed, one of the most enduring findings in reading research is the extent to which studentsreading research is the extent to which students’’vocabulary knowledge relates to their reading vocabulary knowledge relates to their reading comprehension.comprehension.””
Lehr, F., Osborn, J., Hiebert, E.H. (2004). Focus on Vocabulary, San Francisco: Pacific Resources for Education and Learning.
A comment on the relationshipA comment on the relationship……..
“…“…reading comprehension is a cognitive process reading comprehension is a cognitive process that integrates complex skills and that integrates complex skills and cannot be cannot be understoodunderstood without examining the critical role of without examining the critical role of vocabulary learning and instruction and its vocabulary learning and instruction and its developmentdevelopment…”…”
From the report of the National Reading From the report of the National Reading PanelPanel……..
The obvious way The obvious way –– knowing the meanings of the words in knowing the meanings of the words in text is necessary to understand the message being text is necessary to understand the message being conveyed.conveyed.
How does vocabulary contribute to the How does vocabulary contribute to the acquisition of reading comprehension?acquisition of reading comprehension?
Other probable, less obvious ways Other probable, less obvious ways ----
Vocabulary contributes to the development of phonemic Vocabulary contributes to the development of phonemic awareness awareness (Metsala, 1998)(Metsala, 1998)
Vocabulary contributes more accurate decoding of Vocabulary contributes more accurate decoding of words whose printed form is unfamiliar words whose printed form is unfamiliar (Ehri, 2002)(Ehri, 2002)
Vocabulary contributes to reading fluency because it Vocabulary contributes to reading fluency because it leads to more accurate reading practiceleads to more accurate reading practice
The impact of vocabulary instruction on The impact of vocabulary instruction on reading comprehensionreading comprehension
1. Stahl & Fairbanks (1985) report an effect size of 1. Stahl & Fairbanks (1985) report an effect size of .97 for comprehension of passages specifically .97 for comprehension of passages specifically containing words that were taughtcontaining words that were taught
2. They also report an effect size of .30 for effects 2. They also report an effect size of .30 for effects on standardized measures of reading on standardized measures of reading comprehension.comprehension.
Effects of vocabulary instruction on reading Effects of vocabulary instruction on reading comprehension in the primary grades will likely comprehension in the primary grades will likely be relatively modestbe relatively modest
The challenge of vocabulary instruction The challenge of vocabulary instruction for Reading First schoolsfor Reading First schools
1. Biemiller (2005) found that average students knew 1. Biemiller (2005) found that average students knew about 6,000 root words by end of 2about 6,000 root words by end of 2ndnd gradegrade
2. Students in lowest quartile knew about 4,000 words2. Students in lowest quartile knew about 4,000 words
3. Students in lowest quartile enter kindergarten 3. Students in lowest quartile enter kindergarten knowing between 2000 and 2500 words, so must knowing between 2000 and 2500 words, so must learn 3500 to 4000 words to learn 3500 to 4000 words to ““close the gapclose the gap””
4. Currently, lowest quartile students learn about 5004. Currently, lowest quartile students learn about 500--600 words a year600 words a year
5. Must add another 500 words a year to even 5. Must add another 500 words a year to even approach approach ““closing the gapclosing the gap””
The challenge of vocabulary instruction The challenge of vocabulary instruction for Reading First schoolsfor Reading First schools
““To have a useful impact on vocabulary growth, an To have a useful impact on vocabulary growth, an intervention would need to add intervention would need to add several hundred root several hundred root word meanings per yearword meanings per year. This is considerably more . This is considerably more meanings than are presently addressed in classroom meanings than are presently addressed in classroom programs.programs.””
““Until schools are prepared to emphasize vocabulary Until schools are prepared to emphasize vocabulary acquisition, especially in the primary grades, less acquisition, especially in the primary grades, less advantaged children will continue to be handicapped advantaged children will continue to be handicapped even if they master reading written wordseven if they master reading written words””..
Biemiller, A. & Boote, C. (2006). An effective method for building meaning vocabulary in primary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 44-62.
What do we know from research about the best What do we know from research about the best ways to teach vocabulary?ways to teach vocabulary?
