Readings in Archives and Electronic Records · Readings in Archives and Electronic Records: Annotated Bibliography and Analysis of the Literature compiled by Richard J. Cox Introduction

Section IV.

Readings in Archives and Electronic Records

Annotated Bibliography and Analysis of the Literature

compiled by Richard J. Cox

Bibliography on

Archives and Electronic Records

Table of Contents

Introduction

Basic Manuals

Archival Theory and Principles

Education and Professional Issues

Information Systems Analysis and Evaluation

Records Management

Basic Archival Functions: Inventories, Surveys, and Appraisal

Basic Archival Functions: Description

Basic Archival Functions: Preservation

Basic Archival Functions: Legal Issues, Reference, and Access

Information Technology Standards

Case Studies: Federal Government

Case Studies: State Government

Case Studies: Local Government

Case Studies: International

Case Studies: Organizations

Case Studies: Data Archives

Figures 1 & 2

Index

BIBLIOGRAPHY 99

Readings in Archives and Electronic Records: Annotated Bibliography and Analysis of the Literature

compiled by Richard J. Cox

Introduction

The following bibliography is a preliminary effort on the part of its compiler to provide a basic set of readings on archivists' efforts to administer electronic records. It is not a comprehensive bibliography, but it is focused on the major, seminal, o r curious writings (in English) on this topic. I have not included writings on social science data archives (except as they appear in volumes o n the archival management of electronic records), the historians' and other researchers' use of electronic records (again, except as they appear in volumes with a broader archival focus), information and library science literature, writings on records and information resources management, except for those essays that provide interesting summaries of such viewpoints or are crucial for archivists to know about. Al- though there are many valuable studies and writings that have circulated in unpublished form or that have remained as grey literature, 1 have included only a small portion of such materials, as the University of Pittsburgh research project continues, this bibliography will be updated to include these materials along with information on how to obtain copies. What is included in this bibliography includes the more accessible writings. Individuals desiring more comprehensive views of the literature should examine the 1983 Richard Kes- ner bibliography and follow its leads in searching for publications on related areas. The post-1983 essays, monographs, reports, and other publications will also provide leads to additional and more writings.

Annotations have been provided for nearly all of the following entries. If an acceptable abstract is provided in the original publication, it has been reproduced and its reproduction noted. T h e other annotations are my own effort to provide a description of the publication's content. These descriptions are usually brief, and they include efforts to assess the importance of the entry to archival theory, methodology, and practice. A few entries lack an- notatons; these entries were not available to me at the time of this publication, but they were promising enough to list.

Analysis of the Literature.

T h e bibliography is divided in a number of topical sections. Under each topical section I have provided an assessment of the nature of this aspect of the literature. However, it is relevant to provide a broader characterization of the literature.

In general, it is easy to see that the literature has been repetitive in topic and approach. Figure 1 reveals that the "basic" (introductory or general in content) and theoretical (usually

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100 ELECTRONIC RECORDS MANAGEMENT PROGRAM STRATEGIES

considering the issue of whether traditional archival principles are relevant for managing electronic records) constitute a significant (64%) portion of the total literature included in this bibliography. Research represents a very minor portion (13%) of the literature, and I have been very tolerant in what I define as research.

W e can also see that the matter of electronic records has been of growing interest t o the archival profession. Figure 2 shows a strong increase in the number of publications o n electronic records over the past quarter of a century. While the number of publications is not indicative of the archival profession's success in dealing with electronic records, the increase reveals the sustained concern with such records.

T h e immaturity of the archival profession in working with electronic records can also be seen by noting that the literature has been dominated by a very small group of professionals. David Bearman, Thomas Brown, Charles Dollar, Meyer Fishbein, Sue Grave1,Mar- garet Hedstrom, Richard Kesner, and John McDonald account for nearly a third of the publications described in this bibliography. As a group they have dominated publishing since the late 1960s. This is reflective of the fact that the number of electronic records archivists remains very small.

Where to Start in the Archival Literature.

Although there is a growing quantity of writings on the archival administration of electronic records and these writings are repetitive o r very basic, there is a small quantity of writings that archivists should be familiar with in their work as professionals. Important o r essential writings have been marked with a asterisk (*).

Individuals using this bibliography will note that a large portion of the publications have appeared in the mainstream archival journals o r as part of special volumes, usually the product of conferences. As the archival profession matures and its work with electronic records proceeds, it is likely that a n increasing number of research articles and o ther essays will appear in information and library science journals and other professional outlets. Ar- chivists will need to become more proficient in the use of bibliographic databases in order to keep abreast of developments in the field.


Structure of This Bibliography.

I have divided the bibliography according to a number of logical and appropriate topics. The structure is as follows:

Basic Manuals




Records Management














THE BIBLIOGRAPHY

Basic Manuals and General Introductions

The archival profession needs an updated general introduction to electronic records management. At this point the United Nations' 1990 0 o f probably the best single volume archivists could use, but it is directed to that organization.

1. Ambacher, Bruce I. "Managing Machine-Readable Archives," in Manaelng Archives . . and Archival L n s t l t u t ~ m , ed. James Gregory Bradsher (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), pp. 121-33. Very basic introduction describing the nature of computer systems, surveying machine-readable records, inventorying and scheduling such records, appraisal, accessioning, description, reference, and the role of the archivist in organizations creating electronic records. This essay reflects the approach then being used by the Nation- al Archives and Records Administration to build a centralized repository of electronic files.

2. Bearman, David ed. Archival Man% -, Archives and Museum Informatics Technical Report no. 13 (Pittsburgh: AMI, 1991). Interesting set of essays on basic managerial and philosophical approaches to electronic records. The specific essays have been described elsewhere in this bibliography.

3. Cook, Michael, ed. --Generated R e c d , Approaches to Problems in Records Management, no. 2. (England: Society of Archivists, 1987). Specific citations to essays in this publication have been included elsewhere.

4. Dearstyne, Bruce W. "Electronic Records: A Challenge for Archivists," in me Ar- rlse: Modern Archival Principles. Practices. and Manacement T e c h n i w

(Chicago: American Library Association, 1993), pp. 222-41. A general review of electronic records management which still accepts these records as a special media and a special issue for the archival community.

5 . Durance, Cynthia J. , comp. Management of Recorded Information: Convergin~ Dis- es: P r o c e e b ~ s of the International Council on Archives' Symposium on Current

Records (New York: K.G. Saur, 1990). Set of essays demonstrating the increasing challenges of new electronic information systems for archival management. Individual essays have been described elsewhere in this bibliography.

. . 6. Fishbein, Meyer H. 4 (Washington, D.C.: T h e A D P Committee of the International Council on Archives, 1980). General guidelines for the administration of such records.


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BIBLIOGRAPHY 103

. . 7. Geda, Carolyn, Erik W. Austin, and Francis X. Blouin, Jr., eds. Arch~v- Pr p e n t . . v' of

1 , ed. Carolyn L. Geda, (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1980). Although now outdated, this was the defining volume on electronic records for the first half of the 1980s. Individual essays have been described elsewhere i n this volume.

8. *Hedstrom, Margaret A rchives & Manuscri~ts: Machine-Readable Records, Basic Manual Series (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1984). A landmark reference for archivists concerned with electronic records. Includes an introduction to computers and automated record keeping, the arrangement and storage of electronic records, their management and preservation, and a discussion of archives and the office of the future. This volume is still useful for working with large statistical databases, but it is not concerned with the impact of personal computers, electronic communications, expert systems, and other similar advances in electronic information technology.

9. Kandur, Hamza "Management of Electronic Records," Ph. D. dissertation, Univer- sity College, London, March 1992. This is really a synopsis of procedures being used by archivists and records managers to manage such records. Discusses the nature of the computer, technical aspects of electronic records, legal and social implications of electronic records, the creation and identification of electronic records, appraisal and retention, control and use, disposition, and archival management. Extensive bibliography is included.

10. Kesner, Richard M. Information Systems: A Strategic A ~ ~ r o a c h to Planning a nd I m - Dlementatlon (Chicago: American Library Association, 1988). Examination of how various information staff, including archivists and records managers, need to work together within organizations to utilize their information resources. Particularly useful for understanding the role of the archivist in an organization and its management of information.

. , 11. Matters, Marion, ed. -Records T e c h n l a u e s c h i v e s : A Resource Directory (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1900). Includes directories of organizations, information clearinghouses, and educational and training programs; a selected annotated bibliography; a list of periodicals; and a directory of bibliographic databases. Good resource.

12. Menne-Haritz, Angelika, ed. Information Handlin? in Offices and Archives (New York: K. G. Saur, 1993). The most current set of readings on changes in office automation. All the essays have been described elsewhere in the bibliography.

13. U.N. Advisory Committee for the Co-ordination of Information Systems (ACCIS). M a n m n t of Electronic Records: Curriculi~m Materials (New York: United Nations, 1992). Curriculum materials developed for internal use within United Nations organizations. Somewhat difficult to use, but this publication is full of good and interesting refer-



ences for archivists involved in the management of electronic records. This publication was designed to build on the 1990 ACCIS publication on electronic records management described below.

14. *U.N. Advisory Committee for the Co-ordination of Information Systems. . . . . 3 (New York: United Nations, 1990). Of particular interest are chapters two and three. Chapter two describes records management framework, policy issues, implementation options, and implementation recommendations for an electronic records program; this chapter was prepared by David Bearman. Chapter three considers the role of standards in integrated systems management, and it was prepared by Charles Dollar. There is an excellent glossary and lengthy bibliography included in the publication. The Management of F.lectronic R e c o r h is one of the most useful recent publications on the subject, and it should be included in every archivist's basic library.


Archivists have long debated whether traditional archivalprinciples are relevant or not for the administration of electronic records. The 1992 volume by Charles Dollar is a landmark summation of these debates and issues. David Bearman '.s various writings have compared various archival traditions in a useful manner. The remainder of the e.s.says will be of interest to archivists folio wing ongoing debates.

15. Acland, Glenda "Managing the Record Rather Than the Relic,"&chives and Ma- 20, no. 1 (1992): 57-63. Strong statement of the archivist's primary responsibility for evidence rather than information. Extremely important perspective as archivists increasingly manage electronic records.

16. Bailey, Catherine "Archival Theory and Electronic Records," Archivarla 29 (Winter 1989-90): 180-96. General overview in which the author contends that basic archival principles will hold up in the management of electronic records, and, in fact, improve the management of such records. A typical entry in this genre of archival writing.

17. Bearman, David "Archival Data Management to Achieve Organizational Account- ability for Electronic Records." Archives and Manuscripts 21, no. 1 (1993): 14-28. Bearman discusses the major changes wrought by electronic information technology on the concept of the record and argues that archivists and records managers must develop new approaches and strategies. H e advocates a re-definition of the record to emphasize evidence, a return to the role of records managers and archivists to assist their organizations in issues of accountability, a shift from cost-benefits analysis to risk management, and the use of tactics such as policy, design, implementation, and standards.


BIBLIOGRAPHY 105

18. *Bearman, David Archival Methods, Technical Report, vol. 3, no. 1 (Pittsburgh: Ar- chives and Museum Informatics, 1989). An important extended essay re-evaluating the basic premises of archival work. While not dealing specifically with electronic information technology, this publication provides a framework by which to measure and evaluate the effectiveness of archivists' work, including their efforts to manage electronic records. A reading of this publication will help archivists to see that they require new approaches for carrying out their traditional responsibilities.

19. Bearman, David "Archival Principles and the Electronic Office," in Lnfo r r n a t l ~ n in Off~ces and Archives, ed. Angelika Menne-Haritz (New York: K. G. Saur,

1993), pp. 177-93. Responsible corporate management of electronic records, whether for ongoing operational purposes or for longterm retention of corporate memory, depends upon an understanding of the fundamental archival principle of provenance. This principle is central to the concept of archives as evidence of activity and pertains with equal relevance to all forms of documentation. Two derivative archival methods, "respect des fonds" and "respect for original order" which are also often referred to as principles, are in fact only implementations of the principle of provenance which reflect the nature of record keeping in bureaucratic organizations during much of the era of paper records. Ironically, electronic records systems make it both possible to more fully capture provenance than paper records systems did and at the same time make it more likely that provenance will be lost and that archives, even if they are preserved, will therefore lack evidential value. This paper explores the relationship between provenance and evidence and its implications for management of paper or electronic information systems. (Abstract provided in this volume).

20. *Bearman, David "Diplomatics, Weberian Bureaucracy, and the Management of Electronic Records in Europe and America," AmericzLnArchivist 55 (Winter 1992): 168-80. After a comparison of different approaches in Europe and North America, the author concludes that "there are two fundamental strategies that can be employed to assure the maintenance and retention of adequate documentation of organizational activity: policy and technology." This is an important essay contrasting differences and similarities in approaches to electronic records management.

21. Bearman, David "Impact of Electronic Records on Archival Theory," Archives & Museum 5 (Summer 1991): 6-8. Summary of meeting held at the University of Macerata, Italy, in 1991. T h e focus of this meeting was a draft manuscript by Charles Dol- lar on this topic and ultimately published by the University's press in 1992 and described below.

22. Bearman, David "An Indefensible Bastion: Archives as a Repository in the Electronic Age," in David Bearman, ed., Archival M a n a ~ e m e n t of Electronic Records, Ar- chives and Museum Informatics Technical Report no. 13 (Pittsburgh: AMI, 1991), pp. 14- 24. Argument against the idea of archives as a repository, especially as a institution supposedly working with electronic records. H e argues that archives cannot be custodial



due to organizational, professional, economic, and societal reasons. Bearman suggests new tactics through regulation, auditing, training, and informing.

23. Bearman, David "New Models for Management of Electronic Records by Archives," . . . . . ( 7 a d e r n o s 2 (1992): 61-70. By new models, the author argues that archivists will have to intervene in the design of electronic systems, develop information policies which utilize standards and influence systems design, cease treating electronic records as special media, acquire staff with the requisite knowledge to manage information technology standards, and redefine records as transac- tions.

24. Bell, Lionel ' T h e Archival Implications of Machine-Readable Records," Archlvum 26 (1979): 85-92. This is an interesting historical piece, i n the sense that it starts with the premise that "archivists. . . begin to look at the problems of machine-readable archives. . . in terms of those users who are now working with quantification methods in historical or social science fields." Reviews the way computers are being used i n organizations and the issues involved in establishing a "machine-readable archives."

25. Chapdelaine, Susan A. 'The Paperless Office: Hope for the Future or a Grand 11- lusion?" Proven- 6 (Fall 1988): 35-42. This is a general essay arguing for the transformation of the traditional roles of archivists and records managers. While arguing that the predictions of a paperless office have failed to materialize, Chapdelaine asserts that electronic information technology is transforming the workplace, leading to a "multi-media office environment." T h e author sees this as an opportunity for archivists and records managers "to prove to management the value and immediacy of the services provided." T o do this, Chapdelaine argues the need to move from focus on records to information and that they must be more proactive to participating in the management of information. Ar- chivists and records managers must study the manner in which information technology is being used, strive to understand the technology involved, stay current with changes in the technology, use systems approaches to analyze the use of the information, and to get involved in the planning of the implementation of the technology.

26. Delmas, Bruno "Archival Science and Information Technologies," in Jnformat 'm J r 4 b . g In Office, dnd A

. . 1 . , rchives, ed. Angelika Menne-Haritz (New York: K. G. Saur,

1993), pp. 168-76. Written from the viewpoint that archival science "is based on two com- plementary disciplines: diplomatics, the science of the archival document, and archive administration." Delmas, writing from his experience as a French archival educator, enunciates the various challenges that electronic information systems pose for the basic concept of a record.

