Reading Material OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF BUILDINGS AND

SERVICES IN ULB’s

Support Sponsored

Directorate of Municipal Administration KUIDFC

Implementation

State Institute for Urban Development Administrative Training Institute Campus,

Mysore – 570 011 Telephone: 0821-2520116 Fax: 0821-

2520164

Website: www.siudmysore.gov.in, E-mail: directorsiud@yahoo.co.in

# 441, II Floor, Dhanalakshmi Plaza, New Kantharaj Urs Road,

T.K. Layout, Mysore 570 009

INDEX Page No.

Forward by Director General, ATI, Mysore

Preface by Director, SIUD, Mysore

1. 74th Constitutional Amendment 01 – 14

2. O & M of Water Supply 17- 84

3. O & M of Sewerage System 85 - 124

4. Maintenance of Roads and Storm Water Drains 125 - 149

5. Maintenance of Buildings 150 - 192

6. Funds for O & M 193 - 211

7. Community Participation 212- 219

8. Case Studies 220- 236

74th Constitutional Amendment

1

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gÉÆêÀiï zÉñÀzÀ “ªÀÄĤ¹¦AiÀÄ0ªÀÄĤ¹¦AiÀÄ0ªÀÄĤ¹¦AiÀÄ0ªÀÄĤ¹¦AiÀÄ0” J0§ ¥ÀzÀ¢0zÀ ªÀÄĤ¹¥Á°n J0§ ¥ÀzÀ¢0zÀ §0¢zÉ.

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¸ÀܽÃAiÀÄ ¸À0¸ÉÜUÀ¼ÀÄ ZÁ®£ÉUÉ §0zÀzÀÄÝ 16 ªÀÄvÀÄÛ 17 £Éà ±ÀvÀªÀiÁ£ÀzÀ ªÀÄzsÀåzÀ°è1687 gÀ°è ©ænµï ¥Àæw¤¢ü gÁAiÀįï ZÁlðgï ªÀÄĤ¹¥Á°nUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ªÉÆzÀ®Ä ªÀÄzÁæ¸ï£À°è C¹ÛvÀéPÉÌ vÀ0zÀ£ÀÄ. ¸ÀܽÃAiÀÄ ªÀåªÀ¸ÉÜAiÀÄ£ÀÄß ¸ÀܽÃAiÀÄ ¸ÀgÀPÁgÀªÁV gÀƦ¹zÀªÀ£ÀÄ ¯Áqïð ªÉÄÃAiÉÆà PÉ®ªÉÇ0zÀÄ C¢üPÁgÀUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ¤ÃqÀĪÀ ªÀÄÆ®PÀ eÁjUÉ vÀ0zÀ£ÀÄ. 1880 j0zÀ 1884gÀ CªÀ¢üAiÀÄ°è ªÉʸÀgÁAiÀiï ºÁUÀÆ U˪À£Àðgï d£ÀgÀ¯ï DVzÀÝ ¯Áqïð j¥Àà£ï ¸ÀܽÃAiÀÄ ¸À0¸ÉÜUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ±Á¸À£À§zÀÞUÉƽ¹ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ CzÀ£ÀÄß §®ªÀzÀð£É ªÀiÁrzÀ£ÀÄ. EzÀgÀ°è ¸ÀܽÃAiÀÄ DqÀ½vÀPÉÌ ¥ÀgÀªÀiÁ¢üPÁgÀ, ªÉÄðéZÁgÀuÉ, d£ÀgÀ ¨sÁUÀªÀ»¸ÀÄ«PÉ ªÉÆzÀ¯ÁzÀ ¸ÀÄzsÁgÀuÉUÀ¼À£ÀÄß vÀ0zÀ£ÀÄ. ¸ÁévÀ0vÀæ÷å ¥ÀǪÀðzÀ PÀ£Áðl¸ÁévÀ0vÀæ÷å ¥ÀǪÀðzÀ PÀ£Áðl¸ÁévÀ0vÀæ÷å ¥ÀǪÀðzÀ PÀ£Áðl¸ÁévÀ0vÀæ÷å ¥ÀǪÀðzÀ PÀ£ÁðlPÀzÀ £ÉÆÃl:PÀzÀ £ÉÆÃl:PÀzÀ £ÉÆÃl:PÀzÀ £ÉÆÃl:----

ªÉÄʸÀÆgÀ£ÀÄß ©ænµï ¨sÁgÀvÀzÀ ¥Áæ0vÀå ºÁUÀÆ gÁdªÀÄ£ÉvÀ£ÀzÀ ¥Áæ0vÀåªÉ0zÀÄ «¨sÁV¸À¯ÁVvÀÄÛ. EzÀgÀ°è ¨Á0¨É ¥Éæ¸Éqɤì, ªÀÄzÁæ¸ÀÄ ¥Éæ¸Éqɤì, PÉÆqÀUÀÄ ¥Éæ¸ÉqɤìUÀ¼ÀÄ EzÀݪÀÅ. gÁdªÀÄ£ÉvÀ£ÀzÀ ¥Áæ0vÀåUÀ¼ÀÄ:gÁdªÀÄ£ÉvÀ£ÀzÀ ¥Áæ0vÀåUÀ¼ÀÄ:gÁdªÀÄ£ÉvÀ£ÀzÀ ¥Áæ0vÀåUÀ¼ÀÄ:gÁdªÀÄ£ÉvÀ£ÀzÀ ¥Áæ0vÀåUÀ¼ÀÄ:----

ªÉÄʸÀÆgÀÄ, ºÉÊzÀgÁ¨Ázï, ªÉÄʸÀÆgÀÄ-wgÀĪÁ0PÀÆgÀÄ (PÉÆaÑ) ¥Áæ0vÀåUÀ¼À°è ªÀÄĤ¹¥Á°n ªÀåªÀ¸ÉÜ eÁjAiÀÄ°èvÀÄÛ. gÁdgÀ PÁ®zÀ°è:gÁdgÀ PÁ®zÀ°è:gÁdgÀ PÁ®zÀ°è:gÁdgÀ PÁ®zÀ°è:----

1862gÀ°è ªÀÄĤ¹¥À¯ï ¸À«ÄwUÀ¼ÀÄ ªÉÄʸÀÆgÀÄ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ ¨É0UÀ¼ÀÆgÀÄ £ÀUÀgÀUÀ½UÉ ªÀåªÀ¸ÉÜ ªÀiÁqÀ¯Á¬ÄvÀÄ. D£À0vÀgÀ ¥Àæw f¯ÉèAiÀÄ°è 2-3 ªÀµÀðUÀ¼À CªÀ¢üAiÀÄ°è ªÀÄĤ¹¥À¯ï ¸À«ÄwUÀ¼ÀÄ ¸ÁÜ¥À£ÉUÉÆ0qÀªÀÅ. 1872-73gÀ°è 58 ªÀÄĤ¹¥Á°nUÀ½zÀݪÀÅ. 1906gÀ°è ºÉZÀÄÑ ªÀÄĤ¹¥Á°nUÀ¼À£ÀÄß gÀƦ¸À¯Á¬ÄvÀÄ. DzÀgÉ EªÀÅ ¸ÀjAiÀiÁV PÉ®¸À ¤ªÀð»¸À°®è. PÁgÀt ¥Àæw¤¢üUÀ¼ÀÄ d£Àj0zÀ ZÀÄ£Á¬ÄvÀgÁVgÀ°è®è ºÁUÀÆ ºÀtzÀ ªÀåªÀºÁgÀzÀ°è »rvÀ«gÀ°®è. ¨Á0¨É PÀ£ÁðlPÀ:¨Á0¨É PÀ£ÁðlPÀ:¨Á0¨É PÀ£ÁðlPÀ:¨Á0¨É PÀ£ÁðlPÀ:----

¨Á0¨É PÀ£ÁðlPÀ ¥Áæ0vÀå ¨Á0¨É ¥Éæ¸ÉqɤìAiÀÄ DqÀ½vÀzÀ°èvÀÄÛ. ¸ÀܽÃAiÀÄ ¸À0¸ÉÜUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ªÉÆzÀ® ¨ÁjUÉ gÀƦ¸ÀÄÝ÷Ý 1901 gÀ ¨Á0¨É r¹ÖçPïÖ ªÀÄĤ¹¥Á°n¸ï DPïÖ. EzÀgÀ°è gÁdå ¸ÀPÁðgÀ AiÀiÁªÀÅzÉà ¸ÀܽÃAiÀÄ ¥Áæ0vÀåªÀ£ÀÄß ªÀÄĤ¹¥Á°n J0zÀÄ ºÉ¸Àj¸À§ºÀÄ¢vÀÄÛ. ªÀÄĤ¹¥Á°n PÀvÀðªÀå DgÉÆÃUÀå, gÀPÀëuÉ EvÁå¢. C¢üPÁjUÀ½UÉ ªÀÄĤ¹¥Á°nAiÀÄ°è vÀÄ0¨Á

2

C¢üPÁgÀUÀ½zÀݪÀÅ. ªÀÄĤ¹¥Á°n ¸ÀÆZÀ£É ªÉÄÃgÉUÉ AiÀiÁªÀÅzÉà CzsÀåPÀë, G¥ÁzsÀåPÀëgÀ£ÀÄß C¢üPÁgÀ¢0zÀ PɼÀV¸À§ºÀÄ¢vÀÄÛ. 1925 gÀ PÁAiÉÄÝAiÀÄÄ ¸ÁÜ¬Ä ¸À0¸ÉÜUÀ½UÉ ¥ÁæxÀ«ÄPÀ ²PÀëtPÉÌ ºÉZÀÄÑ UÀªÀÄ£À ¤ÃrvÀÄÛ ºÁUÀÆ ±Á¯ÉUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ¤AiÀÄ0wæ¸ÀĪÀ C¢üPÁgÀªÀ£ÀÄß ¤ÃqÀ¯ÁVvÀÄÛ. ªÀÄzÁæ¸ï ¥Éæ¹qɤì:ªÀÄzÁæ¸ï ¥Éæ¹qɤì:ªÀÄzÁæ¸ï ¥Éæ¹qɤì:ªÀÄzÁæ¸ï ¥Éæ¹qɤì:----

zÀQët PÀ£ÀßqÀ, §¼Áîj, PÉƼÉîUÁ® vÁ®ÆèPÀÄUÀ¼ÀÄ EzÀgÀ C¢ü£ÀzÀ°è ¸ÉÃjzÀݪÀÅ. 1865gÀ°è mË£ï E0¥ÀÇæªÉÄ0mï DPÀÖ£ÀÄß eÁjUÉ vÀgÀ¯Á¬ÄvÀÄ. EzÀgÀ°è ¥ÀæwAiÉÆ0zÀÄ ¥ÀlÖtPÉÌ M0zÉÆ0zÀÄ C©üªÀÈ¢Þ ªÀÄ0qÀ° ¸Áܦ¸À¯Á¬ÄvÀÄ. CzÀgÀ ªÀÄÄRå¸ÀÜ f¯Áè ªÀiÁåf¸ÉÛçÃmï. 1920gÀ°è ªÀÄzÁæ¸ï r¸ÉÖçPïÖ DPïÖ£ÀÄß eÁjUÉ vÀgÀ¯Á¬ÄvÀÄ. EzÀgÀ°è ZÀÄ£Á¬ÄvÀ ¸À0SÉå ºÉZÁѬÄvÀÄ. ºÁUÀÆ ªÀÄĸÀ¯Áä£ÀjUÉ, Qæ²ÑAiÀÄ£ÀßjUÉ, ºÀjd£ÀjUÉ, ºÉtÄÚªÀÄPÀ̽ÃUÉ ¸ÀzÀ¸ÀåvÀéªÀ£ÀÄß «ÄøÀ°qÀ¯Á¬ÄvÀÄ.

ºÉÊzÀgÁ¨Ázï gÁdå:ºÉÊzÀgÁ¨Ázï gÁdå:ºÉÊzÀgÁ¨Ázï gÁdå:ºÉÊzÀgÁ¨Ázï gÁdå:----

©ÃzÀgï, gÁAiÀÄZÀÆgÀÄ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ UÀÄ®âUÀð f¯ÉèUÀ¼ÀÄ EªÀgÀ DqÀ½vÀPÉÌ M¼À¥ÀnÖzÀݪÀÅ. 1887gÀ°è ¸ÀܽÃAiÀÄ DqÀ½vÀzÀ°è gÀÆ¥Á¬ÄUÉ M0zÁuÉAiÀÄ0vÉ PÀ0zÁAiÀĪÀ£ÀÄß «¢ü¸À¯ÁUÀÄwÛvÀÄÛ. PÀ0zÁAiÀÄzÀ ºÀt¢0zÀ PÀlÖqÀ ¤ªÀiÁðt, gÀ¸ÉÛ ¤ªÀðºÀuÉ, ±Á¯ÉUÀ¼À ¤ªÀðºÀuÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄß £ÀqɸÀ¯ÁUÀÄwÛvÀÄÛ. ºÀtPÁ¸ÀÄ ¤ªÀðºÀuÉ ¸ÀܽÃAiÀÄ ºÀtPÁ¸ÀÄ E¯ÁSÉAiÀÄ ªÀÄÆ®PÀ ¤ªÀð»¸ÀÄwÛvÀÄÛ. 1900 gÀ ¸ÀܽÃAiÀÄ ¸É¸ï PÁAiÉÄÝAiÀÄ ªÀÄÆ®PÀ 5000 ºÉaÑ£À d£ÀªÀ¸ÀwUÀ½zÀÝ £ÀUÀgÀUÀ½UÉ £ÉʪÀÄð®å ¸À«ÄwAiÀÄ£ÀÄß gÀa¹PÉƼÀî®Ä C¢üPÁgÀ ¤ÃqÀ¯Á¬ÄvÀÄ. 1934gÀ°è ªÀÄĤ¹¥À¯ï ¸À«ÄUÀ¼ÁV EªÀÅ ªÀiÁ¥ÁðqÁzÀªÀÅ. F ¸À«ÄwUÀ¼À°è 16 ¸ÀzÀ¸ÀåjgÀÄwÛzÀÄÝ, CzÀgÀ°è 4 d£À C¢üPÁjUÀ¼ÀÄ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ 12 d£À d£À¥Àæw¤¢üUÀ½gÀÄwÛzÀÝgÀÄ.

¥ÀlÖt ¥À0ZÁ¬ÄwUÀ¼À°è ¸ÀtÚ ¸ÀtÚ £ÀUÀgÀUÀ¼À°è £ÉʪÀÄð®å ¸À«ÄwUÀ¼À §zÀ¯ÁV £ÀUÀgÀ ¸À«ÄwUÀ½gÀÄwÛzÀݪÀÅ. F ¸À«ÄwUÀ¼À°è 5 ¸ÀzÀ¸ÀågÀ£ÉÆß¼ÀUÉÆ0qÀ 3 C¢üPÁjUÀ¼ÀÄ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ 3 d£À d£À¥Àæw¤¢üUÀ½gÀÄwÛzÀÝgÀÄ. PÉÆqÀUÀÄ ¥Áæ0vÀåzÀ £ÉÆÃl:PÉÆqÀUÀÄ ¥Áæ0vÀåzÀ £ÉÆÃl:PÉÆqÀUÀÄ ¥Áæ0vÀåzÀ £ÉÆÃl:PÉÆqÀUÀÄ ¥Áæ0vÀåzÀ £ÉÆÃl:----

1834 j0zÀ ªÉÄʸÀÆgÀÄ ¸ÁévÀ0vÀæ §gÀĪÀªÀgÉUÀÆ PÉÆqÀUÀÄ f¯ÉèUÉ ¥ÀævÉåPÀ DqÀ½vÀ ªÀåªÀ¸ÉÜ EvÀÄÛ. 1870gÀ°è ªÀÄĤ¹¥À¯ï ¸À«ÄwUÀ¼À£ÀÄß gÀa¸À¯Á¬ÄvÀÄ. EzÀgÀ°è ªÀÄrPÉÃj, «gÁd¥ÉÃmÉ ¥ÀlÖtUÀ¼À°è DqÀ½vÁvÀäPÀªÁV ¸À«ÄwUÀ¼ÀÄ £ÉÆÃrPÉƼÀÄîwÛzÀݪÀÅ. F ¸À«ÄwUÀ¼À°è PÀ0zÁAiÀÄ C¢üPÁjUÀ¼À £ÉvÀÈvÀézÀ°è ZÀÄ£Á¬ÄvÀ ¥Àæw¤¢üUÀ¼ÀÄ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ DqÀ½vÀ C¢üPÁjUÀ¼ÀÄ ¸ÀzÀ¸ÀågÁVzÀÝgÀÄ. KQÃPÀgÀtzÀ PÁ®KQÃPÀgÀtzÀ PÁ®KQÃPÀgÀtzÀ PÁ®KQÃPÀgÀtzÀ PÁ®::::----

1956gÀ°è ªÉÄʸÀÆgÀÄ ¥ÀÅ£Àgï gÀZÀ£ÉAiÀiÁ¬ÄvÀÄ. ¨Á0¨É PÀ£ÁðlPÀ, ªÀÄzÁæ¸ÀÄ ºÉÊzÀgÁ¨Ázï PÉÆqÀUÀÄ ¥Áæ0vÀåUÀ¼À°è DAiÀiÁ gÁdåPÉÌ ¸À0§0¢ü¹zÀ0vÀºÀ jÃwAiÀÄ°è ªÀÄĤ¹¥Á°nUÀ¼ÀÄ PÁAiÀÄð¤ªÀð»¸ÀÄwÛzÀݪÀÅ. 1964gÀ PÀ£ÁðlPÀ ¥ËgÀ¸À¨sÉUÀ¼À C¢ü¤AiÀĪÀÄ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ 1976gÀ PÀ£ÁðlPÀ ªÀÄĤì¥À¯ï PÁ¥ÉÇðÃgÉõÀ£ï C¢ü¤AiÀĪÀÄ §AzÀ £À0vÀgÀ PÀ£ÁðlPÀzÀ J¯Áè ªÀÄĤ¹¥À¯ï ªÀåªÀºÁgÀUÀ¼À ªÀåªÀ¸ÉÜUÀ¼À£ÀÄß PÉÆæÃrÃPÀj¸À¯Á¬ÄvÀÄ.

3

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10,000 ¢0zÀ 20,000 ¥ÀÅgÀ¸À¨sÉ¥ÀÅgÀ¸À¨sÉ¥ÀÅgÀ¸À¨sÉ¥ÀÅgÀ¸À¨sÉ::::----

20,000 ¢0zÀ 50,000

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50,000 ¢0zÀ 3,00,000

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3,00,000 QÌ0vÀ C¢üPÀ ¸ÀܽÃAiÀÄ ¸À0¸ÉÜUÀ¼À gÀZÀ£É¸ÀܽÃAiÀÄ ¸À0¸ÉÜUÀ¼À gÀZÀ£É¸ÀܽÃAiÀÄ ¸À0¸ÉÜUÀ¼À gÀZÀ£É¸ÀܽÃAiÀÄ ¸À0¸ÉÜUÀ¼À gÀZÀ£É::::----

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4

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6

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• £ËPÀgÀjUÉ ªÁ¸ÀPÉÌ ªÀÄ£É PÀnÖ¹ PÉÆqÀĪÀÅzÀÄ CxÀªÁ ªÀÄ£É PÀnÖPÉƼÀî®Ä ¸Á® PÉÆqÀĪÀÅzÀÄ CxÀªÁ PÉÆr¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ.

• d£À£À-ªÀÄgÀtUÀ¼À C¢üPÀÈvÀ zÁR¯Áw ºÁUÀÆ EvÀgÀ C0Q-C0±ÀUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ¸ÀjAiÀiÁV ¸À0UÀ滸À¨ÉÃPÀÄ. ºÁUÉ ¸ÀjAiÀiÁV ¸À0UÀæºÀ ªÀiÁqÀĪÀªÀjUÉ §ºÀĪÀiÁ£ÀUÀ¼À£ÀÄß PÉÆqÀ§ºÀÄzÀÄ.

• ¤UÀðwPÀ ªÀÄ»¼ÉAiÀÄjUÁV D±ÀæAiÀÄzsÁªÀÄUÀ¼À£ÀÄß MzÀV¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ.

• £ÀUÀgÀ¸À¨sÉ ªÁå¦ÛAiÀÄ ¥ÀæzÉñÀªÀ£ÀÄß ªÉÆÃdt (¸ÀªÉð) ªÀiÁr¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ (C¼ÀvÉ ªÀiÁr¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ).

7

• SÁ¸ÀV eÁUÀzÀ°è CxÀªÁ DªÀgÀtUÀ¼À ªÉÄÃ¯É M¼ÀZÀgÀ0r ¤«Äð¸À¨ÉÃPÁUÀĪÀ ¸À0zÀ¨sÀðzÀ°è PÉƼÀªÉUÀ¼ÀÄ, eÉÆÃqÀuÉUÀ¼ÀÄ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ EvÀgÀ ¸ÁªÀiÁVæUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ¸ÀgÀ§gÁdÄ ªÀiÁqÀĪÀÅzÀÄ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ ¤«Äð¹PÉÆqÀĪÀÅzÀÄ ºÁUÀÆ ¤ªÀðºÀuÉ ªÀiÁqÀĪÀÅzÀÄ.

• ¸ÁªÀðd¤PÀ ¸ÀܼÀUÀ¼À°è CxÀªÁ ¸ÁªÀðd¤PÀgÀÄ ¸ÉÃgÀĪÀ ¸ÀܼÀUÀ¼À°è ¸À0VÃvÀ CxÀªÁ EvÀgÉà ªÀÄ£ÀgÀ0d£ÉUÀ¼À£ÀÄß MzÀV¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ (gÉÃrAiÉÆÃ, n.«.).

• ªÀÄPÀ̼À PÀ¯Áåt ºÁUÀÆ ¸ÁªÀðd¤PÀ DgÉÆÃUÀå PÁAiÀÄðUÀ¼À£ÀÄß GvÀÛªÀÄ¥Àr¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ.

• ¸À0PÀµÀÖPÉÌ M¼ÀUÁzÀ d£ÀgÀ ¥ÀjºÁgÀ ¤¢üUÁV zÉÃtÂUÉ PÉÆqÀĪÀÅzÀÄ.

• ªÀÄ£ÀgÀ0d£Á PÁAiÀÄðPÀæªÀÄUÀ¼À£ÀÄß K¥Àðr¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ, ªÀ¸ÀÄÛ¥ÀæzÀ±Àð£ÀUÀ¼À£ÀÄß K¥Àðr¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ, ¸ÁªÀðd¤PÀ ¸ÀªÀiÁgÀ0¨sÀ K¥Àðr¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ, ¸ÁªÀðd¤PÀ GvÀìªÀ K¥Àðr¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ. F PÁAiÀÄðPÀæªÀÄUÀ¼À£ÀÄß PÉÊUÉƼÀî¨ÉÃPÁzÀgÉ ¸ÁªÀiÁ£Àå ¸À¨sÉAiÀÄ°è wêÀiÁð£ÀªÁVgÀ¨ÉÃPÀÄ.

• C¨sÁªÀ §gÀ PÁëªÀÄzÀ PÁ®zÀ°è fêÀ£ÁªÀ±ÀåPÀ ªÀ¸ÀÄÛUÀ¼À ªÀiÁgÁlPÉÌ ªÀĽUÉ vÉgÉAiÀÄĪÀÅzÀÄ ºÁUÀÆ ¤ªÀðºÀuÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄß ªÀiÁqÀĪÀÅzÀÄ.

• C£ÁxÀjUÉ, ºÉ¼ÀªÀ, PÀÄ0ljUÉ ªÀ¸Àw MzÀV¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ ºÁUÀÆ ¤ªÀðºÀuÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄß ªÀiÁqÀĪÀÅzÀÄ.

• PÁ£ÀƤUÉ M¼À¥ÀlÄÖ GUÁætUÀ¼À£ÀÄß PÀnÖ¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ ¤ªÀðºÀuÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄß ªÀiÁqÀĪÀÅzÀÄ. EzÀj0zÀ ¸À0¸ÉÜUÉ DzÁAiÀÄ §gÀÄvÀÛzÉ.

• £ÀUÀgÀ¸À¨sÉAiÉƼÀUÉ ¸ÁjUÉ ¸Ë®¨sÀåUÀ¼À ªÀåªÀ¸ÉÜ ªÀiÁzÀĪÀÅzÀÄ. EzÀj0zÀ ¸À0¸ÉÜUÉ DzÁAiÀÄ §gÀÄvÀÛzÉ.

• C0§Ä¯É£ïì ¸ÉêÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄß K¥Àðr¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ, §qÀªÀjUÁV «zÀÄåZÀÑQÛ ¸ÀgÀ§gÁfUÁV AiÀiÁªÀÅzÉà PÁªÀÄUÁjAiÀÄ£ÀÄß ªÀiÁqÀĪÀÅzÀÄ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ zÀÄgÀ¹Ü ªÀiÁqÀĪÀÅzÀÄ, UÀæ0xÁ®AiÀÄ, ªÀ¸ÀÄÛ¸À0UÀæºÁ®AiÀÄ, D¸ÀàvÉæ, OµÀzsÁ®AiÀÄ, ±ÉÊPÀëtÂPÀ ¸ÀܼÀUÀ½UÉ zÉÃtÂUÉ PÉÆqÀĪÀÅzÀÄ, ¸ÁªÀðd¤PÀ ¸ÁߣÀUÀȺÀUÀ¼À£ÀÄß PÀnÖ¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ.

• ¥À±ÀĪÉÊzÀå D¸ÀàvÉæUÀ¼À£ÀÄß PÀnÖ¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ.

• ºÉjUÉ D¸ÀàvÉæ ºÁUÀÆ ²±ÀÄ PÀ¯Áåt PÉÃ0zÀæUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ¤ªÀð»¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ.