Primary conclusions from report of NRPPrimary conclusions from report of NRP (2000)(2000)
1. Vocabulary should be taught both directly and indirectly1. Vocabulary should be taught both directly and indirectly
2. Repetition and multiple exposures to vocabulary items 2. Repetition and multiple exposures to vocabulary items are importantare important
3. 3. Learning in rich contexts is valuable for vocabulary Learning in rich contexts is valuable for vocabulary learninglearning
4. 4. Vocabulary learning should entail active engagement in Vocabulary learning should entail active engagement in learning taskslearning tasks
5. 5. Dependence on a single vocabulary instructional Dependence on a single vocabulary instructional method will not result in optimal learningmethod will not result in optimal learning
Conclusions from Stahl and Fairbanks metaConclusions from Stahl and Fairbanks meta--analysis across gradesanalysis across grades
Major conclusions:Major conclusions:1. Methods don1. Methods don’’t always have the same impact on reading t always have the same impact on reading
comprehension as they do on performance on a comprehension as they do on performance on a vocabulary measurevocabulary measure
2. 2. Methods that provide a balance of definitional Methods that provide a balance of definitional information and experience with words in multiple information and experience with words in multiple contexts provide a consistently strong impact on both contexts provide a consistently strong impact on both vocabulary and comprehension performancevocabulary and comprehension performance
3. Depth of processing did not impact performance on 3. Depth of processing did not impact performance on vocabulary tests, but did effect generalization to reading vocabulary tests, but did effect generalization to reading comprehensioncomprehension
Conclusions from Stahl and Fairbanks metaConclusions from Stahl and Fairbanks meta--analysis across gradesanalysis across grades
Major conclusions (cont):Major conclusions (cont):
4. 4. Amount of time devoted to instruction of each word had Amount of time devoted to instruction of each word had much less of an impact on performance on vocabulary much less of an impact on performance on vocabulary tests than on reading comprehension, where it was tests than on reading comprehension, where it was significant.significant.
5. 5. Methods that provide only definitional information about Methods that provide only definitional information about words do not produce a reliable impact on words do not produce a reliable impact on comprehensioncomprehension——nor do methods that provide only one nor do methods that provide only one or two exposures to words in context.or two exposures to words in context.
Current research indicates that the kind of Current research indicates that the kind of vocabulary instruction that is most likely to vocabulary instruction that is most likely to have an impact on reading comprehension have an impact on reading comprehension involves:involves:
Providing both definitional information about words Providing both definitional information about words and experience accessing their meaning in multiple and experience accessing their meaning in multiple contextscontexts
Total amount of time spent learning words has an Total amount of time spent learning words has an impact on reading comprehension impact on reading comprehension –– more exposures more exposures rather than fewerrather than fewer
It is also helpful to require students to It is also helpful to require students to activelyactively work work with words, use in sentences, redefine, classify, etc.with words, use in sentences, redefine, classify, etc.
The currently unresolved issue: The currently unresolved issue:
For very young children (KFor very young children (K--2) with limited vocabulary 2) with limited vocabulary (bottom quartile), is it better to teach (bottom quartile), is it better to teach many word many word meanings brieflymeanings briefly, or a , or a few words more intensively?few words more intensively?
RememberRemember, young poor children enter schools with , young poor children enter schools with vocabularies vocabularies substantially smallersubstantially smaller than their middlethan their middle--class peersclass peers
Students with smaller vocabularies have more Students with smaller vocabularies have more difficulties learning word meanings from context than difficulties learning word meanings from context than students with larger vocabulariesstudents with larger vocabularies
Poor students have a Poor students have a very largevery large word knowledge gap word knowledge gap to overcome if they are to be prepared for reading to overcome if they are to be prepared for reading comprehension in 3comprehension in 3rdrd grade and later.grade and later.
Background for an extended research example: Background for an extended research example:
If young children are introduced to many word If young children are introduced to many word meanings briefly in Kmeanings briefly in K--2, can they use this initial 2, can they use this initial knowledge to further build word knowledge through knowledge to further build word knowledge through reading?reading?
The concept of The concept of ““fast mappingfast mapping”” (Cary, 1978)(Cary, 1978)
Direct, brief explanation of meaning can establish Direct, brief explanation of meaning can establish initial initial ““fast mappingfast mapping”” of meaningof meaning
As initially mapped words are encountered in other As initially mapped words are encountered in other contexts, their meaning is extended and deepened.contexts, their meaning is extended and deepened.
Practical implicationsPractical implications……..