27. *Dollar, Charles M. Archival Theorv and Information Technologies: The Impact of on T e c h n o l o g o n (Macerata, Italy: University

of Macerata, 1992). Major study reviewing information technology trends, technology im- peratives, archival principles, archival methods, and recommendations for dealing with


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BIBLIOGRAPHY 107

electronic information technology from an archival perspective. Upholds electronic media as records and the possibility of applying traditional archival principles to the management of such media. This is the publication archivists should begin with if they are interested in the issue of archival principles and their relevance in the management of electronic records. See also his earlier S - - - - -

[email protected] With Gu&hci . . - (Paris: General Information Program and

UNISIST, UNESCO, 1986).

28. Dollar, Charles M. "New Developments and the Implication on Information Han- . . dling," in In formt ion H a n u In Officesand . , Arch ives, ed. Angelika Menne-Haritz (New York: K. G . Saur, 1993), pp. 56-66. Dollar "reaffirms the centrality of the principle of provenance for the intellectual control and preservation of electronic records and identifies critical areas where archival methods must be modified in order to accommodate new information technologies." Reviews information technology trends and impacts on archival records and then urges ways in which archivists must work with electronic records.

. . 29. *Duranti , Luciana "Diplomatics: New Use for an Old Science (Part VI)," r n v a r l i a

33 (Winter 1991-92): 6-24. In this concluding part of her series on diplomatics, the author discusses its validity in the study of document forms, formation, and relationships in the context of electronic information systems. A very different kind of approach to discusses about electronic records management, placing the management of such records in this centuries old archival framework.

30. Fisher, Barbara "Byproducts of Computer Processing," Americ-chivist 32 (July 1969): 215-23. An early effort to consider the impact and challenges of the computer to the basic aims and methods of archival work, suggesting that the archivist can utilize the computer to resolve many problems currently facing him or her. Fisher's essay is a response to Elizabeth B. Wood 's 1967 American Archivist essay.

31. Granstrom, Claes 'The Evolution of Tools and Techniques for the Management of Machine-Readable Data," in M-ement of Recorded Information: Convergin~ Dis-

Proceed'nm I of the Inte rnational Counc i l on Archi ves' Svmpxjiurn on Current Records, comp. Cynthia J. Durance (New York: K.G. Saur, 1990), pp. 92-101. This paper considers a relatively new phenomenon, the requirement for the retention, conservation and disposal of machine-readable records for archival purposes. It discusses machine- readable records -- their present state, the difficulty o f defining them precisely because of their differing types and uses, the various techniques for managing them, and their possible refinement in the future. T h e paper also speculates on developments, which it is hoped, will allow a more precise understanding and hence fuller exploitation of machine-readable data for archival uses. (Abstract provided).


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32. Granstrom, Claes "Will Archival Theory Be Sufficient in the Future?" in loforma- . . uon Handlln? In Offices and Archives, ed. Angelika Menne-Haritz (New York: K. G. Saur, 1993), pp. 159-67. Opinion on this issue from the Swedish perspective, mostly focused on legislative guidelines.

33. Gavrel, Katherine ConceDtual Pro-c Re- && (Paris: UNESCO, International Council on Archives, 1990).

34. Hedstrom, Margaret "Archives: T o Be Or Not T o Be: A Commentary," in David Bearman, ed., Archi v al Management of Electron'c I Records , Archives and Museum Infor- matics Technical Report no. 13 (Pittsburgh: AMI, 1991), pp. 25-30. Commentary on the essays by David Bearman and Kenneth Thibodeau published elsewhere in this volume. Hedstrom makes two important points. First, she argues that electronic records do not necessarily impede "archival objectives." She states: "This perspective . . . reflects a failure to consider the advantages that electronic records could bring to archives through new services which exploit the superior retrieval and manipulation capabilities of electronic records, and new responsibilities which archivists could assume based on the growing recognition by organizations that records -- especially electronic records -- are corporate assets." Second, she argues that it is not important whether archives are centralized (Thibodeau) or decentralized (Bearman) but how archivists can meet the needs of their parent organization and researchers; both approaches might need to operate simultaneously -- the one being used which provides the most appropriate solution.

35. Katz, Richard N. and Victoria A. Davis "The Impact of Automation on Corporate Memory," Records U m e n t O w 20 (January 1986): 10-14. Another general review of the impact of information technology on archives and records management.

36. Katz, Sylvan "A Cache of Ancient Floppy Disks," New Scientist 19 (26 December 1992): 70-71. An interesting, brief description of the individuals trying to work with old electronic records as "electronic archaelogists." A strong plea for the interdisciplinary skills of such individuals.

37. Kesner, Richard M. "Automated Information Management: Is There a Role for the Archivist in the Office of the Future?" Archivaria 19 (Winter 1984-85): 162-72. Kesner argues that archivists "must cease to act as archivists in the traditional sense" and, instead, "must become information specialists drawing upon a wide array of automated tools and analytical techniques in serving [their] constituents." Kesner responds to some criticism of this essay in his "Whither Archivy?: Some Personal Observations Addressed to those Who Would Riddle While Rome Bi~rns," Archivaria 20 (Summer 1985): 142-48.

38. Kesner, Richard M. "Computers, Archival Administration, and the Challenges of the 1980s," G e o r b Archive 9 (Fall 1981): 1-18. Optimistic article in which the author acknowledges the growth in programs managing electronic records and discusses the growing

Copyright Archives C(c Museum Informatics, 1993

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 109

uses of automation by archivists for the administration of their programs. H e then considers the need for additional education for producing archivists with the necessary knowledge and skills for working with computerized records.

39. Kesner, Richard M. 'The Changing Face of Office Documentation: ElectronicIOpti- cal Information Technologies (IT); An Analytical Framework for the Review of Trends in Office Automation and Its Implications for Archives and Records Management," in Infor-

on H a n d l i n ~ in Offices and Archives, ed. Angelika Menne-Haritz (New York: K. G. Saur, 1993), pp. 112-127. Advances in information technology are transforming the way people work, communicate, and document their activities. At the same time, the global nature of the modern organization has dictated the development of convenient and economi- cal methods of electronic data exchange. This series of events has in turn necessitated changes in the way archivists and records managers deal with their own responsibilities. The purpose of this essay is to characterize the operational, organizational, and technological developments that are transforming the work place; to discuss the advent of the "knowledge worker" and the "information utility"; and to consider how all of these factors provide new challenges for the archival and records management disciplines. (Abstract provided in this volume).

40. Ketelaar, Eric "Exploitation of New Archival Materials," Archivuq 35 (1989): 189- 99. Ketelaar examines implications of access to such new archival materials as sound, audio- visual, and electronic records. This Dirtch archivist considers various means of providing access to such records as well as the implications of researchers becoming accustomed to using such records and potential changing roles of the archivist.

41. Lodolini, Elio "La Gestion Des Documents e t L7Archivistique," in Management€ Recorded Information: Convereine Disci~lines: Proceedings of the Internat~onal Councrl QLI Archives' Syrr~posium on Current Records, comp. Cynthia J. Durance (New York: K.G. Saur, 1990), pp. 156-69. Archives relate to memory and life. In ancient times and in the Middle Ages, archives and records management were one discipline. They became separate in the modern age. Schools for archival studies were started in the eighteenth century, and archival studies began to be recognized as a science in the century. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, archives and their users changed. Classification by subject was prevalent in the eighteenth century although there had been changes in the original way of disposing of documentsd between the sixteenth and the eighteenth centuries. There was the new principle of classification: the reconstitution of the original order. With archives, records management, and library and information science now distinct entities, we see a return to convergence with emphasis on selection, preservation, and consult- ation.(Abstract provided). We must retain the memories of the past, for they will help us build the future. (In French).

42. Menne-Haritz, Angelika 'The Impact of Convergence on the Life Cycle of Records," in of the International Council on Archives' Svm~os ium on Current Records, comp. Cynthia J. Durance (New York: K.G. Saur, 1990)' pp. 121-31. Despite their rich potential for the ad-



ministration of library collections, various technologies have as yet failed to address fully the requirements for the proper management of records in the workplace. Traditional techniques for managing records have been geared closely to the performance of individual tasks and have supported the interrelationship of these tasks in accomplishing the mission of the organization. New approaches must perpetuate this alliance. Therefore, while bring- ing acknowledged advantages, the technologies face the challenge of remaining faithful to the business they serve in the way they provide for the organization, retrieval, protection, retention and archival preservation of records.(Abstract provided).

43. Menne-Haritz, Angelika "Symposium on the Impact of Information Technologies on Information Handling in Offices and Archives Marburg, Oct. 17th-19th 1991," in Informa-

d Archiva , ed. Angelika Menne-Haritz (New York: K. G. Saur, 1993), pp. 9-25. Summary of the papers presented and ensuing commentary and discussion at this conference, including participants from a variety of disciplines. Major themes include the recent development of information technology, the changing nature of work, the changing nature of documentation, the limits and future developments of archival principles and approaches, and the implications of all these trends for archives.

44. Newton, S.C. "Introduction: T h e Nature and Problems of Computer-Generated Records," in C o m ~ u t e r Generated R e c o r h , Approaches to Problems in Records Manage- ment, no. 2, ed. Michael Cook (England: Society of Archivists, 1987), pp. 1-4. General review of the challenges faced by the archivist in managing electronic records.

45. Peterson, Trudy Huskamp "Archival Principles and Records of the New Technol- ogy," American Archivist 47 (Fall 1984): 383-93. An argument that electronic information technology does not change archival principles but that it does force the archivist to address some new issues.

46. Peterson, Trudy Huskamp "Machine-Readable Records as Archival Materials." k chivum 35 (1989): 83-88. 'This paper argues that basic archival principles do apply to records created by utilizing computer technologies. Archival practice, however, shifts substantially to accommodate the needs of the medium."

47. Rieger, Morris "Archives and Automation," American Archivist 29 (January 1966): 109-11. Statement that electronic records should be considered to be official records.

48. Roper, Michael ' T h e Changing Face of the File: Machine-ReadabIe Records and the Archivist," 14 (Spring 1980): 145-50. Starts out by stating that "machine- readable records present problems which differ from those encountered in respect of conventional written records," and then discusses the identification of electronic records, appraisal issues, the documentation of electronic information systems, and preservation challenges.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 111

49. Southern, Edwin ' T h e Document and the Computer: T h e Historian's Sources and the Cultural Context of Automation," Q r o l i n a Comments 41 (March 1993): 53-57. General discussion about the emergence of virtual documents and the implication of these documents for archivists and historians. Southern basically argues that the role of the archivist as an intermediary between sources and researchers will not end, although it may change.

50. Stielow, Frederick J. "Archival Theory and the Preservation of Electronic Media: Opportunities and Standards Below the Cutting Edge," b r i c a n Archivist 55 (Spring 1992): 332-43. T h e archival mission presupposes stewardship, which can provide the fielu with a mechanism to carve a distinctive niche within automated environments. The author warns against the untutored embrace of the "cutting edge" of new technology. Instead, he suggests the need for study and reliance on standards, as well as the adoption of a process- oriented view for preservation management to deal with rapid technological change. H e discusses the effects of automation on archival theory, presents common sense guidelines, and includes a brief analysis of specific magnetic and optical storage media. H e also proposes a new archival law: With each new storage medium, archivists must reexamine . . their theory and expect to meet new preservation challenges. (American A r c h ~ v ~ s l abstract).

51. Stuart-Stubbs, Basil "Whither Information?" i n m e e m e n t of Recorded Informa-

won comp. Cynthia J. Durance (New York: K.G. Saur, 1990), pp. 15-26. The current concept of information as an entity independent of the media of recording and transmission can be traced to the work of lawyers, economists and computer scien- tists. The development of libraries and archives has been influenced by the nature of the media. Creators of new information choose the medium and thereby affect the institutions responsible for collecting, organizing and preserving information. The advent of the computer as a means of handling information is having an impact on these institutions, and is requiring them to adapt rapidly. (Abstract provided).

52. Sturges, Paul "Policies and Criteria for the Archiving of Electronic Publishing," Jour- of I i b r a r i a n s h i ~ 19 (July 1987): 152-72. The impermanence of magnetic media has led

to a concern in the library and information community with the fate of the fast-increasing amount of information which is electronically published. Different approaches from libraries, digital mapping, video archiving, archives and data archives, office management, and the world of commercial publishing offer insights into the kinds of policy which might be adopted to deal with this problem. Such policies are likely to need to involve publishers and other institutions, as well as national library and archive institutions. (Abstract provided)

53. Taylor, Hugh A. "Chip Monks at the Gate: The Impact of Technology on Archives, Libraries and the User," Archivaria 33 (Winter 1991-92): 173-80. Wide-ranging statement of the effect of modern electronic information technology on archives.



54. Taylor, Hugh A. 'Transformation in the Archives: Technological Adjustment or Paradigm Shift?" Archivark 25 (Winter 1987-88): 12-28. Evaluating the changing nature of electronic information technology and its uses, Taylor discusses some of the potential impacts on archivists, leading to a questioning of certain basic assumptions such as the definition of an original record, the use of archival records, and the roles of the archivist.

55. Vernon, John A. 'Technology's Effect on the Role of the Archivist," Prove- 3 (Spring 1985): 1-12. Another plea for the need for archivists to become conversant with electronic information technology o r to run the risk of becoming irrelevant to organizations and to society.

56. Warner, Robert M. and Francis X. Blouin, Jr. "Some Implications of Records in . . Machine-Readable Form for Traditional Archival Practice," in

P r o c w the C o n o n v a l Ma- of M&ung= . . rv 7-10. 1979. Ann Arbor. M t c h ~ ~ i m , ed. Carolyn L. Geda, Erik

W. Austin, and Francis X. Blouin, Jr. (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1980), pp. 242-48. "We believe. . . that machine-readable records are essentially archives in a new medium. As such, the principles embodied in archival theory should guide our thinking about just how to appraise, arrange, describe, store, and access material in this media."

57. Weissman, Ronald E.F. "Virtual Documents on an Electronic Desktop: Hyper- media, Emerging Computing Environments and the Future of Information Management,"

' .. p in-t of Recorded Information: Converging DISCID I es. rocee- of the Lnter- 1 C o w on Archives S m m on Current R e c o r h . 9 ., comp. Cynthia J . Durance

(New York: K.G. Saur, 1990), pp. 37-60. Desktop computing technology is changing the fundamental nature of documents, document processing, and information management. This paper describes the re-definition of documents that is currently under way, brought about by hypermedia systems, compound documents, object-oriented computing systems and tagged markup architectures. Examing the implications of the trend to treat documents as data bases, the paper focuses on the brave new world of the vertical document and the electronic archive, and identifies key management issues that archivists and information managers will face in the early 1990s. (Abstract provided).

58. Wood, Elizabeth B. "From the Information Soapbox: Information Handling Dialecti- cally Considered," American Ar- 30 (April 1967): 31 1-20. Although Wood is more concerned with automated techniques than the management of electronic records, many of the issues and concerns raised in this essay relate to the latter issue -- especially the archivist's knowledge base and its relationship to information and library science. See also Barber Fisher's 1969 reply to Wood.

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There has been a steady stream of writings examining the impact of electronic records on the archival profession such as the need for education and the effectiveness of educational programs. There is a great need for additional research on such matters. The writings by Teny Cook, Margaret Hed~trom, and Frederick J. Stielow are good startingpoints for considering the impact, actual and potential, on the archival profession.

59. Bearman, David "Electronic Records Issues," U 4 (Spring 1990): 7-9. A list of twenty basic questions requiring research and a discussion of the kinds of research required by the archival community.

60. Brown, Thomas Elton "A Decade of Development: The Educational Programs for Automated Records and Techniques Within the Society of American Archivists," American Archivist, forthcoming. A review of early efforts by the Society of American Archivists, through its Committee on Automated Records and Techniques, to provide continuing education for archivists in automated records. Brown endeavors to determine lessons learned from these efforts which can instruct the Society and archivists in the future work to manage electronic records.

