Recent Exploration in the Polar Regions

American Geographical Society

Recent Exploration in the Polar RegionsAuthor(s): Raye R. PlattSource: Geographical Review, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Apr., 1939), pp. 303-309Published by: American Geographical SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/209949 .

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RECENT EXPLORATION IN THE POLAR REGIONS

Raye R. Platt

EXPLORATION IN THE ARCTIC

W XC tITH ninety to a hundred expeditions working in the Arctic in I937 and I938, it is evident that interest in the Polar Regions has not abated. It is true that some forty of these were carried on by the Soviet governnment

in the Arctic section of Siberia and in the Arctic Sea and its arms on the Siberian coast and that their purpose was primarily economic and strategic; but the impor- tance of their contributions to scientific knowledge of the Arctic as a whole is not lessened thereby. On the other hand, the fact that between fifty and sixty expeditions worked in West Spitsbergen, Northeast Land, Greenland, Labrador, Arctic Canada, and Alaska should dispel any idea that present-day Arctic exploration is confined chiefly to Soviet territory.

So long is the list of recent expeditions in the Arctic that it is possible, within the scope of this review, to mention only some of the most outstanding. Attention is called, however, to The Polar Record, issued twice annually (January and July) by the Scott Polar Research Institute. It is the only source at all complete of information covering the whole field of Arctic and Antarctic exploration and is particularly valuable for its news of Soviet expeditions.

SOVIET EXPLORATION IN THE ARCTIC

In spite of the contribution that the remarkable flights of Soviet aviators to the United States by way of the North Pole may have made to possible future commercial air transport between the United States and Europe and Asia by way of the Arctic,' the greatest achievement of Soviet scientists, navigators, and aviators in the Arctic, as regards contributions to scientific knowledge as well as their own national economy and defense, is, probably, the opening and increasingly successful navigation of what is known as the Northern Sea Route between ports of the White Sea and the Kola Peninsula and the Siberian ports on the Pacific. Dreamed of for centuries and attempted by explorers of many nationalities, the Northeast Passage was first accomplished by Nordenski6ld, in I878-I879, and then only after his ship had been held for nearly ten months in the ice in Koliuchin Bay, Chukchi Peninsula. It was not until I932 that the complete passage was made in a single season, when the Soviet icebreaker Sibiriakov, under the command of Professor Otto Schmidt, made the journey from Archangel to Vladivostok between July I8 and October I.

In I933 and again in I934 one ship made the complete passage. Early in Septem- ber, I935, two freight ships arrived at Kamchatka from Murmansk, and a few days later two others completed the voyage in the opposite direction. Since then traffic over the route has steadily increased: fourteen ships made the through passage in one direction or the other in I936, and more were planned for I937 and I938. Even more important as indicative of the progress that is being made in the economic development and settlement of the Soviet Arctic is the very considerable and steadily increasing transportation of freight and passengers to and from the new ports that have sprung up along the Siberian coast, particularly in the Kara Sea section. One hundred and sixty ships (including the fourteen that made the through passage) were reported as engaged in transportation on the Arctic coast in I936,2 the last year for which details could be obtained.

1 George Baidukov: Over the North Pole, translated from the Russian by Jessica Smith, New York, I938.

2 For a judicious and unbiased study of Soviet plans and achievements in the Arctic see T. A. Taracouzio: Soviets in the Arctic, New York, 1938. See also H. P. Smolka: Soviet Strategy in the Arctic, Foreign Affairs, Vol. x6, I937-1938, pp. 272-278.

303



304 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

Extensive work has been done and is still being carried on to improve and safe- guard the Northern Sea Route. More than a hundred and fifty combined meteorological and radio stations have been established on it; and, of the expeditions reported in I937 and I938, at least twenty were carrying out hydrographical surveys and ice reconnaissance work. A flotilla of icebreakers is in regular service along the route; and, in addition to their regular duty of escorting and assisting ships through difficult sections of the passage, their personnel also carries on hydrographical and hydrological studies.

The development of the Siberian lands bordering on, or tributary to, the Northern Sea Route is an important item in the Soviet program. The land expeditions in I937 and 1938 were in large part engaged in fundamental geological exploration; a total of twenty-two, all of major proportions as regards personnel and equipment, is reported. Other expeditions were assigned to investigations of timber resources and reindeer breeding and use and to studies and experiments in Arctic agr culture.