If 41% of taught words are learned, to acquire 400 If 41% of taught words are learned, to acquire 400 new word meanings, 1000 would need to be taught. new word meanings, 1000 would need to be taught. This is 25 per week.This is 25 per week.
Biemiller & Boote recommend teaching many words Biemiller & Boote recommend teaching many words briefly in Kbriefly in K--2 for three reasons:2 for three reasons:
Different children know different meaningsDifferent children know different meanings
Initial explicit learning may allow students to extend Initial explicit learning may allow students to extend word knowledge as they encounter taught words in word knowledge as they encounter taught words in other contexts other contexts –– profit from contextprofit from context
Other methods, involving more intensive instruction, Other methods, involving more intensive instruction, do not begin to address the size of the gapdo not begin to address the size of the gap
Questions for further researchQuestions for further research……
What words should be taught in grades KWhat words should be taught in grades K--3?3?
Can high rates of word learning be sustained over Can high rates of word learning be sustained over time?time?
Does brief teaching of large numbers of word Does brief teaching of large numbers of word meanings in primary grades produce increased meanings in primary grades produce increased reading comprehension in grades 3 and 4?reading comprehension in grades 3 and 4?
What are the best methods of vocabulary What are the best methods of vocabulary instruction for students of different ages and instruction for students of different ages and abilities?abilities?
What are the best ways to measure vocabulary What are the best ways to measure vocabulary growth?growth?
An overview of major topics to be coveredAn overview of major topics to be covered
1. The relations between reading fluency and reading 1. The relations between reading fluency and reading comprehensioncomprehension
2. Vocabulary instruction and its connection to 2. Vocabulary instruction and its connection to reading comprehension reading comprehension
3.Direct instruction in comprehension strategies as a 3.Direct instruction in comprehension strategies as a means of improving reading comprehensionmeans of improving reading comprehension
Definitions of Reading ComprehensionDefinitions of Reading Comprehension
““intentional thinkingintentional thinking during which meaning is during which meaning is constructedconstructed through interactions between text and through interactions between text and reader.reader.”” Durkin (1993)Durkin (1993)
““the the construction of the meaningconstruction of the meaning of a written text of a written text through a through a reciprocal interchangereciprocal interchange of ideas between the of ideas between the reader and the message in a particular text.reader and the message in a particular text.”” Harris & Harris & Hodges, 1995Hodges, 1995
meaning arises from the meaning arises from the activeactive, , deliberate deliberate thinkingthinking processes readers engage in as they processes readers engage in as they
read.read.
Definitions of Reading ComprehensionDefinitions of Reading Comprehension
““reading comprehension is reading comprehension is thinkingthinking guided by printguided by print””Perfetti 1995Perfetti 1995
““the process of simultaneously the process of simultaneously extractingextracting and and constructingconstructing meaning through interaction and meaning through interaction and involvement with written language. It consists of three involvement with written language. It consists of three elements: the reader, the text, and the activity or elements: the reader, the text, and the activity or purpose for readingpurpose for reading”” Rand Reading Study Group, 2002Rand Reading Study Group, 2002
Said concisely:Said concisely:
Said not so concisely but more completely:Said not so concisely but more completely:
Summary: a researchSummary: a research--based view of based view of reading comprehensionreading comprehension
Reading comprehension involves active mental effort Reading comprehension involves active mental effort to construct meaningto construct meaning
Good readers use prior knowledge, information in Good readers use prior knowledge, information in text, and thinking/reasoning processes to text, and thinking/reasoning processes to construct new knowledge and understandingconstruct new knowledge and understanding
Evidence for instruction in comprehension Evidence for instruction in comprehension strategies comes from three sources:strategies comes from three sources:
1. Proficient readers monitor their comprehension 1. Proficient readers monitor their comprehension more actively and effectively than less proficient more actively and effectively than less proficient readersreaders
2. Proficient readers are more likely to use a variety of 2. Proficient readers are more likely to use a variety of active cognitive strategies to enhance their active cognitive strategies to enhance their comprehension and repair it when it breaks downcomprehension and repair it when it breaks down
3. Explicit instruction along with supported, scaffolded 3. Explicit instruction along with supported, scaffolded practice in the use of comprehension strategies practice in the use of comprehension strategies produces improvements in reading comprehension produces improvements in reading comprehension in both younger and older studentsin both younger and older students
What Good Readers Do When They Read:What Good Readers Do When They Read:
““What they found was that good readersWhat they found was that good readersachieve comprehension because they are able to achieve comprehension because they are able to use certain proceduresuse certain procedures —— labeled labeled comprehension comprehension strategiesstrategies by the researchersby the researchers——to relate ideas in a to relate ideas in a text to what they already know; to keep track of text to what they already know; to keep track of how well they are understanding what they read; how well they are understanding what they read; and, when understanding breaks down, to identify and, when understanding breaks down, to identify what is causing the problem and how to overcome what is causing the problem and how to overcome it.it.”” (Lehr & Osborne, 2006)(Lehr & Osborne, 2006)
From the Report of the National Reading From the Report of the National Reading Panel:Panel:
““The idea behind The idea behind explicit instruction of text explicit instruction of text comprehensioncomprehension is that comprehension can be is that comprehension can be improved by improved by teaching students to use specific teaching students to use specific cognitive strategies or to reason strategicallycognitive strategies or to reason strategicallywhen they encounter barriers to comprehension when they encounter barriers to comprehension when reading.when reading.”” (NRP, 2000, p. 4(NRP, 2000, p. 4--39). 39).