• ¸ÀºÀPÁgÀ ¸À0WÀUÀ¼À §®ªÀzsÀð£É ªÀiÁqÀĪÀÅzÀÄ.

• PÉƼÀUÉÃjUÀ¼À£ÀÄß C©üªÀÈ¢Þ¥Àr¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ.

• ¥Àj¸ÀgÀ gÀPÀëuÉ, £ÀUÀgÀ CgÀtå AiÉÆÃd£É PÁAiÀÄðPÀæªÀÄ ºÀ«ÄäPÉƼÀÄîªÀÅzÀÄ.

• £ÀUÀgÀ §qÀvÀ£À ¤ªÀÄÆð®£À PÁAiÀÄðPÀæªÀÄzÀ ªÀÄÆ®PÀ GzÉÆåÃUÀ ªÀiÁqÀ®Ä vÀgÀ¨ÉÃw PÉÆr¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ. AiÉÆÃd£ÉUÀ¼À ªÀÄvÀÄÛ PÁAiÀÄðPÀæªÀÄUÀ¼À ªÀÄÆ®PÀ

«±ÉõÀªÁV ªÀiÁqÀ§ºÀÄzÁzÀ PÁAiÀÄðUÀ¼ÀÄ:«±ÉõÀªÁV ªÀiÁqÀ§ºÀÄzÁzÀ PÁAiÀÄðUÀ¼ÀÄ:«±ÉõÀªÁV ªÀiÁqÀ§ºÀÄzÁzÀ PÁAiÀÄðUÀ¼ÀÄ:«±ÉõÀªÁV ªÀiÁqÀ§ºÀÄzÁzÀ PÁAiÀÄðUÀ¼ÀÄ:----

C¥ÁAiÀÄPÁj gÉÆÃUÀzÀ PÁ®zÀ°è (PÁ®gÀ, ªÀįÉÃjAiÀiÁ EvÀgÉà ¸Á0PÁæ«ÄPÀ gÉÆÃUÀUÀ¼ÀÄ), gÉÆÃVUÀ½UÉ «±ÉõÀ ªÉÊzÀåQÃAiÀÄ ¸ÀºÁAiÀÄ MzÀV¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ, ¸ÀܼÀ MzÀV¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ, gÉÆÃUÀ ºÀgÀqÀzÀ0vÉ vÀqÉUÀlÖ®Ä K¥ÁðqÀÄ ªÀiÁqÀĪÀÅzÀÄ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ gÉÆÃUÀ ªÀÄgÀÄPÀ½¸ÀzÀ0vÉ JZÀÑjPÉ ªÀ»¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ.

8

£ÀUÀgÀ ¸ÀܽÃAiÀÄ ¸À0¸ÉÜUÀ¼À ªÁå¦ÛAiÀÄ°è£À ¤UÀðwPÀjUÉ PÁëªÀÄ CxÀªÁ ¥ÀPÀÈw«PÉÆÃ¥À PÁ®zÀ°è ¥ÀjºÁgÀ PÁAiÀÄð PÉÊUÉƼÀÄîªÀÅzÀÄ. ¥ÀjºÁgÀ PÁªÀÄUÁjUÀ¼À£ÀÄß DgÀ0©ü¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ ¤ªÀð»¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ.

f¯Áè AiÉÆÃd£Á ¸À«Äwf¯Áè AiÉÆÃd£Á ¸À«Äwf¯Áè AiÉÆÃd£Á ¸À«Äwf¯Áè AiÉÆÃd£Á ¸À«Äw::::----

• ¥Àæw f¯ÉèAiÀÄ°èAiÀÄÆ M0zÀÄ f¯Áè AiÉÆÃd£Á ¸À«Äw EgÀ¨ÉÃPÀÄ.

• ¸À«ÄwUÉ ¸ÀzÀ¸ÀågÀÄUÀ¼ÀÄ ºÁUÀÆ CzsÀåPÀëgÀÄ EgÀ¨ÉÃPÀÄ.

• ¸ÀzÀ¸ÀågÀ°è LzÀ£É £Á®ÌgÀµÀÄÖ ¨sÁUÀ ZÀÄ£Á¬ÄvÀ ¥ÀgÀw¤¢üUÀ¼ÀÄ EgÀ¨ÉÃPÀ.Ä

• F ¸ÀzÀ¸ÀågÀÄ f¯Áè ¥À0ZÁAiÀÄw, £ÀUÀgÀ¸À¨sÉ, ¥ÀÅgÀ¸À¨sÉ, ¥ÀlÖt ¥À0ZÁ¬ÄwUÀ½0zÀ ZÀÄ£Á¬ÄvÀgÁVgÀ¨ÉÃPÀÄ.

• LzÀ£Éà M0zÀÄ ¨sÁzÀzÀµÀÄÖ ¸ÀzÀ¸ÀågÀÄ ¸ÀPÁðgÀ¢0zÀ £ÁªÀÄ ¤zÉðñÀ£À ªÀiÁqÀ®àlÖªÀgÁVgÀÄvÁÛgÉ.

• f¯Áè ¥À0ZÁAiÀÄwAiÀÄ CzsÀåPÀëgÀÄ ¥ÀzÀ¤«ÄvÀÛ CzsÀåPÀëgÁVgÀÄvÁÛgÉ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ f¯Áè PÉÃ0zÀæzÀ ¸ÀܽÃAiÀÄ ¸À0¸ÉÜAiÀÄ CzsÀåPÀëgÀÄ G¥ÁzsÀåPÀëgÁV PÁAiÀÄð¤ªÀð»¸ÀÄvÁÛgÉ.

f¯Áè AiÉÆÃd£Á ¸À«ÄwAiÀÄ PÉ®¸ÀUÀ¼ÀÄf¯Áè AiÉÆÃd£Á ¸À«ÄwAiÀÄ PÉ®¸ÀUÀ¼ÀÄf¯Áè AiÉÆÃd£Á ¸À«ÄwAiÀÄ PÉ®¸ÀUÀ¼ÀÄf¯Áè AiÉÆÃd£Á ¸À«ÄwAiÀÄ PÉ®¸ÀUÀ¼ÀÄ::::----

• f¯ÉèAiÀÄ UÁæªÀÄ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ £ÀUÀgÀUÀ¼À ¥ÀæUÀwAiÀÄ£ÀÄß UÀªÀÄ£ÀzÀ°èlÄÖPÉÆ0qÀÄ AiÉÆÃd£ÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄß vÀAiÀiÁj¸À¨ÉÃPÀÄ.

• UÁæªÀÄ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ £ÀUÀgÀUÀ¼À DyðPÀ C©üªÀÈ¢Þ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ ¸ÁªÀiÁfPÀ £ÁåAiÀÄPÉÌ ºÉZÀÄÑ MvÀÄÛ ¤Ãr AiÉÆÃd£ÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄß gÀƦ¸À¨ÉÃPÀÄ.

• 1964gÀ PÀ£ÁðlPÀ ¥ËgÀ¸À¨sÉUÀ¼À C¢ü¤AiÀĪÀÄzÀ ¥ÀæPÁgÀ ¸ÀܽÃAiÀÄ ¸À0¸ÉÜUÀ¼ÀÄ ªÁ¶ðPÀ AiÉÆÃd£ÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄß vÀAiÀiÁj¸À¨ÉÃPÀÄ CzÀ£ÀÄß f¯Áè AiÉÆÃd£Á ¸À«ÄwUÉ PÀ¼ÀÄ»¸ÀPÉÆqÀ¨ÉÃPÀÄ. F AiÉÆÃd£É ¸ÁªÀiÁfPÀ, DyðPÀ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ £ÀUÀgÀzÀ C©üªÀÈ¢ÞAiÀÄ£ÀÄß PÀÄjvÀÄ EgÀ¨ÉÃPÀÄ.

• f¯Áè AiÉÆÃd£Á ¸À«Äw £ÀUÀgÀ ¥ÀlÖtUÀ¼À C©üªÀÈ¢ÞAiÀÄ£ÀÄß UÀªÀÄ£ÀzÀ°èlÄÖPÉÆ0qÀÄ ¸ÀªÀÄUÀæ f¯Áè AiÉÆÃd£ÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄß vÀAiÀiÁj¸À¨ÉÃPÀÄ.

• ¸ÀªÀÄUÀæ f¯Áè AiÉÆÃd£ÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄß ¸À«ÄwAiÀÄ CzsÀåPÀëgÀÄ ¸ÀPÁðgÀPÉÌ PÀ¼ÀÄ»¸À¨ÉÃPÀÄ.

• £ÀUÀgÀUÀ¼À C©üªÀÈ¢ÞUÉ ¸À0¥À£ÀÆä®UÀ¼À CªÀ±ÀåPÀvÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄß UÀÄgÀÄw¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ, ¸ÀªÀĸÉåUÀ¼À£ÀÄß UÀªÀĤ¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ, ¸ÁªÀiÁfPÀ ¹ÜwUÀwUÀ¼ÀÄ, DyðPÀ ¹ÜwUÀwUÀ¼À£ÀÄß UÀªÀĤ¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ, ¤ÃgÀÄ ¨sËwPÀ ¸À0¥À£ÀÆä®UÀ¼ÀÄ, ¥ÁæPÀÈwPÀ ¸À0¥À£ÀÆä®UÀ¼À£ÀÄß CªÀ±ÀåPÀvÉUÉ C£ÀÄUÀÄtªÁV ºÀ0aPÉAiÀÄ §UÉÎ UÀªÀÄ£ÀzÀ°èqÀ¨ÉÃPÀÄ.

• ªÀÄÆ®¨sÀÆvÀ ¸Ë®¨sÀåUÀ¼ÀÄ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ ¥Àj¸ÀgÀ gÀPÀëuÉ PÀÄjvÀ C©üªÀÈ¢Þ PÁAiÀÄðUÀ¼À£ÀÄß MlÄÖUÀÆr¹ ¸ÀªÀÄ£ÀéAiÀÄUÉƽ¸ÀĪÀÅzÀÄ.

• DyðPÀªÁV ºÁUÀÆ E¤ßvÀgÀ ®¨sÀå«gÀĪÀÅ ¸À0¥À£ÀÆä®UÀ¼À ªÀÄÆ®ªÀ£ÀÄß ºÀÄqÀÄPÀĪÀÅzÀÄ

9

• PÀ®0 15 Pˤì®gï£ÁUÀ®Ä CºÀðvÉUÀ¼ÀÄ

• PÀ®0 16 Pˤì®gï£À C£ÀºÀðvÉUÀ¼ÀÄ

• PÀ®0 42 CzsÀåPÀëgÀÄ ºÁUÀÆ G¥ÁzsÀåPÀëgÀÄ

¸ÀܽÃAiÀÄ ¸À0¸ÉÜUÀ¼À ZÀÄ£ÁªÀuÉUÀ¼ÀÄ ªÀÄÄVzÀÄ ¸ÀܽÃAiÀÄ ¸À0¸ÉÜUÀ¼ÀÄ gÀZÀ£É DzÀ ªÉÆzÀ® ¸À¨sÉ CxÀªÁ CªÀ¢ü ªÀÄÄVzÀ CxÀªÁ gÁfãÁªÉÄ ¤ÃrzÀ £À0vÀgÀ ¸ÀªÀð ¸ÀzÀ¸ÀågÀ ¸À¨sÉAiÀÄ°è ¸ÀgÀPÁgÀ ¤UÀ¢¥Àr¹zÀ «ÄøÀ¯ÁwAiÀÄ0vÉ ZÀÄ£Á¬ÄvÀ ¥Àæw¤¢üUÀ¼À°è M§âgÀ£ÀÄß CAiÉÄÌ ªÀiÁqÀ¨ÉÃPÁUÀÄvÀÛzÉ.

63 ¸À«ÄwUÀ¼ÀĸÀ«ÄwUÀ¼ÀĸÀ«ÄwUÀ¼ÀĸÀ«ÄwUÀ¼ÀÄ::::----

• ¥ÀæwAiÉÆ0zÀÄ ªÀÄĤì¥À¯ï Pˤ찣À°è ¸ÁܬÄà ¸À«ÄwAiÉÄ0zÀÄ PÀgÉAiÀįÁUÀĪÀ M0zÀÄ ¸À«Äw¬ÄgÀvÀPÀÌzÀÄÝ.

• ¸À«ÄwAiÀÄ°è Pˤì¯ï ¤zsÀðj¸À§ºÀÄzÁzÀ0vÉ 11 QÌ0vÀ ºÉaÑ®èzÀ CxÀªÁ 5 QÌ0vÀ PÀrªÉĬĮèzÀ0vÉ ¸ÀzÀ¸ÀåjgÀ¨ÉÃPÀÄ.

• ¸ÀzÀ¸ÀågÉ®ègÀÆ ¸ÀºÀ ZÀÄ£Á¬ÄvÀ Pˤì®gÀÄUÀ¼À£ÀÄß M¼ÀUÉÆ0rgÀvÀPÀÌzÀÄÝ, EªÀgÀ CªÀ¢üUÉ ¸ÀzÀ¸ÀågÁVgÀÄvÁÛgÉ.

• Pˤì¯ï vÁªÀÅ CªÀ±ÀåªÉ0zÀÄ ¥ÀAiÀiÁð¯ÉÆÃa¹zÀgÉ 3 ¸ÁܬÄà ¸À«ÄwUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ºÉÆ0¢gÀ§ºÀÄzÀÄ, CªÀÅUÀ¼É0zÀgÉ, ºÀtPÁ¸ÀÄ, DgÉÆÃUÀå ªÀÄvÀÄÛ PÁªÀÄUÁjUÁV ¸ÁܬÄà ¸À«ÄwUÀ¼ÁVgÀvÀPÀÌzÀÄÝ.

• CzsÀåPÀê ªÀÄvÀÄÛ G¥ÁzsÀåPÀë£ÀÄ ¸ÁܬÄà ¸À«ÄwAiÀÄ ¸ÀzÀ¸ÀågÁV ZÀÄ£Á¬ÄvÀgÁUÀ®Ä CºÀðgÁVgÀvÀPÀÌzÀÝ®è.

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11

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13

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14

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• 1964 £Éà PÀ£ÁðlPÀ ¥ËgÀ¸À¨sÉUÀ¼À C¢ü¤AiÀĪÀÄ.

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• 1993 £Éà Mt ±ËZÁ®AiÀÄ ¤ªÀiÁðt ªÀÄvÀÄÛ vÀ¯ÉAiÀÄ ªÉÄÃ¯É ªÀÄ® ºÉÆgÀĪÀ ¥ÀzÀÞw ¤µÉÃzÀ C¢ü¤AiÀĪÀÄ.

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15

O & M OF

WATER

SUPPLY

SYSTEM

16

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. SOURCES OF WATER

3. BASIC DESIGN CRETERIA

4. QUALITY ASPECTS

5. TRANSMISSION MAIN

6. TREATMENT METHODS

7. STORAGE RESORVOIRES

8. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

a) Maintenance Schedule

b) Maintenance Schedule for pipe line

c) Checklist in Distribution System

d) Servicing of Valves and Chambers

e) Pumping machinery and pumping station

9. LEVEL GAPS INFORMATION –QUALITY AND QUANITITY

10. REVENUE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

17

1) INTRODUCTION

The large investments made to construct utilities intended to provide facilities for

water supply are becoming unproductive in the sense that the objective for which they

have been installed is not achieved mainly on account of poor Maintenance. Often the

investments become unproductive, and a larger amount of money is required to

replace and rebuild the system components. Interruptions in service occur owing to the

breakdown of equipment as a result of poor maintenance. The utility control

organisations are not able to ensure that the maintenance staff follows valid practices

to achieve proper maintenance. The management of water supply systems in the water

authorities is receiving relatively lower priority. Lack of funds coupled with lack of

enthusiasm among the operation and maintenance staff to keep schemes in working

condition; lack of training, lack of motivation among the staff may be reasons for the

present status of the water supply systems.

DEFINITION OF OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

In an engineering sense, operation refers to hourly and daily operations of the

components of a system such as plant, machinery and equipment (valves etc.) which is

done by an operator or his assistant. This is a routine work. The term maintenance is

defined as the art of keeping the plant, equipment, structures and other related facilities

in optimum working order. Maintenance includes preventive maintenance or corrective

maintenance, mechanical adjustments, repairs and corrective action and planned

maintenance. Often repairs, replacements and corrections of defects (of material or

workmanship) are considered as actions excluded from preventive maintenance. In

some organisations the normal actions taken by operation staff are considered as

maintenance activities whereas a separate unit or cell does repairs and replacements.

Often both corrective and preventive maintenance are included in the job functions of

operators and limits to which operators are expected to do normal maintenance are set

forth for various equipment. Budgetary provisions of operation and maintenance

organisations also incorporate heads of expenditure under maintenance for cost of

spare parts and cost of labour or contract amount for repairs and replacements.

18

19

2. SOURCES OF WATER

NATURAL SOURCES

Rain, snow, hail and sleet are precipitated upon the surface of the earth as

meteorological water and may be considered as the original source of all the water

supplied. Water, as source of drinking water, occurs as surface water and ground

water. Three aspects should be considered in appraising water resources e.g., the

quantity, the quality, and the reliability of available water.

SURFACE OF WATER

Surface water accumulates mainly as a result of direct runoff from precipitation

(rain or snow). Precipitation that does not enter the ground through infiltration or is not

returned to the atmosphere by evaporation, flows over the ground surface and is

classified as direct runoff. Direct runoff is water that drains from saturated or

impermeable surfaces, into stream channels, and then into natural or artificial storage

sites (or into the ocean in coastal areas).

The amount of available surface water depends largely upon rainfall. When

rainfall is limited, the supply of surface water will vary considerably between wet and

dry years.

Surface water supplies may be further divided into river, lake, and reservoir

supplies. Dams are constructed to create artificial storage. Canals or open channels

can be constructed to convey surface water to the project sites. The water is also

conveyed through pipes by gravity or pumping.

In general, the surface sources are characterized by soft water, turbidity,

suspended solids, some colour and microbial contamination.

GROUND WATER

20

Part of the precipitation that falls infiltrates the soil. This water replenishes the

soil moisture, or is used by growing plants and returned to the atmosphere by

transpiration. Water that drains downward (percolates) below the root zone finally

reaches a level at which all the openings or voids in the earth's materials are filled with

water. This zone is called the zone of saturation. The water in the zone of saturation is

called the ground water.

Ground waters are, generally, characterized by higher concentrations of

dissolved solids, lower levels of colour, higher hardness (as compared with surface

water), dissolved gasses and freedom from microbial contamination.

A well that penetrates the water table can be used to extract water from the

ground basin. The extraction of ground water is mainly by:

1. Dug well with or without steining walls

2. Dug cum bore wells

3. Cavity Bore

4. Radial collector wells

5. Infiltration galleries

6. Tubewells & bore wells.

Ground water that flows naturally from the ground is called a Spring.

SURFACE WATER MANAGEMENT AND MAJOR SOURCES OF POLLUTION

USE OF SURACE RESERVOIRS

Methods of managing lakes and reservoirs used for domestic supplies vary

widely depending on local conditions. In addition to serving domestic water needs, a

reservoir may be used for flood control purposes, for hydroelectric power generation,

for regulating releases, for recreational purposes or for providing water for agricultural,

municipal and industrial uses. The amount and type of public use allowed on reservoirs

also varies according to individual situations.

21

The methods of treating water depend upon raw water quality and range from

disinfection only to complete treatment.

22

3. BASIC DESIGN CRETERIA

Sl. No Items Design period (Years)

Remarks

1. Storage by dams 50 The dam may be constructed in two stages. In the first stage, the height of dam may be kept just sufficient for requirements of the 30 years period. But foundation and base for both the phases.

2. Infiltration works 30 The infiltration works may be designed and constructed for intermediate requirements of 15 years and may be extended later to meet the ultimate requirements.

3. Pump sets

i) All prime movers, except electric motors

30

ii) Electric motors and pumps

15

4 Water treatment units 15

5 Pipe connections to the several treatment units and other small appurtenances

30

6. Raw water and clear water conveying mains

30 The comparative merits to cover the full 30 year period v/s a main so cover the first 15 years supplemented by another, either for the entire length or part of it, for the next 15 years should be examined to decide on the most economical arrangement.

7. Clear water reservoirs at the head works, balancing tanks and service

15 Additional units may be added after the 15-year period.

23

reservoirs (overhead or ground level) in the distribution network

8. Distribution system 30 Feeder mains to area under developed, however, may be limited to the needs of the first 15 years, and replaced or additional mains added after that period to meet the ultimate requirements.

Recommended per capita water supply levels for designing schemes

Sl. No. Classification of Towns / Cities Recommended

maximum water supply levels (lpcd)

1 Towns provided with piped water supply but without sewerage system

70

2 Cities provided with piped water supply where sewerage system is existing / contemplated

135

3 Metropolitan and mega cities provided with piped water supply where sewerage system is existing / contemplated

150

4 Fire demand For fixing capacity of service reservoirs. For towns with population exceeding 50,000, fire demand should be taken as (100√p) Kilolitres/day, where p is population in thousands. One-third of fire demand is to be provided as a part of service storage.

Note: 1) In urban areas, where water is provided through public stand posts, 40 lpcd should be

considered. 2) Figures exclude “Unaccounted for Water” which should be limited to 15%. 3) Figures include requirements of water for commercial, institutional and minor industries.

However, the bulk supply to such establishments should be assessed separately with proper justification.

(Ref.: Manual of Water Supply and Treatment by CPHEEO – Third Edition – May 1999).

24

4. QUALITY ASPECTS

Nutrients

1 Moderate or large quantities of nutrients such as phosphates, nitrates and

organic nitrogen compounds may act as a fertilizer in a reservoir to stimulate the

growth of algae which may cause algal bloom.

The problems related to algal blooms are:

i) Taste, odour and colour,

ii) Increased pH

iii) Shortened filter runs of treatment plants,

iv) Dissolved Oxygen Variation,

v) Organic loading.

Thermal Stratification

Thermal stratification develops in lakes and reservoirs when the surface water

begins to warm. The warm surface waters expand and become lighter than the lower

waters. The water temperature difference causes variation in water densities, which

create resistance to mixing. This ultimately results in Anaerobic Conditions in lower

zones.

Anaerobic Stratification

Anaerobic conditions make water unpalatable due to colour and odour which are

difficult to treat. Another major problem in anaerobic water occurs when iron and/or

manganese exist in bottom sediments in the reduced state and pass into solution. Due

to the presence of either iron or manganese in appreciable quantities within the

domestic supply the water looks reddish, brown or just plain dirty and may stain clothes

during washing and stain porcelain fixtures

Classification of water resources based on Suitability of USE (IS : 2291) 1982 : Indian Standards Institute

25

Par

amet

er

Uni

ts

Max

/Min

Drin

king

wat

er w

ithou

t co

nven

tiona

l tr

eatm

ent,

but a

fter

disi

nfec

tion

Out

door

bat

hing

or

gani

zed

Drin

king

wat

er w

ith

conv

entio

nal

trea

tmen

t, bu

t afte

r di

sinf

ectio

n

Pro

paga

tion

of w

ildlif

e an

d fis

herie

s

Irrig

atio

n, in

dust

rial

cool

ing,

etc

.

Dissolved Oxygen

Mg/1 Min 6.0 5.0 4.0 4.0 -

Biochemical oxygen demand

Mg/1 Min 2.0 3.0 3.0 - -

Total coil form bacteria

MPN/100ml Max 50.0 500.0 5000.0 - -

Total dissolved solids

Mg/1 Max 500.0 - 1500.0 - 21002100.0

Chloride as chlorine

Mg/1 Max 250.0 - 600.0 - 500.0

Color Hazen Max 10.0 300.0 300.0 - -

Sodium absorption ratio

Mg/1 Max - - - - 26.0

Boron Mg/1 Max - - - - 2.0

Sulphates Mg/1 Max 400.0 - 400.0 - 1000.0

Nitrates Mg/1 Max 20.0 - 50.0 - -

Free ammonia as Nitrogen

Mg/1 Max - - - 12.0 -

Conductivity mS/cm Max - - - 1.0 2.3

pH - - 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 6.0-8.0

Arsenic Mg/1 Max 0.1 0.2 0.2 - -

Iron Mg/1 Max 0.3 - 50.0 - -

Fluorides Mg/1 Max 1.5 1.5 1.0 - -

Lead Mg/1 Max 0s.1 - 0.1 - -

Copper Mg/1 Max 1.5 - 1.5 - -

Zinc Mg/1 Max 15.0 - 15.0 - -

26

Drinking water – Specification (IS : 10500 – 1991 with amendment No. 1 Jan, 1993) Standards for Physical and Chemical Parameters

Sl. No. Parameter Requirement

(Desirable limit)

Undesirable effect outside the

desirable limit

Permissible limit in the absence of alternate source

1 Colour 5 Above 5, consumer acceptance decreases

25

2 Odor Unobjectionable - -

3 Taste Agreeable - -

4 Tubidity 5 Above 5, consumer acceptance decreases

10

5 pH 6.5 – 8.5 No relaxation, beyond this range the water will affect the mucous membrane

No relaxation

6 Total hardness 300 Encrustation in water supply structure and adverse effect on domestic use

600

7 Iron 0.3 Beyond this limit, taste/appearance is affected, has adverse effect of domestic uses

1.0

8 Chlorides 250 Beyond this limit, taste, corrosion and palatability are affected

1000

9 Residual chlorine

0.2 - -

10 Dissolved solids

500 Beyond this palatability decreases and my cause gastro-intestinal irritation

2000

11 Calcium 75 Encrustation in water supply structure and adverse effect on

200

27

domestic use

12 Copper 0.05 Astringent taste, discoloration and corrosion of pipes, fittings and utensils will be caused beyond this

1.5

13 Magnesium 30 Encrustation to water supply structures and has adverse an adverse effect on domestic use

100

14 Manganese 0.1 Beyond this limit, taste/appearance is affected, has an adverse effect of domestic use

0.3

15 Sulphate 200 Beyond this causes gastro-intestinal irritation when Mg. or Na are present

400

16 Nitrate 45 Beyond this, methamoglobinemia

100

17 Fluoride 1.0 Fluoride may be kept as low as possible. High fluoride may cause fluorosis

1.5

18 Phenol compounds

0.001 Beyond this, objectionable taste and odour

0.002

19 Mercury 0.001 Beyond this, the water becomes toxic

No relaxation

20 Cadmium 0.01 Beyond this the water becomes toxic

No relaxation

21 Selenium 0.01 Beyond this the water becomes toxic

No relaxation

28

22 Arsenic 0.05 Beyond this the

water becomes toxic

No relaxation

23 Cyanide 0.05 Beyond this the water becomes toxic

No relaxation

24 Lead 0.05 Beyond this the water becomes toxic

No relaxation

25 Zinc 5 Beyond this, stringent taste

15

26 Anionic detergents

0.2 Beyond this, light froth in water

1.0

27 Chromium 0.05 May be carcinogenic above this limit

No relaxation

28 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons

- May be carcinogenic

-

29 Mineral oil 0.01 Beyond this, undesirable taste and odour takes place after chlorination

0.03

30 Pesticides Absent Toxic 0.001 31 Radioactive

material

a) Alpha emitters

- - 0.1

b) Beta emitters

- - 1

32 Alkalinity 200 Beyond this, taste becomes unpleasant

600

33 Aluminium 0.03 Cumulative effect is reported to cause

0.2

34 Boron 1 - 5 Standards for Bacteriological Quality • Quality of water in distribution system

29

Ideally, all samples taken from the distribution system including consumer

premises should be free from coliform organisms. In practice, this is not always

attainable.