Only a few brief published official reports have reached the United States on the scientific studies carried on by the Soviet North Pole drift expedition. The four men who, on May 26, I937, were flown to a position close to the Pole were relieved by Soviet icebreakers and airplanes on February 7, I938, off the Greenland coast between King Oscar Fiord and Scoresby Sound. The expedition was well equipped with laboratory facilities, and it is understood that the scientific observations carried on by the party included practically all aspects of oceanography, meteorology, and applied physics, for which the drift afforded unique opportunity.3

The most recent Soviet exploit in the Arctic, and one that may be more important than any of the others in contributions to knowledge of Arctic meteorology and oceanography, is the result of an accident. Late in I937 the icebreaker Sedov was caught in the ice in latitude 780 IO' N. and her propeller broken. Drifting northward for more than a year the ship reached 850 29' N. and then drifted westward near the 84th parallel for some months.4 Early this year the drift northward began again, and by March 3 the ship was at 860 20' N., 35' north of the Fram's farthest north. Originally it was thought that the sh:p might drift over the Pole, but now it is believed that she will reach about 870 N. and then follow the course of the North Pole drift expedition.5

WEST SPITSBERGEN AND NORTHEAST LAND

The Norwegian Svalbard Expedition of 1936, in a series of eighteen photographic airplane flights, took 3300 oblique photographs covering about 40,000 square kilometers in West Spitsbergen, or about two-thirds of the total area.6 In I938 this survey was completed and a similar survey made of King Karls Land; geological and hydrographical work was included in both expeditions. The map to be plotted

8 For official reports on the scientific work in the Soviet Arctic see the Transactions of the Arctic Institute, with articles chiefly in Russian but often with summaries in English, French, or German. For articles in English see Comptes Rendus de l'Acadimie des Sciences de l'URSS, Vol. ig, No. 8, I938: I. D. Papanin: Conquest of the Pole, pp. 563-568; P. P. Shirshov: Oceanological Observations [of the North Pole drift expedition], pp. 569-580; E. K. Fedorov: Geophysical and Astronomical Observations, pp. 58I-587; W. W. Shoulejkin: The Drift of Ice-Fields, pp. 589-594; N. I. Tchigirin: On the Con-

centration of Calcium Carbonate in the Waters of the Polar Basin, pp. 633-635. For a popular account of the experiences of the North Pole drift expedition see Lazar Brontman: On Top of the World, New York, I938.

4 New York Times, Jan. I7, I939.

5 Ibid., March 4, 1939.

6 A. K. Orvin: Norges Svalbard- og Ishavs-unders0kelsers ekspedisjoner til 0st-Gr0nland og Svalbard i Aret I936, Norsk Geogr. Tidsskrift, Vol. 6, 1937, pp. 392-404; also "Luftkartleggingen pa Svalbard 1936," Potar-Arboken 1937, Norsk Polarklubb, Oslo, 1937, pp. 25-26. "Report on the Activities of Norges Svalbard- og Ishavs-unders0kelser I927-I936," Skrifter om Svalbard og Ishavet No. 73, Oslo, I937, is a report in English on the work of the Norwegians in Spitsbergen and Greenland, with lists of publications and maps.



THE POLAR REGIONS 305

from the photographs is to be on the scale of I: 50,000. In 1936 a Polish expedition spent fifty-six days on West Spitsbergen, traversing the west side from the southern- most tip to the northernmost, a journey of 8oo kilometers. Geological and glaciological studies were made and botanical specimens collected.7

Northeast Land is now also reported as almost completely surveyed, as the result of the work of the Oxford University Arctic Expedition of I935-I936. This, as regards techniques developed for living in comfort and carrying on observations during the Arctic night as well as for the work accomplished, was one of the most important and interesting of recent Arctic expeditions.8 One hundred miles of unmapped coast on the west side were surveyed, all of the north coast, and the greater part of the east and south coasts.