61. Brown, Thomas E. 'The Society of American Archivists Confronts the Computer," . . American 47 (Fall 1984): 366-82. During the 1960s, the committee structure of the Society of American Archivists began to deal with the twin concerns resulting from automation: automated control techniques and machine-readable records. Until 1975, separate committees dealt with the two facets of computerization. Then the Committee on Automated Records and Techniques launched a broad program of publications, presenta- tions, and concepts of previous committees. In addition, the Society of American Archivists addressed other facets of automation through the National Information Systems Task Force and its publications program. This progress, however, came in spite of problems resulting from ongoing questions about the proper organizational structure to deal with automation, from communication problems within the Society, and from new technological challenges. (Abstract provided)

62. Clubb, Jerome M. "Archival Implications of Technological and Social Change," in ble Records: Proceedinn of the Conference on Archival

M m m e n t of Machine-Readable Records Februan, 7-10. 1979. Ann Arbor. Michipan (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1980), pp. 233-41. A summary of the conference. Clubb focuses on several essential issues -- appraisal, the education of archivists, and the funding of new initiatives in the management of electronic records.


114 ELECTRONIC RFCr)l<l)s 11AN,\GL'.ll h I'ROGRAM STRATEGIES

63. *Cook, Terry "Easy T o Byte, Harder To Chew: The Second Generation of Electronic Records Archives," Archivaria33 (Winter 1991-92): 202-16. Reviewing eight reports released in 1990-91, Cook argues that archivists have moved from a first generation - "when electronic records archivists turned to others using computerized records for advice and inspiration" - to a second generation of experienced and competent electronic records archivists developing their own solutions and programs. This is a valuable summary of recent reports on electronic records management, but it's larger conclusions are on somewhat shakier ground.

64. Cook, Terry "From Information to Knowledge: An Intellectual Paradigm for Ar- chives," m 19 (Winter 1984-85): 28-49. Probably the most important essay in the debate on the relationship of history and archives that graced the pages of Archlvarla in the mid-1980s. While Cook is not focused on the archival administration of electronic records, he has described the importance of historical understanding and a knowledge of archival science for dealing with records, including those in electronic form. H e stresses "three main areas" of work for archivists: "the study of records in the aggregate; the appraisal, description, and careful understanding of the informational value found in individual documents; and the development of archival theory within the broader humanities and social science."

65. [Cox, Richard J.] A rchi 'v a I Adm i n i st r* dt ion in the Electronic Information Age: Bn . . Advanced (Pittsburgh: School of Library and Informa- tion Science, University of Pittsburgh, August 15, 1989). Detailed narrative on a training institute for state government archivists, co-sponsored by the National Association of Government Archives and Records Administrators and funded by the Council on Library Resources (1989-90) and the National Historical Publications and Records Commission (1991-present). Reports of the same title were published on the 1990 and 1991 Institutes.

66. Cox, Richard J. "Graduate Archival Education and Electronic Records: A Brief Report on the AERT Survey," BERT News- 2 (February 1991): 4-5. A brief survey to determine how North American archival educators were teaching about electronic records in their programs and courses. This survey revealed that the educational superstructure was very weak, with educators either spending very limited amounts of time on the topic or using outdated curriculum materials.

67. Cox, Richard J. 'The Roles of Graduate and Continuing Education Programs in Preparing Archivists in North America for the Information Age," American Archivia, forthcoming. This essay argues that the North American archival profession has not ade- quately dealt with educating archivists to manage automated techniques and, especially, electronic records because of a variety of structural problems in this field: there are few archival educators qualified to teach such topics, few satisfactory archival programs for handling such functions, and little research being done on these concerns. The essay presents five actions for the archival community to take to rectify the dilemma: 1) expand the concept of graduate archival educatior.; 2) make such education interdisciplinary; 3) emphasize research; 4) develop higher visibility with archival employers and prospective


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student recruits; and 5) build a foundation for effective continuing education programs. (Abstract provided)

68. DeWhitt, Ben "Archival Uses of Computers in the United States and Canada," . . American 42 (April 1979): 152-57. In hindsight, this is a remarkably optimistic article. Drawing on a survey, the author chronicles little activity in dealing with electronic records, but suggests that archivists, especially in state archives, are positioning themselves to begin work with these records. Reading this essay makes one ask, what happened in the subsequent fifteen years?

69. Evans, F rank B. "Records and Administrative Processes: Retrospect and Prospects," . . . in Management of Recorded Information: Converging D~sclpl~nes: P r o c ~ . e d i n g of the Inter-

on A r b v e s S n on - . > , comp. Cynthia J. Durance (New York: KG. Saur, 1990), pp. 27-35. Because the information professions do not share a common terminology, operational definitions based on archival usage are given for the terms "document" and "record" as they are used in this paper. The role of record keeping, with the emphasis upon recording medium and systems of control, is then examined from ancient civilizations to the present, with emphasis upon the records of government. The development and nature of modern filing systems intended chiefly for paper-based records is also summarized, in order to provide historical perspective and a framework within which to understand the changes resulting from the application of new technology to traditional record keeping. (Abstract provided).

70. Fishbein, Meyer H. "ADP and Archives: Selected Publications on Automatic Data Processing," American Archivist 38 (January 1975): 31-42. Brief bibliography of publications to that point, useful as an orientation to the thinking by archivists of that time.

71. Fishbein, Meyer H. "The ICA Committee on Automation: A Decade of Achieve- ment," ADPA 4, no. 3 (1984): 9-12. Review of this international committee's efforts since its establishment in 1971, including the creation of the journal ADPA (Automated Data Processing in Archives).

for the Educ ' 72. Fishbein, Meyer A Model Curriculum atlon and Traininv of Archivists in Automation: A R A M P Study (Paris: General Information Programme and UNISIST, UNESCO, 1985).

, , . . 73. Fishbein, Meyer, ed. The National Archives and S&i.tUral . , &sex& (Athens: Ohio

University Press, 1973). Essays based on a 1968 National Archives conference on such topics as the use of electronic records, their preservation, and the aspects of providing access to such records. This is a publication primarily useful as a historical document in the early work of archivists with electronic records.

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74. Fishbein, Meyer "Report of the Committee on Data Archives and Machine Readable Records -- Fiscal Year 1973," ADPA 1, no. 2 (1974): 5-10. Survey of the status of work with electronic records in state and provincial archives, business archives, and church and university archives in the United States and Canada. The article concludes that "it is evident that more than half of the archives in the United States and Canada do not consider ADP media records and certainly d o not plan to accession such media. . . . Although electronic computers have been in use since World War I1 and, importantly, since 1965, only a minority of archivists have given much attention to the information revolution."

75. Gilliland-Swetland, Anne J. "From Education to Application and Back: Archival Literature and an Electronic Records Curriculum," -, forthcoming. Literature pertaining to the archival administration of electronic records is growing rapidly and becoming increasingly rich and diverse. With reference to key texts, the author examines some of the functions this literature needs to play in electronic records instruction, particularly at graduate level. She then discusses some of the current limitations of the literature and offers suggestions as to how these might be overcome, particularly through the use of electronic information systems technology. (Abstract provided)

76. Hedlin, Edie "Chinatown Revisited: The Status and Prospects of Government . . Records in America," P u b l ~ c H ~ s t o r i m 8 (Summer 1986): 46-59. A discussion of the weak- nesses of local, state, and federal archives and records management programs. This is an important background essay for i~nderstanding why electronic records programs have not fully developed in government records operations.

77. 'Hedstrom, Margaret 'Teaching Archivists About Electronic Records and Automated Techniques: A Needs Assessment," American Archivist, forthcoming. This article assesses the knowledge and skills that archivists need to administer electronic records and apply automated techniques in archives. The author discusses how rapidly changing technology, ongoing debates about the relevance of archival theory, and evolving practices and methods present particular challenges for the development of a curriculum on automation. She outlines a curriculum organized into f o ~ ~ r broad areas: 1) archives and information technology; 2) basic concepts and terminology; 3) electronic records; and 4) automated techniques, ending with a disc~ission of the overall learning objectives for such a curriculum. (Abstract provided).

78. *Hedstrom, Margaret "Understanding Electronic Incunabula: A Framework for Re- search on Electronic Records," - 54 (Summer 1991): 334-54. The most comprehensive statement of research needs in this area published in the archival literature. Hedstrom characterizes electronic records as the archivist's "greatest challenge in decades" and notes the distinct lack of programmatic development for administering such records. Hedstrom frames five broad questions needing to be researched, and she argues that interdisciplinary research efforts will be the most effective means of answering such questions.


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79. Henry, Linda J. "An Archival Retread in Electronic Records: Acquiring Computer Literacy," American Archivist, forthcoming. Archivists may find acquiring computer literacy the most difficult aspect of becoming an electronic records archivist. The author explores five aspects related to learning about computers: gender, age, computer anxiety, ways of thinking, and extrinsic knowledge, in order to reassure archivists and urge them to become involved with this new media. (Abstract provided)

80. Kesner, Richard M. "Employing the Case Study Method in the Teaching of . . Automated Records and Techniques to Archivists," v, forthcoming. The purpose of this article is three-fold. First, the author briefly introduces the concept of case study methods in teaching and how these methods might be applied in the professional development of archivists. Second, this article explores case study writing and reports on what the Society of American Archivists (SAA) in particular is doing to promote the creation of case study materials. Third, this essay identifies areas where archival educators and practitioners might team LIP to produce case studies concerning the archival administration of electronic records and/or the use of information technologies in archives. Since the author has no intention o f restating in the confines of this short paper the vast body of literature pertaining to case writing and teaching, he has also provided a select bibliography of useful texts and articles. (Abstract provided)

81. Kesner, Richard M., comp. 1 . . . . and (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1983). This is an update of his 1980 Automation. M a c h i n e - R e a d a R e c o r d s . d Archival . . e , also published by SAA. It is organized to include periodicals and reference tools, bibliographies, E D P applications in archives, machine-readable records and archives, records management and automation, library automation, information theory and sytsems, and future directions for archival automation. These bibliographies are quite useful for sources in the early management of electronic records. They also provide a view of writings on the historians' use of such records and archival automated techniques.

82. Kesner, Richard M. 'Teaching Archivists About Information Technology Concepts: A Needs Assessment," American Archivist, forthcoming. With the growing use of information technologies in all aspects of work and leisure, automation and electronic records have become commonplace within most modern organizations. T o address the varied and often complex user support requirements associated with these developments, we must educate a new breed of information services professional. T h e traditional role models of archivist, records manager, librarian, museum curator, and the like will not suffice. The accompany- ing essay briefly describes the emerging information services environment, the special demands that it places on archivists, the types of skills required in response to these articu- lated needs, and a strategy and criteria for a programmatic response. (Abstract provided).

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83. Ruller, Thomas J. "A Review of Information Science and Computer Science Litera- . . ture to Support Archival Work with Electronic Records," American Arch~v~st , forthcoming. A bibliographic essay on some of the useful publications in the information fields for archivists and archival science.

84. Society of American Archivists "Final Report of the CART Curriculum Develop- . . ment Conference," American A r c h w , forthcoming. Report outlining content for the teaching of individuals to work as archivists responsible for the management of electronic records and using automation for the management of archival records.

85. 'Stielow, Frederick J. 'The Impact of Information Technology on Archival Theory: A Discourse on an Automation Pedagogy," J o ~ ~ r n a l of Ed& for I .i& and I n f o r m ton 34 (Winter 1993): 48-65. Based on historical research, personal files, and survey data, this article begins with a pragmatic description of the present state of archival education for automation. The author acknowledges the propriety of technical instruction but argues for such training within the broader context of graduate education. Basic confusion exists in defining continuing education and differences between workshops and formal course work for archivists. The Society of American Archivists has played a pivotal but often contradictory role and is now being complemented by a new cadre of full-time archival educators. Given the immensity and confusing terminology of the ongoing computer revolution, the author argues that archivists need to take a step back to develop a clear pedagogical vision on automation and graduate archival education. That base fosters a crucial recognition of the longitudinal focus and holistic methodology of archivists, which is necessary to synthesize their place in the Information Age. (Abstract provided)

86. U.S., National Historical Publications and Records Commission Fleet ronl 'c , Commission Reports and Papers, no. 4

(Washington, D.C.: National Historical Publications and Records Commission, March 1990). Paper sponsored by the Commission to describe the major issues about electronic recordkeeping that the Commission needs to consider in future funding. This is a general

. . set of recommendations that should be read in conjunction with its R e s e a c h h u s m R e c h (St Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society for the National Historical

Publications and Records Commission, 1991).

87. U.S., National Historical Publications and Records Commission Research I d R e c o r h (St Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society for the National Historical

Publications and Records Commission, 1991). Report of a meeting of 46 individuals to 1) "identify issues, [2] describe research opportunities, methodologies, and projects, [and 31 determine priorities for projects contributing to the better management of archival information in electronic form." The report describes ten priority areas constituting a research agenda for the archival management of electronic records.

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The publications below are concerned with the unu1y.si.s of u particular kind of information system. There i s a trernendou.s need f i r additiorzctl reveurch and case studies in this urea.

88. Ahlgren, Dorothy and John McDonald 'The Archival Management of a Geographic Information System," Archivaria 13 (Winter 1981182): 59-65. Description of G I s used in the Canada Land Inventory.

89. Bearman, David "Electronic Office Records," Archives & Museum Informatics 4 (Spring 1990): 12-15. Report of a meeting held at the Brookings Institution in early 1990 to discuss issues regarding the management of electronic office records. "Participants agreed that an adequate policy framework, even if it established who within an organization has what authority and responsibility for electronic records management, is not sufficient. Solu- tions to the short and intermediate term issues facing archivists and records managers with electronic office records require an implementation framework which pays equal attention to administrative remedies and technology-supported solutions. Meeting participants agreed that records management guidelines had to be based on the missions of agencies and on their day-to-day operational requirements for records, and therefore policies and their implementation would be application specific as well as organization s p e c i k . They further agreed that solutions would need to be defined in terms of outcomes, would be format independent, and would have to be sensitive to the life-cycle of records."

90. Bearman, David "Multisensory Data and Its Management," in Management of Recorded Information: Converging Disciplines: Proceedings of the International Council m c h i v e s ' Svmposium on Current R e c o r a , comp. Cynthia J. Durance (New York: K.G. Saur, 1990), pp. 11 1-19. The past decade has brought two dramatic changes to the world of information management professionals: the dissolution of document boundaries and the integration of multisensory data. Document management has been the premise of the disciplines of librarianship, archives and records management. The assumption that documents of any given medium contain information in one sensory modality has likewise been central to the control of documents, as the exception of motion pictures with sound best illustrates. Both these stable frameworks of information management disciplines have now dissolved, with digital data and electronic information networks dedicated to data retrieval rather than document exchange. This paper examines the implications of the im- pending disappearance of the unisensory document and the emergence of nondocument- based information exchange. It suggests that archival approaches to documents based on form and function continue to be useful frameworks for developing strategies for the management of multisensory documents and nondocument information. (Abstract provided).



' I , . 91. Bearman, David Q&c a Medid. Their Implications for Archives & Museums, Ar- chival Informatics Technical Report I (Pittsburgh: Archives & Museum Informatics, Spring 1987). Overview of the technology and the possibilities of use by archives and museum programs. At the time of the report, archivists had made little use of the media.