““Reading instruction is effective in stimulating Reading instruction is effective in stimulating student comprehension abilities to the extent student comprehension abilities to the extent that it stimulates students to process texts that it stimulates students to process texts as as good readers dogood readers do..”” (Pressley, 2000, p. 545)(Pressley, 2000, p. 545)
What are reading comprehension What are reading comprehension strategies?strategies?
••Generating questions Generating questions
Comprehension strategies are specific procedures Comprehension strategies are specific procedures children can use to help them: children can use to help them:
••SummarizingSummarizing
••Using background knowledge to make predictionsUsing background knowledge to make predictions••Constructing visual representationsConstructing visual representations
1) become aware of how well they are 1) become aware of how well they are comprehending text as the readcomprehending text as the read
2) improve their understanding and learning2) improve their understanding and learningfrom textfrom text
What do we know from research about the impact of What do we know from research about the impact of directly teaching reading comprehension strategies? directly teaching reading comprehension strategies? The review of the National Reading Panel (2000)The review of the National Reading Panel (2000)
1.1. Identified 16 categories of strategy instruction, with 7 Identified 16 categories of strategy instruction, with 7 having having ““firm scientific basisfirm scientific basis”” for concluding they for concluding they improve comprehension in normal readersimprove comprehension in normal readers
Comprehension monitoringComprehension monitoringCooperative learning*Cooperative learning*Graphic organizers Graphic organizers Question answeringQuestion answeringQuestion generationQuestion generationStory structureStory structureSummarizationSummarization
Generally much stronger Generally much stronger evidence for evidence for specific learning specific learning on experimenter tests and on experimenter tests and from text read in the from text read in the experimentexperiment –– less evidence less evidence for generalization to for generalization to standardized measures of standardized measures of reading comprehensionreading comprehension
An important cautionary note from a leading An important cautionary note from a leading comprehension researchercomprehension researcher
The most powerful demonstrations of the impact of The most powerful demonstrations of the impact of comprehension strategies instruction have come comprehension strategies instruction have come from studies that have deeply taught a small from studies that have deeply taught a small repertoire of comprehension strategies over timerepertoire of comprehension strategies over time
We should We should not assumenot assume that effective comprehension that effective comprehension strategy instruction involves teaching strategy instruction involves teaching allall the the strategies on some list (The NRPstrategies on some list (The NRP’’s or other)s or other)
Pressley, M. (2006). What the future of reading research could be. Presented at meetings of the International Reading Association. April, 2006.