As a result of detailed plane-tabling based on theodolite triangulation in some areas in the interior and traverses of various types in others, the only gaps remaining are Wahlenberg Bay and the area between Ice Point and East Ulve Bay. Con- siderable attention was given to geological work also, and glaciological studies were an important item on the program. Automatic meteorological records were kept, and elaborate ionosphere observations were made. The results of the survey, including a large-scale map of the north coast, and of the glaciological studies will be published in the Geographical Journal. Reports on other phases of the work will appear as articles in appropriate journals, and all the published reports will eventually be assembled and published in one volume by the Oxford University Exploration Club.

GREENLAND

The work of the Polish Greenland Expedition of I937, organized by the Geograph- ical Society of Lwow with the assistance of the Military Geographical Institute and under the auspices of the Ministry of Instruction, in addition to large-scale surveys of marginal ice features in the neighborhood of Arfersiorfik Fiord (the first large fiord south of Disko Bay), included glaciological, geological, and botanical studies and meteorological observations. A report (in Polish, with a summary in German) by the officer in charge of the geodetic and photogrammetric work appeared in the Bulletin of the Polish Geographical Service.9 In the same general region the Oxford University Greenland expeditions of I935 and 1936, organized for the purpose of reaching Lake Tasersiak and making a survey of the region between it and South Stromfjord, made a topographical survey on the scale of I inch to I mile of about goo square miles between South Stromfjord and the inland ice, which included all of the Sarfartok River and the western end of the Tasersiak River, and crossed the Sukkertoppen icecap, on the south side of which a mountain range more than 7000 feet high was discovered.'0 The object of the I938 expedition to the same region was to complete the original plans with a survey of Lake Tasersiak and the surround- ing country and to map the range of mountains discovered in I936.

Extensive contributions to the cartography of Peary Land (North Greenland) were made by Lauge Koch, the Danish explorer, in May, 1938, in two photographic flights from Kings Bay, West Spitsbergen.

Important also, particularly for the oceanographical work carried out, were the

7 Stanislaw Siedlecki: Crossing West Spitsbergen from South to North, Norsk Geogr. Tidsskrift, Vol. 7, I938, pp. 79-9I.

8 A. R. Glen, assisted by N. A. C. Croft: Under the Pole Star: The Oxford University Arctic Ex- pedition, I935-6, London, I937; see also the same: The Oxford University Arctic Expedition, North East Land, I935-36. Geogr. Journ., Vol. go, I937, pp. I93-222 and 289-3I4.

9 Antoni Zawadzki: Polska Wyprawa na Grenlandie w I937 r., Wiadomosci Sluzby Geograficznej, I938, No. I, pp. 33-73, No. 2 and 3, pp. I66-2I4; see also the Polar Record, No. I4, July, I937, pp. II7- II8, and No. I5, January, I938, pp. 25-27.

1N H. O'B. Hayward: The Oxford University Greenland Expedition, I935, Geogr. Journ., Vol. 88, I936, pp. I48-I62; Peter Mott: The Oxford University Greenland Expedition. West Greenland, I936, ibid., Vol. go, I937, pp. 3I5-334.




Louise A. Boyd Arctic expeditions of 1937 and 1938. Although some geological and glaciological work and botanical collecting were done on the east coast of Green- land on both expeditions, their chief contributions were to knowledge of the character of the floor of the Greenland Sea. A discovery of particular interest is a submarine ridge about midway between Bear and Jan Mayen Islands, apparently about seven nautical miles long by one mile wide and rising within 310 fathoms of the surface. Because of unusually ice-free conditions during the summer of 1938, it was possible to carry the sounding work into the Arctic Sea north of Northeast Land as far as 8I0 30' N. Considerable sounding work was also done along the Greenland coast and in a number of fiords in the neighborhood of Germania Land and Dove Bay. The results of the oceanographical work of these two expeditions are now being prepared for publication.

ARCTIC CANADA

The Oxford University Ellesmere Land Expedition of 1934-1935, from head- quarters at Etah, on the Greenland side of Smith Sound, made in 1935 a number of long sledge journeys into Ellesmere Land, Grinnell Land, and Grant Land. Survey work seems to have been confined chiefly to the determination of astronomical positions and some sketch mapping. The most important discovery of the expedition was a range of mountains in Grant Land reaching IO,OOO feet.11 Robert Bentham, geologist of the party, returned to the region in 1936 and has since been carrying on surveys and geological work alone from a base at Craig Harbor.