92. Bui, Dominic Nghiep Cong ' T h e Videodisk: Technology, Applications, and Some Implications for Archives," h e r i c a n A r c W 47 (Fall 1984): 418-27. As a medium of information storage and retrieval, the video or optical disk affords certain advantages such as high-density storage capabilities, image stability, and speed of recall. This article review current videodisk technology and discusses some of its strengths, advantages, and problems as well as its potential as a medium of recording, storage, and retrieval for archival materials, both textual and pictorial. Also considered are the experimental and exploratory uses of the videodisk for archival purposes as conducted in pilot programs by the Public Ar- chives of Canada and by the Library of Congress. Although the videodisk is relatively new and as yet has not been adopted as a permanent medium on a large scale, its technical potential is such that its use in archives should not be overlooked. (American A r c h i v i ~ abstract)

93. Burke, Frank G . "Chaos Through Communications: Archivists, Records Managers, and the Communications Phenomenon," in The Archival lma~inat ion: Essays in Honour af Hugh A. T-, ed. Barbara L. Craig (Ottawa: Association of Canadian Archivists, 1992), pp. 154-77. The centllry from 1870 to 1970 was one o f consolidation of business, corporate, and government activities in a structured office environment. T h e partitioning of worker activities and stratification of authority led to a structure amenable to the imposition of records management. Records flowed through the system in predictable and controllable communication patterns and were funnelled into organized and retrievable caches called files. Controlling this flow were secretarial, records, and files staff. T h e recent shift from hierarchical communications to broad interconnectivty has led to idiosyncratic information flow, person-to-person o r broadcast over electronic media, controlled directly by the manager or individual staff member rather than the secretariallclerical staff. This paper in- vestigates the implications of personalized communication technology and its impact on the future of records and records management. (Abstract provided) This essay is repre- sentative of the kind of work more archivists need to undertake, that is, placing electronic records into their broader context of societal record keeping and communications development.

94. Cook, Michael "E-Mail Systems, Office Communication and Records Manage- . . ment," in Information Handllnen O f f i c e s , ed. Angelika Menne-Haritz (New York: K. G. Saur, 1993), pp. 152-58. Examines records management practices in the context of the development of IT in administration. E-mail is considered in the light of information systems, internal to the organization and external to it. Records management is essentially a structure of linked databases. The development of electronic communication in an organization offers the possibility of building these into the common services provided by the system: details of these are given. Internal communications are matched by external ones, in the form of databases and systems for data exchange. Progress in adopting these

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methods has been slow, but has occurred everywhere. Citations are chosen from British sources on records management practice. (Abstract provided in this volume).

95. Dollar, Charles M. "Trends in New Computer Technology," ADPA 5 (1986): 25-36. Review of developments in microelectronics, storage, software, architecture, data transmission, data conversion, and technology obsolescence. Dollar sees the new technologies as of- fering "an extraordinary opportunity for archivists to achieve both intellectual and physical control of archival documentation not hitherto possible; to facilitate public access to archival documentation in ways not hitherto possible; and to execute these and other professional activities with increased efficiency and cost-effectiveness."

96. Hedstrom, Margaret "Optical Disks: Are Archivists Repeating the Mistakes of the Past?" -its News- 2 (Fall 1988): 52-53. Hedstrom argues that the "short life span of storage media . . . is not the most challenging aspect of preserving records of modern information systems." She then looks at issues such as "system depend- ency" and the use of information technology standards.

97. Kula, Sam "Optical Memories: Archival Storage Systems of the Future, or More Pie in the Sky?" Archivaria 4 (Summer 1977): 43-48. Early commentary on the use of optical memory systems, assessing their possibilities and limitations. Calls for archivists to examine the technology.

98. Mclntosh, Lowrie W. "Information Technology and Public Records: Emerging Is- sues in the Next Five Years; Providing Guidelines and Forecast Data for Planning," Jnterna- W o u r n a l of Microcra~hics & Optical Technolo# 10, no. 4 (1992): 187-90. Descriptive list of potential changes in information technology, although the article provides little in- sight into the specifics of the changes for public records.

99. Marks, Gregory A. "Implications for Archives of Computer Hardware Advances," . . , , . . in Re&.Procee '

Management of Machine-Readable Records F e b r i l a r y w b o r . Michi~an nce o n Arch.yal

(Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1980), pp. 149-57. Review of trends in technology (it would be interesting to examine older predictions such as these to determine their veracity and usefulness to information professionals such as archivists).

100. Markus, M. Lynne, Tora K. Bikson, Maha El-Shinnawy, Louise L. Soe. "Frag- ments of Your Communication: Email, Vmail, and Fax," L n f k m m n Souety 8 (1992): 207- 26. How are new media, such as electronic mail, voice mail, and fax, used when people have access to several o f them simultaneously? This paper reports findings from a field study of media use in four sizable subunits within two large organizations where most employees had access to email, vmail, and fax. Respondents tended to use multiple electronic media rather than relying on one. However, they also showed a tendency to prefer one medium for asynchronous communication and to use the others for occasional,


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specialized purposes. Further , there were considerable differences across subunits in typical media use patterns. Although respondents expressed strong desires for multimedia integration, this study suggests that technological integration may not necessarily result in seamless, collaborative work. (Abstract provided)

101. Michelson, Avra Expert S s . . , Na-

tional Archives Technical Information Paper, no. 9 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, Archival Research and Evaluation Staff, March 1991). An important review of the current and projected future uses of expert systems in organizations. This report is most valuable as a n introduction to the technology, but it is weak in its description of implications for archives and archivists.

102. Michelson, Avra and Jeff Rothenberg "Scholarly Communication and Information Technology: Exploring the Impact of Changes in the Research Process o n Archives," . .

an A r c h ~ v ~ a 55 (Spring 1992): 236-315. A comprehensive description of trends in information technology and trends in research practices. T h e authors, based o n their review of the trends, recommend that the archival profession: I ) establish a presence on the Inter- net/NREN; 2) make source materials available for research use over the Internet; 3) create documentation strategies to document network-mediated scholarship and the development of research and education networks; 4) develop archival methods suitable for operation with NREN; 5) take user methods and future computational capacity into account in establishing policies on the management of software-dependent records; and 6) recognize and reward initiatives that a ) advance archival management of electronic records, b) respond to scholarly use of information technology, or c) promote a network-mediated archival practice. (from executive summary of the report)

103. Nolte, William "High-speed Text Search Systems and Their Archival Implications," . . rch~vist 50 (Fall 1987): 580-84. After a brief definition of what such systems

constitute, Nolte considers their potential meaning for the archival profession. H e notes that the combination of cheap storage and retrieval might threaten elimination of the archivist. However, he argues that the existing technological capabilities of such systems d o not necessarily include overcoming "serious problems of intellectual control of masses of data." Nolte stresses the need for archivists to work in developing processes for the "automatic indexing of key record fields" and the "standardization of record formats within an organization." T h e author also speculates that the cheap storage and effective retrieval might lead to the abandonment of the traditional notion of archival appraisal.

104. *Nowicke, Carol Elizabeth "Managing Tomorrow's Records Today: An Experi- ment in Archival Preservation of Electronic Mail," Midwestern Archivist 13, no. 2 (1988): 67-75. Encouraged by the speed of transmission and ease of use, many organizations are relying heavily on electronic mail for internal and external communications. What are the implications of electronic mail for the archivist? An experiment was undertaken by the Navy Laboratories History Program to examine use of electronic mail within the Navy Laboratory community and at tempt to preserve and archivally manage this evanescent form of communication. (Abstract provided)


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105. Paulapuro, Hannu "The Future of Paper in the Information Society," Electronic -9 (June 1991): 135-43. T h e role of paper within the information society, in connec- tion with the growth of electronic media, is discussed. T h e development of electronic media over the last 10-15 years is briefly reviewed, and trends and developments in paper use in relation to electronic media and other technological developments are explained. Comparisons are drawn between electronic media and paper for information transmission and human use, and the environmental pressures on the paper industry a re discussed. The author concludes that paper will be augmented and complemented by electronic media, but not replaced. (Abstract provided). An interesting perspective worth considering.

106. Smith, Ralph A. "Management of Digital Geographic and Computer-Aided Design . . . and Drafting Records," in W m e n t of Recorded Information: Conver- P r o c e e d l n g s e s ' Sy- RecRecards, comp. Cynthia J . Durance (New York: K.G. Saur, 1990). pp. 84-91. Facilities are being established to store and exchange geographical information. As the technology has evolved, the number and variety of applications have increased and new records management problems have emerged. These problems include establishing standards, maintaining current and non-current records, and maintaining spatial-relationship and related data bases and processes. Geographic information systems also provide a tool for managing data in- dexed by subject, location and time. They are encouraging the development of electronic information high-ways. Technology is transforming the role of t h e archivist into that of a manager of an information network that connects current and non-current data records. (Abstract provided).

107. Thoma, George R., Susan E. Hauser, and Frank L. Walker "Managing An Archive of Electronic Document Images," in ASIS '89: Proceedines of the 52nd ASIS Annual Meet- ing (Medford, N.J.: Published for the American Society for Information Science, 1989), pp. 59-65. Description o n creating and managing such an archives.

108. Tomer, Christ inger and Richard J . Cox "Electronic Mail: Implications and Chal- lenges for Records Managers and Archivists," Records & Retrieval R e p w 8 (November 1992): 1-16. A review of the nature and technical aspects of electronic mail and a discussion of the challenges that archivists and records managers face in managing electronic mail.

. . 109. Volz, Richard A. "Computer-Based Mass Storage Technology," in Archwlsts and

--Readable Records: Proceedines of the Conference on Archival Manaceme Readable Records F-ry 7 - l a 1979. AM Arbor. Midugan . . nt of

(Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1980), pp. 158-181. General introduction to such information systems.



Records Management

Thk is a sampling of writings from the recordv management perspective on the impact of electronic information technology on this discipline Records management literature has typ- cially had u weak view of archives, and it would he interesting to determine the differences in viewpoint of the records managers and archivists regarding electronic records.

110. Aitchison, Wallace G . ' T h e Role of a Records Manager in an Integrated Data Processing System," Records Management Ouarterly 1 (Octover 1967): 15-17,20-21. T h e records manager must keep abreast of developments in data processing if he is to maintain his position in the growing field of information management systems. This article reviews some of the problems facing the records manager and suggests how they can be met. (Abstract provided)

111. Alldredge, Everett 0. "Documenting Computer Operations," m n t 0- 1 (April 1967): 13-17. A federal specialist discusses techniques for documenting computer operations at government installations. (Abstract provided)

112. Fruscione, James J . "A Managerial Framework for Machine-Readable Data Management," Records Management Ouarterly20 (July 1986): 3ff. Management of automated systems is a complex task. Lack of standardization and centralized planning has frequently brought about misunderstanding and centralized planning has frequently brought about misunderstanding and confusion regarding the appropriate direction for im- plementing controls over automated applications. Consequently, organizations must now strive to develop managerial frameworks within which the requisite policies and procedures for machine-readable data management can be instituted. This article explores the key issues involved. (Abstract provided)

113. Katz, Richard N. and Victoria A. Davis "The Impact of Automation on O u r Cor- porate Memory," Becords Manaoement 20 (January 1986): 10ff. Futurists' predictions about the emergence of an "information economy" have already gained widespread acceptance. This article addresses some of the major technologies driving this change and assessing the impact of these technologies o n our ability to preserve and protect vital and historical information in an electronic context. (Abstract provided)

114. Porter, John W. ' T h e Effects of E D P on Records Management," Records M- merit 1 (April 1967): 9-12. Early argument for records managers' need to become more proficient in i~nderstanding electronic records and information systems.


BIBLIOGRAPHY 125

115. Taggart, William M., Jr . "Information Systems for Organizational Communica- tion: A Records ManagementIData Processing Perspective", Records Mawpement Ouarter- ly 9, no. 4 (1975): 11-14. Another early call for records managers' need to work with data processors in controlling organizational records in electronic form.


There is an increasing number ofpublications on the appraisal of electronic recorak. The Alan Kowlowitz study is an excellent example of the kind of studies needed, and the Australians' keep in^ Data collection of essays is a good place to start.

116. Alldredge, Everett 0. "Inventorying Magnetic-Media Records," American Ar- chlvist 35 (JulyIOctober 1972): 337-45. Description of pilot project work conducted at the U.S. National Archives, reproducing an inventory form used in the project.

117. Bearman, David Collectine Software: A New C h a l l e n ~ e for Archives &L Museums (Pittsburgh: Archives & Museum lnformatics,Summer 1987). Originally prepared for the Computer Museum in Boston. This report examines the history of software and its influen- ces on our society and it addresses the barriers to collecting software as a cultural record. It identifies essential policy distinctions which administrators will need to consider between software collections and other collections of archives and museums. It examines the ways in which software can best be described, made available to researchers, and exhibited and it proposes a framework for a descriptive vocabulary. Further, it identifies the physical requirements and management issues associated with the retention and storage, retrieval an- duse, of software in cultural repositories. (From the executive summary).

118. Brown, Thomas E. "The Evolution of an Appraisal Theory for Automated Records," Archival I n f o r m i c s Newsletter1 (Fall 1987): 49-51. Review of key writings, documents, and approaches in the appraisal of electronic records. This review focuses on the work of the U. S. National Archives.

119. Brown, Thomas E. and William A. Reader ' T h e Archival Management of Machine- Readable Records from Database Management Systems: A Technical Leaflet," Archival In- b r m a t i d e w s l e t t e r 1 (Spring 1987): 9-12. Procedures for assuring that "archivally valuable DBMS information" can be transferred to a repository.

120. Cameron, Ross J. "Appraisal Strategies for Machine-Readable Case Files," Provenance 1 (Spring 1983): 49-55. The author draws on his experience in the Machine- Readable Archives Branch of the National Archives and Records Service and presents general advice about the appraisal of statistical databases. Mostly valuable now as a brief description of what procedures were being used to analyze such records at this time.



121. Cook, Terry "Appraisal in the Information Age: A Canadian Commentary," in ement of Electron'c Records David Bearman, ed., Archival Ma n I , Archives and Museum

Informatics Technical Report no. 13 (Pittsburgh: AMI, 1991), pp. 50-56. Cook offers a commentary on the Miller and Kowlowitz essays published elsewhere in this volume. Cook argues for the integration of electronic records appraisal into the general work of the archivist. Cook argues for a "more holistic, corporate approach to appraisal . . . . and focus first on the mandates and functions of the agency and its interactions with citizens and societal groups."

122. Cox, Nicholas "Computer-Readable Records from a Government Archivist's Point of View." in W e r Generated Records, Approaches to Problems in Records Manage- ment, no. 2, ed. Michael Cook (England: Society of Archivists, 1987), pp. 5-21. Advice on surveying and appraising electronic records in English government.

123. Dollar, Charles M. "Appraising Machine-Readable Records." American Archivist 41 (October 1978): 423-30. Description of appraisal approach used by the U.S. National Ar- chives in evaluating statistical data bases.

124. Erpen, Walter Meyer zu "Appraisal and Acquisition of Electronic Data Processing Records," in Arctuyal Appraisal: Theory and P r a c h , ed. Christopher Hives (Vancouver, British Columbia: Archives Association of British Columbia, 1990), pp. 31-44. Useful and specific set of questions that must be addressed in appraising electronic records.

125. Fishbein, Meyer H. "Appraising Information in Machine Language Form," 35 (January 1972): 35-43. Chronicles some of the then changing at-

titudes of the National Archives toward such machine readable records, transforming from a view of such materials as non-record to full-fledged record. Fishbein's focus is on the large statistical databases and the potential use of these records by subsequent researchers. H e identifies nine approaches to be used in such archival appraisal.

126. Fishbein, Meyer "The 'Traditional' Archivist and the Appraisal of Machine- Readable Records," in Archivists and Machine-Readable Records: Proceedings of the Con- ference on Archival Manwement of Machine-Re&b , , le Records February 7-10. 1979. Ann

(Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1980), pp. 56-61. Personal reminiscences of Fishbein's efforts in the 1960s to begin to deal with electronic records and the successes and failures o f the profession in this regard.