What do we know from research about the impact of What do we know from research about the impact of directly teaching reading comprehension strategies? directly teaching reading comprehension strategies? The review of the National Reading Panel (2000)The review of the National Reading Panel (2000)
““““The major problem facing the teaching The major problem facing the teaching of reading comprehension strategies is of reading comprehension strategies is that of that of implementation in the implementation in the classroom by teachers in a natural classroom by teachers in a natural reading contextreading context with readers of various with readers of various levelslevels”…”…NRP, 2000, 4NRP, 2000, 4--4747
Other comments on the challenge of providing Other comments on the challenge of providing effective professional development for teachers in this effective professional development for teachers in this area. area. (Pressley, 2006)(Pressley, 2006)
““It is time to do some serious research on how to It is time to do some serious research on how to develop teachers who can provide comprehension develop teachers who can provide comprehension strategies instruction that does produce students who strategies instruction that does produce students who learn to use and do use the strategies in a selflearn to use and do use the strategies in a self--regulated regulated fashionfashion””
““I suspect that successful professional development is I suspect that successful professional development is going to require going to require at least a school yearat least a school year. Such . Such professional development will require developing professional development will require developing modeling, explanation, and scaffolding skills in modeling, explanation, and scaffolding skills in teachers, as well as a commitment to teach and teachers, as well as a commitment to teach and encourage comprehension strategies use every day. encourage comprehension strategies use every day.
How can we How can we curricularizecurricularize high quality instruction in high quality instruction in the selfthe self--regulated use of comprehension strategies?regulated use of comprehension strategies?
The concept of The concept of ““balancedbalanced”” comprehension instruction. comprehension instruction. Both Both explicit instructionexplicit instruction and modeling, and and modeling, and lots of timelots of time for for actual reading, writing, and discussion of text. actual reading, writing, and discussion of text. (Duke & (Duke & Pearson, 2002)Pearson, 2002)
Critical ElementsCritical Elements1. An explicit description of the strategy and when and how it
should be used.
2. Teacher and/or student modeling of the strategy in action3. Collaborative use of the strategy in action to construct
meaning of text.4. Guided practice using the strategy with gradual release of
responsibility – scaffolding by the teacher5. Independent use of the strategy
How can we How can we curricularizecurricularize high quality instruction in high quality instruction in the selfthe self--regulated use of comprehension strategies?regulated use of comprehension strategies?
The larger classroom context (desirable elements)The larger classroom context (desirable elements)
1. Lots of time spent actually reading 2. Experience reading real text for real reasons – have a
purpose for the reading
3. Experience reading the range of genres that we wish students to comprehend
4. An environment rich in vocabulary and concept development through reading, experience, and, above all, discussion of words and their meanings
5. Lots of time spent writing texts for others to comprehend
6. An environment rich in high-quality talk about text
(From Duke & Pearson, 2002)(From Duke & Pearson, 2002)
How can we How can we curricularizecurricularize high quality instruction in high quality instruction in the selfthe self--regulated use of comprehension strategies?regulated use of comprehension strategies?
Other teaching considerationsOther teaching considerations
1. Using well-suited texts
2. Concern with student motivation
3. Ongoing assessment
Can the child ask a meaningful question about a passage just read?
Does the child’s story recall include information organized by story grammar?
Can the child summarize a paragraph briefly?
A second extended research example: A second extended research example: Concept Concept Oriented Reading InstructionOriented Reading Instruction with 3with 3rdrd grade studentsgrade students
The GoalThe Goal: Create a method of improving literacy : Create a method of improving literacy skills that is highly engaging and effective in skills that is highly engaging and effective in establishing use of comprehension strategies to establishing use of comprehension strategies to increase reading comprehensionincrease reading comprehension
Premise: Premise: ““motivated students usually want to motivated students usually want to understand text content fully and therefore, understand text content fully and therefore, process information deeply. process information deeply. As they read As they read frequently with these cognitive purposesfrequently with these cognitive purposes, , motivated students gain in reading motivated students gain in reading comprehension proficiencycomprehension proficiency”” (Guthrie et al., 2004, p. 403)(Guthrie et al., 2004, p. 403)
Four principles for creating engaged Four principles for creating engaged readersreaders
�� When When content goalscontent goals are prominent in reading, are prominent in reading, students focus on gaining meaning, building students focus on gaining meaning, building knowledge, and understanding deeply, rather than knowledge, and understanding deeply, rather than on skills and rewardson skills and rewards……meaningful conceptual meaningful conceptual content in reading instruction increases motivation content in reading instruction increases motivation for reading and text comprehensionfor reading and text comprehension
�� Affording students Affording students choiceschoices of texts, responses, or of texts, responses, or partners during instruction. Choice leads to partners during instruction. Choice leads to ownership and higher motivationownership and higher motivation
Four principles for creating engaged Four principles for creating engaged readers (cont.)readers (cont.)
�� Have an abundance of Have an abundance of interesting textsinteresting texts available available at the right reading level for every student. at the right reading level for every student. Students more readily read text they can read Students more readily read text they can read fluently.fluently.