The years 1937 and 1938 were noteworthy for contributions of accurate surveys of the coast line in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The surveys by J. M. Wordie's Arctic expedition of 1937 of 6oo miles of the Baffin Bay coast between Cape Bowen and Cape Antrobus included six new fiords, one of which is twenty miles long and another sixty. Considerable time on this expedition was devoted also to measure- ments of cosmic-ray intensity with newly developed balloon and radio equipment.12

The British Canadian Arctic Expedition left England in March, 1936, with a three-year program consisting largely of survey work but including also geological, archeological, and biological studies, and arrived at their proposed base at Bay of God's Mercy, Southampton Island, on June I8. According to the latest reports available, a large section of the Foxe Basin coast of Baffin Island has been mapped. The work of the Canadian Government Hudson Strait and Baffin Bay Patrol should also be mentioned. On the voyages of 1935, 1936, and 1937 extensive work was done in establishing astronomical positions, and in 1937 a survey of the south coast of Baffin Island was made by geodesists attached to the Patrol.'3

NAVIGATION OF A NEW LINK IN THE NORTHWEST PASSAGE

A parallel to the opening of the Northeast Passage-the so-called Northern Sea Route-by the Soviet government, but of certainly far less and even doubtful significance, is the first passage, on September 3, 1937, of Bellot Strait, separating Boothia Peninsula from Somerset Island, by the Canadian Government Hudson Strait and Baffin Bay Patrol in the ship Nascopie. Midway in the strait the schooner Aklavik, coming from Cambridge Bay, Victoria Island, was met. This passage of

11 Edward Shackleton: Arctic Journeys: The Story of the Oxford University Ellesmere Land Expedition I934-5, London, I937; also Noel Humphreys, Edward Shackleton, and A. W. Moore: Oxford University Ellesmere Land Expedition, Geogr. Journ., Vol. 87, I936, pp. 385-443.

12 J. M. Wordie: An Expedition to North West Greenland and the Canadian Arctic in I937,

Geogr. Journ.. Vol. 92, I938, pp. 385-42I (with a text sketch map of the hitherto unmapped Cary Islands off Wolstenholme Sound and a map of the "N. E. Coast of Baffin Land between Lat. 7Il N and 720 30' N, Based on Surveys by T. T. Paterson and Others during Mr. J. M. Wordie's Expedition I937," on the scale of I : 500.000).

13 C. H. Ney: Position Determination of Arctic Coast Lines, Canadian Surveyor, Vol. 6, No. 6, October, I938, pp. 6-I4.




Bellot Strait, which was found to be completely ice-free, opened, for that season at least, a new variant of the Northwest Passage, which it is hoped will provide a route some four hundred miles shorter than the more northerly alternative route to and from Franklin Strait by way of Peel Sound, Barrow Strait, and Lancaster Sound. The latter passage is icebound throughout most years and has been traversed only three or four times since Amundsen passed through it for the first time on his three- year voyage in 19G3-1906.

No account of recent exploration in the Arctic would be complete without reference to the flights made between the middle of August, 1937, and the end of March, 1938, by Russian, Canadian, and American aviators in search of the six Russians, under the command of Sigismund Levanevsky, who started on a flight from Moscow to the United States by way of the North Pole on August 12, 1937, and whose last authentic radio message was received when their plane was somewhere near 880 N. on the meridian of Fairbanks (1480 W.). A searching party under the leadership of Sir Hubert Wilkins flew a total of 44,ooo miles (of which 34,000 were north of the Arctic Circle), examining about 170,000 square miles, of which at least 150,000 square miles of the Arctic Sea had been completely unknown.14

Among the geographical results of the search was the establishment of the fact that no new land remains to be discovered in the Beaufort Sea and the area between the meridians of 120? W. and 145? W. The most important results, however, will be the contributions to knowledge of Arctic meteorology and weather when the weather observations and forecasts made for the guidance of the fliers by numerous Arctic stations and the fliers' own experiences have been analyzed and co6rdinated. Two expert forecasters of the United States Weather Bureau were sent to the Fairbanks weather station, as well as a skilled meteorologist of the Soviet government. Fore- casts were prepared from weather reports from stations in Canada and the United States, sent daily to Fairbanks through the Seattle station, and from reports from stations in Siberia and on various Arctic islands and from the Soviet North Pole drift expedition.