127. Fishbein, Meyer "A Viewpoint on Appraisal of National Records," American Ar- chivia 33 (April 1070): 175-87. After a review of the changing concepts of archival appraisal, Fishbein considers how the growing use of computers in Federal agencies and the increasing interest by historians in quantitative approaches challenges some basic assumptions about appraisal. Along with Dollar's 1978 article on appraisal of such records, this


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essay is an early glimpse into how archivists were approaching the selection of statistical databases in machine-readable form.

128. Gavrel, Sue "Issues Associated with Accessioning Machine-Readable Data," in &

129. Hedstrom, Margaret "Is Data Redundancy the Price Archivists Will Pay for Ade- quate Documentation?" J A S S I S W r t e r l y 13 (Spring 1989): 24-30. Examines implications of large, administrative databases which share data among Federal, State and Local jurisdictions for data acquisition, access, presentation and dissemination. Written for data archivists, the articles analyzes differences between traditional archives and social science data archives.

130. Holland, Michael E. "Adding Electronic Records to the Archival Menagerie: Ap- praisal Concerns and Cautions," P r o v e n a n ~ 8 (Spring 1990): 27-44. Assessment of the appraisal of electronic records based on the assumption that the repository is accessioning the electronic records into the repository. Holland focuses on five matters: whether a particular form of the record constitutes the most complete version of the records series; whether the records series is the most stable form of the record available; whether the electronic records series is the most accessible form of the records; whether the electronic records series current format is the most likely use of the information contained in the records series; and, finally, if the format constitutes the most effective and efficient form of the series available.

131. Kowlowitz, Alan "Appraising in a Vacuum: Electronic Records Appraisal Issues -- A View From the Trenches," in David Bearman, ed., Archival Manacement of Electronic Records, Archives and Museum Informatics Technical Report no. 13 (Pittsburgh: AMI, 1991), pp. 31-37. Argument that the electronic records archivist generally lacks the full support, in both technology and policy, in order to carry-out the "preservation" of electronic records, including make them accessible to researcher.

132. *Kowlowitz, Alan Archival A ~ ~ r a i s a l of Online Information Systems (Pittsburgh: Archival Informatics Technical Report, vol. 2, Fall 1988). The most detailed case study appraisal of an electronic information system, in this case being the New York State Com- puterized Criminal History System. The study includes an introductory commentary by John McDonald.

133. McDonald, John "An Approach to the Identification and Scheduling of EDP Data," ADPA 5, no. 1 (1985): 51-68.



134. Miller, Michael L. "Is the Past Prologue? Appraisal and the New Technologies," in David Bearman, ed., A rch~val ' Mdndrement of Elect c Recar& , , roni , Archives and Museum Informatics Technical Report no. 13 (Pittsburgh: AMI, 1991), pp. 38-49. Argues that many archivists think traditional appraisal principles hold fast with electronic records because archivists tend to view electronic records as "special" rather than a component of the normal documentation of a organization. Discusses case studies of appraisal conducted at the U.S. National Archives.

135. Morgan, Dennis F. and Dennis D. Millican "A Records Manager's Blueprint for the Inventory and retention Scheduling of Information in Electronic Form," Becords Management 18 (July 1984): 43-47. First in a series of articles on the scheduling of electronic records from the records manager's perspective. See also "Electronic Media Retention Schedule Program: Selling I t to Management," # 18 (October 1984): 34-36 and "Retention Scheduling of Electronically Stored Records Generated by Personal Computers, Word Processors, Microcomputers, and Electronic Mail Systems," Records M a n ~ e m e n t 0- 19 (January 1985): 38-42.

136. *Naugler, Harold The Archival A ~ ~ r a i s a l of Machine-Redd'ible R e c o r d u d ,

MP Study with Guidelines (Paris: General Information Programme and UNISIST, UN- ESCO, 1984). Along with the 1984 Hedstrom manual, this manual is one of the best early general publications on the archival management of electronic records. It includes a discussion of electronic information technology and focuses on the processes and criteria for the appraisal of such systems. Includes glossary and bibliography.

137. 'Reed, Barbara and David Roberts, eds., K e e ~ i n~ Dat a. - P d ~ e r s from a Worksho~ om~uter-Based Recorh (Sydney: Australian Council of Archives and the

Australian Society of Archivists Inc., 1991). Series of papers on the nature of computers and information systems, gathering information about computer systems, case studies of appraising electronic records, and some statements of the relevancy of traditional archival principles to electronic records. This is an extremely important set of readings for any archivist.

138 Roberts, David 'The Disposal and Appraisal of Machine-Readable Records -- From the Literature," Archives and Man- 13 (May 1985): 30-38. This is substantially the text of a paper given at a seminar on machine-readable archives, held by the Sydney Branch of the Australian Society of Archivists on I 9 November 1983. The paper consists of a survey of literature relating to the disposal and appraisal of machine-readable records, followed by some conclusions about procedures and the identification and discussion of four categories of appraisal criteria, as then drawn from the literature. (Abstract provided)

139. Robbin, Alice 'The Pre-Acquisition Process: A Strategy for Locating and Acquiring Machine-Readable Data," Prexel Library Ouarterly 13, no. 1 (1977): 21-42. This article describes procedures used to acquire machine-readable data. It is part of a special issue


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edited by Howard D. White on "Machine-Readable Social Sciences Data," with other essays on acquisition, cataloguing, reference, and education.

140. Rofes, William L. 'The Archival Snare: Mass and Manipulation," i n A r c h i v i s m

Rec- c Arbor. ' , (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1080), pp. 11 1-17. Disc~lssion about appraisal and the issue of whether magnetic media need to be maintained in magnetic form.

141. Taylor, Marcia Freed "Locating, Appraising and Acquiring Computer Records: A View from Experience," in C o m ~ u t e r Generated Records, Approaches to Problems in Records Management, no. 2, ed. Michael Cook (England: Society of Archivists, 1987), pp. 22-31. Experience of developing the Data Archive at the University of Essex over two decades.


Little has been done in this area. The Gilliland-Swetland and Hughes study i r an interesting new publication, and more such investigation is required.

142. Bailey, Catherine "Electronic Records and Archival Description," ~rchlvarla 34 (Summer 1992): 284-87. Brief rumination on the issues of description of electronic records and the lack of progress made i n resolving such issues.

143. Byrum, John D., Jr. and Judith S. Rowe "An Integrated, User-Oriented System for the Documentation and Control of Machine-Readable Data Files," Lbrary Resou-

16 (1972): 338-46. The purpose of this paper is to offer a solution to the problems of documentation and bibliographic control of machine-readable data files. It is a solution which attempts to meet both the needs of the data user and the data librarian. It is designed to make readily feasible the conversion completely or in part to a computer-based operation and to tie in directly to an information retrieval system in the future. The four elements of this documentation and control system are: standard catalogue entries, data abstract or data description forms, content documentation codebooks, and records of physical and logical characteristics of the data set. (Abstract provided)

144. Dollar, Charles M. "Documentation of Machine Readable Records and Research: A Historian's View," P r o l w 3, no. 1 (1971): 27-31. A synopsis of the basic documentation needed to ensure the continuing use of s ~ ~ c h records.



145. Gilliland-Swetland, Anne J. and Carol Hughes "Enhancing Archival Description for Public Computer Conferences of Historical Value: An Exploratory Study", A m e r h Archivist 55 (Spring 1992):316-30. This paper reports on a pilot study that explored new approaches to the description of computer conferences. The authors tested methodologies for making archival description for public computer conferences of historical value more rigorous and accurate than would be possible using traditional archival approaches. In their study of the Wing:Span public conference at the University of Michigan, the authors found that a considerable amount of additional and more precise descriptive information could be generated by using unobtrusive observation and statistical techniques to gather and analyze data. They recommend replication of the most productive and cost-beneficial of these methods in the study of other public conferences to assess their potential value as tools to enhance existing archival descriptive methodology. (American Archvist abstract)


There h a been ongoing debate about how electronic recorcLv should be preserved. The writings below reflect some of thix debate. The wr i t ing only touch on the growing technical literature about the durability of electronic media. What i.s truly lacking are case .studies on the preservation of such records utilizing creative appro ache.^.

146. Alldredge, Everett 0. "Preservation of Documentation for Conventional and . . . . Automated Systems," ComDuter Verb- 2 (1969): 39-44. Most computer organizations are the sole users of the magnetic tapes they produce. They are therefore free to make any shortcuts in documentation for which they are prepared to run the risk. When tapes are being used by an organization other than the creating one, however, the using organization requires certain minimal documentation. It cannot exist simply in some "employee's head." "Preservation of Documentation for Con- ventional and Automated Systems" attempts to describe the documentation necessary for the outside user, using the archival principles for documenting non-machine readable records as the standard for machine readable records. (Abstract provided). This essay basically compares the "preliminary inventory" of the National Archives to the description of electronic records.

147. Anderson, Michael "The Preservation of Machine-Readable Data for Secondary Analysis," 17 (October 1985): 79-93. Straightforward report of a 1984 meeting held at the University of Essex with the "objective. . . [being] to establish the kinds of material now being generated or likely to be generated in the near future, the likely needs and priorities of potential users of machine-readable records, the extent to which current archival policy and activity met these needs, and possible new technical developments which might offer at least partial solutions to the problems." Useful for showing what British archivists were doing with these records in the mid-1980s.

148. Balon, Bret J. and H. Wayne Gardner "Disaster Planning for Electronic Records," Records Management Ouarterly 22 (July 1988): 20-22, 24-25, 30. One of the major costs

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for an organization is electronic data processing (EDP). Failure to have a disaster plan for electronic records may lead to bankruptcy. This article deals with the four major areas of a disaster plan including cost benefit analysis, a review of the options for alternate site loca- tions, an action plan, and testing and maintenance. T h e article outlines the advantages and disadvantages of disaster recovery sites and the teams needed to bring the data centre back to operation. (Abstract provided)

149. Gavrel, Sue "Preserving Machine-Readable Archival Records: A Reply to John Mallinson," Archivark 22 (Summer 1986): 153-55. Argues that archivists have been dealing with the challenges of electronic records, stressing the manner in which they have been appraising such records.

150. Geller, Sidney B. "Archival Data Storage," Datamation 20, no. 10 (1974): 72,75-76, 80. Summary of technicalities in managing electronic records two decades ago.

151. Geller, Sidney B. "Erasing Myths About Magnetic Media," Datamation 22, no. 3 (1976): 65-68. Summary of then recent studies on the durability of magnetic media carried out by the National Bureau of Standards Institute for Computer Science and Technology.

. . 152. Kenney, Anne R. and Lynne K. Personius Joint && in D-

1990-December 1 9 9 c I . . . .

N e t w o r k ([Washington, DC]: Cornell/Xerox/Commission on Preservation and Ac- cess, 1992). Study concluding that "digital preservation presents a cost effective alternative to photocopying, and -- subject to the resolution of certain remaining problems -- a potential adjunct o r alternative to microfilm preservation." This study begins to raise a number of questions about how archival documents in digital form can be provided with the integrity of archival features. See also Anne Kenney with Michael A. Friedman and Sue A. Poucher,

hr . .

preservln,~ Archival Materlal T o u m ~ t a l Technolo~v: A Cooperative Demonstration Prolect (Ithaca: Cornell University, 1993).

153. Mallinson, John C. "On the Preservation of Human- and Machine-Readable Records," Jnformation T e c h n o l o p and Libraries 7 (March 1988): 19-23. Summary of a report from the National Archives contending that the best means to preserve the content of electronic records is on microfilm.

154. Mallinson, John C. "Preserving Machine-Readable Archival Records for the Mil- lenia," Archivarla 22 (Summer 1986): 147-52. T h e author sees that the "problem with machine-readable records is the long-term availability of the machines rather than the physical decay of the recording medium." H e recommends microfilming as an approach. His article is a summation of Subcommittee C of the Committee on Preservation of the Na- tional Archives and Records Administration. See also Sue Gavrel, "Preserving Machine- Readable Archival Records: A Reply to John Mallinson," Archivaria 22 (Summer 1986): 153-55, which argues that electronic records can he preserved in their original form.



logy to Predict O D W 155. Podio, Fernando L. Development of a Testin? Methodo Dlsk 1 i fe W n c y Values, NIST Special Publication 500-200 (Washington, D.C.: Nation- al Institute of Standards and Technology, December 1991). An example of technical research being done on the durability of electronic storage media. 'The most important conclusion of this work is that extrapolated life expectancy values may vary greatly because they depend, among other factors, on the test method used for calculating the quality parameter.. ., the measurement approach including data model used, criteria for data analysis. . ., and the stress conditions. Therefore, prospective users should be aware that claims of a life expectancy specification should be accompanied by specification of the above factors." This work was sponsored by the National Archives and Records Administra- tion.


Not unexpectedly there is a growing body of essays about legal issues of access to electronic records. There is litfie, however, on the nature of reference in electronic recorak. Thus far, there is not one wer study on electronic records in the print literuture.

156. Barrese, Edward F. "Adequacy of Documentation in the Federal Government: Ac- countability Through the Record," J n f o r m i o n Mdnd~ement , , Re view 5 (Spring 1990): 53- 58. Brief article considering the problem that the increasing uses of information technology are making it difficult to provide adequate access to certtain kinds of information. The author contends that the federal "government's requirement to create records documenting its activities is firmly established in federal law." The author then describes the National Archives' four "documentation standards." The essay summarizes a number of recent reports on federal information policy and archives.

. . 157. Bogue, Allan G. "Historical Research and State Archival Data," in Arch~vists and Procee- of the Conff

rv 7-1 0. 1979- Arb . . mJkhgm (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1980), pp. 17-31. General description of the then current research uses of state government records for historical research with concerns about access and confidentiality.

158. Brown, Thomas E. "Archives Law and Machine-Readable Data Files: A Look at the United States," ADPA 5, no. 2 (1986): 37-42. "This paper reviews the provisions of the laws relating to archives in the United States, relates them to machine-readable data files in the Federal Government, and then illustrates them with regard to records of the U.S. Bureau of the Census." Brown describes the definition of records, how the Federal laws stipulates that agencies determine what electronic records are created and managed, and the fact that "once the agency has created a machine-readable file it cannot be destroyed without the approval of the Archivist of the United States." The remainder of the article describes issues such as access and uses the Census records as a case study. This is a very interesting article in light of subsequent developments in the PROFNOTES case.


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159. Chasse, Kenneth L. 'The Legal Issues Concerning the Admissibility in Court of Computer Printouts and Microfilm," Archivaria 18 (Summer 1984): 166-201. Written from the Canadian perspective, the author argues that the "law at present does not provide ade- quately for the admissibility of computer printouts and microfilm documentation." Chaase also emphasizes the need for archivists and records managers to become more active in arguing for necessary revisions to Canadian law. H e states that the "basic principles essential or inherent to the reliability of any computerized record-keeping system" should be "set into" the Canadian Evidence Acts. See also his "A Reply to A.F. Sheppard's Commentary On the Admissibility in Court of Computer Printouts," Archivaria20 (Summer 1985): 158- 61.

160. "Computer Printouts and the New Microfilm Standard," CrirniMLawvers' Associa- tion 9 (October 1988): 31-33. Written for lawyers, this brief essay notes that because "most of the component parts of such systems come from outside of the organizations that use them, and often their quality control is the responsibility of some external head office or data-processing service bureau" that the "internal accountability" that the Evidence Act assumed is not in effect. This article provides a list of features of computerized record keeping systems that lawyers need to be prepared to examine in terms of the submission of evidence.