1. Throughout the year, 95% of the samples should contain any coliform organisms in 100ml.

2. No sample should contain E. Coli in 100ml.

3. No sample should contain more than 10 coliform organisms per 100ml.

4. Coliform organisms should not be detectable in 100ml of any 2 consecutive samples.

If any coliform organisms are found, the minimum action required is immediate

re-sampling. The repeated finding of 1-10 coliform organisms in 100ml or the

appearance of increased numbers in individual samples suggests that undesirable

material is gaining access to the water and measure should be taken to discover and

remove them.

Constituents of ground water and their effect and usability

Constituent Source Normal

concentration in ground water

Effect on usability of water

Hardness Calcium and Magnesium ions

Less than 1000 ppm, may be higher in arid regions.

Low causes hardness corrosion. High hardness consumes excess soap and detergents.

pH - 6.0 to 8.5 pH less than 6.0 causes corrosion.

Colour Decaying vegetation lignite industrial wastes

- Aesthetically objectionable

Tubidity Silt and clays from soil erosions

Little or no turbidity Aesthetically objectionable

Iron Igneous rocks, sandstone rocks, ferrous or ferric compounds, well casing pipe, pump parts, etc.

Up to 10 ppm when pH is less than 8. Normally reduced to 0.5 ppm after aeration.

Turbidity, stains on plumbing fixtures, laundry and cooking utensils.

Manganese Metamorphic and sedimentary rocks

10 ppm Tastes, deposits, stain growth in reservoirs.

Calcium Felspars, dolomite, clay, minerals,

600 ppm Scales forming when combining with bicarbonates,

30

amphiboles carbonates, sulphates and silica.

Magnesium Oilvine, amphibole, dolomite, magnesite

220 ppm Same as calcium, in addition has a laxative effect on new users.

Sodium or potassium

Felspar Mirabilite 100 ppm More than 50 ppm cause forming and scale formation.

Carbonates Limestone, dolomite

10 ppm Scales

Bicarbonates Limestone, dolomite

100 ppm Scales

Sulphates Gypsum 1000 pm Bitter taste above 500 mg/l

Chlorides Sedimentary rock saline intrusion

100 ppm More than 100 mg/l imparts salty taste.

Fluorides Apatite, fluorite, mica

10 ppm More than 1.5 mg/l causes mottled enamel – more than 6ppm causes disfiguration of teeth.

Nitrates Plant debris, anial excreta, fertilizers

10 ppm Physiological distress if more than 100 mg/l. More than 45 mg/l in shallow wells causes infant diseases.

Silica Felspar, ferro magnesium, opal

100 ppm Scale forming …

Total dissolved solids

Mineral constituents water

1000 Depends on constituents

Hydrogen sulphide

Bacterial reduction of sulphides

1 ppm ‘Rotten egg’ odour, forms iron sulphides which clog on the screen openings. Causes corrosion.

5. TRANSMISSION MAIN

The overall objective of a transmission system is to deliver raw water from the

source to the treatment plants and transmit treated water from treatment plants to the

storage reservoirs for onward supply into distribution networks. Transmission of raw

water can be either by canals or by pipes whereas transmission of treated water is by

pipes only. Transmission through pipes can be either by gravity flow or by pumping.

31

The objective of O&M of transmission system is to achieve optimum utilization of

the installed capacity of the transmission system with minimum transmission losses

and at minimum cost. To attain this objective the agency has to evolve operation

procedures to ensure that the system can operate satisfactorily, function efficiently and

continuously, and last as long as possible at lowest cost.

Routine and emergency operating procedures should be in writing and clear to

all operators with the authority to act in emergencies. Further specific operational

procedures are required for inspecting, monitoring, testing, repairing and disinfecting

the system as well as for locating the buried pipes and valves. System records and

maps should be updated and have sufficient details of the system facilities.

NORMAL CONDITIONS

Routine Operations

Normally the operations involve transmission of required water within the

available head or within the pumping head. Operation of valves at reservoirs from

which transmission channels/mains start and operation of pumps (in case of pumping

mains) from which the transmission mains start are the routine operations. Operation of

chlorinators where installed are also included in the routine operations.

Record of flow, water levels and pressures

(a) Gravity Channels and pipes

A record is kept at the transmitting and receiving reservoirs about the valve

operations, water levels and flows. Flow meters are installed at start and end points of

transmission channels/pipes for monitoring the flows. Water levels in the reservoirs

from which the channels/pipes transmit water and water levels in the receiving

reservoirs are measured either by visible gauges or by automatic instruments.

(b) Pumping transmission mains

Water levels in the sumps from which the water is being pumped are measured.

Critical points are selected in the transmission system for monitoring of pressures by

32

installation of pressure recorders and gauges. In the pumping systems, whenever

water pressures in the pumping station drops below the designed system pressure, the

operators are alerted to search for possible leaks in the pumping system. Similarly at

the receiving end, if the required water levels are not building up at the storage

reservoir, it indicates that the required quantity is either not pumped or there may be

leakages enroute. At times whenever the maximum levels in the receiving reservoirs

are reached the pumps will have to be stopped or the outlet valves of the reservoir

have to be opened.

(c) Continuity

Operators are required to check that the transmission of water takes place

continuously and as per the requirement. Normally, the flow meter readings, water

levels in reservoir and pressures in transmission mains are recorded and transmitted to

the control room. The operators have to ensure the accuracy of the measuring

instruments for flows, pressures and levels so as to perform the operations properly.

Analysis of the records will enable the agency to evaluate how well the transmission

system is working.

TRANSMISSION THROUGH CANALS OR OPEN CHANNELS

Open channels and Canals are exposed watercourses for transmission of water

from one specific point to another. Whereas ‘Open Channel’ is a general name for such

a watercourse, a ‘Canal’ normally forms a part of canal network taken off from a river, a

dam or a reservoir. Following discussion relates to a canal. The criteria for design,

operation, and maintenance for open channels are identical to those of a canal.

The canals are meant primarily for irrigation purposes. The canal water is,

however, liberally made available for drinking water supply schemes. While designing

new canal projects the requirement for drinking purposes is pre-determined and

necessary provision made in the design of the canal projects.

Under special circumstances, however, a specific canal may be constructed

exclusively for a drinking water supply project. There are, however, a large number of

33

small water channels taken off from the main canal system and are meant exclusively

for the drinking water supply schemes.

MAPS

Survey maps may be procured or prepared for the entire existing and proposed

canal net work, which could be the probable source of raw water for drinking water

supply projects. These maps shall show the contours, spot levels and important land

features for the whole area where the water supply schemes are to be implemented or

augmented.

Alignment of all main canals, branches, distributaries and smaller major and

minor channels shall be marked on the maps. The old maps shall be updated from time

to time particularly when an important project is to be undertaken.

6. TREATMENT METHODS

Aim

To improve the raw water quality to the drinking water standards and stop water-

borne transmission of epidemics.

Methods of treatment

Depends on the nature of source and its water quality.

Sub-surface source

Generally, chlorination will be sufficient except where iron is present.

Surface source

Aeration (if required), pre-chlorination (optional), sedimentation – either plain or

with coagulation a flocculation, filtration and post chlorination.

34

Aeration

Aim

i) To remove objectionable tastes and odours.

ii) For expulsion of carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide.

iii) To precipitate iron and manganese present in ferrous and manganeous state.

iv) For increasing the dissolved oxygen content of water.

Types

i) Spray Type

Nozzle dia 10 – 40 mm

Spacing 0.5 – 1.0 m

Head required 2 – 7 m

Rating of aerator 300 – 600 lpm per nozzle

Floor area of aerator 360 to 1080 m2 per mld

ii) Multiple tray or water fall

Dia. of filter media 50-150mm in various trays

Height of tower 2 m

No. of trays 4 – 9

Spacing of trays 0.30 – 0.75 m

Space required 180 to 540 m2 per mld

iii) Cascade Type

Head required 1 to 3 m

Space required 180 to 540 m2 per mld

iv) Mechanical aerators Not in general use because of high

operational cost.

Pre-clorination

Aim

i) to prevent algal growth in raw water.

ii) for destruction of some taste / odour producing compounds.

iii) for oxidation of iron, manganese and hydrogen sulphide.

35

iv) to aid coagulation.

Dosage

1 to 5 ppm depending on the degree of pollution so as to leave 0.2 to 0.5 ppm

free residual chlorine in the final delivered water.

Table 1

The approximate values of lethal doses of Chlorine for various organisms.

Name of organism Lethal dose, mg/l 1. Diatoms Achnantes 0.25 Asterionella 0.5 to 1.6 Cyclotella 1.0 Melosira 2.0

Synedra 1.0 Tabellaria 0.5 to 1.0

2. Chlorophyceae (Green algae) Coelastrue 1.0 Dictyosphaerium 0.5 to 1.0 Protococcus 1.0

Spirogyra 0.7 to 1.5 Tetrastrum 1.0 Volvox 0.3 to 1.0

3. Cyanophyceae (Blue-green algae)

Anabena 0.5 to 1.0 Aphanizomenon 0.5 to 1.0 Clathrocystis 0.5 to 1.0

Coelosphaerium 0.5 to 1.0 Oscillatoria 1.1

4. Protozoa Ceratium 0.3 to 1.0 Dinobryon 0.3 to 1.0 Endamoeba hystolytica 3 to 100

Synura 0.3 to 1.0 Uroglenopsis 0.3 to 1.0

36

5. Crustanceans Cyclops 1 to 3 Daphnia 1 to 3

6. Fungi Achlya 0.6 Crenothrix 0.5 Didymothelix 0.25

7. Miscellaneous organisms 15 to 50 Chironomus (Bloodworm) 3.0

Chironomus (Midges) 1.0 Nais 1.0

These doses must be adjusted according to alkalinity and temperature of water.

Plain sedimentation

Aim

To separate suspended impurities from water by gravitation.

Detention period

One to several days for sedimentation without subsequent filtration:

3 to 4 hours for sedimentation in conjunction with filters (much longer setting

time for basins preceding slow sand filters than for rapid sand filters).

Loading rate

30 – 40 m3/day/m2

Chemical dosing

Aim

i) for coagulation, flocculation.

ii) Disinfection and softening.

iii) Algal and corrosion control.

iv) For fluoridisation.

37

Types

i) Dry feed

ii) Solution feed

Strength of solution

To be ≥ 5% for manual feed and ≤ 10% for mechanical feed.

Alum is the most common coagulant used. Lime is also added when pH and

alkalinity are low.

Dosage for alum : 20 – 100 mg/l (1-5 grain/gallon)

Dosage for lime : About one-third that of alum

Density of alum : 980 kg/m3

Density of lime : 670 kg/m

38

Flash mixing

Aim

To disperse the coagulant evenly in the water.

Generally used when flow exceeds 300 m3/hour.

Detention period

20-100 mg/l (1-5 grain/gallon)

Head loss

0.20 to 0.60m of water.

Ratio of tank dia to height

1.1 to 3.0

Speed of propeller shaft

100 rpm

Power required

24 to 72 watts/mld.

Coagulation and flocculation

Aim

The addition of a coagulant like alum promotes the formation of micro flocs

which are the nuclei for the absorption of turbidity and colour causing particles. During

flocculation, the micro floc particles formed during rapid mixing are brought together to

form larger rapidly setteleable flocs by controlled agitation of water.

Detention period 15-30 minutes in flocculation zone.

2-3 hours in setting or clarifier zone.

Dosage To be decided by jar test.

Flocculator

1) Ave. velocity of flow 0.3 m/min

39

2) Paddle area 10-25% of the area swept

3) Max. peripheral velocity 0.6 m/sec.

4) Speed 2 rpm

5) Allowable head loss 0.15m

6) Power required 80-120 Mw/mld.

Clarifier

i Ave. velocity of flow 0.5 m/sec

ii Max.peripheral velocity 0.5 – 1.0 cm/sec.

iii Tank dimension

a) For rectangular tanks

Length to width ratio 2 to 4

Depth 2.5 to 4.0 m (and additional 0.15 to 0.30 m if sludge storage is to be provided).

b) For circular tanks

Dia Not more than 60m

Depth 2.5 to 4.0m and a space equivalent to 25% of volume for setting and sludge storage.

iv Surface loading for gritty particles of sp. Gravity 2.65

12-160 m3/day/m (depending on sizes of the particles 2.0 to 0.5mm)

For amorphous slow setting solids for flocculent material

32-80 m3/day/m2

A surface overflow rate of 36 m3/day/m2 is equivalent to a setting velocity of 1.sm/hr and amounts to a detention period of 2 hours in basin 3m deep.

v Weir overflow rate Not to exceed 600 m3/day/m and preferably to held below 300m3/day/m.

vi Sludge removal Min. size to be used

For non-mechanised units 200 mm dia desludging pipe.

For mechanized units 100 mm to 150 mm dia desluddging

40

pipe

vii Bottom slope

For manual scraping 1 in 10

For mechanical scraping 1 in 12

viii Allowable head loss 0.50m

ix Power required 0.15-0.20 kw/mld.

Note : mid rating implies for functioning of plant for 24 hrs.

41

Filtration

Aim i) To separate suspended and colloidal impurities in water.

ii) To produce sparking and aesthetically attractive water free from disease-producing

organisms.

Types

Filters

Note : 1. Slow sand, rapid gravity filters and pressure filters alone are

dealt with here.

2. A schematic representation of water treatment system is

given in systems 1 and 2

Slow Sand Filters

Influent turbidity Should not be more than 30 J.T.U.

Pretreatment Nil. Except plain sedimentation which is required when there is no raw water storage in source.

Length of filter run (not less than) 6-8 weeks with loss of head not more than 1.3m.

Filtration rate 100-150 lph/m2

Granular Media Water Filters

Diatomaceous Earth Filters

Rapid Sand Filters or Mechanical

Filters

Slow Sand Filters

Pressure Filters Gravity Filters

Declining Rate Constant Rate

42

Allowable head loss 0.6 to 1.3 m

Depth of sand 75-80 cms thick E.S.O. – 0.3mm

U.C. – 2.5 mm

Depth of gravel 20-30 cms in 4 layers graded from 2 to 45mm

Depth of water over sand

1.0 to 1.5 m

Under drain system Baked clay or concrete pipes 30-40 cms long at 2m. spacing laid with open joints. The max. spacing under drains being 3m, velocity of flow in drain pipes 25 cm/sec.

Rapid Sand Filters

Influent turbidity After pretreatment, should not exceed 20 J.T.U.

Pretreatment Required (chemical dosing, flocculation and clarification)

Length of filter run ≤24 hours with loss of head not ≥ 2 m.

Filtration rate 80-160 lpm/m2 (240 lpm/m2 can be achieved with improved pretreatment and careful grading).

Head loss allowed 1.8 to 2.0 m

Depth and sand 60-75 cm thick

E.S. = 0.45 – 0.70 mm

U.C. = 1.30 – 1.75 (graded with finest at top)

Depth of gravel 30-60 cm thick graded into 4 or more sizes varying from 25 to 85mm at bottom and 2 to 5mm at top.

Depth of water over sand

1.0 – 2.0 m

Under drain system Central manifold with laterals with perforations on their bottom or having umbrella type strainers on top. Other types are wheelers bottom or a porous plate floor supported on concrete pillars.

Minimum depth of under drains

20cm

Dia. Of perforations 5 to 12 mm (straggered at a slight angle from the vertical axis of the pipe)

Spacing of perforations along laterals

8 cm for a perforation of 5mm. 20cm for a perforation of 12mm.

Ratio of total area of 0.50 for 12mm size

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perforations to total cross-sectional area of laterals

0.25 for 5mm size

Ratio of length of lateral to its dia

60

Spacing to laterals 30 cm

Cross sectional area of manifold

1.5 – 2.0 times the total area of laterals.

Wash water gutter Horizontal travel of dirty water over the surface of filter shall not be more than 0.5 to 1.0 m before reaching the gutter. Bottom of gutter should clear the top of expanded sand by 50mm or more. Upper edge of gutter should be placed far above the surface of the undisturbed sand surface as the wash water rises in 1 minute.

Back wash Pressure should be such that the sand expands to about 130 to 150% of its undisturbed volume or 5m head of water as measured on underdrains.

44

Normally, the rate at which wash water is applied where no over-agitation is provided, is 600 lpm2 of filter surface equivalent to a rise of 60 cm per minute in the filter box for a period of 10 minutes. The capacity of wash water storage tank should be sufficient to supply wash water to 2 filter units at a time, where the units are 4 or more to give a normal wash to filters for about 10 minutes at the maximum rate without requiring refilling of the tank.

Velocity in filtered water outlet :

≥ 1.0 – 1.8 m/sec.

Velocity in filtered water outlet :

≥ 2.4 – 3.6 m/sec.

Pressure Filters Same principle as gravity type rapid sand filters but water is passed through the filters under pressure.

Tank axis may be vertical or horizontal.

Disadvantages i) Pretreatment is not possible without secondary pumping.

ii) Complicates effective feeding, mixing and flocculation.

iii) Adequate contact time for chemicals not possible.

iv) Observance of effectiveness of back wash not possible.

v) Difficult to inspect, clean and replace.

Advantages i) Secondary pumping is avoided for treated water.

ii) Filter backwash is less complicated.

iii) Suitable for small industries and swimming pools.

Post chlorination

Aim Disinfection of potable water by the use of gaseous Chlorine or Chlorine compounds to destroy bacteria through the germicidal effects of Chlorine may be done at head works/treatment works and supplemented by additional chlorination in loose pockets of distribution system.

Dosage When prechlorination is adopted, relatively small doses will be required, generally 1 to 2 mg/l.

45

Contact period 30 minutes (minimum)

Residual Chlorine 0.2 – 0.8 ppm throughout the distribution system.

pH value 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11

Residual or free available Cholorine in ppm

0.2 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8

Quality of chemical required in kg/day

Dosage in mg/l x quantity of water to be treated in mld.

Specific gravity of Chlorine

2.49

Density of Chlorine 3.214 g/litre Appropriate chlorine doses for

Purpose of addition Dose mg/l

1. Colour removal 5 to 100

2. Iron bacterial control 2 to 10

3. Iron precipitation 0.63 times iron content

4. Manganese precipitation 1.3 times manganese content

5. Hydrogen sulphide odour removal 2.1 times HS content

6. Ammonia removal 10 times the ammonia content

Bactericidal and cysticidal concentrations of free residual chlorine

pH value Free residual chlorine mg/l

Bactericidal 0 o to 25 oC Cysticidal 22 o to 25 oC

6.0 0.2 2.0

7.0 0.2 2.5

8.0 0.2 5.0

9.0 0.6 20

Table for TCL requirement

Sr. No.

Chlorine Mg/l

Capacity of Water Treatment Plant (thousand litres/ day)

1.0 1.50 1.75 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.5

1 2 0.30 0.45 0.55 0.60 0.75 0.90 1.35

2 3 0.40 0.60 0.70 0.80 1.10 1.22 1.80

46

3 4 0.55 0.85 0.95 1.10 1.45 1.65 2.45

4 5 0.70 1.65 1.25 1.40 1.75 2.10 3.15

Note : 30% chlorine in TCL is assumed

7. STORAGE RESERVOIRS

The main function of Reservoirs and Service Reservoir (SR) is to cater for daily

demands and especially peak demands of water. Operators/managers must be

concerned with the amount of water in the storage reservoir and the corresponding

water levels at particular times of the day. Procedures for operating the Service

Reservoir will depend upon the design of its storage capacity and on the water

demand.

NORMAL PROCEDURES FOR OPERATION OF SERVICE RESERVOIR (S.R.)

Service Reservoirs have to be operated as per the design requirements.

Normally the service reservoirs are constructed to supply water during periods of high

water demand and hence the SRs are filled in low water demand period. At times

pumps may be used only for filling the SR before the next supply timing or can be used

also during supply hours to maintain the levels in the SR.

In some systems reservoirs are allowed to float at the end of distribution system

when pumps are used to pump directly into the distribution system and excess water

flows into the SR. In such systems multiple pumps are used to cater to varying demand

and pressures in the system.

Small changes in the distribution system such as pipeline extensions or the

addition of few more connections will not require additional storage requirement. Major

system changes such as addition of larger size of main pipelines and increase in large

number of connections may require additional storage.

OPERATION OF SRS DURING ABNORMAL CONDITIONS

Abnormal operating conditions arise:

• Whenever demand for water goes up suddenly due to fire demand, or due to

excessive demand on one command area/zone of a system.

47

• Due to failure or breakdown of water supply of another zone of the distribution

system.

• Breakdown or out of service pumps or pipelines or power breakdowns or out of

service SRs.

The operator/manager must have a thorough knowledge of the distribution

system emanating from the SRs. Closure or adjustment of valves at strategic points in

the distribution system can focus or divert the flow of water towards the affected areas.

Emergency plans must be developed in advance to cope with such situations. Further

details for emergency planning may be seen in Chapter 14 – System Management.

STORAGE LEVELS

Most of the distribution systems establish a pattern of levels for assuring the

required supplies at the required pressures. A water usage curve over a 24 hour period

should be prepared for each SR. It can be seen from the usage curve that the pattern

varies not only during the different times of the day but also during different days of the

week especially on week-ends, holidays and festivals. Demand pattern also changes

during different times of the year depending on the weather conditions such as

summer, winter etc. From the usage curve the operator can better anticipate and be

ready for the expected high consumption periods. The maximum water levels to be

maintained in the SR at each morning should be known to ensure that the system

demands are met for the day.

In case of intermittent supply, timings for supply of water in the areas are fixed in

advance. In large command areas, the water can be supplied to sub-zones during

particular fixed hours by operation of the necessary valves. The operator should work

out a programme for compliance.

STORAGE CAPACITY

Capacity of storage reservoir at different levels can be calculated and charts or

tables can be prepared and kept at the SR site. Proper functioning of water level

indicators is required to read the water level in the SR and assess its capacity. Usually

water levels are read at the same time each day and the readings recorded. Checks of

48

water levels at other times of the day will enable to determine if any unusual

consumption conditions have occurred. If any significant increase in consumption is

anticipated the operations should ensure a corresponding increase in supply into the

SR. Automatic valves are used to prevent overflows from SR and maintain a constant

level in the SR as long as the pressure in the distribution system is adequate. Often the

pumps feeding into a SR are switched off or switched on as per the water levels in the

SR. In some SRs advance warning alarms are provided to signal when water levels in

SR are either too low or too high. The operator shall ensure that the automatic

operations work as and when needed. Some times time clocks are often used to

control the water coming into the reservoir. At some places the overflow is connected

to the distribution system; in such cases some mechanism must be in place to indicate

that the reservoir has started overflowing.

Routine valve operations are normally done at the SRs. Problems in operation

of valves in SRs can also be caused by valve seat getting jammed, and hence cannot

be opened, or non seating of valves, and hence cannot be closed properly. Sometimes

two valves are fixed in series on the outlet and the downstream valve only is usually

operated. Whenever the valve under operation is jammed the upstream valve is closed

and the jammed valve is repaired. Such an arrangement enables repair of valves

without emptying the SR. In some SRs a by pass line is provided direct from the inlet

line to the outlet line for drawing water without feeding the SR. Identification of the

valves as to their intended urpose such as inlet, outlet, scour, bye-pass etc. and their

direction of opening are to be prominently marked. The operator/manager shall ensure

that all valves in a SR are in good working condition and are operated as per the

schedule for such operations.

49

STORAGE LEVEL CONTROL

A simple system used to read and control the levels in SRs is a gauge/water

level indicator. Whenever the SR reaches the maximum water level, the operator

informs the pump house to stop pumping. In place of the traditional telephones, mobile

phones or dedicated wireless units can also be used. Electrodes, ultrasonic signals or

solid state electronic sensors are also used to sense the rise and fall in water levels

and send signals to the pumps to be stopped or started through cables or wireless or

radio frequencies.

It is also desirable to have an indication of levels of SR in the pump house.

Automation of level controls at SR s is to be attempted with caution since most of the

authorities require only a small amount of instrumentation and control. It is desirable

that only simple level control instruments are chosen keeping in view availability of

skilled personnel. However, it is desirable that trained and qualified operators only are

permitted to repair the instruments.