�� Allow students the opportunity to Allow students the opportunity to work work collaborativelycollaboratively with ample opportunities for with ample opportunities for discussion, questioning, and sharingdiscussion, questioning, and sharing
““The usefulness of brief instruction in The usefulness of brief instruction in comprehension strategiescomprehension strategies”” Willingham, 2006Willingham, 2006
Students can learn comprehension strategies relatively quickly, but it is extended practice over time in reading for meaning that actually improves general comprehension. Comprehension strategies help to remind students that the goal of reading is making sense of text
Teaching reading comprehension strategies to students is one way that we teach them that the main purpose of reading is to understand the author’s message.
In order to generate useful questions, make summaries, check the accuracy of predictions, create story maps, students must actively think about the meaning of text
Other promising strategies and practicesOther promising strategies and practices
1. Increasing the amount of time spent in discussion focused on constructing the meaning of text
The role of The role of discussiondiscussion in promoting in promoting comprehensioncomprehension
During discussions, students can be directly led to During discussions, students can be directly led to engage in thoughtful analysis of text in ways that engage in thoughtful analysis of text in ways that support their comprehension when they are reading support their comprehension when they are reading on their own on their own (Beck & McKeown, 2006).(Beck & McKeown, 2006). ..
Increasing the amount of high quality discussion of Increasing the amount of high quality discussion of reading content is also frequently cited as a way of reading content is also frequently cited as a way of increasing engagement in reading and reading increasing engagement in reading and reading
based assignments based assignments (Guthrie & Humenick, 2004).(Guthrie & Humenick, 2004).
Characteristics of effective discussionsCharacteristics of effective discussions
approaches that emphasized critical analysis of text or approaches that emphasized critical analysis of text or that involved discussion (either teacher led or student that involved discussion (either teacher led or student led) of specific questions about text meaning had the led) of specific questions about text meaning had the most consistently positive effect on reading most consistently positive effect on reading comprehension outcomes comprehension outcomes (Murphy & Edwards, 2005)(Murphy & Edwards, 2005)
Leading students in discussion Leading students in discussion whilewhile they are reading they are reading text may be more effective than discussing text after text may be more effective than discussing text after students have read it on their ownstudents have read it on their own (Sandora, Beck, & McKeown, (Sandora, Beck, & McKeown, 1999)1999)
Other promising strategies and practicesOther promising strategies and practices
1. Increasing the amount of time spent in discussion Increasing the amount of time spent in discussion focused on constructing the meaning of textfocused on constructing the meaning of text
2. Increasing the use of expository text in reading Increasing the use of expository text in reading assignments for students in grades 1assignments for students in grades 1--3.3.
Based on hypothesis that, Based on hypothesis that, ““experience with one type of experience with one type of text will help children become good readers or writer of text will help children become good readers or writer of that type of text but not of some other type of text.that type of text but not of some other type of text.””(Palincsar & Duke, 2004)(Palincsar & Duke, 2004)
Children currently receive very little exposure to Children currently receive very little exposure to informational text in early primary gradesinformational text in early primary grades——particularly in particularly in low SES schoolslow SES schoolsThere is some beginning evidence that inclusion of more There is some beginning evidence that inclusion of more informational text does not hurt early reading acquisition, informational text does not hurt early reading acquisition, and can promote growth of content knowledge and and can promote growth of content knowledge and teacher attention to vocabulary and comprehensionteacher attention to vocabulary and comprehension
The Big Ideas: Fluency The Big Ideas: Fluency Fluency (reading rate) is Fluency (reading rate) is causallycausally related to reading related to reading comprehensioncomprehension
Reading rate is Reading rate is also correlatedalso correlated with comprehension because with comprehension because of its correlation with other things (vocabulary, SES, ELL of its correlation with other things (vocabulary, SES, ELL status) that influence performance on comprehension testsstatus) that influence performance on comprehension tests
Helping students become more fluent readers will definitely Helping students become more fluent readers will definitely improve their comprehensionimprove their comprehension——but to get maximum effects, but to get maximum effects, we need to do other things that have an impact on variables we need to do other things that have an impact on variables like vocabulary, use of active comprehension strategies, etc.like vocabulary, use of active comprehension strategies, etc.