161. Emmerson, Peter "Computer-Generated Records: Some Legal Aspects," in Corn- - Records, Approaches to Problems in Records Management, no. 2, ed. Michael Cook (England: Society of Archivists, 1987), pp. 32-29. Description of pertinent English law.

162. Fishbein, Meyer H. "The Evidential Value of Non-textual Records: An Early Precedent," m e r i c a n Archivist 45 (Spring 1982): 189-90. Description of an 1838 Delaware lawsuit "that established an important precedent for the evidential value of nonconvention- a1 records." This lawsuit allowed the admission of a notched stick as a record. The author briefly relates this to the management of electronic records and the legal issues of administering such records.

163. Fredberg, Birgit and Pauline Pieyns-Rigo -1 Im~lications of the Production of I R r 1 (Paris: General In-

formation Programme and UNISIST, UNESCO, 1988). Survey of 29 national archives and their legislation for working with electronic records.

164. Gavrel, Sue "Machine-Readable Archives: User Survey," lASSIST Quar&dg 7 (Fall 1983): 2-4,22-25.

165. Granstrom, Claes "Legal Problems of Access to Machine-Readable Archives." Ar- chivum 35 (1989): 219-27. General review of the challenges of legal access, foci~sed on national and international aspects.



166. Greenstein, Shane 'Tape Story Tapestry: Historical Research with inaccessible Digital Information Technologies," M i d w a r n Archivist 15, no. 2 (1990): 77-85. An interesting, first-hand account by a graduate economics student about his struggles to obtain some electronic statistical data about federal government use of computers. Bruce Bruem- mer provides an commentary from the archival perspective on Greenstein's essay on pages 86-89.

167. Guthrie, Chester L. "New Data to Shape History," & n e r i c U c h i v i s t 30 (1967): 323-31. Very interesting, early essay striving to place the use of computers in organizations into the organization's decision-making process. Suggests that the creation of better information systems will improve data available to historians and other researchers.

168. Hedstrom, Margaret L. "Computers, Privacy, and Research Access to Confidential Information," Midwestern 6 , no. 1 (1981): 5-18. General statement of the problems to privacy and research access posed by electronic information systems and the need for archivists to begin to resolve such barriers and to develop new policies and procedures.

169. Paskoff, Paul F. "Machine-Readable Business Records and Their Application to . . Research in Economic History," in A M: Proceed-

of h & i c . b e - R e a d a b l e c o r ~ 7-10.1979-

. . (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1980), pp. 48-

55. General description of such records.

170. 'Perritt, Henry H., Jr. "Electronic Records Management and Archives," University of P~ttsbUrgh 1 aw Review 53 (Summer 1992): 963-1024. The most comprehensive review of electronic records from a legal perspective, with detail on the current approaches of archivists and records managers. The focus is on the U.S. federal government.

171. R e D o r t o f t h e t i o d . , C o n f e r e n c e e s . . C Co- Public R e d , 2 vols. (Boston: Public Records Division, 0-e Massachusetts Secretary of State, [1987]). Wide-ranging set of viewpoints regarding the "treatment of commercial requests for public records," fees, direct access, and ownership. The second volume includes survey data on these issues. Generally this is raw data, but it is interesting and useful.

. . 172. Rowe, Judith S. "Privacy Legislation: Implications for Archives," in

e Reca&i:Proceedugs of the C o n f e r e n c e-Re&ble Records February 7-10. 1079. Ann Arbor. Michiean (Chicago: Society

of American Archivists, 1980), pp. 193-203. Stresses that the matter of computers is so new to the privacy issue that it is difficult to determine accurately the implications for archivists. Includes a brief bibliography.

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173. Skupsky, Donald S. "Legality of Computer and Computer-Output Microfilm Records," Records Management Ouarterly 19 (April 1985): 44,46,48. The widespread use and availability of computers in the last twenty years has forced the legal system to develop new principles of law to handle this technology. Prevailing legal attitudes toward these records are reflected in both statutes and case law. This article summarizes existing federal requirements for computer records." (Abstract provided)

174. Skupsky, Donald S. 'The Legal Status of Optical Disk and Electronic Imaging Sys- tems," &cords Management Quarterly 20 (January 1986): 56,58,60-61. Skupsky notes that at the time of this article, there were no legal guidelines for such systems. Skupsky deals with this by noting similarities to other computerized records and their legal aspects. He suggests that the "key to admissibility in evidence of images and optical d isk . . . will relate to the trustworthiness of the information."

175. Sprehe, J. Timothy "The Significance of 'Admissibility of Electronically Filed Federal Records as Evidence,"' Government Information 0 ~ 1 ~ . 9 no. 2 (1992): 153-67. The first two pages of this article were written by Sprehe about the Department of Justice's Systems Policy Staff paper in 1991 o n this topic. The paper, published in full in the remainder of this article, is an argument that the Federal Rules of Evidence apply to electronic and paper records.

176. Tanenbaum, Eric ' The Perils of Use," in Ap- proaches to Problems in Records Management, no. 2, ed. Michael Cook (England: Society of Archivists, 1987), pp. 47-53. Argument that archivists need to be more rigorous in how they develop and utilize use statistics, especially with electronic records.

177. Techno1 . . . . scholars hi^. and the Human~ties: The I r n p l i c a t l o n s Electronic Infor-

P r o c e e d i m mation S e ~ t e m b e r 30-October? 1992: w m a r v of (Nap.: American Council of Learned Societies and the J. Paul Getty Trust, 1993). Provides summary, at times un- even, of comments of a wide range of speakers at this conference. Useful for understanding of issues for increasing use of electronic sources by researchers, although there is little specific discussion of archives and historical manuscripts.

178. Vinovskis, Maris A. "Are We Erasing Our Past? Research Problems and Oppor- . . tunities with Machine-Readable College and University Records," in Arch~v-

Readable Records: Proceedings of the Conference on Archival M w e m e n t of v 7-10. 1979, A m l d b o r . Midugan

. . (Chicago: Society

of American Archivists, 1980), pp. 32-47. Concerns about the preservation of higher education research surveys and the increasing use by colleges and universities of electronic information technology.



179. Weinberg, Gerhard L. "The End of History?" American Historical Association b e c t i v e s 25 (February 1987): 16-19. Doomsday scenario concerning the increased classification of federal records and the use of electronic information systems. See also his ' T h e National Archives and Records Administration: Goals for the Future,'' N A G A R A Clearinghouse 3 (Fall 1987): 4-6, 8-9.

180. Zeisset, Paul T. "Census Bureau Confidentiality Practices and Their Implications , , le Reco for Archivists," i n Archivists and Machine-Rcdddb r&: P r o c e e d ~ n ~ s of the Con-

ference on Archival Management of Machine-Reddh . , le Records February 7-10. 1979. Ann Arbor. M i c h i w (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1980), pp. 204-16. Description of how the U.S. Census Bureau handles confidentiality.


The potentid use of standards to prexrve and manage electronic records emerged as an important topic in the mid-1 980.9. Both the Canadian and United States National Archives have issued reports on these standards, hut it is ohviou.~ that the archival profe.uion has a long way to go in determining how they can use such stun~lurdc.

181. Advisory Committee for the Co-Ordination of Information Systems (ACCIS) ds Owen Sy-

k (New York: United Nations, 1992). A detailed report providing an overview of electronic records management requirements and OSI, a review of current OSI standards I-elevant to electronic records management, conclusions and recommendations, and a glossary.

182. Canada, Bureau of Management Consulting, Supply and Services Data and Docu- ment I n t e r d u n g Standards and the National Archives (Ottawa: Canada Bureau of Management Consulting, Supply and Services, June 1987). T h e purpose of this document is to provide the National Archives of Canada (ARC) with a landscape document which describes the status and current activities i n the information technology standards forum, the key standards b o d ~ e s which effect the development of international and national (i.e., Canada and the U.S.) standards, and the status and process regarding federal information policy (i.e., Canada and the U.S.) with respect to information technology standards. This document also provides recon~nlendations for action which are designed to maximize the effectiveness of A R C in its role regarding the formation of guidelines for the implementation of information technology standards.

183. Cox, Richard J. "The Archival Profession anti Information Technology Standards," Journal of the American Societv for Information Sciencc 43 (September 1902): 571-75. American archivists have long had an interest in standarcls, although their interest has led to more intensive activity in the past decade. New standards have been developed for arrangement and description of archival records and historical manuscripts, the adaptive use of bib-

Copyright Archives & Museurn I nforrnatics, 1303

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liographic standards, preservation of archival records and historical manuscripts, and the use of information technology standards for the management of archival records in electronic form. Many challenges still remain, however. Most important of such questions is how archivists can play a greater role in the information standards-setting world. (Abstract provided)

184. Data and Document l n t e r c h a n ~ e Standards and the National Archives (Ottawa: Bureau of Management Consulting, Supply and Services, June 1987). Analysis of inforrnation technology standards and the identification of those important to the efforts of the Na- tional Archives of Canada to manage electronic records.

185. Galler, Bernard A. "Software Prospects for Archivists," in Archivists and Machine-

American Archivists, 1980), pp. 182-87. Argument that archivists need to articulate their concerns in the development of software to ensure that archival functions are met.

. . 186. Protocols Standards and Communication, Inc. T h e A p p l ~ c a t ~ o n of ODAIODIF

Standards P r e ~ a r e d for the National Archives of Canada (Ottawa, Canada: Protocols Stand- ards and Communication, Inc., March 1988). This report provides an introduction to the Office Document Architecture (ODA) and Interchange Format (ODIF), I S 0 8613, with a focus on the potential for this standard to resolve a number of National Archives problems related to the acquisition, storage and management of electronic documents. It is argued that O D N O D I F would be one member of a suite of national and international standards on which a National Archives program to acquire store and manage information electronically is based. Comparison reports dealing with products and conformance support the practicability and long term usability of this standard. Although the report demonstrates a general way how the O D N O D I F standard can address the NA requirements, it recommends a detailed mapping be developed of O D A features and a document profile attributes to National Archives requirements regarding electronic documents. (Abstract provided)

187. Protocols Standards and Communication, Inc. A ~ ~ l i c a t i O n Porbbiltv: Prepared (Ottawa, Canada: Protocols Standards and Communica-

tion, Inc., February 1989). This report addresses a requirement for information regarding the nature, benefits, and relevance of application portabilty to the information management policies of the National Archives, and, potentially, of the federal government as a whole. T h e specific objectives of this report are: to provide an introduction to the concepts, terminology, and benefits of application portability; to describe the status and direction of related standardization activities; to describe the nature of industry support; and to assess the implications for the information management policies of the National Archives and the federal government. (Abstract provided)


138 ELECTRONlC RECORDS MANAGEMENT PROGRAM STRATEGIES

188. Protocols Standards and Communication, Inc. Situation R e ~ o r t on the I n f o r m tion Resource D i r e c t o ~ System (TRDS) Prepared for National Archives of Can& (Ot- tawa, Canada: Protocols Standards and Communication, Inc., March 1989). This report addresses a requirement to investigate the concepts, standards and relevance of the Infor- mation Resource Dictionary System ( IRDS) to the information management policies of the National Archives and, potentially, of the federal government as a whole. T h e specific objectives of this report are: to describe the concepts and importance of an I R D S to information management; to describe the status and foreseeable evolution of the I R D S standards within both the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Or- ganization for Standardization (ISO); to forecast the availability of IRDS-conformance products; and to evaluate the implications of a standardized I R D S for the inforrnation management program of the National Archives, and the federal government as a whole. (Abstract provided)

189. U.S., National Archives and Records Administration, Archival Research and Evaluation Staff A N a t i o d A r c h i v e s S w for the D e v e l o ~ r n e n t and I m ~ l e m e m

r r h I of- a n t Lon$-Term Stor ige of Electronic ords of the Federal Government , National Archives Technical Information Paper 8

(Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, June 1990). A report that concludes that "it is premature for NARA to choose specific standards and that N A R A should concentrate upon identifying the archival requirements for electronic records and participating in the development of standards that meet these requirements."

190. U.S., National Institute of Standards and Technology Framework and Policv Recommendations for the Exchanye and Preservation of Electronic Records. Prepared fot b e National Archives and Records Administration (Washington, D.C.: NIST, 1989).

191. 'Walch, Victoria Irons ' T h e Role of Standards in the Archival Management of Electronic Records," American 53 (Winter 1990): 30-43. Technical standards developed by national and international standards-setting organizations to facilitate the exchange of data among computer systems co~l ld provide archivists with mechanisms for en- suring long-term access and use of inforrnation stored in electronic form. Staff a t the Canadian and United States national archives and the United Nations have conducted several valuable studies in this area as well as contracting for additional investigations by outside experts. T h e author digests the findings of several of these studies, describing the organization of and processes followed by the principal national and international standards developers and summarizing the elements of thirteen standards identified as having the greatest potential for archival use. (88 abstract)

192. Wood, Helen M. "Information Technology Standards: A Foundation for Data Management," in Management of Recorded Information: C o n v e r ~ i n g Disciplines: Proceed- jnys of the International Council o n Archives' Svmposium on Current Records, comp. Cyn- thia J . Durance (New York: K.G. Saur, l O O O ) , pp. 102-1 10. Growing dependence o n computer and communications systems, coupled with rapid advances in these technologies, has stimulated demand for information technology standards. Users a r e faced with differ-


BIRLIOGRAPHY 139

ing proprietary systems that impede access to valuable information. Standards can help organizations preserve their corporate investment by facilitating the portability of software, data and skills, and the interoperability of computer-based systems. This paper considers major standardization activities in information technology and the underlying principles that influence the success or failure of the standards produced. Finally, to illustrate the critical role of these standards i n the management of data, the paper examines current activities in Earth system science. (Abstract provided). Note: Articles in this volume have been filed under Cynthia J . Durance and the volume maintained intact.


This is the area generating a considerable amount of writing, study, and debate, provoked because of controversies surrounding the manner in which the National Archives has approached the management of electronic records.

193. Aronsson, Patricia and Thomas Eiton Brown "Government Archives and Govern- ment Automation: T h e O d d Couple," Government Publications Review 13 (1986): 561-70. Automated information no longer is simply an appendage to the main body of an organization's records. Two new automated applications have significantly changed the character of organizational records. First of all, organizations have introduced database management systems (dbms). And secondly they have begun using automated systems which can process full textual information. As an organization's use of automation changes, so must the archivist's approach. This article evaluates the archival impact of a number of the new automated applications, identifies some initiatives underway to solve the problems archivists will face, and highlights some solutions already proposed. (Abstract provided)

194. Committee on the Records of Government: Repor1 (Washington, D.C.: T h e Com- mittee, March 1985). A landmark study by a blue ribbon committee on the condition of government records, especially their transformation into electronic forms. This is the study that issued a call to the National Archives, the federal government, and the American people to deal with the dangers to the integrity of the documentary heritage raised by the growing use of electronic information systems. Every subsequent federal report has started with this study, and it has been often cited by archivists and researchers. For a summary see Anna Kasten Nelson, ' T h e 1985 Report of the Committee on the Records of Government: An Assessment," Government Information Ouarterly 4, no. 2 (1987): 143-50.

195. Cunliffe, Wiila and Michael Miiier "Writing a General Records Schedule for . . Electronic Records," American A r c M 52 (Summer 1989): 350-56. T h e National Ar- chives and Records Administration confronted the difficult question of how burgeoning electronic records should be scheduled and appraised when, in 1986-88, it revised the existing General Records Schedules as they pertained to the disposition of machine-readable records. T h e committee of custodial and appraisal archivists substantially revised G R S 20, the existing nontextual schedule for machine-readable records, and created new provisions in G R S 23, which, for the first time, addressed the issue of electronic records created on


140 ELECTRONIC RECORDS MANAGEMENT PKOCKAiVl S'L'KATEGIKS

personal computers or in office automation systems. The authors discuss the fundamental archival questions raised in the revision process, describe how the issues were resolved, and evaluate the results. (Abstract provided)

196. Dollar, Charles M. "Comp~~ters , the National Archives, and Researchers," Pmhgu 8, no. 1 (1976): 29-34. General review of the growing use of computers in government and its implications for researchers and the challenges in providing such records to researchers.