SAMPLEING FOR WATER QUALITY

Water from all SRs should be regularly sampled especially once, before and

after monsoon to determine the quality of water that enters and leaves the SR.

Sampling data can help in setting up periodic cleaning of SR. Indicators that help to

decide when the tank is due for cleaning is turbidity, excessive colour, taste and odour.

Water quality problems may be of microbiological type which could be caused

by loss of residual chlorine due to bacterial contamination. Chemical water quality

problems may also occur due to leaching from reservoir lining and coating for RCC and

masonry tanks and due to corrosion of steel tanks. Common cause of physical water

quality problems includes collection of sediment, rust and chemical precipitates. Water

quality in a SR may also deteriorate due to excessively long periods of stagnant

conditions. Some times poor design, and improperly applied/and or cured coatings and

linings may also cause water quality degradation. Proper investigation is required to

50

find the reasons for water quality degradation determine the source of the problem and

address the same. Wherever seasonal demands fall and the residual chlorine levels

get depleted, it may be necessary to add additional chlorination facilities.

8. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

The efficiency and effectiveness of a water supply system depends on the operating

personnel's knowledge of the variables that affect the continuity, reliability, and quantity of

water supplied to consumers. The operational staff should be able to carry out changes in the

hydraulic status of the system as required depending on those variables promptly and

effectively. Routine operations shall be specified which are activities for adjusting the valves

and operation of pumps to match the prevailing conditions (flows, pressures, levels and

operation of pumps). Valve and pump operations will have to be controlled as per a schedule.

The schedule shall contain procedures for operating the distribution system. It should contain

procedures to obtain, process, and analyze the variables related to water flows, pressures and

levels as well as the consequences of manipulating control devices, such as operation of

valves and or pumps so that the hydraulic status of the system can match the demand for

water. When operators change their shifts information on valve closure and opening must be

exchanged.

OPERATIONS IN OTHER THAN NORMAL CONDITIONS

Operations other than routine viz. during breakdowns and emergencies have to

be specified and should be carried out in specific circumstances when normal

conditions change i.e. when flows, pressures and levels and operation of pumps

change.

MEASUREMENT OF FLOWS, PRESSURES AND LEVELS

It will be necessary to monitor regularly operational data concerning flows,

pressures and levels to assess whether the system is functioning as per requirements.

Analysis of data may reveal over drawal of water to some reservoirs and or bulk

consumers. At such places appropriate flow control devices may be introduced to limit

the supplies to the required quantity. A list of priority points in water supply system

have to be identified such as installation of meters to measure flows, pressures and

levels. A detailed map showing location for each measuring point has also to be

51

prepared. The degree of sophistication of the devices used at each measuring point

with regard to indication, integration, recording, transmission and reception of data

depends mainly on the skills of the O & M personnel available with the agency and

affordability of the agency.

EVALUATION OF HYDRAULIC CONDITIONS

Evaluation of the hydraulic conditions of the water supply system can be done

by the O&M personnel after obtaining the data on water volumes and flows at various

points in the system, the water pressures and levels in the reservoirs and comparing

with expected performance. This evaluation shall lead to identification of operational

problems and or system faults. Depending on the type of problems actions have to be

initiated to ensure that the system functions as per the requirement.

SYSTEM PRESSURES

Maintenance of a continuous positive pressure at all times (during supply

timings) to consumers is the main concern of O&M. Negative pressures can cause

contamination of water supplies especially in intermittent supplies. Very high pressures

may damage the pipelines and valves, which can be corrected with pressure reducing

valves. Complaints from consumers about low pressures have to be promptly

investigated if necessary by measuring pressures with pressure gauges. Low

pressures may be under the following circumstances:

• Purposefully or accidentally a line valve is left closed or partly closed or

blockage due to any material causing loss of pressure.

• Too high velocities in small pipelines.

• Low water levels in SR.

• Failure of pumps/booster pumps (either due to power failure or mechanical failure)

feeding the system directly.

SIMULATION OF NETWORK

Operations have to be planned for specific circumstances such as failure at

source, failure of pumps, leakages or bursts or sudden changes in demand etc. Criteria

have to be determined on the basis of analysis of the effects of particular operations on

the hydraulic configuration of the water supply system. These effects can be seen in

simulated operating conditions. Mathematical simulation models can be developed

52

from basic data on the network such as length, size, flow, characteristics of pumps,

valves, reservoir levels etc. This approach can be very useful for analysing the effects

of variables on large and complex distribution networks/water supply systems.

SAMPLING FOR QUALITY OF WATER

The agency operating the water supply system is charged with the primary

responsibility of ensuring that the water supplied to the consumer is of an appropriate

quality. To achieve this objective it is necessary that the physical, chemical and

bacteriological tests are carried out at frequent intervals. The minimum number of

samples to be collected from the distribution system should be as prescribed in the

Table 15.1 of Chapter 15 of the Manual on “Water Supply & Treatment”. Samples

should be taken at different points on each occasion to enable overall assessment. In

the event of epidemic or danger of pollution more frequent sampling may be required,

especially for bacteriological quality. For each distribution system a monitoring

programme has to be prepared showing the location of sampling points. Based on

historic records of a system it will be possible for the manager of the system to decide

locations for bacteriological sampling and residual chlorine testing.

8a) MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE

A maintenance schedule is required to be prepared to improve the level of

maintenance of water distribution networks and house connections through improved

co-ordination and planning of administrative and field work and through the use of

adequate techniques, equipment and materials for field maintenance.

• The schedule has to be flexible so that it can achieve team action with the

available vehicles and tools.

• Co-ordination of activities is required for spares and fittings, quality control of

materials used and services rendered.

• Training of maintenance staff shall include training to achieve better public

relations with consumers apart from the technical skills.

ACTIVITIES IN MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE

Following activities are to be included in the schedule:

53

• Establishment of procedures for setting up maintenance schedules and

obtaining and processing the information provided by the public and the

maintenance teams.

• Formation of maintenance teams for each type of service with provision for

continuous training.

• Establishment of repair procedures for standard services.

• Specification of appropriate tools.

• Allocation of suitable transport, tools and equipment to each team.

• Establishment of time, labour and material requirement and output expected;

time required and other standards for each maintenance task, and

• Monitoring the productivity of each team.

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE

A preventive maintenance schedule for Servicing of Valves and Maintenance of

Valve Chambers, Maintenance of the pipelines: may include the tasks, set priorities,

issue of work orders for tasks to be performed, list of scheduled tasks not completed,

record of when the tasks are completed and maintaining a record of tools, materials,

labour and costs required to complete each task.

8b) MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE FOR PIPE LINE

Pipeline bursts/main breaks can occur at any time and the utility shall have a

plan for attending to such events. This plan must be written down, disseminated to all

concerned and the agency must always be in readiness to implement the plan

immediately after the pipe break is reported. After a pipe break is located, a decision is

to be taken as to which valve is to be closed to isolate the section where the break has

occurred. Every consumer (some important consumers may be having an industrial

process dependent on water supply which cannot be shut down as fast as the water

supply lines are cut off) should be notified about the break and informed about the

probable interruption in water supply and also the estimated time of resumption of

water supply. After the closure of valve, the dewatering/mud pumps are used to drain

the pipe break points. The sides of trenches have to be properly protected before the

54

workers enter the pit. The damaged pipe is removed, and the accumulated silt is

removed from inside the pipe and the damaged pipe is replaced and the line is

disinfected before bringing into use. After every pipe break a report shall be prepared

in regard to the cause of such break, the resources required for rectification and the

time and cost required for repairing etc. so that the agency can follow up with

measures for avoiding such breaks and also modify their plan to address such breaks

in future.

Deterioration

Pipes deteriorate on the inside due to corrosion and erosion and on the outside

due to corrosion from aggressive soil and water/moisture. Depending on the material of

pipes, these are subjected to some deterioration, loss of water carrying capacity, leaks,

corrosion and pitting, tuberculation, deposition of sediment and slime growth.

Preventive maintenance of distribution system assures the twin objectives of

preserving the bacteriological quality of water in the distribution system and providing

conditions for adequate flow through the pipelines. Incidentally, this will prolong the

effective life of the pipeline and restore its carrying capacity. Some of the main

functions in the management of preventive maintenance of pipelines are assessment,

detection and prevention of wastage of water from pipelines through leaks, maintaining

the capacity of pipelines, cleaning of pipelines and relining. The topic of assessment of

leaks is dealt in detail in Chapter 15 on Water Audit and Leakage Control in this

manual.

Flushing

Flushing is done to clean the distribution lines by removing impurities or

sediment that may be present in the pipe. Routine flushing of terminal pipelines is often

necessary to avoid taste and odour complaints from consumers. It is advisable that a

programme for flushing is prepared and followed so that water mains are flushed

before consumers start complaining. The routine for flushing can be prepared by taking

into consideration the consumer complaints and type of deposits found while cleaning.

Since in distribution system flushing is not the only solution for water quality problems,

55

proper operation of treatment process and cleaning of service reservoirs supplying

water to distribution system shall also be planned along with the flushing of distribution

system. Flushing is usually done during low water demand, when the weather is

favourable. Prior planning and good publicity with public will allow the flushing to

proceed quickly and without confusion.

Cleaning

Mechanical cleaning devices such as swabs and pigs are sometimes used if

flushing does not improve the water quality. Scrapers or brushes are used in pipelines

with hardened scales or extensive tuberculation. Sometimes scrapers and brushes are

used before taking up lining works. The topics of cleaning of pipelines including

cleaning and swabbing are dealt in Chapter 10 of Manual on “Water Supply &

Treatment”.

Cement Mortar lining

The present trend is to use Cement Mortar lined Ductile Iron (DI) pipes or Mild

Steel (MS) pipes so that they will not lose their carrying capacity with use and age. Still

many new pipelines are proposed with unlined metallic pipes and there are several

existing pipelines with bare metal surface such as CI or MS. With passage of time these

pipelines deteriorate and require rehabilitation. Cement mortar stifles corrosion through

its ability to develop high alkalinity. The application of cement mortar lining to pipe in

place is done by a lining machine, containing a device that projects cement mortar

against the pipe wall. Directly behind this device are mechanically driven rotating

trowels, which give the surface smooth finish. In-situ Cement Mortar lining of existing

metallic water mains has been beneficial where:

• Pipe carrying capacity may reduce due to tuberculation.

• Water quality is affected due to release of corrosion products from the pipes to

the water, and

• Leaks occur through joints and pipe walls.

LEAKAGE CONTROL

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Wastage of water in the system and distribution network occurs by way of

leakage from pipes, joints & fittings, reservoirs and overflow from reservoirs & sumps.

The objective of leakage control programme is to reduce the wastage to a minimum

and minimize the time that elapses between the occurrence of a leak and its repair.

The volume of water lost through each leak should be reduced by taking whatever

action is technically and economically feasible to ensure that the leak is repaired as

quickly as possible. To achieve this, the organisation shall prescribe procedures for

identifying, reporting, repairing and accounting for all visible leaks. It will be beneficial

for the agency if the procedures involve the conscious and active participation of the

population served by the agency apart from its own staff. For details on detection and

leakage control, please refer chapter 13.0. Water Audit and Leakage Control. The

Management has to process the data and evaluate the work on detection and location

of leaks and for dissemination of the results and initiate actions to control the overall

problem of water loss. Interim measures for reduction/control of leakage can be

initiated by controlling pressures in the water distribution system where feasible.

HOUSE CONNECTIONS Leakage can be controlled at the point of house connection and in the consumer

pipe by adopting correct plumbing practices and improving the methods used for

tapping the main and giving house connection and strict quality control on the pipe

material used for house connection. An analysis of leaks in house connections and

investigation of reasons for leaks in the house connections shall be carried out to

initiate action on reducing the leakage through house connections.

VISIBLE LEAKS

The water utility has to establish procedures whereby the population served by

the agency can notify the visible leaks. The agency staff can also report visible leaks

found by them while carrying out other works on the water supply system. Utility has to

establish procedures for prompt repair of leaks and for attending efficiently and

accurately to the leaks. Critical areas where leaks often occur have to be identified and

appropriate corrective measures have to be implemented.

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INVISIBLE LEAKS

Establishment of procedures for detecting and locating non-visible leaks shall be

compatible with the technological, operational and financial capability of the agency.

Selection and procurement of equipment for detection and location of leaks must take

into account the cost effectiveness and the financial capability of the Organisation.

CROSS CONNECTIONS

Contaminated water through cross connections of water supply lines with

sewers and drains is a problem prevailing widely. Intermittent supply further aggravates

the problem since, during non-supply hours polluted water may reach the supply mains

through leaking joints, thus polluting the supplies. In certain instances, when there are

extremely high water demands, the pressures in the supply mains are likely to fall

below atmospheric pressure, particularly when consumers start use of pumps with

direct suction from supply mains. Regular survey has to be undertaken to identify

potential areas likely to be affected by cross connections and back-flow. All field

personnel should be constantly alert for situations where cross connections are likely to

exist. After identifying the cross connections, remedial measures are taken up which

include: providing horizontal and vertical separation between the water main and the

sewer/drain, (refer to para 10.11.1 of Chapter 10 of Manual on “Water Supply &

Treatment”), providing a sleeve pipe to the consumer pipes crossing a drain, modifying

the piping including changing corroded piping with non corrodible piping, providing

double check/non return valves at the consumer end etc.

CHLORINE RESIDUAL TESTING

A minimum chlorine residual of about 0.2 mg/l at the selected monitoring point is

often maintained to ensure that even a little contamination is destroyed by the chlorine.

Hence, absence of residual chlorine could indicate potential presence of heavy

contamination. If routine checks at a monitoring point are carried out, required chlorine

residuals and any sudden absence of residual chlorine should alert the operating staff

to take up prompt investigation. Immediate steps to be taken are:

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• Re-testing for residual chlorine.

• Checking chlorination equipment.

• Searching for source of contamination, which has caused the increased chlorine

demand.

• Immediate stoppage of supplies from the contaminated pipelines.

MONITORING SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

Normally the managers of O&M of water utilities monitor levels in service

reservoirs, pressures and flows in the distribution system and operation of pumps such

as hours of pumping, failure of pumps and monitor water quality by measuring residual

chlorine. The manager usually uses telephone line or wireless unit to gather the data,

maintain records analyses, uses his discretion gained with experience and takes

decisions to ensure that the system is operating with required efficiency. Manual

collection of data and analysis may not be helpful in large undertakings if water utilities

have to aim at enhanced customer service by improving water quality and service level

with reduced costs. In such cases Monitoring system performance can be done with

use of Telemetry and SCADA which are discussed in Chapter 11 –Water Meters and

Instrumentation including Flow Meters.

PLUMBING PRACTICES

The internal plumbing system of the consumer shall conform to the National

Building Code and also particularly to the bye laws of concerned water utility/local

authority.

QUALITY OF PIPE MATERIAL FOR HOUSE CONNECTION

The water utility shall ensure that the connection and communication pipe from

the street main up to the consumer premises is laid as per correct plumbing practices

and adopt improved methods for tapping the main. Strict quality control is required on

the pipe material used for house connection. The bye Laws shall lay down rules for

defining the ownership and responsibility for maintaining the point of connection and

the communication pipe. In several utilities the communication pipes are leaking since

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they are corroded; however these are not replaced by the consumer or by the utility

particularly where the O&M responsibility for consumer pipe rests with the consumers.

CONTAMINATION

While laying the consumer connection pipes there is a need to avoid

contamination of water supplies. This can be achieved by maintaining horizontal and

vertical separation between the water supply communication pipe and the sewer/drain,

(refer to para 10.11.1 of Chapter 10 of manual on “Water Supply & Treatment”). In

some instances a sleeve pipe may be required to be provided to the consumer pipes

crossing a drain. It is always recommended to provide a non-corrodible pipe material

for the consumer connection. Contamination by possible back flow can also be

prevented by ensuring provision of double check/non-return valves at the consumer

end.

RULES FOR CONSUMER CONNECTIONS

The water utility shall formulate rules for sanction of consumer connection,

tapping the mains and laying the connection piping. Water utility shall undertake

inspection of the consumer premises before releasing the connection to ensure that the

internal plumbing system of the consumer conforms to the National Building Code.

Water utility shall supervise the process of drilling/tapping of the main for giving

connection and laying of the consumer piping. The process of submission of

applications for connections by consumers and carrying out the connection work

through licensed plumbers is also prevalent in some utilities. In such cases the utility

shall formulate procedures for licensing the plumbers including the qualifications to be

possessed by the plumber, facilities and tools to be available with the plumber for the

work to be undertaken by the plumber. The utility shall closely observe the quality of

materials used and works done by him and he should act as per procedures laid down

in the bye laws for approval of the connection works, renewal or cancellation of the

plumbers’ licenses or any other requirement depending on their performance or non

performance.

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8c) CHECKS IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

PROGRAMME FOR CARRYING OUT CHECKS

A programme has to be prepared for each zone of the distribution system which

shall contain procedures for routine tasks, checks and inspections at intervals viz.

daily, weekly, quarterly semi-annually or annually. This plan shall fix responsibility,

timing for action, ways and means of completing the action as to when and who should

take the action and mention the need to take these actions. Simple checklists for use

by the managerial staff can be prepared to ensure that the O&M staff has completed

the tasks assigned to them.

CHECK LIST

Sl. No. Checks required / undertaken Status

Suggested frequency

of reporting 1. Check whether the Operation of valves in

smooth without any abrupt stoppage during closure

2. Check whether closure of a value results in complete stoppage of flow or if any flow passes the value (passing valve)

3. Check for status of scouring and then proper closure of washout valves.

4. Check for leaks through pipes 5. Check for leakage through valves at gland, bolts

or any other place

6. Check for leaks at the appurtenances

7. Check for any signs of corrosion of pipelines 8. Check for the status of Manhole covers over the

chambers; are they corroded

9. Inspect for any possibilities of pollution of the distribution system water stored.

10. Status of out-fall drain for scour and overflow 11. Assess the need for painting of the piping work 12. Check for availability of spares for valves and

pipes and jointing materials

13. Review the method of giving consumer connections in the field

14. Preparation of water budget for each zone

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served by one reservoir 15. Number of connections given 16. Number of meters out of order 17. Status of hydrants and PSPs 18. Status of Distribution System 19. Review of pressures

20. Review of flows 21. Age of pipes/C value of pipes 22. Corrosive water 23. Study of inflows and outflows 24. Identify source of leakage 25. Metering

26. Status of bulk metering and consumer 27. Review facilities for repair of consumer meters 28. Unauthorised connections if any 29. Status of fire hydrants and PSPs 30. Availability of updated system map 31. Need for any interconnections

8d) SERVICING VALVES & VALVE CHAMBERS

Seating of valves which are subject to operations several times is likely to

become leaky or pass the flow downstream even after closing tight. Periodical

servicing will be required for valves on hydrants and public taps, flow meters and

pressure gauges. Corrosion of valves is a main problem in some areas and can cause

failure of bonnet and gland bolts. Leaks from spindle rods occur and bonnet separates

from the body. Stainless steel bolts can be used for replacement and the valve can be

wrapped in polyethylene wrap to prevent corrosion.

SPARES

Spares required for the distribution system shall be prepared and the spares

shall be procured and kept for use. The list should indicate the minimum level at which

action for replenishments should be initiated. The list of probable spares to be kept in

stock may include the following:

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Spare check nuts and spindle rods and assorted bolts, nuts and washers for the

flanged joints, gaskets for flanged joints for all sizes of sluice valves installed in the

distribution system, spare manhole covers and consumables like the gland rope,

grease, cotton waste, spun yarn, pig lead and lead wool.

TOOLS

The necessary tools to properly repair and correct both the routine problems

and for facilitating repairs and replacements in a distribution system have to be

identified and provided to the maintenance staff.

Some of the tools for the maintenance work in a distribution system are: Key

rods for operation of all sluice valves, hooks for lifting manhole covers, pipe wrench of

appropriate sizes ( 200, 300 or 450 mm ), Double ended (DE) spanner set, Ring

spanner set, Screw Drivers, Pliers, Hammers, Chisels, caulking tools for lead and spun

yarn, ladles and pans for melting and pouring lead joints, excavation tools such as

crow bars, spades, iron baskets, buckets and de-watering pumps.

MAINTENANCE OF VALVE CHAMBERS FOR APPURTENANCES

Valve chambers shall be checked to ensure that they are not damaged, nor

filled up with earth nor buried in pavement. Covers of valve chambers are stolen or

broken up by vandalism or by accident resulting in damage to the valves or may lead to

accidental fall of a person into the open valve chamber. Such situations have to be

corrected on priority. Road improvement works require constant attention of water

utility staff since the valves may be lost or at times the valve chambers in the roads

have to be reconstructed to match the renewed road surface.

8f) PUMPING MACHINERY AND PUMPING STATION

Pumping machinery and pumping station are very important components in a

water supply system. Pumping machinery is subjected to wear, tear, erosion and

corrosion due to their nature of functioning and therefore are vulnerable for failures.

Generally more number of failures or interruptions in water supply are attributed to

pumping machinery than any other component. Therefore, correct operation and timely

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maintenance and upkeep of pumping stations and pumping machinery are of vital

importance to ensure uninterrupted water supply. Sudden failures can be avoided by

timely inspection, follow up actions on observations of inspection and planned

periodical maintenance. Downtime can be reduced by maintaining inventory of fast

moving spare parts. Efficiency of pumping machinery reduces due to normal wear and

tear. Timely action for restoration of efficiency can keep energy bill within reasonable

optimum limit. Proper record keeping is also very important.

Obviously due attention needs to be paid to all such aspects for efficient and

reliable functioning of pumping machinery. This chapter discusses procedures for

operation and maintenance and addresses pertinent issues involved in O&M of

pumping machinery and associated electrical and mechanical equipment.

COMPONENTS IN PUMPING STATIONS

The components in pumping station can be grouped as follows.

i) Pumping machinery

- Pumps and other mechanical equipment, i.e. valves, pipe work, vacuum

pumps

- Motors, switchgears, cable, transformer and other electrical accessories

ii) Ancillary Equipment

- Lifting equipment

- Water hammer control device

- Flowmeter

- Diesel generating set

iii) Pumping station

- Sump/intake/well/tubewell/borewell

- Pump house

- Screen

- Penstock/gate

TYPE OF PUMPS

Following types of pumps are used in water supply systems.

i) Centrifugal pumps

ii) Vertical turbine pumps

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iii) Submersible pumps

iv) Jet pumps

v) Reciprocating pumps

Preventive and regular breakdown maintenance

Following procedure may be followed:

1. Internal mobilization.

2. Detection of pipe failure: Inspection of site

3. Notification of interruption in water supply and related issues.

4. Location and demarcation

5. Repair planning

6. Repair work: Selection of most appropriate method for repair.

7. Testing of ‘dry’ repair.

8. Restoration

9. Completion

10. Hygiene

11. Notice of restoration and completion

Monitoring of Internal Mobilization

Some of the important activities relating to the mobilization of the internal

activities are summarized below;

a) Necessary information to the Senior Level Management may be submitted and their interim

approval sought. Details approval can follow in due course of time.

b) The entire staff must be made fully aware of the likely activities required to be undertaken

so as to ensure minimum possible interruption in the system.

c) Alternative arrangement for water supply may be planned and duties of staff fixed

accordingly.

d) The operation of the water supply system with regard to Intake, Headworks, Pumping

machinery, Treatment Plant, Piping system etc. must be co-related with the proposed

repair work.

e) Necessary staff may be arranged for the following duties;

1. Location of section;

2. Isolation of section;

3. Scouring of section;

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4. Arranging transport, material, machinery, equipment, tools, pipes, fittings etc.

5. Other miscellaneous duties.

f) These details are variable and depend upon various factors as per the local

situation. Some of the factors to be considered are;

1) The importance, utility and function of the affected pipeline with the piping net

work. This may be the only transmission main of the system. It may be one of the two

or many parallel transmission mains. It may be initial portion of the distribution system

serving as the only main to supply water to the rest of the area to be served. It may be

a distribution pipe serving only a part of the system.

2) Size and material of the affected pipe.

These are very important factors which determine the magnitude of the repair to be

undertaken.

3) Depth of the pipeline. Deeper pipes require more labour work for repairing.

4) Subsoil water table.

If the pipe is laid much below the local water table, additional work will be required to

dewater the trenches excavated for repair.

5) Other unforeseen factors.

Depending on these factors the requirement of manpower, material, machinery,

tools, equipments, pipes, specials, fittings etc. is to be worked out. Given below is a list

to meet the requirement of a big transmission main which is a life for the water supply

system. This may be considered as a guideline only. Exact requirement may be

worked out depending upon the local conditions.

Tools

Scour rod with lever, motor driven pipe cutter with extra cutters, H.T.wire cutter,

sheet cutter, screw jacks, hammers, spades, buckets, baskets, crow bars, hammers,

showels, caulking tools (spun caulking, cement caulking, lead caulking), power

wrenches 36 in. to 15 in., adjustable spanner 18 in. to 12 in., chain tong 36 in. long,

ring spanner set, DE spanner set, screw drivers, cutting plier, knife, nose plier, knife,

chisels, lead pan with sport and bucket, Temporary platforms, files, bench vice and

pipe vice.

Pipe Specials

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MS gap special, ms barrels, ms split collars (different types available), ms girder,

ms angle. Wireless set, mobile wireless set, cell phone, pager. Flood lighting, tube light

fittings, wire, 3 core cable, insulation tape, main switch, fuse wire, kit kats, welding

cable, emergency lights, torch lights, gas lights. First aid box, helmets, headlight, gum

shoes, hand gloves (rubber, leather), gas masks, oxygen cylinder. Tents, water cans,

jugs and glasses, tarpaulins, electric heaters, rain coats, food (tea and snacks, meals)

Detection of Pipe Failure

1. Inspect site and ascertain the nature of the failure.

2. Assess any possible damage or dispute that may arise and take steps to face such

situations.