EXPLORATION IN THE ANTARCTIC

In 1938, for the first time in several years, there were no exploring parties on any part of the mainland of the Antarctic continent. The two preceding years, however, were, as regards contributions of high-grade surveys to the map, among the most productive in the annals of Antarctic exploration.

THE BRITISH GRAHAM LAND EXPEDITION

In March, 1937, the British Graham Land Expedition sailed from Graham Land, where they had carried on extensive ground and aerial mapping, geological exploration, and biological, meteorological, and oceanographical studies since the establishment of their base in the Argentine Islands in January, 1935. Surveys made on the ground and by aerial photography included more than a thousand miles of compli- cated coast line on the west side of Graham Land and on Alexander I Land and large areas adjacent to the coast in various sections. It was definitely established from dog-sledge journeys and flights along the west coast and from a dog-sledge journey from Marguerite Bay to the Weddell Sea near the 70th parallel that the strait which Wilkins, from observations made on his flights in 1928, believed separated Graham Land from the mainland (called by him Stefansson Strait) and the numerous channels which he believed divided Graham Land into an archipelago do not exist but

14 See Sir Hubert Wilkins: Our Search for the Lost Aviators, Nati. Geogr. Mag., Vol. 74, I938, pp. 14I-I72; also articles in the Explorers Journ., Vol. i5, No. 4, December, 1937 (special number on the Arctic search); and Vilhjalmur Stefansson: Unsolved Mysteries of the Arctic, New York, 1939, pp. 322-369.




are evidently broad glaciers of low gradient and that Graham Land is actually a peninsula.

A discovery scarcely less important is a channel with an average width of about fifteen miles filled with shelf ice that apparently separates Alexander I Land from the mainland. A dog-sledge journey was made in this channel, which the expedition named King George VI Sound, for about 200 miles in a direction slightly east of south to a point from which it was believed that the southern end of Alexander I Land was seen. An airplane flight was also made up the sound for a somewhat shorter distance.'5

It might be said that this channel was also discovered at the American Geo- graphical Society. Lincoln Ellsworth, on the first day of his trans-Antarctic flight of November 23 to December 5, 1935, passed over it nearly a year before it was seen by the British Graham Land Expedition. From the air, at an average elevation of 10,000 feet, its true character and significance were not recognized, and no mention was made of it in the first reports on the topography of the zone of flight, though there was a suggestion of it in Joerg's discussion of the ranges trending north-south "lying between about 710 and 740 W. and 71I?2? and 732' S." deduced from the photographs taken on the flight.1" However, in a radio message sent by Ellsworth's pilot, Hollick-Kenyon, to the expedition's base ship when the plane was over what is now known to be a channel we find a brief description of a "wide, level-bottomed valley that seems to run from the hinterland south right north to the sea. "

Ellsworth's photographs had been taken with a Leica cameraand were not intended for mapping purposes. The method of mapping from high oblique aerial photographs developed at the Society made it possible, however, to construct from them three maps, one of which, "Conjectured Fault Depression South of Marguerite Bay" (about I 8oo,ooo), shows the existence of a depression about 200 miles long with the surface of its fill of snow or ice apparently close to sea level and bordered on each side by ranges.'7 The similarity of the feature thus plotted, as regards both its character and its position, to the one drafted from surveys made by the British Graham Land Expedition and astronomical positions determined for its control published in the May, 1938, number of the Geographical Journal is so close as to be a remarkable demonstration of the effectiveness of using "high oblique" photographs for reconnaissance survey even where ground control is not available.