197. Dollar, Charles M. "Machine-Readable Records of the Federal Government and . . the National Archives," in -ne-Reale Records: Pro- wal M d w r n e n t of Mach~ne-Redddble Reccd-, , , , ,

Ann (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1980). pp. 79-87. Account of the National Archives efforts to manage electronic records.

198. Harrison, Donald Fisher "An Archivist's Challenges: Adapting to Changing Tech- nology and Management Techniques," N S I S T 10 (Spring 1986): 8-13. Focuses on the "Na- tional Archives' acquisition process as a form of access." "This paper addresses three threats to the acquisition of machine-readable records: the threat of an onslaught of hardware and software incompatibility, the threat of discontinuity within textual records series brought about by end-users with microcomputers and the threat brought about by new management techniques from the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1080."

199. Harrison, Donald Fisher "Computers, Electronic Data, and the Vietnam War," & chlvarla 26 (Summer 1988): 18-32. The author provides a description of the use of computers in creating large statistical databases by various federal agencies in the 1960s and early 1970s to manage the war effort. Harrison's essay is most valuable for providing insights into how the management of electronic and paper records had become completely separated during the war years. See also his "Machine-Readable Sources for the Study of . . . , the War in Vietnam," in Daraba.ses, ed. Lawrence J. McCrank (Medford, N.J.: Learned Information, Inc., 1989), pp. 279-91.

200. Hedlin, Edie and Donald Fisher Harrison "The National Archives and Electronic Data," Reference Services Review 16, nos. 1-2 (1988): 13-16,24. Good historical review of the National Archives efforts to deal with electronic records since 1967 and its creation of a Data Archives Staff.

201. Herschler, David H. and William 2. Slany 'The 'Paperless Office': A Case Study of the State Department's Foreign Affairs Information System," Arne- Archivist 45 (Spring 1982): 142-54. A straightforward description of a ful l text retrieval system, warts and all, with a brief discussion of its implications for archival work. Despite its publication in this journal, the discussion of implications for archivists is brief and too general.


BIBLIOGRAPHY 141

202. National Academy of Public Administration The Archives of the Future: Archival S t ra te~ ies for the Treatment of Electronic Databases: A Study of Major Automated

es Maintained by A~enc i e s of the U.S. Governmen1 (Washington, D.C.: NAPA, 1991). This study was prepared for the National Archives. Its examination of over 9,000 databases led to the identification of 789 as having potential long-term historical value and a series of recommendations to improve the National Archives' work with electronic records. Among these recommendations were that the National Archives should par- ticipate in the development of a Federal government locator system, become more aggres- sive in the identification of electronic databases, work to ensure that archival concerns be addressed in the development and use of electronic databases, establish a position on electronic mail and bulletin board systems, and consider the development of a policy framework for agencies to maintain electronic databases. Also see J . Timothy Sprehe's article about this report.

203. National Academy of Public Administration The Effects of Electronic, RecordkeeDln~ on the Historical Record of the U.S. Government: A Report for the N a t i u a1 Archives and Records Administration (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Public Administration, 1989). A report commissioned by the National Archives in 1987 to determine the "impact of electronic technology on the historical record of the federal government" and, more specifically, "to determine the extent to which electronic technology has pervaded the government, and whether or not decision-making or policy documents were being lost." The report concluded that policy records are maintained in hard copy, but that the electronic information technology posed increasing problems for the National Archives. The report made a large number of recommendations, including that the National Archives should develop a long-range plan for dealing with the technology, work on developing appropriate procedures for the management of electronic records, create mechanisms for working in the information technology standards setting community, support research in electronic records, and assess its own capability for working with such technology. This is an important report for understanding and evaluating the National Archives' performance in the administration of electronic records.

204. Nelson, Anna Kasten "Challenge of Documenting the Federal Government in the Latter 20th Century," P r o l o w 14 (Summer 1982): 89-92. In describing the challenges, Nel- son asks some very fundamental questions with implications for electronic records management: "why can't agencies manage their own records?"; "why do all archivists in the federal government have to work in NARS, so far away from the record-making process?"; and "why must every government archive come under one roof?"

205. Rhoads, James B. 'The Role of the National Archives in Facilitating Statistical In- quiry," Qmputer Studies in the Humanities and Verbal Behavior 2 (1969): 35-38. Descrip- tion of then current work and future plans by the National Archives for dealing with Federal government electronic records.

206. Sprehe, J. Timothy "Archiving Electronic Databases: The NAPA Report," Inform 6 (March 1992): 28-31. Review of the November 1991 National Academy of Public Ad-



he Futu ministration report, The Archives o f t re: Archival St&ite?les for the Tre-nt of Sprehe notes that "NAPA reinforced a message that is becoming a

consistent theme in federal information resources management circles: archival concerns must be represented when agencies design databases."

207. Thibodeau, Kenneth "To Be or Not To Be: Archives for Electronic Records," in David Bearman, ed., Archival M w m e n t of Electronic Records, Archives and Museum InformaticsTechnical Report no. 13 (Pittsburgh: AMI, 1991), pp. 1-13. Drawing on experience from the U.S. National Archives, the author argues that electronic records will be best preserved as accessions into a formal archives.

208. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration,Center for Electronic Records "Strategic Analysis: The Implications of Electronic Records on the Programs, Activities and Responsibilities of the National Archives and Records Administration." Unpublished paper, May 1989. Unpublished report on future plans for the Center for Electronic Records and its responsibility to manage Federal government electronic records. It notes its lack of resources, primarily because of the National Archives' efforts to plan for and move to its new facility, and its perception of legal authority to deal with the problem. The report makes a number of recommendations in the areas of cooperation with other Federal agencies, taking leadership in this area, improving reference service, and in planning for the Center's work. Illuminating report for understanding the difficulties faced by the National Archives in working with electronic records.

209. U.S., General Accounting Oflice Information Resources: Summary of Federal. ' 9 W s Information R e s o ~ ~ r c e s Mana ement Problems (Washington, DC: General Ac-

counting Office, February 1992). Revealing study on the use and effectiveness of IRM in the Federal government. The most serious problem cited was the inadequate management of information systems development life cycle, followed by ineffective oversight and control of IRM, cost overruns, schedule delays, and inaccurate or unreliable data.

210. 'U.S., House Committee on Government Operations Takiny a Byte Out of His- The Arcbval Preservation of Federal Co rn~u t e r Records (Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office, 1990). This report questions the long-held assumption that Federal agencies maintained their important policy records on paper. This report documents the increasing use of electronic information technology, questions whether electronic records can be physically preserved, notes that information technology standards cannot solve all the preservation problems, and, most importantly, notes that "NARA's current policies are inadequate to assure the long-term preservation of electronic records." The report recommends that NARA needs to reevaluate its efforts in this area and some broader Federal government information policies.

211. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration Jvlana.ginv Electronic Records, Instructional Guide Series (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Ad- ministration, 1990). A basic primer, obviously reflecting the NARA approach to electronic


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records, with information on definitions, disposition, inventorying, the use of records retention schedules, appraisal, and the maintenance and use of electronic records. Forms and a glossary are included. This publication is mostly useful for understanding how NARA has been working with electronic records in recent years.


Despite considerable discussion by state archivists about the wuys to handle electronic records, the publications reflect significant activity in only a few states. There is a h a need for new efforts to evaluate the eJffectivene.s.s of various approaches to managing electronic records.

212. Belding, Richard N. and Larry G. Fortson "Kentucky's Machine-Readable Chal- lenge," Provenance 3 (Spring 1985): 58-69. This is the only readily available on Kentucky's efforts to establish an electronic records program, initially assisted by an National Histori- cal Publications and Records Commission grant. Kentucky has gone on to be one of a few states to make a sustained effort to care for electronic records and to be involved in state information policy.

213. Caudle, Sharon L. and Donald A. Marchand Manayine Information Resources. New D k t i o n s in State Government (Syracuse: Syracuse University, School of lnformation Studies, Center for Science and Technology, August 1989). This is an important effort to determine the nature and extent of information resources management in state government. Included in this study is a useful effort to analyze the nature of state records management and archives, providing a context for recent discussions by archivists about state records, the increasing use of electronic information systems, and information policy. Ar- chivists should be aware that the knowledge by the authors of archives is limited.

214. Fletcher, Patricia T. "Electronic Records Management in State Government: Plan- ning for the Information Age," b r d s . - e m , , 24 (October 1990): 26-32. A national study of information resources management in the fifty state governments revealed that the management of electronic records is fast becoming a top priority item for records managers. Most states d o not have schedules for electronic records, nor d o they ac- tively plan for their management. The proliferation of personal computers at the state level and the overall increase in the amount of information generated by government makes this oversight a critical one. Pockets of innovation are identified by the national and examples of their programs are presented. (Abstract provided).

215. Florida, Joint Committee on Information Technology Resources , 7 -

lion Pol~cy: Problems and Issues in the Information Age (Tallahassee: Florida Joint Com- mittee on Information Technology Resources, April 1989). Includes a chapter on archives and records management, basically concluding that the state government's growing use of information technology has outstripped the state's ability to ensure the preservation of electronic records.


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216. Fox, Michael J. 'The Wisconsin Machine-Readable Records Project," American A r m 47 (Fall 1984): 429-31. Brief description of the project conducted by the State Historical Society of Wisconsin in 1981-83. The purpose of the project was to assess the "impact of computer technology on record keeping by state government agencies" and its implications for the "archival preservation of public records." The SHSW was the pioneer state archives in work with electronic records.

217. Hedstrom, Margaret and Alan Kowlowitz "Meeting the Challenge of Machine- Readable Records: A State Archives Perspective," Reference Services Review 16, no. 1-2 (1988): 31-40. This is a case study of the early development of an electronic records program at the New York State Archives; it is, in fact, one of the few such case studies available on this topic. The authors especially consider the problems in developing such a program when there is a lack of serious effort to work with such records for several decades.

218. Mills, Thomas E. "Archival Considerations in the Management of Machine- Readable Records in New York State Government," in Archivists and Machine-Read& Records: Proceed in es o f t h e Co nf e r ence on Archival Manaeement of M Read& achine- Records (Chicago: Society of American Ar- chivists, 1980), pp. 102-110. Mostly a description of hopes to deal more effectively with electronic records. The paper was given when the state archives had only been in existence a brief time.

219. New York, State Archives and Records Administration Mana~ine Records In ed Office S ?stems, State Government Records Management Information Series

(Albany: New York State Archives and Records Administration, 1990). One of a series of useful NYSARA publications on guidelines for the administration of electronic records.

220. New York, State Archives and Records Administration A g i c Planfor

ministration, August 1988). Final report of a project initiated in 1985 "to assess the adequacy of State government policies and procedures for the management of computer-generated, machine-readable records, and to develop a program for the long- term preservation of selected, valuable machine-readable records at the State Archives." The report looks at the "impact of key trends i n information technology on the capacity of State agencies and SARA to manage and selectively preserve records to meet legal, fiscal, administrative, and research needs"; "seven broad objectives for records management and archival programs which will help SARA and State agencies respond to the challenges posed by new record keeping technology"; and "27 activities that State agencies and SARA must undertake to accomplish better management of machine-readable records during the next five years."


221. Robb, Charles "Information Resource Management in Kentucky State Govern- ment," N 5 (Winter 1991): 2-4. Personal view of the Ken- tucky State Archives' involvement in state information policy since the mid-1980s.

222. State Historical Society of Wisconsin Archival Preserv;ltim of Machine- T h e F i n a l p o r t of ofthe Wisconsin Survey of ) ,

(Madison, Wisconsin: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1981). Report of a project funded by the National Historical Publications and Records Commission to create an electronic records program. This was the pioneer state archives electronic records program, and the report is now most useful as a historic document.

formation M a n a w e n t Survev of Aut- 223. Trego, Lori A., comp. National In a n d b l e Records (Columbus: Ohio Department of Administrative Services, Information Management, 1987). Results of a telephone survey to determine the use by state governments of automated information systems and the effects by state archives and records management programs to administer these records. Concluded that "machine- readable records management . . . . is very much in the planning stage . . . ."


A complete lack of writing on this topic.

224. White, Kenneth Machine-Readable R e c o r h , NlCLOG Technical Leaflet NIC112 (Nashville: National Information Center for Local Government Records, 1989). General review for local officials.


The work of the National Archives of Canada and the United Nations make this area worth following.

225. Barry, Richard E. "Getting It Right: Managing Organizations in a Runaway . . Electronic Age," in I u hives, ed. Angelika Menne- Haritz (New York: K. G. Saur, 1993), pp. 27-55. Focusing on the experience of United Na- tions organizations, Barry sees that the solutions to managing modern information systems are less technology-oriented than a factor of policy, organization, and management. In this essay the author considers the variety of approaches (such as the use of technology standards) and the changing roles of archivists and records managers.



226. Bekkers, Victor "Data Communication Instead of Paper: T h e Use of Electronic Mail in Dutch Service," in Information Handling in Offices and Archives, ed. Angelika Menne-Haritz (New York: K. G. Saur, 1993), pp. 91-105. Description of the impact of the introduction of electronic mail in the Dutch government in 1987.

227. Bikson, T. K., and S. A. Law "Electronic Information Media and Records Manage- ment Methods: A Survey of Practices in UN Organizations." Jnformation Societv 9, no. 2 (1993): 125-44. This is a 1991 update of a 1988 survey of the use of electronic information technology in United Nations organizations. It examines the role of telex, facsimile, and electronic mail. T h e primary value of this study is an analysis of the changing use of information technology in a brief period of time. The article argues that the use of the technology continues to outstrip traditional records management and archival approaches to the management of records. T h e changes in this brief time period are interesting to note; the survey revealed there was "a much greater awareness of records management problems stemming from the proliferation of electronic information and communication media" (p. 141); an increase in the use of the technology; a "new tension between centralization and decentralization" of records and information systems (p. 142); a greater amount of activity in trying to provide "near-term technological solutions to electronic records management problems" (p. 142); a continuing lack of high-level policy decisions about the records problems; and the lack of development of procedures for the "identification, capture, and subsequent management of electronic records in electronic form" (p. 142).

228. Blake, Monica "Aspects of Electronic Archives," Electronic Publishing Review 6 (September 1986): 151-58. Study by the British National Bibliography Research Fund on the possibility of establishing a national archives of electronic plrblications.

229. Bohl, Peter "Archival Requirements for Future Documentation in Administration," in Information Handling in Offices and Archives, ed. Angelika Menne-Haritz (New York: K. G. Saur, 1993), pp. 128-37. Description of the use of computers and information policy in the government of Baden-Wurttemberg, argl~ing that archivists need to "reorganize their work" from what they had done previously.

230. Carroll, M.E. "A Perspective of Machine-Readable Archives and Public Service," ADPA 2, no. 1 ( 1 976): 7-10. Wri ring from the Canadian perspective, this essay reviews the kinds of services available for the use of electronic records, such as tape copying and data analysis and the requirements for providing such services.

231. Carroll, M.E. "Public Archives of Canada Survey of E D P Installations," ADPA 1, no. 2 (1974): 15-25. Report o f interviews with E D P managers to determine their record-related needs.


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232. Danilenko, 1.1. a n d V.V. Tsaplin "Archival Storage of Machine-Readable Docu- ments: Soviet Experience", A D P A 4, no. 3 (1984): 33-40. In 1982 the Central State Archive of the National Economy of the USSR established a program for the "archive-storage of machine-readable documentation." This essay describes the development of a statute and its provisions for such records and contends that "machine-readable documentation, whatever its specifics, is covered by the main organizational and scientific principles of Soviet archival science."