3. Investigate the access to the site so as to plan the arrangement of plant and

equipment.

4. Assess urgency of repair, availability of men and equipment, effect on consumers

and fix time and day of repair.

5. Locate isolating valves for proper control of requisite activities required for repair

work.

6. Depending upon the seriousness of the leakage or burst, the likely effect on the

local supplies, decision may be taken on

i) maintenance of supplies as long as possible

ii) prevention of possible contamination of the pipeline and

iii) quick location of the actual position of the pipeline.

7. Establish control and communication network after deciding the time of repair work

to be undertaken.

8. Ascertain the sensitivity of the affected area and take steps to avoid undesirable

situations.

9. Issue notification and warnings of the likely interruptions.

10. Mobilise men, material and equipment for repairs.

Repair work

For small local defects such as pinholes a single split collar or wraparound

clamp may be all that is required. The repair can be carried out at as a ‘wet’ or ‘dry’

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operation. In case of ‘wet’ repair care should be taken to maintain a steady, gentle flow

so as not to dislodge the sealing elements.

For a more extensive damage e.g. a longitudinal fracture, a section of pipe is cut

out and replaced by the use of two appropriate couplers. If full extent of the fracture is

not clearly defined cuts should be made at least 300mm beyond each end of the visible

crack or defect and in case of any doubt the full length of damaged pipe should be

replaced. This necessitates cutting out the joint at both ends of the affected pipe, thus

the repair normally requires two replacement pipe sections and three couplers.

• Carryout correct measurements and give allowance for expansion;

• All cuts should be made clean and square;

• In A.C. pipes, cuttings should be avoided;

• All cut edges should be prepared (scraped, deburred, chamfered etc.) to the

manufacturer’s recommendations.

• Both exposed ends of the existing pipe should be similarly treated;

• Couplers should have their sealing rings lubricated if recommended;

• Correct expansion gaps should be allowed;

• Good alignment is essential particularly if narrow couplers are used;

• All couplers and collars should be centralized;

• Tighten all bolts evenly;

• Do not over tighten bolts or compression joints;

• Restore any damaged coatings on the parent pipe;

• Ensure full protection to the bolts and any exposed bare metal before burial.

9) LEVEL GAPS INFORMATION – QUALITY & QUANTITY

The flow of information between and within the water supply and surveillance

agencies is necessary to maximize the quality of service to consumer and protection of

public health. The report provided by the surveillance agency to water supply provider

should include:

1. The summary reports of condition of water supply and water quality analysis.

2. Highlight those aspects, which are considered inadequate and needs action.

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3. Recommendation of remedial action in case of emergency.

The report should not be limited to complain about failures but the water supply

and surveillance agencies should coordinate their activities to ensure good quality of

water to consumers. Such a report should specify actions in order of priorities for

intervention based on public health criteria. If consistently, unsatisfactory results are

reported in a particular area, the cause for the same should be investigated and

remedial measures taken, such as repair of leakage, replacement of corroded and

leaking consumer pipes etc.

Local laboratory under surveillance agency should maintain detailed field reports

regarding inspections and water analysis of all water supplies available in the area. It

should include the results of all inspections and analysis. The local surveillance office

should report to the relevant supply agency as soon as possible after field visits. The

information should also be passed on to regional authorities to allow follow-up; if

recommendations for remedial action are not implemented. However, there must be a

rapid means of reporting in case of emergency.

The consumers have the right to know about the quality of water being supplied

to them. Therefore, the agencies responsible for monitoring should develop strategies

for informing public the health-related results obtained by them along with

recommendations for action (e.g. boiling during severe faecal contamination,

household water storage education etc.) through publicity, pani-panchayats etc.

Local government should ensure that the agency that supplies drinking water to

the area complies with the quality standards.

WATER SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS

Periodic drinking water analysis is necessary to ensure safe quality water

supply. Water samples should be analyzed for various microbiological and

physicochemical contaminants. However, the authenticity of water analysis greatly

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depends on the sampling procedure. The objective of sampling is to collect a small

portion of water which can be easily transported to laboratory, without contamination or

deterioration and which should accurately represent the water being supplied. It should

cover locations which are most venerable in the supply system.

For recommended sampling procedures and guideline values regarding physical

and chemical parameters, kindly refer to Manual on Water Supply and Treatment, III

Edition, May 1999, Government of India, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi.

DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND REPORTING

Data analysis and interpretation are fundamental components of surveillance

process. It aims at generation of data, which contributes to protect public health by

promoting adequate, safe, potable water supply to communities.

DATA ANALYSIS

Evaluation of community water supply requires consideration of number of

factors, such as quality, quantity, coverage, continuity of water supply and never the

least, its production cost.

QUALITY

Quality of water supplied to communities is an important consideration for

human health and well being. Remedial and preventive measures also form an

important part of water supply quality maintenance gives details about the suggested

guidelines for the same. Water quality data, generated and summarized by surveillance

agencies are useful tools to promote improvement and design action strategies for

quality water supplies in compliance with national standards.

QUANTITY

Along with quality, quantity of supplied water to the community plays an

important role for maintenance and improvement of public health. Personal and

domestic hygiene greatly depends on per capita quantity of water supply to the

consumers. In case of inadequate quantity of water supply, community may use

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alternate source of water, some of which may be not be safe and affect the public

health.

10) REVENUE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Revenue management system is an important aspect of any Water supply

System as it governs the financial aspect. Besides fixing a tariff structure, billing and

collection of revenue play an important part.

TARIFF FIXATION

The water charges to be fixed by the utility take into account the ability of the

system to meet the expenditure on the following heads. (i.e.)

• Operating Cost (excluding establishment cost).

• Establishment Cost.

• Depreciation.

• Debt Services & Doubtful Charges.

• Asset replacement fund.

Tariff structure should be fixed and revised periodically. Automatic increase of

tariff periodically on index basis can also be adopted. Where the same authority also

provides sewerage system, charges for this can also supply through Public stand post,

may be charged and also be included as a percentage of the water charges.

CATEGORIES OF CONSUMERS

The various categories of consumers are:

i) Domestic,

ii) Commercial (Business entities, Hotels, Industries etc.),

iii) Government Authorities,

iv) Partly Commercial,

v) Bulk Consumers.

Among the five categories, the domestic consumers are the privileged class of

people in terms of supply of water and collection of taxes mainly because they use

water for their healthy existence. The other categories of consumers largely use water

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while carrying out commercial/business activities. Therefore, the distribution of cost

incurred on the maintenance of such system to each class of consumers should be

logically and appropriately determined with reference to the level of service rendered.

Finally, a projected income on account of water charges should take into account the

various factors stated in the paragraph above.

WATER CHARGES

The methods of levying water charges can be any one or more of the following:

A. Metered System:

1. Actual consumption of water.

2. Minimum fixed charge.

B. Non-Metered System:

• Fixed charge per house per month.

• Fixed charge per family per month.

• Fixed charge per tap per month.

• Percentage of rateable value of the property.

BILLING PROCESS

The various stages in the Cycle of Water Billing Process are:

• Data gathering (Meter reading in case of metered billing).

• Generation of bill based on this data.

• Distribution of bill to consumer.

• Payment of the Bill by the Consumer.

• Sending the receipt details to billing section.

• Related accounting.

Irrespective of the basis of the billing-metered/unmetered the billing system

needs three major database:

• Master Data - This is the data, which needs to be entered only once when the

consumer/connection is added into the database. This data is relatively static in

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nature and does not change periodically. Various data items, which need to be

stored, (depending on the type of water charges) are:

Consumer number, name of consumer, address, type of use, type of consumer, tap

size, data of connection, details of feeder line, locality, house number, water

connection number, number of taps, number of families, meter make, meter

number, first reading, ownership of meter, deposit amount etc.

• Data for each billing cycle - This data will be entered for every consumer for

every cycle and will be used for calculating the demand of that billing cycle. Various

data items which need to be stored are-

Consumer number, data of meter reading/period for which billed, status of the

connection and any changes in master data etc.

• Receipt Data - This data will be the data related to the payments made by the

consumer against the bill issued. This data will be entered on daily basis

irrespective of the billing frequency. Various data items which need to be stored

are:

Consumer number, date of receipt, receipt number, details of the collection center,

cash/cheque (If cheque - cheque no, bank branch) Part payment/adhoc payment/

deposit, account head for posting etc.

DATA COLLECTION

For better administrative control over the complete billing process the city/town

is divided into various zones/sections geographically or as per the distribution networks

(service reservoir wise). It is observed that the cities already have ward numbers or

localities which can be used as they are but if the billing is as per the distribution

network the billing system can provide very important feed back as far as

water/revenue losses are concerned (unaccounted for water - UFW).

These zones are further divided into smaller area (Wards) for better control. The

person responsible for gathering data from these areas is the meter reader/ward clerk.

In case of metered system the number of consumers who can be handled by one-

meter reader will depend upon the geographical spread of the area and other office

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jobs to be performed by the person. In many utilities the range vary from 800 to 1500

consumers per month. In case of unmetered system the number can be increased.

The prime responsibility of meter reader/meter clerk will be to gather all the data

related to the water connections in the given area, to collect all the data related to new

connections/disconnection or any change in the category.

BILLS

The water rates/tariff structure may have one or more aspects from the following

- consumption based, flat rate, minimum charges, fixed charges, average consumption

based etc.

Depending on the data gathered the demand for a particular billing period is

calculated. The outstanding amount is worked out on the basis of details of payments

received. The charges for delayed payments or amounts not paid are calculated as per

the rules. The bills are generated area-wise.

DISTRIBUTION OF BILLS

The distribution of bills can be done using any one of the following :

i) By post or courier,

• By persons specially appointed for this purpose

• By concerned meter readers/ward clerks

ii) In a special round for distribution of bills,

iii) At the time of meter reading for the next round.

(This option saves effort/manpower but there is delay in one complete cycle in

reading and distribution of bills).

PAYMENT OF BILLS

The payments can be accepted at any one or more of the following:

• Counters at various offices of the Board/Corporation/Utility.

• Various branches of bank/banks authorized for accepting payments.

• Door to door/on the spot recovery by concerned person/team.

• Electronic fund transfer through various banks offering such option/directly.

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• By cheque through post or drop boxes.

• Through societies authorised by government, such as cooperative societies.

• On line payments.

• Automatic kiosk.

FREQUENCY OF BILLING The frequency of Billing governs the cash flow of the water billing system and

thus more frequency means regular cash flow.

The frequency of billing depends mainly on the type of system used. For non-

metered system the billing could be quarterly and for the metered system the billing

could be bi-monthly. But in both cases all non-domestic, Industrial, Bulk Consumers

must be billed monthly. The only other factor which can be considered in this respect is

the availability of manpower for billing process and the cost of issuing bills in one

complete billing cycle.

DELAYED PAYMENTS

Since water is being treated as a commodity consumed the advance billing is

generally not carried out. It is therefore ‘a must’ to levy penalty/interest on the delayed

payments of the bills.

COMPUTERISED BILLING

Computers are now widely used in day to day activities. For a water billing

system, which is complex, repetitive and has voluminous data, computerization is

recommended. Computerisation overcomes many of the defects in the manual system,

is fast and gives a control on the system. Computerisation helps in decision-making.

The output formats can be tailored to suit quick retrieval of information that is

necessary for decision making. Consultants and experts are now available to help in

setting up a computerized system.

COMPUTERISATION OF BILLING

The advantages of the computerisation of billing and collection are as follows:

• Listing of customer accounts with unserved bills.

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• Quantity analysis on line.

• Query for list of debtors.

• Quick MIS for on the spot analysis of important parameters.

• Bills generated for the month.

• Amount collection up to the date.

• Number of connections.

• Total working and Nonworking meters.

• Disconnection.

• Water consumption.

• Demand Collection Balance (DBC) statement.

• Receivables monitoring and fixation of targets for billing.

• Performance indicators.

• Meter reader performance.

• Collection efficiency.

• Billing pattern.

• Water consumption.

• Billed units.

• Reports on debtors requiring continuous persuasion.

Metering and Tariff

Water Tariff is the rate levied for the water supplied to the consumers in order to

develop sufficient revenues to provide for operation and maintenance and also for debt

services. The tariff must attempt to distribute the cost of supply of water equitably to all

consumers in relation with the benefit they derive or the expenses they cause the

system. The principle of “paying in proportion to the cost of water used” has generally

worked in advanced western countries. But in developing Countries the funds for the

implementation of water supply schemes have come from the government either loan

or grant to the local bodies concerned. However to make the utility self financing,

charges must be geared to replacement cost and operation and maintenance cost.

Basis for Water Tariff

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The total revenue of a public water – supply system should be adequate to

cover;

1. The cost of operation and maintenance.

2. Interest and depreciation or amortization oil the investment of water supply system

components.

3. An additional, amount for implementing certain facilities like extension of distribution

system, meter and service instillations, replacement of pumping plants which are more or

less continuously taking place.

It is one of the primary responsibilities in a water supply system management to

see that the revenues are adequate and are equitably collected from those using the

service.

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The total revenue requirements are made up of :

i) Operation and maintenance expenses as estimated for 3 to 5 years in advance of

proposed rate change.

ii) Debt service in obligations outstanding and to be issued in the succeeding 3 to 5 years.

iii) Depreciation allowance of 1 ½ to 2% per year on investment less unamortized debt.

iv) Estimated average annual expenditure for ordinary capital addition during next five years.

Techniques must be developed continuously and they should be based upon

sound engineering and economic principle. The ability of the techniques to provide

sufficient revenue and accomplish an equitable distribution of cost must be continually

reevaluated.

Water Tariff

The simplest form of water rate is flat rate payable monthly or quarterly by the

consumers regardless of the quantity consumed, the services being metered. Many

local bodies also adopt the system of a fixed tap rate charges per tap irrespective of

the quantity used. This rate is easily fixed by dividing the total revenue required by the

total number of consumers of taps. But this system leads to waste of water and is

therefore not satisfactory.

Most equitable method will be based on metering of all supplies. The quantity

actually accounted for by the meters is invariably less than the produced since there is

considerable wastage as unaccounted water which also should be considered in fixing

the water rates some local bodies allow a free allowance for the metered supplies

based on the water taxes collected and charge only for the excess. This is also not

desirable as revenue collected by water rates is to finance the operation and

maintenance cost fully. A worthwhile alternative is to collect a fixed charge called

service charge per consumer in addition to the charge for water consumed. The fixed

charge is to provide for the meter rent where the meters are supplied by the

department and the overhead charges for meter reading billing etc. The enter supply

as measured by the meter is to be charged for at either uniform rate or graded rates.

78

There must be separate meters for measuring the supply for domestic and non

domestic uses. The rates for non-domestic and industrial purposes may be fixed

higher. The rates are to be carefully fixed taking into account the following.

i) The rate must be high enough to fetch the necessary revenue and not excessive as to

discourage consumers from making need use of water.

ii) The rate should be such as to make the amenity more or less self-paying and worked on no

profit no loss basis.

Metering

In a water supply organization (WSO) supplying potable water to the people. It is

important to distribute the water for daily use and to measure the quantity of water

consumed by the people. Measuring the quantity of water supplied by the organization

or the quantity consumed is generally known as metering helps to assess the

demands. Quantities pumped, quantities consumed by individual consumers and to

assess the leaks in the distribution systems.

Types of Meters

Most commonly used meters are :

1. Venturi meters

2. Electro flow meters

3. Orifice meters

4. Water meters for bulk consumers (inferential semi positive)

5. Water meters for domestic consumers (Inferential semi positive) voenturi meters.

Electro flow meters and Orifice meters are used for measuring the flow of water

in the Head Works and trunk mains. These meters are provided with recording

arrangements for recording rate of flow against time meters used for rerecording flows

in the service connections of bulk consumers and domestic consumers are of dial type

and are installed inside the premises in a meter chamber.

It is important that these meters are properly selected. Installed and maintained

so that reading are taken with ease and accuracy of the reading maintained.

79

Domestic Water Meters

Domestic water meters are of two types viz. Inferential (horizontal) and semi

positive type of water meters and are available as both wet dial and dry dial. The

nominal sizes are 15.20.25 40 and 50 mm dia. The domestic water meter consists of

meter body. Registration box cap lid, impeller chamber, measuring chamber an

deregistration device.

80

Registration Device

It is the unit which comprises the recording gear train and the indicating device

consisting of a cyclometric type counters or pointers working on a dial on a

combination of both, it registers in suitable volumetric units the quantity of waters which

has passed through the meter.

A Dry dial type meter is one in which the counter mechanism is isolated from

water flowing through the meter. A wet dial type meter is one in which the complete

counter unit is in contact with water flowing through the meter. The inferential type of

water meter measures the velocity of flow from which the discharge is measure. The

inferential type of water meter measures the velocity of flow from which this discharge

is measured. The semi positive type of water meter volumetrically records practically

down to zero flow of the water that has passed through. The impeller and pistons used

in inferential and semi positive meters respectively shall be durable and shall work with

low frictional resistance. These are generally made of non-absorbent materials such as

plastics, ebonite, bronze, stainless steel or nickel alloy. The movement of the impeller

or piston is transmitted to move the pointers on the dial through gears and pinions. The

gears and pinions are constructed to fully and smoothly mesh with each other’s and

are made of stainless steel, nickel alloy or suitable plastics.

Selection of Domestic water Meters

Water meters shall be selected according to flow to be measured.

i) The maximum flow shall not exceed the nominal capacity of the meter specified in

Table 11.1 (IS 779-1968).

ii) The continuous flow shall be not greater than the continuous running capacity

rating as per Table 1.

iii) The maximum flow to be measured shall be within minimum starting flows as per Table

11.1

iv) Inferential meter has the same accuracy as the same positive type and is lower in cost.

81

v) The normal working flow shall be well within the continuous running capacity specified

(Table 11.1) as high rates of flow over short period may cause excessive wheat if the

meter chosen is too small.

vi) Owning to the fine clearance in the working part of meters, they are not suitable for

measuring water containing sand or similar foreign matters. In such cases a filter or dirt

box should be fitted on the upstream side as shown in Fig. 11.1. It should be noted that

the strainer fitted inside a meter is not a filter.

Installation of water meters

i) A meter shall not be run with free discharge to atmosphere, if the static pressure on the

main exceeds 10m head of water, otherwise the meter is liable to be overloaded and

damaged. For hose connections and similar applications, there shall always be some

resistance on the downstream side of the meter.

ii) A meter shall be located where it is not liable to get severe shock of water hammer, which

might break the piston or damage the rotor, and the position shall be such that it is always

full of water, a recommended method of making connection to achieve the purpose is

shown in Fig. 11.1 if the meter body or adjacent pipes become partially drained of water

the accumulated air, when passed through the meter, is registered as water and may

cause inaccuracies and perhaps damage. The inaccuracies may be more pronounced in

the case of inferential meters in such situations suitable devices like air release valve may

be fitted on the upstream side of the meter. In the case of intermittent water supply

system, where there are frequent changes of air locks, the piston of the semi positive

meter often breaks in such a case, it is advisable to ensure that the top of the meter is

below the level of the communication pipe.

iii) Semi positive meters may be fixed in any position with the dials facing upwards or

sideways, and they may be installed in horizontal or vertical pipe runs without affecting

wearing properties of accuracy at normal service flows where backward flows are

anticipated, reflux valves are recommended to be provided. A stop valve should be

provided on the upstream side as shown in Fig. 11.1 to isolate the meter whenever

necessary.

iv) Inferential meters shall be installed imposition for which they are designed in the case of

meters conforming to IS 779-1958 they shall be placed horizontally with dial facing

upwards. However, where meters are to be installed in vertical pipe lines details shall be

as agreed to between the manufacturer and the purchase.

82

v) Turbulent flow of water affects the accuracy of the meter. There shall, therefore be straight

lengths of pipes upstream and downstream of meter for an equivalent length of ten times

the nominal diameter of the pipe.

vi) Meters should be fixed below ground level if they are located outside the building or, if in

exposed portion inside the building. The bodies of the meters should be protected with

some form of lagging: in the case of meters installed below ground depth at which the

meter should be fixed to afford frost protection will depend on the nature of the soil.

83

Range of Registration and Capacities of Domestic Wa ter Meters

Size in mm

Range of Registration

Nominal capacity discharge in

Litres per hour

Continuous running capacity discharge litres

per hour

Minimum starting flow

litres per hour M

inim

um

Litr

es

Max

imum

M

illio

n Li

tres

Sem

i pos

itive

ty

pe

Infe

rent

ial

type

Sem

i pos

itive

ty

pe

Infe

rent

ial

type

Sem

i pos

itive

ty

pe

Infe

rent

ial

type

15 1 10 2000 2500 100 1500 10 40

30 1 10 3400 3500 2000 2500 15 60

25 1 10 5500 5500 3000 3500 20 75

40 10 100 10000 16000 6000 8000 25 100

50 10 100 15000 23000 9000 14000 35 175

Range of Registration and Capacities of Bulk Water Meters

Size in

mm

Range of Registration

Nominal capacity discharge in Litres

per hour

Continuous running capacity discharge litres

per hour

Minimum starting flow

litres per hour

Min

imum

Litr

es

Max

imum

Mill

ion

Litr

es

Van

e-w

heel

Typ

e at

10

m m

ax h

ead

loss

Hel

ical

type

at 3

m

max

hea

d lo

ss

Van

e w

heel

type

at

3m m

ax h

ead

loss

Hel

ical

type

at m

ax

head

loss

Van

e w

heel

type

Her

etic

al ty

pe

50 10 100 30000 50000 17000 20000 250 500

80 10 100 50000 125000 27000 62000 500 1000

100 100 100 70000 20000 40000 100000 700 1500

150 100 100 150000 50000 80000 250000 1000 3500

200 100 1000 250000 800000 150000 400000 2400 5500

250 100 1000 400000 1000000 220000 550000 3200 9000

300 100 1000 500000 1500000 300000 750000 6400 14000

350 100 1000 - 2000000 - 1000000 - 200000

84

400 1000 10000 - 3000000 - 1500000 - 25000

500 10000 10000 - 50000000

- 2500000 - 35000

vii) Before installing a meter, the section of line to be metered shall be thoroughly flushed to

remove all foreign matter and when starting up control valves shall be opened slowly until

the line is full, as a sudden discharge may damage the meter.

viii) Water meters may be installed underground, either the carriage way outside the premises

or at a convenient place within the premises. In order to enable the meters to be

accessible for periodical for periodical.

ix) Reading, inspection, testing and repairs they shall be housed in water meter boxes

confirming to IS 2104-1962. Top of the meter box shall be places at a slightly higher level

than the surrounding ground level so as to prevent ground water entering in and flooding

the chamber during rains.

Bulk Water Meters

Bulk water meters are of two types viz (1) Vane-wheel (Impeller) type meters

(with size ranging from 50 to 300 mm bore) and (2) Helical type water meters (with size

ranging from 50 to 500 mm bore).

Van Wheel Type Meters

It has runner or impeller mounted on a vertical spindle which has several vanes

symmetrically spaces round its axis. The water impinges of the runner over a part or

the whole of its circumference. There are dry dial and wet dial type meters in vane

wheel meters.

Helical Meters

They are axial flow meter whose runner is provided with number of vanes

forming a multithreaded helix.

-----------------@@@@@@@@@@@---------------

85

O & M OF

SEWERAGE

SYSTEM

86

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. DESIGN CRITERIA

3. WASTE WATER TREATMENT METHODS AND THEIR CHARACTERIZATION

4. PROCEED OF SEWAGE TREATMENT

5. FEATURE QUALITY COLLECTION OF WET WELL SAFE DISPOSAL

6. SPETIC TANK (DESIGN, CONSTRUCTIN, CAPACITY OF TANK, ELLUENT

DISPOSAL

7. MANHOLE

8. MAINTENANCE AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES

9. SEWAGE PUMPS

10. INFORMATION MANAGEMENT LIKE COMMUNITY BASED MONNITARIZATION

87

INTRODUCTION

Sewage damage poses significant environmental and health risks. Sewage damage

cleanup, therefore, should be done in a speedy manner in order to contain and minimize its

damage to structural materials of homes and potential health risks to occupants.

Sewage damage cleanup consists of two parts: physical cleanup and chemical

disinfection.

Physical sewage damage cleanup requires removal of sewage water, sewage wastes,

and debris. Whereas, chemical disinfection requires use of disinfectants to eliminate microbial

organisms like bacteria and viruses.

Prime factors for consideration in sewage damage cleanup include extent of damage,

type of materials contaminated, duration of contamination, and amount of ventilation available.

For instance, if sewage damage is minor and contained only to your bathroom flooring,

then you do not need to worry about contaminated carpets or upholstery. However, if sewage

that has contaminated your house is a result of flooding or sewage backup, then cleaning and

disinfecting will be more extensive. In such serious cases, even, use of professional cleaning

services is recommended. The thing is, sewage contamination should be properly handled in

order to kill all harmful microbes that have contaminated your people.

Before working, it is important that the worker wears protective suits to avoid any

contact or inhalation of contaminated particles.

Again, sewage damage cleanup should be initiated very briefly after start of

contamination. Sewage damage poses negative impact against people and adversely changes

the indoor air quality of your home. The longer the contamination remains untreated or properly

treated, the greater are the chances for development of microbes. The longer you prolong start

of sewage damage cleanup, the more you and your family are exposed to health threats of

sewage contamination.

88

Some of the diseases that people can develop as a result of contact with sewage -

contaminated water or item include Hepatitis A, salmonella, bacillary dysentery, balontidiasis,

and skin infection.

Now there are some myths surrounding sewage contamination that you would better

dispel.