Students successful on reading comprehension tests actually Students successful on reading comprehension tests actually can have widely varying reading ratescan have widely varying reading rates
The Big Ideas: VocabularyThe Big Ideas: Vocabulary
Individual differences in vocabulary are definitely related to Individual differences in vocabulary are definitely related to differences in performance on tests of reading comprehensiondifferences in performance on tests of reading comprehension
The most effective methods of teaching vocabulary so that it The most effective methods of teaching vocabulary so that it influences reading comprehension involve a balance of influences reading comprehension involve a balance of definitional information and repeated exposure to words in definitional information and repeated exposure to words in multiple contexts.multiple contexts.
To address the large differences in vocabulary size To address the large differences in vocabulary size associated with differences in SES, we also have to employ associated with differences in SES, we also have to employ methods that provide at least brief instruction in the meaning methods that provide at least brief instruction in the meaning of many wordsof many words
Vocabulary instruction, by itself can be expected to have a Vocabulary instruction, by itself can be expected to have a modest impact on comprehensionmodest impact on comprehension
We must find ways to devote more time to vocabulary instruction We must find ways to devote more time to vocabulary instruction if we are to if we are to ““close the SES related achievement gapclose the SES related achievement gap””
The Big Ideas: Reading Comprehension StrategiesThe Big Ideas: Reading Comprehension Strategies
1. Teaching comprehension strategies to students is a way of helping them learn to think more deeply about the meaning of text.
2. We should focus on teaching a small repertoire of strategies, and then provide many opportunities for students to use the strategies while reading interesting text that they want to understand.
3. Providing opportunities for students to have high quality 3. Providing opportunities for students to have high quality discussions about the meaning of text is an important part discussions about the meaning of text is an important part of instruction in reading comprehensionof instruction in reading comprehension
4. Increasing opportunities for students to read interesting 4. Increasing opportunities for students to read interesting expository text may be very helpful in preparing them for expository text may be very helpful in preparing them for the demands of understanding more complex text in third the demands of understanding more complex text in third grade and after.grade and after.
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References suitable for use in teacher study groupsReferences suitable for use in teacher study groups
Phonics InstructionPhonics Instruction(K(K--3)3) Beck, I.L. (2006). Beck, I.L. (2006). Making sense of phonics: The hows and whys. Making sense of phonics: The hows and whys. New York: New York: Guilford Press.Guilford Press.
(K(K--3)3) Raynor, K., Foorman, B., Perfetti, C., Pesetsky, D., & SeidenberRaynor, K., Foorman, B., Perfetti, C., Pesetsky, D., & Seidenberg, M. (2002). g, M. (2002). How should reading be taught? How should reading be taught? Scientific American, 286Scientific American, 286, 84, 84--9191
Fluency instructionFluency instruction(1(1--3)3) Hudson, R.F., Lane, H.B., & Pullen, P.C. (2005). Reading FluencyHudson, R.F., Lane, H.B., & Pullen, P.C. (2005). Reading FluencyAssessment and Instruction: What, Why, and How?. Assessment and Instruction: What, Why, and How?. The Reading Teacher, 58The Reading Teacher, 58, , 702702--714.714.
(1(1--3)3) Osborn, J., Lehr, F., & Hiebert, E.H. (2003). Osborn, J., Lehr, F., & Hiebert, E.H. (2003). A Focus on FluencyA Focus on Fluency. . Monograph published by Pacific Resources for Education and LearnMonograph published by Pacific Resources for Education and Learning. Copies ing. Copies available at available at www.prel.org/programs/rel/rel.aspwww.prel.org/programs/rel/rel.asp..
(1(1--3)3) Rasinski, T.V. (2003). Rasinski, T.V. (2003). The Fluent Reader.The Fluent Reader. New York: ScholasticNew York: Scholastic
References suitable for use in teacher study groupsReferences suitable for use in teacher study groups
Vocabulary InstructionVocabulary Instruction
(K(K--3)3) Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G. & Kucan, L. (2002).Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G. & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction.vocabulary instruction. New York: The Guilford Press.New York: The Guilford Press.
(K(K--3)3) Biemiller, A., & Boote, C. (2006). An effective method for buildBiemiller, A., & Boote, C. (2006). An effective method for building meaning ing meaning vocabulary in primary grades. vocabulary in primary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 44, 44--62.62.