233. Gavrel, Kather ine "The National Archives of Canada: Machine-Readable Records Program," Reference Services Review 16, nos. 1-2 (1988): 25-29. Historical review of the Machine-Readable Archives Division of the Public Archives of Canada, now the National Archives of Canada, established in 1973. Gavrel describes current activities, identification and scheduling, the uses of systems overview, appraisal, content analysis, technical analysis, processing and conservation, description, and dissemination.

234. Jones, Bernard "Data Storage on Optical Disks: A CCTA Experiment," in Com- puter Genera ted R e c o r h , Approaches to Problems in Records Management, no. 2, ed. Michael Cook (England: Society of Archivists, 1987), pp. 40-46. Report of an experiment by the Central Computer and Telecommunications Agency to assess the quantity of tapes needed to fill one optical disk and to assess the number of Digital Optical Recorders and Optical Digital Data Disks to replace a particular magnetic tape library.

235. McDonald, J o h n "Electronic Records and the New National Archives of Canada," val Informatics Newsletter 1 (Summer 1987): 14-15. A description of new respon-

sibilities for electronic records as a result o f the 1987 National Archives of Canada Act.

236. McDonald, John "Managing Information in an Office Systems Environment - T h e lMOSA Project," in Information Handlin in Offices and Archives, ed. Angelika Menne- Haritz (New York: K. G. Saur, 1993), pp. 138-51. A report of the development of archival functional requirements as part of the Information Management and Office Systems Advan- cement (IMOSA) project at the National Archives of Canada. T h e functional requirements focused on filing, retrieving and searching, editing corporate documents, records management, and document classification.

237. McDonald, John Second Interim Report of the PACIDOC Information M a w Work& G r o ~ w (Ottawa: Public Archives of Canada, September 1985). Evaluation

of the "impact of the introduction of new information technologies on the management of information in federal government operations" and "to develop functional requirements for use by both federal government organizations and private sector institutions concerned with reflecting a corporate perspective in the management of information in office automation applications."



238. Naugler, Harold 'The Machine-Readable Archives Program of the Public Ar- chives of Canada: The First Five Years," in Archivists and Machine-Readable Records: proceed in_^^ of the Conference on Archival Management of Machine-Readable Records February 7-10. 1979. Ann Arbor. Michipan (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1980), pp. 67-78. Considers the functions of administration, acquisition, custodial processing, conservation, and public service.

239. Parer, Dagmar, Steve Stuckey, and Andrew Wilson "Electronic Records: Issues Facing the Australian Archives." 1nform;ra Ouarterly 7, no. 3 (August 1991): 31-34. A brief description of the Australian national archives efforts to manage electronic records, increasing uses of this country's governments of electronic information technology, and comparisons with approaches being used by other national archives.

240. Roper, Michael "Machine-Readable Archives and the Public Record Office," in stsand Machine-Readable Records: Proceed~nys of the Conference on Arch~val ement of M a c h ~ n e - R e a M I e Records Feb

. . ruarv 7-10. 1979. Ann Arbor. M l c h ~ ~

(Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1980), pp. 89-101. Description of efforts undertaken by the PRO since 1968.


Thk k another area needing serious research andstudy. Archivists have not drawn on the considerable body of research ubout the orgunizutional impact of electronic information tech- noloby to determine its meaning for electronic records management, corporute memory, and institutional archives.

241. Finholt, Tom 'The Erosion of Time, Geography and Hierarchy: Sharing Informa- tion Through an Electronic Archive," in Jnformation Handling in Offices and Archives, ed. Angelika Menne-Haritz (New York: K. G. Saur, 1993), pp. 67-90. This study examined the use of two electronic archives of help information by employees of Tandem, Inc. One archive consisted mostly of working expertise, or informal knowledge, while the other archive consisted mostly of canonical expertise, or formal knowledge. The location of sites, level of experience of employees at sites, and the size of sites within Tandem were predicted to influence both the selection of archives and the amount of use of archives by help-seekers. Remote, inexperienced, and small sites were expected to use both archives more heavily than near, experienced, and big sites -- and to use the archive with working expertise more than the archive with canonical expertise. Results showed that remote sites used the electronic archives more than non-remote sites. Further, sites with inexperienced employees used the electronic archives more than sites with experienced employees. Final- ly, these patterns were more pronounced for use of the archive consisting of working expertise than for the archive consisting of canonical expertise. (Abstract, p. 67)


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242. Lynch, Clifford A. 'Towards an Enterprise Document Management System Strategy and an Institutional Document Management System for the World Bank," unpublished paper, 25 September 1992. Think-piece written for the World Bank regarding how to enhance its present electronic documents management and how to relate paper- based to other electronic format files. Very useful institutional case study, examining a series of issues caused by the use of a variety of information technologies, with suggestions for both technology and policy decisions. For specific World Bank requirements refer to the following: World Bank. "Document Management System Requirements Analysis," unpublished document, [1992]; "Electronic Document Management System Functions," unpublished document, [1992]; and "Excalibur Project: Analysis and Recommendations," unpublished document, October 1992.

243. Reinermann, Heinrich "Changes in Organization and Process of Work in Ad- . . . , ministrations," in Information Handllnen O f f l c e s Archives, ed. Angelika Menne- Haritz (New York: K. G . Saur, 1993), pp. 106-1 11. Examines the hypothesis: "Administrative behaviour is, among others, dependent on the available working techniques. The tasks we would like our public authorities to fulfill, the administrative procedures, and the working techniques available in offices - they are interdependent." General discussion of this matter.

244. Stout, Leon J. and Donald A. Baird "Automation in North American College and University Archives: A Survey," American A r c h w 47 (Fall 1984): 394-404. Includes discussion of the academic archives work with electronic records, concluding that while there were such activities they were restricted to such aspects as storage and related areas. A good benchmark study for work in the early 1980s.

245. Thexton, J. E. "Archival Potential o f Machine-Readable Records in Business," . . American Archwst 37 (January 1974): 37-42. General description of the use of computers by businesses, with particular emphasis on the author's corporation, Ontario Hydro. Ar- gues that since much of the use of the computer is for statistical analysis, there is little reason to maintain such data once it has been used and summarized in some other form.


A study is still needed to determine the impact of social science data archives on the development of approaches to electronic recorcls management.

246. Gammel, William J. "The Roper Center: A Collegial Structure to Facilitate Social Data Utilization," in Archivists and Machine-Readable Records: r

ce on Archival Mana~ement of Machine-Readable Records F e h - . . arv 7-1 0. 1979. Ann Arbor. Mlch~ean (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1980), pp. 134-44. A description of the "oldest and largest archive of machine-readable sample survey data in the world."


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247. Geda, Carolyn L. "Social Science Data Archives." American Archivist 42 (April 1979): 158-66. Brief overview of the efforts to develop programs for the "collection, processing, documentation, preservation, and dissemination of computer-readable research data." Valuable mostly as background of activities never completely connected to the mainstream archival community, although a rich source for the small group of archivists responsible for electronic records.

248. Geda, Carolyn L. and Erik W. Austin "An Archive for the Social Sciences," in &- and W h ~ n e - w b l e Records: P r o c ~ s of the Conference on Archival

of Mac le Records Februarv 7-10.1979. Ann Arbor. Mlc- . .

hine-Readab (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1980), pp. 122-33. Description of the work of the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research in the Center for Political Studies, the Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan.

249. Heim, Kathleen M. "Social Science Information Needs for Numeric Data: The Evolution of the International Data Archive Infrastructure," Wlec t ion Ma- 9 (Spring 1987): 1-53. Collection development for specific disciplines requires a comprehensive recognition of the idiosyncratic needs of each discipline. Ideally this recognition would be grounded in a well-developed model of information-seeking behavior that would take into account formal and informal channels of communication regardless of format. In an effort to extend understanding of social scientific collection development requirements beyond traditional printed sources, this paper will discuss the evolution of data use in the social sciences to 1975. Although this will illuminate but one direction for collection development considerations, it is the author's intention that this presentation will emphasize the complexity of social scientific information needs that lie outside a print orientation. (Abstract provided)

250. Hofferbert, Richard I. "Confidentiality, Privacy, and Social Data Archives: Special . . Problems for Policy Analysis," in -d Machlne-ReadablP Recards:-

on Ar-nt , , of Mahne&z&ble Records February 7-l(1 1979. Ann Arbor. Michigan (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1980), pp. 217-29. Essay about the concerns o f use of data archives and an argument that "archivists must develop appropriate technical procedures that take the lead in preventing repressive, ill-in- formed procedures from crippling them, while recognizing the essential legitimacy of civil libertarian concerns."


BIBLIOGRAPHY 151

Copyright Archives Sr Museum Infornlatics, 1993

152 ELECTRONIC RECORDS MAVAGEMENT PROGRAM STRATEGIES

Figure 2

Writings on Electronic Records by Period, 1970-03

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 153

THE INDEX By Authors

Acland, Glenda 15 Ahlgren, Dorothy 88 Aitchison, Wallace G. 110 Alldredge, Everett 0. 11 I , 116, 146 Ambacher, Bruce I . 1 American Council of Learned Societies 177 Anderson, Michael 147 Aronsson, Patricia 193 Austin, Erik W. 9, 248 Bailey, Catherine 16, 142 Baird, Donald A. 244 Balon, Bret J . 148 Barrese, Edward F. 156 Barry, Richard E. 225 Bearman, David 2, 17, 18, 19, 20,21, 22,23, 59, 89, 90, 91, 117, Bekkers, Victor 226 Belding, Richard N. 212 Bell, Lionel 24 Bikson, Tora K. 100,227 Blake, Monica 228 Blouin, Jr., Francis X. 9, 56 Bogue, Allan G. 157 Bohl, Peter 229 Boston, Public Records Division 171 Brown, Thomas Elton 60, 61, 118, 119, 158, 193 Bui, Dominic Nghiep Cong 92 Burke, Frank G . 93 Byrum, John D., Jr. 143 Cameron, Ross J. 120 Canada, Bureau of Management Consulting, Supply and Services 182, 184 Carroll, M.E. 230, 231 Caudle, Sharon L. 213 Chapdelaine, Susan A. 25 Chasse, Kenneth L. 159 Clubb, Jerome M. 62 Committee on the Records of Government 194 Cook, Michael 3, 94 Cook, Terry 63,64, 121 Cox, Nicholas 122 Cox, Richard J. 65,66,67, 108, 183 Criminal Lawyers' Association 160 Cunliffe, Willa 195 Danilenko, 1.1. 232 Davis, Victoria A. 35, 113 Dearstyne, Bruce W. 4 Delmas, Bruno 26



DeWhitt, Ben 68 Dollar, Charles M. 27,28, 95, 123, 144, 196, 197 Durance, Cynthia J. 5 Duranti, Luciana 29 El-Shinnawy, Maha 100 Emmerson, Peter 161 Erpen, Walter Meyer zu 124 Evans, Frank B. 69 Finholt, Tim 241 Fishbein, Meyer H. 6,70,71,72,73,74, 125, 126, 127, 162 Fisher, Barbara 30 Fletcher, Patricia T. 214 Florida, Joint Committee on Information Technology Resources 215 Fortson, Larry G. 212 Fox, Michael J. 216 Fredberg, Birgit 163 Fruscione, James J . 112 Galler, Bernard A. 185 Gammel, William J. 246 Gardner, H. Wayne 148 Gavrel, Katherine 33, 233 Gavrel, Sue 128, 149, 164 Geda, Carolyn 7,247,248 Geller, Sidney B. 150, 151 Gilliland-Swetland, Anne J . 75, 145 Granstrom, Claes 31,32, 165 Greenstein, Shane 166 Guthrie, Chester L. 167 Harrison, Donald Fisher 198, 199, 200 Hauser, Susan E. 107 Hedlin, Edie 76, 200 Hedstrom, Margaret 8, 34, 77, 78, 96, 129, 168,217 Heim, Kathleen M. 249 Henry, Linda J . 79 Herschler, David H. 201 Hofferbert, Richard 1. 250 Holland, Michael E. 130 Hughes, Carol 145 J. Paul Getty Trust 177 Jones, Bernard 234 Kandur, Hamza 9 Katz, Richard N. 35, 113 Katz, Sylvan 36 Kenney, Anne R. 152 Kesner, Richard M. 10, 37, 38, 39, 80,$11, $12 Ketelaar, Eric 40 Kowlowitz, Alan 131, 132,217 Kula, Sam 97 Law, S.A. 227 hdol ini , Elio 41

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 155

Lynch, Clifford A. 242 Mallinson, John C. 153, 154 Marchand, Donald A. 213 Marks, Gregory A. 99 Markus, M. Lynne 100 Matters, Marion 11 McDonald, John 88, 133,235,236,237 McIntosh, Lowrie W. 98 Menne-Haritz, Angelika 12, 42, 43 Michelson, Avra 101, 102 Miller, Michael L. 134, 195 Millican, Dennis D. 135 Mills, Thomas E. 218 Morgan, Dennis F. 135 National Academy of Public Administration 202,203 Naugler, Harold 136,238 Nelson, Anna Kasten 204 New York, State Archives and Records Administration 219, 220 Newton, S.C. 44 Nolte, William 103 Nowicke, Carol Elizabeth 104 Parer,Dagmar 239 Paskoff, Paul F. 169 Paulapuro, Hannu 105 Perritt, Henry H., Jr. 170 Personius, Lynne K. 152 Peterson, Trudy Huskamp 45,46 Pieyns-Rigo, Pauline 163 Podio, Fernando L. 155 Porter, John W. 114 Protocols Standards and Communication, Inc. 186, 187, 188 Reader, William A. 119 Reed, Barbara 137 Reinermann, Heinrich 243 Rhoads, James B. 205 Rieger, Morris 47 Robb, Charles 221 Robbin, Alice 139 Roberts, David 137, 138 Rofes, William L. 140 Roper, Michael 48, 240 Rothenberg,Jeff 102 Rowe, Judith S. 143, 172 Ruller, Thomas J. 83 Skupsky, Donald S. 173, 174 Slany, William 2. 201 Smith, Ralph A. 106 Society of American Archivists 84 Soe, Louise L. 100 Southern, Edwin 49

Copyright Archives cYr Museum Informatics, 1993


Sprehe, J. Timothy 175,206 Stielow, Frederick J . 50, 85 Stout, Leon J. 244 Stuart-Stubbs, Basil 5 1 Stuckey, Steve 239 Sturges, Paul 52 Taggart, William M., Jr. 115 Tanenbaum, Eric 176 Taylor, Hugh A. 53,54 Taylor, Marcia Freed 141 Thexton, J. E. 245 Thibodeau, Kenneth 207 Thoma, George R. 107 Tomer, Christinger 108 Trego, Lori A. 223 Tsaplin, V.V. 232 U.N., Advisory Committee for the Co-ordination of lnforma

13,14, 181 U.S., General Accounting Office 209 U.S.. House Committee on Government Operations 210

ltion Systems (ACCIS)

u.s.; National Archives and Records ~ d m i h s t r a t i o n 189,208,211 U.S., National Historical Publications and Records Commission 86,87 U.S., National Institute of Standards and Technology 190 Vernon, John A. 55 Vinovskis, Maris A. 178 Volz, Richard A. 109 Walch, Victoria Irons 191 Walker, Frank L. 107 Warner, Robert M. 56 Weinberg, Gerhard L. 179 Weissman, Ronald E.F. 57 White, Kenneth 224 Wilson, Andrew 239 Wisconsin, State Historical Society 222 Wood, Elizabeth B. 58 Wood, Helen M. 192 Zeisset. Paul T . 180


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