Myth 1: The sewage-contaminated river, lake, or ocean is clean: Any body of water

contaminated by sewage water or waste is positive with microorganisms, viruses,

pathogens, microbes, germs, and bacteria. When sewage-contaminated water

floods homes, these microorganisms soon become odorous health hazards once

trapped under carpets, floor coverings, or walls.

Myth 2: Carpets saturated by sewage-contaminated water is salvageable: This is absolutely

false. The same is true for other porous materials like beddings, sofas, papers, and

upholstery. The rule of the thumb is, anything you can't disinfect with hot water has

to be thrown away.

Myth 3: Buildings which have only been partially contaminated by sewage flood is safe:

There is no truth to the preceding statement. This can only be true if the

contaminated area has been sealed off to prevent spread of contamination to other

areas of the building.

Now, should you do sewage damage cleanup yourself or should you call a professional

sewage remediation services? Again, look at the extent of the damage. If it is contained to a

small area of your house such as your bathroom (caused by clogged john), then perhaps it is a

problem you can manage yourself. However, if sewage-contaminated flood has entered your

entire home, it is better to call sewage-cleaning experts. Health risks are higher in such cases.

Cleaning experts have the equipments and expertise to ensure that your home is

completely cleaned of harmful microbes for safe use again.

89

Sewerage and sewage treatment Design Criteria

Period of Design

Components

Design Period (Years)

Clarifications

1. Trunk, Main Branch Sewers and Appurtenances

30

2. Pumping Stations (Civil Works)

30

3. Pumping Installations 15 With due provision for future additions at the end of 15 year period.

4. Rising Mains 30 The comparative merits of alternatives viz., a single main for the full 300 year period as against a main for the 15 year period supplemented by another main either for the entire length or part of it to meet the additional needs for the next 15 years may be examined to decide on the most economical arrangement.

5. Treatment Units 30 The layout should envisage the complete needs of the design period of 30 years. Sufficient area around the treatment works may be reserved to prevent development of the areas for residential purposes and to act as a buffer zone. Treatment works may be designed in sufficient number of units to meet immediate needs supplemented by additional successive units later on in a phased manner.

Density of Population

The following rates may be adopted for design if detailed census figures are not

available.

Population Density per Hectare

Up to 5,000 75 to 150

90

5,000 to 20,000 150 to 250

20,000 to 50,000 250 to 300

50,000 to 1,00,000 300 to 350

Above 1,00,000 350 to 1000

Per Capita Sewage Flow

Unless data is available to the contrary, this may be taken as the average water

supply rate and is exclusive of ground water infiltration.

Ground Water Infiltration Rate

The following infiltration rates may be adopted for sewers laid below ground

water table :

5,000 to 50.000 lpd / hectare

Or 500 to 5,000 lpd / km of sewer per cm of sewer per cm of sewer dia.

Plus 250s to 500 lpd / manhole

Peak Factors

Contributory Population Peak Factor

Up to 20,000 3.0

20,000 to 50,000 2.5

50,000 to 7,50,000 2.25

Above 7,50,000 2.0

Self-Cleansing Velocity

i) Sewers

For Design Peak Flow 0.8 metre / sec

For Present Peak Flow 0.6 metre / sec

ii) Open Drains 0.75 – 0.90 metre/sec

iii) Inverted Siphon 1.0 metre /sec

iv) Minimum Velocity for Force Mains 0.3 metre / sec

(When Lowest Duty Pump is Working)

Maximum Permissible Velocity

91

Stoneware Pipes 1.4 metre / sec

Brick Drains 1.8 to 2.1 metre / sec

Concrete Drains 2.5 metre / sec

Cemented Drains 3.0 metre / sec

Cast Iron Pipes 3.0 metre / sec

Maximum Permitted Depth of Flow

Diameter in mm (d) Depth of Flow which will Convey Designed Quantity

Up to 400 0.50 d

400 to 900 0.67 d

Above 900 0.75d

Recommended Design Flows

Recommended Design Flows computing Sewer Systems:

Street Sewers 6 DWF

Trunk Sewers 3 DWF when Excess storm water flow is diverted and

6 DWF otherwise

Force Mains 3 DWF, storm water flow is surplus

Preliminary Treatment Units 3 DWF

Primary and Secondary 1 DWF

Treatment Units

Pipings in Treatment Units 3 DWF

Useful gradients for design of Sewer Systems

Diameter mm Grade 1 over Capacity lpm

150 150 700

200 270 1180

225 295 1510

250 365 1850

300 460 2680

350 570 2620

375 640 4190

400 680 4670

92

450 840 6030

93

Sewage Treatment

Typical Analysis of Sewage

Constituents Strong Medium Weak

Solids Total 1200 500 200

Volatile 500 350 120

Fixed 700 150 80

Suspended Solids Total 400 300 100

Volatile 300 250 70

Fixed 100 50 30

Dissolved Solids Total 800 200 100

Volatile 200 100 50

Fixed 600 100 50

B.O.D. 300 200 100

C.O.D. 800 600 400

Oxygen consumed 150 75 30

Dissolved Oxygen 0 0 0

Nitrogen, Total 85 50 25

Nitrogen, Organic 35 25 10

Free Ammonia 50 30 15

Nitrites 0.10 0.05 0.00

Nitrates 0.40 0.20 0.10

Chlorides 225 100 50

Alkalinity 400 100 50

Fats 40 20 0

Note : 1. All values in mg/l.

2. The values furnished are the yearly averages for sewage collected from

Pumping stations.

Some Waste Water Treatment Methods and their Charac teristics

The methods range from physic-chemical to biological and in the latter group,

from aerobic to anaerobic (see fig.). To give a quick overview, some biological waste

water treatment methods are briefly described in this section.

94

Processes of Sewage Treatment 1. Preliminary Treatment

a) Screening

Coarse Screens made of bars with opening of 7.5 to 1.5cm.

Bar Screens made of bars with opening of 5 to 10cm.

Amount of 3 to 180 cum/million

Material removed cum of sewage

By screens screened

b) Grit Removal

Velocity in grit 30 cm/sec.

Channels

Size of grit 0.15 mm to 0.20

Particles removed grains of sp. Gr. 2.30 to 2.65

Amount of grit removed 6 to 72 cum/million cum sewage treated.

II. Primary Treatment

Plain setting of sewage to remove organic matter to the extent possible.

Usual efficiencies 30% B.O.D. removal and 50% suspended solids removal.

Treatment

Biological

Anaerobic Contact beds UASBs, Sludge digesters, Anaerobic ponds

Aerobic

Suspended growth Activated sludge Extended aeration Aerated lagoons Waste Stabilisation ponds

Attached growth Trickling filters Rotating bio-discs Land treatment, Root zone reed beds Vermisiabilisation

Physico -chemical Screens and grit removal sedimentation, plate settlers sludge thickeners Vacuum filters, Centrifuges Ion-exchange Reverse osmosis Ultra-filtration

95

III. Secondary Treatment

By (a) Intermittent sand filters

(b) Trickling filters or

(c) Activated sludge units.

Involves complete removal of organic matter.

IV. Low Cost Treatment

By (a) Waste stabilization ponds (aerobic, anaerobic and facultative)

(b) Aerated lagoons

(c) Oxidation ditches

Features

Screens

Velocity through screens 0.30 m/sec (at average rate of flow) for

hand raked bar screen 0.75 m/sec.

(max. velocity during wet weather

periods) for mechanically cleaned

screens.

Submerged area of the screen

surface including bars and opening

200 to 300 per cent of the cross

sectional area of the approach sewer.

Net submerged screen area 0.04 to 0.06 sq.m/mld

Head loss through the screens Up to 0.75 m

Drop of floor level below the screen

a) For mechanically operated screens 75 mm (min)

b) For manually operated screens 150 mm (min)

Top of screen to be above highest flow

level

300 mm

Minimum free board 300 mm

Grit Chambers

Horizontal velocity flow 0.15 to 0.30 m/sec.

Detention time 60 sec. (for 3 DWF)

Surface loading rate 40 Cum/Sqm/hour

96

Grit collection 12 to 27 cum/million cum

Grit Chambers

Horizontal velocity flow 0.15 to 0.30 m/sec.

Detention time 60 sec. (for 3 DWF)

Surface loading rate 40 Cum/Sqm/hour

Grit collection 12 to 27 cum/million cum

Settling Tanks : (Plain Sedimentation)

Detention time 2.0 to 2.5 hours

Overflow rate 27 to 45 Cum/day/Sqm

Depth of tank 3.0 to 4.0 m

Velocity of flow 0.30 to 1.50 m/min.

Solids loading 30 kg/sqm/day

Intermittent Sand filters Design loading on filters Million litres/hectare/day

For raw sewage 0.5

For presettled sewage (after

screen and grit removal)

1.0

Primary treatment complete (after

settling)

3.0

Dosing Tanks Enough flow to flood one unit of filter to

a depth of 5 to 10cm. Each filter bed

should receive 1 or 2 doses per day.

Average rate of dosage 30 litres / sec for 500 Sqm. (with

intermittent dosing and resting on sand

beds).

Trickling Filters

Low rate High rate

Hydraulic loading (in million litres/hectare metre/day)

10 to 40 100 to 400

Organic loading (in tone BOD/hectare metre/day) 1.1 to 3.5 3.5 to 17.5

Depth in m 1.8 to 3.0 1.0 to 2.4

97

Recirculation None 1.1 to 1.4

Filter volume 5 to 10 times 1

Power requirements (kw / million litres) None 30 to 180

Dosing interval 5 min. 15 sec.

Nature of dosing Intermittent Continuous

Activated Sludge Units

Design parameters for Activated Sludge as per Ten State Standard Aeration

Tank Capacities and Permissible Loadings

Process

Plant design flow in

mld

Aeration Retention Period (Hours)

Plant Design kg BOD / day

Aerator loading

kg BOD / cum

Kg BD / day Kg MLSS

Conventional Upto 2.25 7.5 Upto 450 0.50 050 to 0.25

2.25 to 6.75

7.5 to 6.0 450 to 1350

0.50 to 065

-

6.75 up 6.0 up 1350 up 0.65 up -

Modified or High rate

All 2.5 up 900 up 1.60 1 or less

Step Aeration 2.50 to 6.75

7.5 to 5.0 450 to 1350

0.50 to 0.80

0.5 to 0.2

6.75 to up

5.0 up 1350 up 0.80 up

Contact Stabilisation

up to 2.25

3.0* Up to 450 0.50

2.25 to 6.75

3.0 to 2.0*

450 to 1350

0.50 to 0.80

0.5 to 0.2

6.75 to up

1.5 to 2.0*

1350 up 0.80 up

Extended Aeration All 24 All 0.20 0.10 to 0.05

* Detention time in contract zone which is 30 to 35% of total aeration capacity.

Reaeration zone comprises the balance of the aeration capacity.

Waste stabilization ponds

a) For small schemes, a single facultative pond will suffice and is designed as below:

98

BOD loading 220 Kg/hectare/day

Water depth 1.5 to 1.7 m

Detention period 18 to 24 days obtained by adjusting surface area.

BOD removal 80 to 90%

b) For large schemes where minimum clearance of 0.5 to 1 km from habitation is

available, anaerobic pond followed by facultative pond is preferable to save land area

and is designed as below.

Anaerobic Pond

B.O.D. Loading 880 Kg/hectare/day

Water depth not less than 2.5m. not greater than 3.0 m.

Detention period 4 days

B.O.D. 50 to 60%

Grass variety Para Grass

Grass yield 370-400 tonne/hectare/year in 11 cuttings.

Facultative Pond

Same design criteria as in (a) but influent B.O.D. would be less.

For hospitals, educational institutions, small colonies, etc., even chance odours

must be absent and single facultative pond is designed as below:

B.O.D. Loading 110 kg/hectare/day

Water depth not greater than 1.5m to 1.7m

Detention period 35 to 40 days

Fish ponds

Where practicable, fish ponds can be used for facultative pond effluents with the

following design criteria.

Water depth 1.5 m

Detention period 5 days

Cyprinus carpie (Carp) is the most profitable variety of fish with yields of 4

tonne/hectare/year.

99

Grass Farm

The facultative pond effluent or the fish farm effluent can be used for grass

cultivation for cattle feed. The following criteria will apply. Application rate = 60 to

120m3/hectare/day (clay to gravely soils). For clayey soils, under drains system not be

recommended and only peripheral collection channels are to be provided.

Grass variety Para Grass

Grass yield 370-400 tonne/hectare/year in 11 cuttings.

Aerated Lagoon Where land cost exceeds Rs. 2,00,000/- hectare, facultative waste stabilization

ponds would be uneconomical for a flat adoption and aerated lagoons can be used to

pretreatment economically with the following design criteria:

Detention time 1 day

Water depth 2.5 m

Oxygen required 1 kg / each kg. B.O.D. removal

BOD removal 60%

Aerator sizing 0.8 kg. O2/Kwh

SEPTIK TANK

A septic tank is a combined sedimentation and digestion tank, where sewage is

held for some time and the suspended solids settle down to the bottom of the tank. The

sludge is digested by the anaerobic bacteria. By this action the sludge is reduced in

volume sufficiently and a liquid is released as effluent. In this reaction gases are

Carbon dioxide, methane and hydrogen sulphide are released. The smell of hydrogen

sulphide is very pungent. The effluent though clarified to some extent, but still contains

considerable amount of dissolved and suspended putrifiable organic solids and viable

pathogens. Thus the disposal of effluent and requires a careful disposal. Due to the

difficulty of disposal of effluent and difficulty in providing a proper system of disposal for

it, the septic tanks are recommended to be adopted for isolated buildings, small

institutions and big hotels and camps. Thus septic tanks are suitable for isolated or

100

undeveloped areas of the locality where municipal sewers are not laid and there is no

facility to convey and treat the sewage in the public sewage treatment plants.

For the satisfactory functioning of septic tanks, adequate water supply is

essential. Water containing excessive detergents and disinfectants are unsuitable for

treatment of septic tanks and should not be allowed to enter in septic tanks. Septic

tanks are should not be located in swampy areas or areas prone to floods.

Disposal of effluent

As the effluent from the septic tank is highly odorous, it should be disposed off

carefully. It can be disposed off in the following ways.

• It may be disposed off through underground trenches. If the soil of underground trench

is porous it is best as the effluent will be absorbed by it.

• Gardening. After proper treatment, this effluent may be used for gardening.

• Soak pits. A soak pit is a hollow circular or rectangular pit. It is lined from 1.2m to 1.8m

or more depending on the situation. The effluent falls in the pi and is allowed to be

absorbed by the surrounding soil. The pit may be filled with brick bats etc.

DESIGN ASPECTS OF THE SEPTIC TANK

1. Capacity: The volume of septic tank can be decided on the following two

considerations.

a) By the consideration of quantity of flow and the detention period. The volume per

head may be kept from 57 to 85 lit.

b) It can also be designed on the per capita flow, which varies from 60 to 110 litres per

person per day to be served by the tank. The space for sludge usually is kept at the

rate of 15 to 45 litres per capita per year.

2. Detention Period: detention period varies from 12 to 72 hours. The common period is

taken as 24 hours.

3. Free board: 40 to 60cm free board is sufficient.

4. Shape of tank: generally septic tanks are designed as rectangular, with length to

breadth ratio as 1:2 to 1:4.

5. Height: Height of septic tank may be kept from 1.8m to 3m. The height for smaller

septic tanks may be kept as 0.9m. The dimension of septic tank depends on the

number of users.

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CONSTRUCTION OF SEPTIC TANK 1. The materials of construction of septic tank should be corrosion resistant.

2. The construction of septic tank should be such that no direct current is established between

inlet and outlet. This is achieved by providing baffle walls near the inlet and outlet ends.

The level of outlet should be about 15cm lower than the inlet.

3. Septic tank should be properly ventilated by means of air vent pipes.

4. The top cover of septic tank usually is made of RCC. A man hole is also provided in RCC

slab for inspection and cleaning it. Cast iron steps may also be provided to facilitate the

descending down in the tank.

5. The sludge is allowed to accommodate at the bottom of the tank and can be removed

either manually or by pumping at desired interval of 6 month or 1 year.

6. At the start of working of the tank, it should be filled with water. Effluent of the tank should

be disposed off properly.

7. A septic tank combines the function of a sedimentation tank, a sludge digestion tank and a

sludge storage tank.

8. A septic tank should be cleared every 6 to 12 months as the deposition of sludge at the

bottom decreases its capacity. But the period of clearance should not be more than 3 years

in any case.

Recommended sizes and capacities of septic tanks

(Number of users less than 50) IS – 2470 (small Cap acity)

No. of users

Length Breadth Liquid depth for

cleaning interval of

Liquid capacity for cleaning

Sludge to be removed for

cleaning interval of

Depth of sludge to be withdrawn

for cleaning interval of

L m

B m

6 M

th m

1 ye

ar m

2 ye

ar m

6 M

th m

3

1 ye

ar m

3

2 ye

ar m

3

6 M

th m

3

1 ye

ar m

3

2 ye

ar m

3

6 M

th m

3

1 ye

ar m

3

2 ye

ar m

3

5 1.5 0.75 - 1.0 1.05 - 1.12 1.18 - 0.36 0.72 - 0.32 0.64

10 2.0 0.90 - 1.0 1.40 - 1.80 2.52 - 0.72 1.44 - 0.40 0.80

15 2.0 0.90 - 1.3 2.00 - 2.34 3.60 - 1.08 2.16 - 0.60 1.20

20 2.3 1.10 1.1 1.3 1.80 2.53 3.30 4.55 0.72 1.44 2.88 0.28 0.57 1.14

50 4.0 1.40 1.0 1.3 2.00 5.60 7.28 11.20 1.80 3.60 7.20 0.32 0.64 1.28

Note : A provision of 30 cm. should be made for free board.

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Recommended sizes and Capacities of Septic Tanks

(Number of users more than 50)

No. of users

Length Breadth Liquid depth for cleaning interval of

Liquid capacity for cleaning

Baffle m

L m B m

Yearly or less m

Two yearly m Yearly or less

m3

Two yearly

m3

For Housing Colonies

100 8.0 2.8 1.0 1.04 22.4 23.3 5.3

150 10.6 2.8 1.0 1.15 28.6 32.9 7.1

200 12.4 3.1 1.0 1.15 38.4 44.2 8.3

300 14.6 3.9 1.0 1.15 56.9 66.5 9.7

For Hostels and Boarding Schools

50 5.0 1.6 1.3 1.40 10.4 11.2 3.3

100 5.7 2.1 1.4 1.70 16.8 20.4 3.8

150 7.7 2.4 1.4 1.70 25.8 31.4 5.2

200 8.9 2.7 1.4 1.70 33.6 41.0 6.0

300 10.7 3.3 1.4 1.70 49.5 60.0 7.2

Recommended methods of Septic Tank Effluent Disposa l

Soil and Sub-soil conditions

Subsoil water level Porous soil with

percolation rate not over 30 mm

Porous soil with percolation rate over 30

and below 60 mm

Dense and clay soils with percolation rate

over 60 mm

Within 1.8 m from ground

Dispersion trench located partly or fully above ground level in a mound

Dispersion trench located partly or fully above ground level in a mound

Biological filter located partly or fully above ground with underdrains and effluent laid to surface drain or gardening

Beyond 1.8 Seepage pit or dispersion Dispersion trench Subsurface biological filter with underdrains and the effluent laid to surface drain or gardening

MANHOLES

The straight lines between manholes are limited in length to 30 metres for sewers

up to 300 mm dia. Where manual rodding is adopted. For large sewers, they may go

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up to 100 metres or more. Manholes are also necessary at every junction, change in

size, grade and depth of sewer.

It is construction, provided to connect the ground level with the opening made in

the sewer line, to enter a man in the sewer line easily and safely to carry out the usual

maintenance and inspection of the sewer line. Man holes are provided to carry out

inspection, cleaning and maintenance of sewer lines. Man holes also allow joining of

sewers of changing of direction or changing of alignment or both.

LOCATIONS

Man holes are provided on straight sewer lines at intervals depending upon the

diameter of the sewer line. For sewer line having diameter up to 50cms, the interval

usually is kept as 75m. For sewer lines having diameter of 90cms, the distance is kept

as 120m, for sewers of 150cm diameter the distance is kept as 250m, sewers having

diameter more than 150cm, the distance may be 300m or more. For larger sewers the

distance may be more as a man can enter the sewer for inspection. Man holes are also

provided at every bend, junction, and change of diameter of sewer line. Change of

gradient etc. AS far as possible sewer line between two man holes should be laid

straight with even gradient.

Classification of man holes

Man holes may be classified as follows:

a) Shallow man holes: These man holes are constructed at the beginning of branch sewers

or places not subjected to heavy traffic. These man holes are also known as inspection

chambers. The depth of such man holes varies from 0.75 m to 0.9m and size 0.75 X

0.75m. It is approved with light. A cover at top is provided.

b) Normal Man Holes: The depth of such manholes may be about 1.5m. It’s size may be 1.0

X 1.0m or 0.8 X 1.0m. It is of rectangular or square in shape. Its section is not reduced. It

has heavy cover at top.

c) Deep Manholes: the depth of such man holes may vary from 1.5m to 2.0m and its section

1.2 X 0.9m rectangular or 1.4m diameter with heavy cover at top. Fig shows a deep man

hole with intercepting trap. Its size is reduced and offset is constructed of brick masonry or

cement concrete.

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PRINCIPLE OF DESIGN

a) A man holes should be structurally strong. Stable to resist all forces likely to act on it.

b) It should be safe for workers to enter in it.

c) The walls and floor of man hole should be impervious. The surface of walls should be

cement plastered.

d) The man hole should not be an obstruction for the smooth flow of sewage and should not

unnecessarily become a source of foul gases.

e) In case the inlet and outlet of the sewers are of different diameters, then the crown of

sewers should be kept nearly the same level by giving required slope in the invert of the

man hole chambers. If this precaution is not taken then the smaller sewer will get back

flow while larger sewer will run full.

Steps or ladder in man holes

The steps should start about 40cm below from ground or road level and upto

30cms height from bottom level of man hole.

Walls

Walls of man hole may be made of brick, stone masonry or cement concrete.

Usually brick walls are very common. The thickness of wall should not be less than

20cm. The brick wall thickness may be found out from the following rule

t = 10 + 4d

Where,

t = wall thickness in cm

d = depth of excavation in meters

Cover to man holes

The weight of cover and frame of light duty and medium duty traffic should be as

follows. Further the cover should not create noise on passing vehicles over it. If it

makes noise, it should be attended and its seal should be replaced.

APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF MANHOLE FRAME AND COVER

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Clear opening mm Grade designation Approximate weight in kg

Light Duty 450 X 450 mm

600 X 450 mm

600 X 600 mm

18 – 31

26 – 38

32 - 57

34 – 43

37 – 51

60 – 75

Medium Duty 500 mm dia

600 X 450

600 X 600

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142

178

-

-

-

DROP MAN HOLES

An opening constructed to connect a high level branch sewer to low level main

sewer with minimum disturbance is called a drop man hole.

FUNCTIONS OF DROP MAN HOLE

A drop manhole serves the following functions:

1. We know that a main sewer usually is laid at greater depth below ground level and a

branch sewer situated near the ground level. Thus to join the branch sewer with main

sewer, construction of dropman hole avoids unnecessary steep gradient of the branch

sewer and thus reduces the quantity of earth work.

2. Construction of drop man hole allows the discharge of branch sewer to fall at the bottom of

the man hole and avoids the possibilities of sewage being falling on the person who enters

the chamber of man holes for inspection.

Maintenance of sewers

For efficient and proper working of sewer lines, their proper maintenance is

essential. All sewer lines are liable to corrosion, erosion and deterioration.

Maintenance of sewers mainly consists of removal stoppages, cleaning of sewers and

other sewer appurtenances and repair work. Maintenance of those sewers is costly

which are laid on flat slopes as they are more prone for heavily clogged by the

entrance to tree roots through faulty joints are costly to maintain.

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Cleaning of clogging, sewers due to silt, grease and oily materials are one of the

major problems of maintenance of sewer line. It is also most costly operation. Major

causes of cleaning a sewer line are their breakage, clogging and odours. The breakage

of sewer may take place due to poor foundation, excessive super imposed loads,

impact due to vibrations etc., and the corrosive matter of sewerage eats away slowly

the material of the sewer resulting in its failure or breakage.

The clogging mainly occurs in small sized sewers, where a man cannot enter

into them to clean. The clogging may be due to the deposition of sand, silt, grit and

waster building materials and ashes etc., It may also be caused by the deposition of

grease and oily materials contributed by hotels, garages, soap industries etc., Odours

in sewers is developed due to the decomposition of organic matter present in the

sewage. Thus it is essential to clean the sewer line.

For good maintenance of sewer system, its upto date plans showing location of

manholes and other appurtenances, direction of flow, house sewers and grades of

sewer line etc.., should be available. Before starting actual cleaning and repair work,

the inspection of the sewer line and its appurtenances must be carried out. In some

cities inspection and maintenance works are carried out when difficulties arises, where

as in some cities inspections and repair works are carried out periodically as per

schedule. The period of inspection generally followed is as follows:

1. Sewers on flat grades ……………… ………………………………3 months

2. Sewers not likely to be affected by tree roots……………………….3 months

3. Trouble free sewers……………………………………………… ….6 to 12 months

4. Intercepting sewers…………………………………………………..1 to 4 weeks

5. Flushing tanks………………………………………………………..1 month

6. Storm water over flows……………………………………………during rains only

CAUSES OF DAMAGES TO SEWER

Main causes of damages to sewers are as follows:

o Use of poor quality materials and bad workmanship.

o Excessive super imposed loads and faulty design.

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o Settlement of foundation due to low bearing capacity of soil.

o Small soil covers on the crown of the sewer to withstand the shock, impact, vibrations

due to moving vehicles.

o Explosion in side the sewer due to improper ventilation of the explosive gases

developed in side the sewer.

o Abrasion of sewers due to grit, sand etc., flowing with the sewage and corrosion of

sewer pipe due to the corrosive gases which eat away the sewer material resulting in its

breakage.