(K(K--3)3) Diamond, L., & Gutlohn, L. (2006). Diamond, L., & Gutlohn, L. (2006). Vocabulary handbookVocabulary handbook. Berkeley, CA: . Berkeley, CA: Consortium on Reading ExcellenceConsortium on Reading Excellence
(K(K--3)3) Lehr, F., Osborn, J., Hiebert, E.H. (2004) A focus on vocabularyLehr, F., Osborn, J., Hiebert, E.H. (2004) A focus on vocabulary. Pacific . Pacific Regional Educational Laboratory. Available at: Regional Educational Laboratory. Available at: http://www.prel.org/programs/rel/vocabularyforum.asp
(K(K--3)3) Stahl, S., & Nagy, W. (2006). Stahl, S., & Nagy, W. (2006). Teaching word meanings.Teaching word meanings. Mahway, Mahway, NJ:NJ: Lawrence ErlbaumLawrence Erlbaum Associates.Associates.
References suitable for use in teacher study groupsReferences suitable for use in teacher study groups
(K(K--1)1) Beck, I.L., & McKeown, M.G. (2001). Text talk: Capturing the bBeck, I.L., & McKeown, M.G. (2001). Text talk: Capturing the benefits of read enefits of read aloud experiences for young children. aloud experiences for young children. The Reading Teacher, 55The Reading Teacher, 55, 10, 10--35.35.
(2(2--3)3) Beck, I.L. & McKeown, M.G. (2006). Beck, I.L. & McKeown, M.G. (2006). Improving comprehension with Improving comprehension with questioning the author: A fresh and expanded view of a powerful questioning the author: A fresh and expanded view of a powerful approach. approach. New New York: Guilford.York: Guilford.
(2(2--3)3) Block, C.C., Rodgers, L.L, Johnson, R.B. (2004). Block, C.C., Rodgers, L.L, Johnson, R.B. (2004). Comprehension Process Comprehension Process Instruction: Creating Reading Success in Grades KInstruction: Creating Reading Success in Grades K--3.3. New York: The Guilford New York: The Guilford Press.Press.
(2(2--3)3) Duke, N. K., & Pearson, P. D. (2002). Effective practices for dDuke, N. K., & Pearson, P. D. (2002). Effective practices for developing eveloping reading comprehension. In A. E. Farstrup & S. J. Samuels (Eds.),reading comprehension. In A. E. Farstrup & S. J. Samuels (Eds.), What research What research has to say about reading instructionhas to say about reading instruction (3rd edition) (pp. 205(3rd edition) (pp. 205--242). Newark, DE: 242). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.International Reading Association.
(2(2--3)3) Guthrie, J. T., Wigfield, A., & Perencevich, K. C. (2004). ScafGuthrie, J. T., Wigfield, A., & Perencevich, K. C. (2004). Scaffolding for folding for motivation and engagement in reading. In J. T. Guthrie, A. Wigfimotivation and engagement in reading. In J. T. Guthrie, A. Wigfield, & K. C. eld, & K. C. Perencevich (Eds.). Perencevich (Eds.). Motivating reading comprehension: ConceptMotivating reading comprehension: Concept--oriented reading oriented reading instruction.instruction. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
References suitable for use in teacher study groupsReferences suitable for use in teacher study groups
(K(K--3)3) Lehr, F. & Osborne, J. (2006). Focus on Comprehension. PacificLehr, F. & Osborne, J. (2006). Focus on Comprehension. Pacific Regional Regional Educational Laboratory. Available at:Educational Laboratory. Available at:http://www.prel.org/programs/rel/comprehensionforum.asp
(1-3) Palincsar, A.S., & Duke, N.K. (2004). The role of text and textPalincsar, A.S., & Duke, N.K. (2004). The role of text and text--reader reader interactions in young childreninteractions in young children’’s reading development and achievement. s reading development and achievement. The The Elementary School Journal, 105Elementary School Journal, 105, 183, 183--196.196.
(K(K--3)3) Pressley, M. (2000). What should comprehension instruction be tPressley, M. (2000). What should comprehension instruction be the instruction he instruction of? In M.L. Kamil, P.B. Mosenthal, P.D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.of? In M.L. Kamil, P.B. Mosenthal, P.D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), ), Handbook of Handbook of reading research reading research (Vol. III, pp. 545(Vol. III, pp. 545––561). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.561). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
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