LARS CHRISTENSEN s AERIAL SURVEYS

In 1937 Lars Christensen took an expedition to the Antarctic for the express purpose of mapping from the air by oblique photographs sections of the coast of East Antarctica between 860 E. and about 1700 W. The expedition, on the steamship Thorshavn, arrived off the Antarctic coast on January 14, 1937, and by February I

had photographed the whole coast from the West Barrier to Enderby Land. The 2200 survey photographs taken were made with a 6o per cent overlap for stereo- scopic plotting. It is expected that the maps now being constructed from these

15 J. R. Rymill: British Graham Land Expedition, I934-37, Geogr. Journ., Vol. 9I, I938, pp.

297-3I2 (with a map of the Graham Land coast between 65? S. and 66? 20' S. on the scale of I: 750,000)

and pp. 424-438 (with a map of Graham Land including King George VI Sound on the scale of I *3,-

500,000); W. L. S. Fleming and others: Notes on the Scientific Work of the British Graham Land

Expedition, I934-37, ibid., pp. 508-532 (with a map of the Northern Base, Argentine Islands, on the

scale of I : I5,000).

The official account of the British Graham Land Expedition is published under the title "Southern

Lights," by John Rymill (London, I938): it has not yet been received at the Society, but it is reviewed

in the February, I939, number of the Geographical Journal. 16 W. L. G. Joerg: The Topographical Results of Ellsworth's Trans-Antarctic Flight of I935,

Geogr. Rev., Vol. 26, I936, pp. 454-462; reference on p. 46I. 17 W. L. G. Joerg: The Cartographical Results of Ellsworth's Trans-Antarctic Flight of I935,

Geogr. Rev., Vol. 27, I937, pp. 430-444.




photographs will cover about 8o,ooo square kilometers, including 2000 kilometers of coast line.

New land, which was named Prince Harald Land, was discovered between 40? E. and 340 E. and mapped from the air. Another important discovery is a mountain range in Princess Ragnhild Land about 300 kilometers from the coast more than 300 kilometers long and apparently 3000 or 4000 meters high.'8

Christensen has himself made four trips to the Antarctic, on which he combined exploration with business, and between 1926 and 1937 he sent out five other expeditions for exclusively scientific work. These nine expeditions have sailed about 65,ooo nautical miles in Antarctic seas and, with the work of the last expedition, have mapped about 4000 kilometers of coast line, in addition to doing a very large amount of sounding and other oceanographical work. The results of the cartographical work have been incorporated in charts prepared for the Whalers' Insurance Association (Hvalfangeres Assuranceforening), and the oceanographical, geological, botanical, and zoological material is being arranged and published in a special series by the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.

ELLSWORTH'S 1938-I939 EXPEDITION

On October 29, 1938, Lincoln Ellsworth's fourth Antarctic expedition sailed from Capetown in the Wyatt Earp with two airplanes on board, the purpose being to explore and map from the air the section of East Antarctica sometimes described as the Enderby Quadrant. The Antarctic mainland was reached on January 2,19 at 69? IO' S., 760 30' E. The first flight was made on January 11,20 when Ellsworth and his pilot flew south on the 79th meridian at an average altitude of 12,000 feet to about 720 S., a distance of 210 miles from the coast. Unfortunately this was the only exploring flight made. On January 14 the chief officer of the ship was seriously injured, and it became necessary for the ship to return immediately to Australia.

THE " DIsCoVERY II" AND THE "WILLIAM SCORESBY"

In October, 1937, the Royal Research Ship Discovery II left London to begin the fifth of its two-year commissions in Antarctic waters and, it is expected, will return to England in May of this year. A circumpolar cruise following a zigzag course along the ice edge was completed by early spring of 1938, on which, in addition to full oceanographical observation, special attention was given to distribution of whales and their feeding grounds. The R. R. S. William Scoresby completed in April, 1938, a seven-months' whale-marking commission. More than 8oo whales were marked, the work being carried out in the Atlantic and southeast Pacific sectors rather than as heretofore primarily in the Indian Ocean sector.

18 Lars Christensen: My Last Expedition to the Antarctic 1936-i937, Oslo, 1938; see also Nils Romnes and Hans Bogen: Den norske luftkartlegging i Antarktis 1937, Polar-Arboken 1937, pp. 8-2I; and H. E. Hansen: Konsul Lars Christensens ekspedisjon til Antarktis sesongen 1936-37 og dens kartografiske resultater, ibid., pp. 27-30.

19 New York Times, Jan. 4, I939. 20 Ibid., Jan. 12 and 13, 1939.



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Recent Exploration in the Polar Regions