PROBLEMS OF SEWER MAINTENANCE:

Following are the main problems of sewer maintenance:

Clogging of sewers

1. Clogging of silt, grit or other such material cause stagnation of sewage causing to

decompose organic matter present in the sewage, producing poisonous gases and

unpleasant odour in the sewer. The oily and greasy matter from the discharge of hotels

kitchens, garages, soap factory’s etc. deposited on the side of the sewer, reducing its cross

section, which in course of time clog the sewer.

2. Penetration of tree roots through faulty joints or cracked sewer pipes chock the sewer.

3. Growth of fungi forms a network of tendril which floats on the surface of the sewage and

obstructs its free flow.

4. Stagnation of sewage in sewers due to improper working of pumping units leads to the

settlement of grit and other materials and dumping of solid waste in the man hole clogs the

sewer line.

HAZARDS

The staff engaged in the operation and maintenance operations of the sewerage

system is exposed to the different kinds of hazards such as physical injuries caused by

chemical and radio active wastes, infections caused by pathogenic bacteria present in

the sewage, damages from explosive vapours and oxygen deficiency. These hazards

can be minimized to a great extent by adopting suitable safe guards at the time of

designing sewers, their appurtenances and pumping stations. Hazards at the time of

maintenance stilt can be reduced by using safety equipment and taking precautions

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against likely hazard. Maintenance work should be supervised and executed by trained

persons.

As stated above also, sewerage contains high percentage of carbon dioxide, methane,

hydrogen sulphide, hydrogen and low percentage of oxygen. The main hazard is due

to the presence of high level of methane forming an explosive mixture or oxygen

deficiency or hydrogen sulphide excess of permissible limit gases like ammonia,

chlorine and sulpher dioxide are also found in the sewer and man holes.

When gases like nitrogen, methane, and hydrogen breathed in high

concentration act mechanically by excluding oxygen. When carbon monoxide inhaled,

combines with the hemoglobin of the blood, either prevents oxygen from reaching the

blood or its tissues or prevents tissues from using it. Chlorine is an irritant substance

which when inhaled injures the air passage and lungs and produces inflammation on

the surface of the respiratory tracts.

PRECAUTIONS AGAINST HAZARDS

Before entering a manhole for inspection and cleaning an obstruction in the

sewer, it should be ensured that the sewer and manhole is free from all injurious gases

and vapours. Following precautions should be taken before entering a manhole either

for inspection or cleaning the obstruction.

� No smoking should be allowed inside the manhole or sewer. No flames and sparks should

be allowed near the manhole.

� While cleaning the sewer, traffic warning sign board should be placed on road near the

work.

� In the manhole safety explosion proof electric lighting equipment or light reflection mirrors

should be used.

� Atmosphere should be tested for the presence of noxious gases and oxygen deficiency.

� When the atmosphere is normal, the worker should enter the manhole or sewer with safety

equipment and two persons should be deputed at the top for emergency help.

� In case oxygen deficiency or presence of noxious gases is detected, emergency or forced

ventilation should be restored using portable blowers.

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� In case, forced ventilation is not possible and workers have to enter into the sewer in

emergency then they should wear the gas mask and carry only the permissible safety and

should wear rubber shoes and non sparking tools should be used.

� Only the experienced persons fully equipped with safety equipment should be allowed to

enter the sewer in such conditions.

SAFETY EQUIPEMENT

Usually following equipment is used by workers connected with sewer maintenance:

1. Gas mask: A gas mask consists of face cloth, small cylinder (canister) containing purifying

chemicals, a timer for indicating duration of service and a support piece. The gas mask

provides necessary respiratory protection against organic vapours, acid gases, and carbon

monoxide upto 2%. Concentration, toxic dust fumes and smokes. How ever they can not be

used in oxygen deficient atmosphere or unventilated locations etc.

2. Oxygen Breathing Apparatus: This apparatus protects the workers fully against all gases,

vapours, dust, smokes, oxygen deficiencies etc. This is a dependable device.

3. Portable Lighting Equipment: portable hand lamps of permissible type as explosion air

blowers may be used.

4. Non Sparking Tools: During sewage maintenance works, tools made of alloy (containing

at least 80% copper) should be used as they will not produce spark when struck against

other objects and metals.

5. Portable Air Blowers: To provide forced ventilation in man holes, tanks etc., portable air

blowers may be used.

6. Inhalators: These are used to bring back to consciousness drowned or electric shocked or

collapsed persons. It contains a mixture of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Carbone dioxide

used in small percentage stimulates deep breathing, so that more oxygen should be used

only when the collapse of persons has occurred due to chlorine or hydrogen sulphide gas

known as irritant gas.

7. Safety Belt: This belt is consisting of a body belt with a buckle and shoulder harness or

device. The life line is of a steel cable or high quality manila rope, anchored with safety

straps for securing to a stable support. The length of life line should be 15m and it should

be capable to with hold a load of 2000 Kg. The safety belt and life line should be tested

daily before use.

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SEWERAGE CLEANING

The cleaning of large sewers is done manually. The worker enters the sewer

through man hole and scrapes the sides with tools carried for this purpose. The bottom

is cleaned of rubbish by phawara and collected at the platform of manhole . This

scraped material is taken out through man holes. All necessary precautions as stated

above should be taken when entering the sewer.

Small sewers are cleaned by flushing with the help of automatic flushing tanks.

The automatic flushing tank is installed on the sewer line and a fire hose with nozzle is

inserted in the sewer. Water under pressure is discharged through the nozzle to clean

the sewer. When flushing is found inadequate to clean the sewer other methods are

employed to clean the small sewers.

METHODS OF SEWER CLEANING

Following methods may be employed for this purpose.

a) Flexible Rod

A flexible rod about 30m length is inserted into the sewer and pushed to forward

and backward. The movement of the rod dislodges the obstruction, which is removed

easily by flushing. In place of flexible rod a steel tape may also be used. The steel tape

may be 3mm thick and 20mm to 50mm wide. This method is found useful for small

sewers where a man cannot enter the sewer.

b) Use of Balls (Pills)

In this method balls made of wood, hollow metal balls or rubber balls covered

with canvas are used. A small ball is put in the man hole above obstruction. The ball

floats in the sewage and when it comes in contact of the obstruction it is caught there

and blocks the passage of sewage. Thus sewage starts collecting there behind the

obstruction raising the head up stream side. When the sufficient head is developed, it

exerts a force on the obstruction and dislodged obstacle flows with the sewage. The

ball is collected in the next manhole. Then a ball slightly larger diameter than the

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previous one is used and the process is repeated. A ball having diameter about 25mm

less than the diameter of the sewer passes easily from one manhole to the other.

Now days some improved version of this method has been adopted. The balls

used generally are made of rubber, which can be inflated upto varying degree of

inflation. The balls are available from 150mmto 750mm in diameter when fully inflated.

For cleaning the sewer, the ball is inflated and covered in a canvas cloth and the edges

of the cloth are sewed together. A trail line little longer than the distance between two

man holes is attached to the covering cloth securely. The size of inflated ball with cover

should be such so that it may fit into the sewer tightly.

Immediately after placing the ball in the sewer, sewage starts heading up in the

manhole till the pressure developed is sufficient enough to force sewage under the ball

and moving it to down steam side. The ball acting as compressible floating plug,

affords enough obstruction to produce a continuous high velocity jet of sewage under

the ball and to some extent around it moving the material ahead to the next manhole. If

the ball encounters an immovable obstruction, it indents as per need and moves

forward,. By this method bricks, bottles, broken pieces of pipes, gravel, sand etc. can

be moved ahead easily and collected at man holes and removed manually outside.

When the ball stops momentarily, a pull is exerted on the trail line to set the ball in

motion again.

3. Use of portable pump set

These pumps are used to clean the sewer in situations where sewers are blocked

completely and sewage has accumulated in man holes. These pumps should be self primed

and non clogging type.

4. Sectioned Rods

These rods are used for cleaning small sewers. These rods may be of bamboo, teak or

light metal of about 10m length. At the end of these rods a coupling is attached which remains

intact in the sewer but can be taken out or disjoined easily at manhole. Sections of rod are

pushed in sewer line till the obstruction is reached and dislodged. To cut and remove the

112

obstacle, the front edge of the rod is fitted with a cutting edge. These rods may also be used to

locate the obstruction from either manhole.

5. Use of Sandwiched flexible rods

Such flexible rods are used for routine sewer cleaning work. This type of rod is made by

sandwiching a manila rope between bamboo strips and tying at short intervals. The end of this

rod is tied with a thickness rope.

The flexible rod is lowered into the manhole by a person standing on top, while an other

worker in side the manhole pushes the rood into the sewer in the direction of flow. As soon as

the end of the 60m rod is thrust into the sewer it is connected to a thick manila rope. The

worker deputed in the next down stream manhole receives the end of the rod and pushes it out

of the manhole.He catch holds the manila rope end and drags through the sewer. This manila

rope is got coiled at the drawn out of the sewer into the down stream manhole, from where it is

taken out manually. Now the process is repeated for the next section and continued till the full

sewer line is cleaned. Along with cleaning, other repairs in side the manhole, foot steps etc.,

can do simultaneously.

6. Use of ferret and fire hose

Fire hose is attached to the fire hydrant and the nozzle of the hose pipe is inserted into

the sewer through manhole. This method is used for breaking and removing sand blockade.

From the fire hydrant a high velocity jet stream of water is sent towards upstream and

downstream side of the sewer. The forward stream loosens the accumulated sand debris

ahead of the ferret tool and the rear jets of ferret admit water to wash the sand back to down

stream. This sand can be removed from the next manhole manually.

7. Sewer Cleaning Bucket Machine

This machine consists of two power driven winches and a cable between them. For

cleaning a section of the sewer the winches are placed over the two adjacent manholes. Cable

from one which to the other has to be taken through the sewer line by means of sewer rods.

The cable from the drum of each winch is tied or fastened to the barrel on each end of an

expansion sewer bucket. This bucket is also fitted with a closing device. This bucket can be

pulled in either direction by machine on the appropriate end. The bucket is pulled into the

loosened material of the sewer till it is full with the debris. Now the motor is thrown out of gear

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and appropriate winch is operated. On the application of opposite pull, the bucket automatically

closes and the debris is put in a truck or trailer. This operation is repeated till the sewer line is

clear. This machine can also be used with other scraping instruments for loosening sludge

banks of detritus or cutting roots and removing obstruction from the sewer line.

8. Roding Machine With Flexible Sewer Rods

This machine consists of a flexible rod to which the cleaning tools are attached. The

flexible rod consists of a number of steel rods with screw couplings. The flexible rod is guided

through the man hole by vent pipe. The rod is rotated by the machine with the help of a tool

attached to one end. The rotating rod is pushed manually into the bent pipe with clamps having

long handles, holding the rod near the cleaning the obstruction, rod is pulled out by means of

clamp keeping the rod rotating which facilitates the quick and easy removal of the obstruction.

9. Sewer Scrapers

For sewer of more than 750mm diameter scraper is used for cleaning the sewer. It

consists of wooden planks assembled in the sewer shape of slightly smaller size than the

cleaned. The scrapper can be assembled out side and lowered through the man hole. If it is

not possible to lower it through the man hole, then it can be assembled in the man hole. The

scrapper chain is attached to a central chain in the man hole where it is lowered. Now this

chain is connected to a winch on the next down stream man hole by means of a chain.

Now the winch is operated to push the debris ahead of the scraper. The heading up of

the flow behind the scraper also helps in pushing the debris in the forward direction. The

movement of the scraper ensures the thorough cleaning of sides and bottom of the sewer. The

scraped debris can be removed manually from the sewer through man holes.

10. Dredger

Dredgers are used for cleaning large diameter sewers. The system consists of a crane

pulley block and grab bucket. The grab bucket is lowered into the sewer with the help of

pulleys. The bucket is dragged in the opposite direction of the flow. In this operation, the bucket

scrapes the bottom deposits. The bucket is raised when it is full of debris to fall. The bucket is

brought on the ground over the truck, where the bucket opens and drops the debris into the

truck automatically. However a dredger can not clean the corners deposits of the man hole.

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11. Flush Bags

In situations where rods can not be used for cleaning the small sewers, this method has

proved a very effective tool for cleaning the sewers. The flush bag is a rubber or canvas bag.

At one end of this bag a fire hose coupler is attached while on the other end a reducer. The

flush bag is connected to the fire hose and is placed on the down stream side of the chocked

location. The bag is allowed to fill with water till it expands and seals the sewer fully. Due to

the blockage of sewer, water heads up on up stream side and creates water pressure and

breaks the obstruction. Pressure should not be allowed to develop so high, which may cause

the flow of sewage back into the hose connections or break the sewer or its joints.

12. Sewer Scooter

This is an improved version of the scrapper method and consists of two jacks, a

controlling rope and a scooter with a light shield. The scooter completely stops the flow of

sewage. The scooter is attached to the control rope and lowered into the sewer line through

the man hole. The downstream manhole jack is lowered into place from the road and the

upstream manhole jack is set across the top of the manhole.

When the scooter is lowered into the sewer, it stops the flow of sewage and

builds up a head behind the shield. The resulting pressure makes the scooter to move

through the sewer till it accumulates enough debris to stop its movement. The head is

allowed to build upto 1.0 m of water approximately, before the control rope is pulled to

fold back the shield to allow the accumulated sewage to gush to the downstream

flushing the sewr debris to the next man hole. Now again the control rope is released,

cleaning the shield against sewage and causing the scooter to advance further till the

debris stops its movement. The process is repeated till the scooter reaches the

downstream man hole, where it can be taken out or allowed to continue through the

next section.

Preventive Maintenance

The clogging of sewer may be prevented by periodical removal of silt etc. from the

sewer line and repairs of manholes. Sewer maintenance gang should work under the

supervision of a competent and experienced person well trained in the use of necessary tools

and equipment.

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Cleaning of catch basins or pits

Catch pits are provided for collecting storm water and should be cleared after every

storm. Catch pits contain silt, sand and debris etc. Water contained in catch pits may become

the breading place of mosquitoes. The traces of organic matter in the silt of catch pits will give

unpleasant odour. The oil and grease traps should also the periodically cleaned to avoid

nuisance due to unpleasant odour.

PERIODICAL REPAIRS

To prevent the heavy damage and deterioration of the sewers, periodical repairs are

necessary. The sections of sewer which need repairs should be marked during the inspection

and they should be attended immediately. Usually following repairs are required.

1. Brick Sewers: Brick sewers require frequent repairs of the following elements;

a) Pointing of joints and replacement of fallen arch bricks.

b) Plastering and painting of manholes.

c) Replacement of manhole frames and covers which that have worn out or broken and

have become noisy.

d) Replacement of broken or cracked and crushed portions of pipe.

e) Raising or lowering the manhole heads to keep them flush with the road level due to

change in roads and street levels.

f) Tightening of manhole covers which have become loose and give noise under the

vehicular traffic.

g) Replacement of broken pipes.

h) Re construction of damaged house connections etc.

i) Repair of defective house sewer connections and street sewers.

j) The ventilating shafts should be checked frequently to ensure their proper functioning.

k) The joints of lateral sewers with branch sewers should be made water tight periodically.

EXPLOSION IN SEWERS

If the sewers are not properly ventilated, there are chances of occurring

explosions in the sewer lines blowing manhole covers into the air. The main cause of

such explosions is the presence of combustible gases produced due to the presence of

gasoline, methane gas, neptha, grease solvents etc, These materials come to the

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sewer line from the discharges of filling stations, garages, chemical industries etc.

Calcium carbide may also causes explosion in sewer line.

Precautions to be taken before entering into the se wer line:

Before entering a sewer line, the workers should take the following precautions.

a) The covers of at least three consecutive man holes should be opened at least one hour

before entering into the sewer line.

b) Before entering into the man hole, a burning candle should be lowered into the man

hole to check the presence of explosive gases. If there are explosive gases, an

explosion will takes place, giving a warning to the workers.

c) Only Electric lamps or dry cell torches should be used inside sewer line for light.

d) The presence of hydrogen sulphide gas may be detected by lowering a wet lead

acetate paper inside the manhole.

Flushing Tanks

Located at the head of sewer. They are designed for 10 minutes flow at a self-

cleansing velocity of 0.6 metre / sec.

Capacities : 150 mm sewer – 6400 litres

200 mm sewer – 11000 litres

250mm sewer – 18000 litres

The capacity of these tanks is usually 1/10 of the cubic capacity of the sever

length to be flushed.

Ventilating Shafts

Usually provided at first manhole and at intervals of 180m.

Sewage Pumps

Essential design features / Criteria

a) The size of solid should not be greater than 80% of impeller outlet.

b) Casing and impeller should be of adequate size to allow free passage of specified size

of solid. Normal size of soil is 80mm, suction and delivery of the pump not less than 100

mm.

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c) Hand holes should be provided in the casing to allow early access to the impeller eye

and to close as possible as to the casing.

d) Provision should be made in stuffing boxes for the abrasive nature of sewage of ensure

clear water supply or grease Lubrication to the glands shall be provided from external

source.

e) For working out H.P., Sp. Gravity 1.05 should be considered.

f) Material for impeller should be either C.I. or Stainless Steel.

Types of Pumping Installation

a) Wet well and dry well with horizontal centrifugal pump and motor at dry well.

b) Wet well and dry well with vertical dry pit pump and motor on upper floor driven by line

shafts.

c) Wet well installations with vertical pump mounted at bottom of floor and motor on upper

floor and driven by line shaft.

d) Submersible non-clog pump and motor set with chain-pulley block and pump motor set

sliding on guide rails/wires while removing. The arrangement is such that when pump

reaches bottom base, its delivery nozzle sits automatically on delivery pipel

From maintenance, it is preferable to adopt installation (b) above, though it is

costlier than three installations. Recently, the installation (d) i.e. with submersible non-

clog pumps are introduced and becoming popular, in view of ease of removal,

handling, practically no maintenance and low civil cost.

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Coarse Screen

It is must a coarse screen with clear opening of about 40-50 mm is provided

before admitting sewage in the well. This is necessary as solid handling capacity of

pump is usually 80mm.

Installation of Pump

Foundation

Foundation, whether concrete or structural, steel should be heavy enough to

afford permanent rigid support to the full area of base plate absorb vibration, Shock

and normal stain.

Loads

Following loads should be considered

a) Constructional load i.e. foundation.

b) Three times total mass of pump.

c) Two times total mass of motor.

Design of supporting girder

Say constructional load Nil

Pump weight 2 ton

Motor weight 3 ton

Hence, total dynamic load = 2 x 3 + 3 x 2

= 6 + 6

= 12 tons

= 12000 kgf.

Say a pump is supported on two ISMBs with span of 4M i.e. 400 cm.

Max. Bending Movement at Centre = 4

WL= 12,00,000 kg./cm.

Permissible safe stress, f = 1500 kgf/cm2

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∴ Z Section modules = f

BM=800 cm3

Hence, Z for ISMB 250 as per steel table having Z = 410.5 cm3

Laying Suction Pipes

a) Suction pipes shall be at least one size above the suction size of the pump or designed

for velocity not exceeding 2 m/s.

b) Bends should be long, short bends should not be used.

c) Eccentric taper with top of taper in flat position be used. Concentric taper should not be

used.

d) The suction pipe should be straight or gradually rising. No portion of suction pipe should

be above suction nozzle of pump, which causes air-trapping and reduction in discharge.

Strainer / Foot Valve

Net area of opening in Strainer / Foot Valve should be at least 3 times entrance

areas of bellmouth or suction pipe.

Delivery pipe

a) Delivery pipe should be at least one size above delivery of pump or designed for

velocity not exceeding 2.5 m/s.

b) After pump delivery, non-return valve should be installed first and then sluice valve.

Recommended height of the pump house

A) For V.T. Pumps

i) Single floor pump house

Sl. No. HP of Pump

Pump floor to corbel

top

Corbel top to roof

slab bottom

Pump floor to bottom of

roof slab Total

Lifting equipme

nt

1 Up to 50 HP - - 5.5 m Monoralli

2 From 51 HP to 150 HP 5 m 1.5 m 6.5 m Hand operated

3 From 151 HP to 300 HP 5.5 m 1.5 m 7 m Crane

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4 From 301 HP to 500 HP 5.5 m 2 m 7.5 m Electrical Operated

5 501 HP ad above 5.5 m 2.5 m 8 m Crane

ii) Double floor pump house

Generally, double floor arrangement shall be provided for the delivery pipes of

diameter 350 mm or above.

The height for pump house shall be as below.

Pump floor to Panel floor - 2.5 m

Panel floor to Corbel - 5 m

Corbel to bottom of roof slab - 2.5 m

B) For Centrifugal and submersible pumps

Sl. No. HP of Pump

Pump floor to corbel

top

Corbel top to roof

slab bottom

Pump floor to bottom of

roof slab Total

Lifting equipme

nt

1 Up to 150 HP - - 4 m Monoralli

2 From 151 HP to 300 HP 3.5 m 1.5 m 5 m Hand operated Crane

3 From 301 HP and above

4 m 2.5 m 6.5 m Electrical operated Crane

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INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

The flow of information between and within the water supply and surveillance agencies

is necessary to maximize the quality of service to consumer and protection of public

health. The report provided by the surveillance agency to water supply provider should

include.

1. The summary report of condition of water supply and water quality analyses

2. Highlight those aspects, Which are considered inadequate and needs action.

3. Recommendation of remedial action in case of emergency

The report should not be limited to complain about failures but the water supply and

surveillance agencies should coordinate their activities to ensure good quality of water

to on public health criteria. If consistently, unsatisfactory results are reported in a

particular area, the cause for the same should be investigated and remedial measures

taken, such as repair of leakage, replacement of corroded and leaking consumer pipes

etc.

Local laboratory under surveillance agency should maintain details field reports

regarding inspiration and water analysis of all water supplies available in the area. It

should include the results of all inspection and analysis. The local surveillance office

should report to the relevant supply agency as soon as possible after field visits. The

information should also be passed on to regional authorities to allow follow – up; if

recommendations for remedial action are not implemented. However, there must be a

repair means of reporting in case of emergency.

COMMUNITY BASED MONITORING AND SURVELLLANCE

Community participation is an essential component of the monitoring and surveillance

framework. As the primary beneficiaries community can play an important role in

surveillance activity. They are the people who may first notice the problems in water

supply and report it to concern agency or taken remedial action if possible. Establishing

a genuine partnership with the community creates a climate of trust and understanding,

which generation interest and enthusiasm. It also provide a good foundation for other

education activites such as promation of good hygiene practices.

The community based monitoring and surveillance can be carried out in two ways:

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1. Selection of community volunteers, including woman, to undertaken surveillance activity

after training.

2. Providing encouragement to local worker to carry out certain jobs pertaining to

surveillance.

In both the cases, preliminary training is necessary for filed workers to identify sanitary

hazards associated with the water supply, as well as regarding reporting system.

Department or water supply agency should help in providing necessary training while

community water committee health committee can supervise the work. The community

participation includes.

• Assisting field workers in water sample collection, including sample location points,

existing damage net works, casing /likely to cause contamination of drinking water.

• Assisting in data collection.

• Monitoring water quantity, quality and reporting findings to surveillance staff

regularly.

• Ensuring proper use of water supply.

• Setting priorities for sanitation and hygiene and educate community members.

• Under taken simple maintenance and repair work.

• Refer problems which require special attention.

• Disseminate results and explain the implication with respect to health with the

objective to stimulate involvement in action to keep water clean, safe and

wholesome.

SURVEILLANCE ACTION

Surveillance action comprise of:

1. Investigation action to identify and evaluate all possible factors associated with drinking

water, which could pose a risk to human health.

2. Ensure preventive action to be taken to prevent public health problem.

3. Data analysis and evaluation of surveys.

4. Reporting to concerned authorities.

SANITRY SURVEY

Sanitary survey is an on-site inspection and evaluation of all conditions, devices and

practices used in waste supply system, which pose an actual or potential danger to the

health and well-being if consumer by trained persons. It is a fact –finding activity, which

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identifies actual sources of contamination as well as point out inadequacies in the

system that could lead to contamination.

The two important activities of sanitary survey are sanitary inspection and water quality

analysis; which are complementary to one another. The inspection identifies potential

hazards, while analysis indicates actual quality of water and intensity of contamination.

SANITORY INSEECTION

Sanitary inspection covers the inspection of water system, including source,

transmission mains, treatment plants, storage reservoirs and distribution system.

Basically it is a fact –finding review to uncover deficiencies and inadequacies, which

could lead to contamination of water. Sanitary inspection is indispensable for the

adequate interpretation of laboratory results. It provides essential information about the

immediate and ongoing possible hazards associated with a community water supply. It

is an essential tool to pinpoint target areas for remedial action, required to protect and

improve the water supply system.

SANITORY INSPECTION REPORT

The sanitary inspection report shall cover the following:

1. Identify potential sources and points of contamination of the water supply.

2. Quantity the hazards attributed to the source and supply.

3. Provide a clear, graphical means of explaining the hazards to the operator/user.

4. Provide clear recommendation for taking remedial action, to protect and improve the

supply.

5. Provide basic data for use in systematic, strategic, planning for improvement.

Moreover inspection report should not be restricted to water quality but should take into

account other services condition such as coverage, cost, condition and quantity. Such

surveys are important form the point of view of operation and maintenance.

WORK CHART FOR SANITRY SERVEY

For collection of adequate information and follow –up work, proper work chart should

be prepared considering local requirement. Following should be taken care of:

1. Prior knowledge of source, and type of water supply; and map of distribution system.

2. Notify the visit in advance, where the assistance of community member is needed.

3. Carry prescribed forms and necessary accessories, like sample bottle, sample carry

box, analysis kit etc.

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4. Verify basic data with community.

5. Interview community member for drinking water supply service.

6. Verify information gathered by observation during survey.

7. Inspection and water sampling should not be haphazard, should follow specific

guideline.

8. Water sample should be analyzed immediately for residual chlorine and thermotolerent

coliform, or transported quickly to laboratory in iced boxes.

9. Complete the sanitary report on site, and send it immediately to appropriate authority

for follow- up remedial action if necessary.

10. Undertake appropriate small repairs at the time of survey in remote areas such as

washer changing for leaking taps.

11. For pictorial forms, each risk point should be circled and given to member of water

committee for follow – up action.

----------------@@@@@@@@@@----------------

125

ROADS &

STORM

WATER

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CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. INFORMATION ON ROADS WORKS

3. MAIN COMPONENT OF RAOD STRUCTURE

4. WHAT TO OBSERVE IN ROADS

5. WHAT TO ENSURE BEFORE THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS

6. WHAT TO ENSURE DURING CONSTRUCTINO OF ROADS

7. WHAT TO OBSERVE IN ASPHALT ROAD WORK

8. WHAT TO AVOID IN ASPHALT ROAD WORK

9. TENTATIVE CAPACITIES OF URBAN ROADS BETWEEN INTERSECTIONS

10. LAYING OF CEMENT CONCRETE ROADS

11. REPAIRS TO CONCRETE ROADS

12. URBAN ROADS IN PLAINS

13. IRC SPECIFICATION

14. INTRODUCTION TO DRAIN

15. OBJECTIVES FOR PROVIDING DRAINAGE SYSREM

16. DESIGN DETAILS

17. ADVANTAGES OF DRAINS

18. DRAIN SECTION AND ITS VELOCITIES

19. MAINTENANCE OF DRAINS

20. DRAWINGS

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1. INTRODUCTION

A road is a thoroughfare, route, or way on land between two places, which

typically has been paved or otherwise improved to allow travel by some conveyance,

including a horse, cart, or motor vehicle. Roads consist of one, or sometimes two,

roadways (British English: carriageways) each with one or more lanes and also any

associated sidewalks (British English: pavement) and tree lawns (British English:

verge). Roads that are available for use by the public may be referred to as 'public

roads' or highways

Good roads are essential for the development of a country. The Romans

realized this centuries ago. Wherever they established themselves, they tried to

improve the roads there. Today, the governments of all countries in the world are

building more and more roads to gain access to the remotest regions of their countries.

Roads link towns and villages and enable the people of one place to

communicate with the people of another place. When food is scarce in one place, it

can be brought from another place without much difficulty. Even things which cannot

be produced in one region can be brought from another region where they are

produced in abundance. The invention of motor-vehicles has made it easy to transport

goods from place to place. These vehicles, however, require good roads to travel

faster. The better the roads are, the more goods can be transported from place to

place. Thus, trade is improved.

Further, good roads help people to travel easily to places where they can work

and to develop their lands and industries. In Malaysia, for example, the improvement of

roads has made it easy for skilled workers from the towns to work in remote villages.

The people of the villages, on the other hand, have been able to learn much from the

towns. As a result, there has been a lot of improvement in this country in all spheres of

activity.

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Finally, in times of war, good roads help armies to move about without difficulty.

Sometimes, a country is defeated because its army is not able to reach a place in good

time due to bad roads. Even the police may not be able to reach a place where there is

some trouble if the roads are bad. For all these reasons, it is always necessary for a

country to have good roads.

2. INFORMATION ON ROAD WORKS

1. Minimum Width of Roads (Carriageway) in Urban Areas

• Single lane road with kerb = 3.75 m

• Single lane road without kerb = 3.5 m

• Two lanes road without raised kerb = 7.0 m

• To lanes road with raised kerb = 7.5 m

• Width per lane in multilane pavement = 3.5 m

2. Application Temperature of the bitumen of MORTH specification for roads and bridges,

geometric design of urban roads = 170 degrees centigrade

3. Max. Longitudinal slope (or gradient) of road = 1 in 15

And Average Gradient = 1 in 30

4. Camber of bituminous roads to be kept = 1:40 to 1:60

5. From the traffic safety point of view, the road width will not be less than 5 m anywhere

(including the residential areas).

6. Approximate road area required in any township = 20 – 30% of the plot area

7. Capacity of one bitumen drum = 150 Kg

8. Capacity of one bitumen can = 20 kg

9. Minimum turning radius for roads = 60 m for cars

= 10 m for bus and heavy vehicles

10. Minimum Width of Footpath = 1.5 m

11. Min. thickness of new bitumen carpet = 25 mm (1 inch)

12. Minimum thickness of bitumen carpet used for resurfacing of existing bitumen road

= 20 mm (3/4 inch)

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Main components of Road structure

1. Land

2. Earthwork

3. Pavement

4. Cross Drainage Works

Pavement components (layers) for Roads

1. Subgrade : Preparation of subgrade would include site clearance, cut section and

appropriate compaction. The subgrade may be situated on embankment or excavation or at

the existing ground surface. In all cases, site should be cleared off and top soil consisting of

grass, roots, rubbish and other organic matter are to be removed. If the soil does not fulfill

the requirements of subgrade soil, a stabilization technique can be used to modify and

improve the same. Stabilization is done with Lime and Sand, or with coal ash or with

aggregates or with gravel/moorum or with cement;

2. Sub-base : Sub-base is an intermediate layer between subgrade and granular base

course. The function of this layer is as a drainage layer for the pavement to avoid excessive

wetting and weakening of subgrade. Various materials such as lime, coal ash, slags,

municipal wastes and marble wastes.

3. Base Course : Water Bound Macadam (WBM) may be used as base course i.e., the

surface layre of a road in which the road metal has been consolidated with water and

earthy materials or rock particles. To do this, the existing surface of the subgrade below

has to be cleaned of all dust and prepared as per the required camber.

4. Pavement Surface: Rural roads are expected to have very low traffic and therefore any all

weather surfacing will provide the needed connectivity. Wherever motorized traffic is

present, thin bituminous surfacing is desirable. Wet mix macadam may also be used as a

base course.(WMM)

5. Surface dressing: Is the uppermost part of the road structure. Its purpose is to minimize

the abrasion of the road by traffic. It acts as a cushion between the wheel and the base and

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reduce the adverse effects of climate. By acting as an impervious layer, it enables the road

to shed storm water that would otherwise damage the road. The work shall consist of

application of one coat or two coats of surface dressing, each coat consisting of a layer of

bituminous binder sprayed on a previously prepared base, followed by a cover of stone

chips rolled on to form a wearing course to the requirements. The chips shall confirm to the

requirements.

Bituminous Wearing

Sub grade: excavating earth at an average 22.5cm depth and consolidating with road

roller and filling it with hard soil/sand, and disposal of excavated earth with lead up to

50 meters.

1. Water Bound Meeadam (WBM) : Laying of two coats of WBM sub base course 100 mm

thick each with stone aggregates of size 90-40 mm including stone screening of 12.5mm

size blinded with Moorums and earth and watering and consolidation by road roller to

proper camber and gradient etc.

2. 25 mm thick Bitumen Carpet : Providing 25mm thick premix carpet surfacing with 1.65

Cubic metre of stone aggregates and 10mm nominal size per 100 sq.m and 1.65 cu.m of

fine aggregates 56 kg of 80/100 grade straight run bitumen per cu.m of course aggregates,

128 kg.cu.m of fine aggregates etc., including consolidation.

3. 40mm thick dense bitumen concrete.

4. 25mm thick semi-dense bitumen concrete.

5. Seal Coat : A dressing of a tar or bitumen blinded with grit etc., applied to macadam. This

may be with pre-coated chippings and applied as surface dressing. Thickness is about 6-12

mm.

For poor soils with California Bearing Ratio values of 4 to 5, the following

approximate thickness of pavements may be taken;

State Highways = 47 to 52 cms

Major District Road = 38 to 46 cms

Other Roads = 20 to 30 cms

Village Roads = 10 to 15 cms

What to observe in Roads

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• Water ways is clear and not blocked by debris or silt.

• Settlement cracks in foundations or in super structure

• Cracks or damages to pavement

• Guide stones are properly fixed and pointed.

• Warning signs are placed on both sides of cross drainage structures giving clear

warning that when water is flowing above the guide stones, vehicle shall not cross the

cross drainage structures

• Approaches are in good condition and there is no erosion.

• During flash floods, a substantial load of floating debris may block the water ways and

vents. This may result in breaching of adjoining road sections. Therefore, this debris

should be removed immediately.

• Once the monsoon is over, the structures shall be inspected closely for any damage,

any heavy silting or scouring to pavement damages to guide stones etc. Repairs to

these structures shall be carried out promptly.

What to ensure before the construction of roads

Before construction of road, following initial works need to be sorted out

• One or more

• Review of plans

• Land acquisition

• Removal of encroachments and tree cutting with permission of competent authority

• Removal of trees, stumps, roots etc.

• Ground level and Reference pillar erection for excavation and stripping of soil.

• Area for storage of stripped soil is identified.

• Check whether tree roots are removed and space from where the roots are removed is

filled with granular material and then compacted.

• Identify the location of public utilities (telephone poles, power lines, water supply lines,

sewer lines, UG cables etc.) and ensure proper liaison with concerned authorities for

carrying out the work without affecting the utilities.

• Sign boards with markings such as ‘Road Work under Progress’ etc., to be installed

wherever required.

• Speed breakers may also be provided if required in case of cities.

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What to ensure during construction of roads

• Equipment should have safety devices for protection of workers and environment

(Forest areas require spark arresters)

• Operations such as tree felling, blasting etc., should not cause public hazard

• Ensure that the cut timber is disposed as per the rules.

• The debris should be disposed of properly as burning may lead to smoke and air

pollution.

• Ensure compaction of layers before laying other layers and for loss of moisture.

• Measure thickness of compacted layers to verify whether it satisfies the design criteria.

• Test the compacted layer, initially with probe rods to assess if the compacted layer

shows sign of poor compaction.

• Conduct field density tests to ensure uniform compaction of al layers.

• Observe any unusual activities, raidnfall, breakdown of equipment/machinery etc.

• Record all the instruction to the contractor including approvals and rejections during the

day.

• Spreading and leveling of materials during placement operations should be correct and

grader operators should evenly distribute the materials.

• Confirm that spreading and leveling of aggregates and granular material by motor

graders is done from the outside limits of placement area towards inside carriageway.

What to observe in asphalt road work

• The bitumen road should be open to traffic only after 24 hours of the bitumen work

done.

• Bitumen should never be heated beyond 200 degree Centigrade.Refere tab 4500-5 and

MORTH specification. Over hearting makes it brittle and unsuitable for road work.

Proper penetration will not take place if under heated.

• Bitumen road work should be done in dry and moderately hot season as the bitumen

binds properly with the aggregates. Bitumen road work should be avoided during rainy

season as water destroys the binding and adhesive property of asphalt concrete mix.

• While rolling and consolidating the bitumen carpet with road roller, water should be

sprinkled on roller wheels continuously so that bitumen does not stick to wheels.

• Water stagnation on bitumen road must be avoided by suitable slope and drainage.

Water destroys the asphalt bond by entering inside the pores. When water goes below

the bitumen carpet, bitumen carpet bonding to the base gets weakened.

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• Grass must be removed in subgrade and base courses by using weedicide. Otherwise

the grass comes out of bitumen and weaken the bitumen at that place.

• For patch repairs, it is preferable to use bitumen emulsion which can be applied in cold

state (without heating) and on damp surfaces also.

• Proper kerb stones should be provided along the edges of bituminous road to prevent

weakening of the road from edges.

• While doing bitumen carpet over WBM, we should ensure loosening of the top surface

of the road by mechanical or any other means so that new asphalt could stick and bind

properly to the WBM.

What to avoid in asphalt road work

• Bleeding of bitumen or tar on the surface of road due to the bitumen not being hot

enough at the time of application and not properly spread out. It is also caused due to

insufficient quantity of binding material such as fine or course sand. To stop bleeding,

more binding materials to be applied and continued till bleeding stops.

• Streaking may appear on the surface of road due to non uniform application of binder or

caused by careless operation of binder distributor or inexperience of spray man.

• Poor bonding between aggregates and bitumen would lead to formation of potholes.

• Edges of asphalt road are usually broken if concrete kerb drain along the edges on both

sides of the road is not provided.

• While laying road, proper camber, kerb drain with slopes on both sides of road, cross

drainage pipes if required are essential elements of road inspection.

• Before laying the road, RCC hume pipes should be laid across the road at suitable

locations with chambers on both sides to lay the service lines such as sewerage, water

supply, electricity and telephone connections. This would prevent frequent cutting of

roads.

• Potholes on the roads can be prevented by providing minimum of 50 mm thick asphaltic

concrete on high traffic roads. And water stagnation on road should be avoided by

providing camber, road gullies, drainage arrangement by providing kerb drains.

• If the manholes are coming on the road, the top cover of the manholes should be raised

by 2 inches above the road level and the edges are tapered to join the road level by

cement mortar or cement concrete to avoid stagnation water around the manhole cover.

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TENTATIVE CAPACITIES OF URBAN ROADS BETWEEN INTERSE CTIONS

No. of Traffic

Lanes & Widths

Traffic Flow

Capacity in PCUs per hour for various traffic conditions

Road with no frontage access,

no standing vehicles, very

little cross traffic

Road with frontage access but no standing vehicle and high

capacity intersections

Road with free frontage access, parked vehicles and heavy cross

traffic

2-lane One way 2400 1500 1200

7-7.5m Two way 1500 1200 750

3-lane One way 3600 2500 2000

(10.5m)

4 Lane One way 4800 3000 2400

(14m) Two Way 4000 2500 2000

6-lane One way 3600 2500 2200

(21m) Two way 6000 4200 3600

For three lanes in predominant direction of flow

Footpath (Sidewalk): The minimum width of footbath should be 1.5 meters. They

should have well maintained surface with crossfall neither so flat as to be difficult to

drain nor so steep as to be dangerous to walk upon. The crossfall within the range of

2.5 to 3 percent should meet this requirement. Those parts of the footbath immediately

adjoining buildings, fences, trees and other obstructions, which will not be available for

free movement of pedestrians should be disregarded while calculating widths required.

CAPACITY OF FOOTPATHS

Number of persons per hour Required width of footpath (meter)

All in one direction In both directions

1200

2400

3600

4800

800

1600

2400

3200

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

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6000 4000 4.0

The width should be increased by 1 meter in business and shopping areas to

allow for dead width. Footpaths adjoining shoping frontages should be atleast 3.5m

and minimum of 4.5 m is desirable adjoining longer shopping frontages. As points of

possible congestion such as bus stop or entrance of large shops and public buildings,

footbaths may be wider. Where space is available, provision of verge between footbath

and carriageway to increase safety of pedestrians is desirable. When deciding the

width of footpaths and verges, the width required to accommodate under ground

services clear of carriageway should also be taken into account

Vertical Alignment

Verticle alignment in urban areas is governed by need to match building line and

entrance line levels and levels of intersections and median openings.

Gradient

Most urban roads carry mixed traffic including slow moving vehicles like bicycles

and animal/hand carts. Beside this, urban roads generally have intersections at

frequent intervals. In view of this, as a general rule, a gradient of 4 percent should be

considered the maximum for urban roads. On roads carrying predominantly slow

moving traffic, however, the gradient should desirably not exceed 2%. At intersections,

the road should be as near as possible.

As the urban roads are generally kerbed, it would be desirable to ensure a

minimum gradient as indicated below:

Design Element Gradient

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Desirable minimum (percent)

Absolute Minimum (Percent)

Kerbed pavements Side ditches (lined)

0.5 0.5

0.3 0.2

The desirable maximum gradients for pedestrian ramps and cycle tracks are as

follows:

Pedestrain ramps 10%

Cycle Tracks 3%

Laying of Cement Concrete Roads

Concrete pavements offer an alternative option where soil strength is poor and

drainage conditions are bad. The concrete pavements may be conventional screed.

(Screed means a strip of metal or wood used for finishing the wet concrete

surface to a required profile) compacted pavements, roller compacted concrete

pavements or interlocking concrete block pavements.

Concrete roads IRC 58-2002 design and IRC 15-2011 constitution may be

refered and shall be laid on a properly compacted sub-base which shall be constructed

on a sub grade of selected coarse grained soil of 15cm thickness.

Then concrete shall be deposited on sub base to the required depth. Concrete

road slab is laid in single layer is done if the traffic is not heavy. If the traffic is heavy

and good aggregate is not available, two layers of concrete slab are laid. The bottom

layer can be 1:2:4 concrete mix and top layer 1:1 ½ :3. For roughened surface,

1:2:5mix can also be used. For top layer, rounded aggregates should not be used but

hard crushed stone aggregates should be used. When two layers of slabs are laid, the

top layer should be laid within 30 minutes after completion of the bottom course to

ensure proper binding between two layers. The compaction of concrete shall be carried

out immediately. Double drum smooth wheeled vibratory rollers of minimum 80 to 100

KN static weights are considered suitable for rolling the roller compacted concrete.

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Curing is carried out for 14 days by ponding by constructing earthen dykes to a depth

of 50mm. initial curing by wetted jute bags is done for 24 hours.

Materials used for cement concrete pavements

Cement

� Ordinary Portland cement, 33 Grade confirming to IS:269

� Ordinary Portland cement, 43 Grade confirming to IS 8112

� Ordinary Portland cement, 53 Grade confirming to IS 12269

� Portland Pozzolana cement confirming to IS 1489

Fly ash can be used as a partial replacement for cement up to 35%

Aggregates

Aggregates should not be alkali-reactive. Coarse aggregates should be clean,

hard, strong, dense, non-porous and durable pieces of crushed stone or gravel. The

maximum size of coarse should not exceed 25mm. fine aggregate should be clean

natural sand or crushed stone sand or a combination of both. Thickness of concrete

slab varies from 15 15cms to 20cms.

The reinforcement is not usually necessary where the slab is laid on firm and

well consolidated foundation. Reinforcement helps to carry over any weak places on

the sub grade and is usually provided under heavy loads only. Reinforcement does not

materially increases the load carrying capacity of a properly supported concrete slab

but it does increase the resistance of the concrete to cracking and it controls any

cracking that may occur by preventing the cracks from opening further. If the subgrade

is weak, the reinforcement is provided in the bottom and about 5cm above the bottom

line of the concrete. The reinforcement is provided in the form of bar mat or welded

wire mesh fabric type. Normally one layer of steel mat reinforcement is provided for

slabs of thickness 15cms. The amount of steel per each layer is about 3-5 Kg per

Square Meter.

Cement Concrete Roads versus Asphalt Road

A concrete road with proper foundation costs about five times that of an asphalt

road. Concrete road lasts at least 20 years against the 5 year life span of an asphalt

road. Durability of an asphalt road depends upon the number of vehicles using the

138

road. This factor does not affect concrete roads. Life cycle cost concrete to read is less

as capture to asphalt road.

Repairs to Concrete Roads

Damage to concrete roads is caused by abnormal loading, defective drainage,

washout in the sub grade, settlement, seepage through joints and cracks. The scaling

and crumbling of the road surface is mainly due to poor workmanship and materials.

Repairs to Concrete Roads are done in the following manner o Joints, cracks, small pot holes should be filled in with hot bitumen with coarse sand

after thorough cleaning of dirt, loose mortor etc.

o Shallow patches not exceeding 12mm can be repaired by coating the surface with

cutback asphalt or emulsion after cleaning.

o Bigger depression can be patched with premixed bitumen and stone grit of size 3mm to

10mm after cleaning the surface.

o When the slab is broken, it should be broken into small pieces, compacted thoroughly

and grouted with bitumen.

o Patches or pot holes exceeding 25mm in depth may be repaired with concrete. The

damaged portion should be cut out to a rectangular shape. The faces of the old

concrete should be cleaned and wetted and brushed with neat cement grout. The new

concrete should be of same mix as the old one and mixed to stiffest consistency that

will permit thorough tamping and ramming.

Urban Roads in Plains

Urban Roads other than expressways (National Highway) are classified as:

1. Arterials : A street primarily for through traffic, usually a continuous route.

2. Sub – arterials : Same as above but offer some what lower level of traffic mobility

3. Collector Streets: These collect traffic from local streets and feed it to the arterial and

sub-arterial streets or vice versa.

4. Local Streets: These are intended primarily to provide accesss to abutting property

and normally do not carry large volumes of traffic.

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There should be a minimum lateral clearance of 1meter from the edge of the

pavement for pavement without footpath, for arterial and sub arterial, and 0.50meter for

collector and local streets. For pavements with footpaths, no extra clearance beyond

the footpath is necessary.

The minimum width and vertical clearance for pedestrian sub ways and Cycle

subways is 2.5 meter. The width of pedestrian subways cum cycle subways should be

5.0 meter minimum for one way traffic 6.5 meter for two way traffic. The minimum

height should be 2.5 meter.

Roundabouts are provided where two or more roads cross each and where

traffic density exceeded 500 vehicles per hour of all the intersecting roads. A round

about imposes restraint on the speed of all classes of traffic, but provides for

continuous.

IRC Specifications

For general specifications for the different types of work, the following

specifications may be referred to

1. IRC:14 -1977 … Recommended practice for 2cm thick Bitumen and tar carpets

2. IRC: 17-1965 .... Tentative specification for single coat bituminous surface

Dressing

3. IRC:19-2005 … Standard specifications & code of practice for Water Bound

Macadam

4. IRC:20-1966 … Recommended practice for Bituminous penetration macadam

(Full grout)

5. IRC:23-1966 … Tentative specifications for two coat bituminous surface

dressing

6. IRC:27-2009 … specification for bituminous macadam (first revision)

7. IRC:111-2009 … specification dance grade bituminous mix

8. IRC:47-1972 … Tentative specification for built up spray Grout.

9. IRC:special publication 11: Handbook of quality control for construction of roads and

runways (first revision)

10. IRC:82-1982 … Bituminous and surface

11. IRC 37-2001 … for the design of flexible pavements.(second revision)

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12. IRC81-1981 … guide for remained strengthen of flexible payments using

Benkelman, beam deflecting techniques.

13. IRC: 72-1978 … Practice for use and up keep of equipments.

14. IRC: 67-1977 … (Code practice) For road signs.

15. IRC :14-2004 … Recommended practice for open graded

16. IRC: 110-2005 … Design and construction of surface dressing.

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Introduction to Drainage

Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water

from an area. Many agricultural soils need drainage to improve production or to

manage water supplies.

Drainage is the disposal of excess water on land (either used or in form of storm

water). It must be distinguished from flood control which is the prevention of damage

as a result of overflow from river. There are two type of system adopted for waste

water collection. Separate sanitary and combined system. In separate sanitary system,

there is a separate sewer that collects the household, commercial and industrial waste

water and disposes them while a separate sewer collects the storm water and disposes

it separately. In the combined system, both the storm water and domestic water are

conveyed through the same pipe network.

This self cleansing velocity is achieved by laying the drain on a steep slope.

Manholes should be placed at interval of 100-120m for the purpose of maintaining and

servicing of the sewer. It should be noted that waste water in the sewer are usually

transported by gravitational force rather than mechanical means (pumping) for

convenient sake. This is why in laying sewer pipes; the topography of the area should

be well understood.

The waste water from industry, commercial centers and domestic uses are

usually estimated by knowing the quantity of waste water the users' discharges through

the use of questionnaire and personal interview. The population of people and number

of industries should be noted for this estimation.

The disposal of the waste water could be treated or not treated. However, the

treatment is usually by biological method. The disposal of waste water is of immerse

important for economic growth. The treated or untreated waste could be used as a

source of irrigation, supplement stream or river flow and could be used as a source of

recharge for ground water.

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It is obvious in the cities of the developing countries that the most of

construction industries do not take note of all the above mentioned process. As a result

storm water follows drains that are not specified for them or overflows the drains there

by causing erosions. On the other hand, some of the storm water are stagnant in the

drains there by becoming a breeding place for mosquitoes and toads. This could result

in increase of malaria and water related disease in the vicinity. All this is because; most

government in such cities have not yet understand the important of drainage systems

and the role it plays in social- economic development.

2. OBJECTIVES FOR PROVIDING DRAINAGE SYSTEM

1. The object of drainage is to prevent land from becoming water-logged.

2. In particular its object is to prevent land near human habitations becoming water-logged

with water containing putrefactive matter.

3. A given area of land can only absorb a certain quantity of water in a certain time, which

varies according to the nature of the soil.

4. The same area of land will purify a certain quantity of water containing putrefactive

matter, but this quantity is less than the total quantity it can absorb.

5. Without considering natural drainage channels, or hallows, most land is called upon to

absorb that part of the rain water which falls on it and does not run off.

6. In the neighborhood of houses, same land is also called upon to absorb and also to

purify the sullage and sewage produced by the inhabitants.

7. In actual practice a small part of the land surrounding a house is called upon to this

work.

8. The quantity of sullage and sewage approximately depends on the number of

inhabitants.

9. Where houses are widely distributed the area of land available for this is large.

10. As houses are placed nearer together the area available for this is restricted, partly

because the people are compelled to use artificial contrivances, such as latrines,

instead of bush or field.

11. When the area is sufficiently restricted the quantity to be dealt with exceeds the

purifying capacity of the land available for the purpose, and the ground becomes

partially logged and sewage-sick and, therefore, insanitary.

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12. When this occurs in the streets or roads it becomes obvious to every passes by. When,

as frequently is the case in an Indian village, it occurs at the backs of the houses, it is

only found by inspecting officers who go to look for it, but it is none the less dangerous.

13. When this point is reached, sanitation demands that the sullage and sewage shall be

removed out of the congested area to more spacious areas of open land, or if such are

not available, to places where water-logging will not be injurious to the health of the

community.

14. When this point is reached with regard to sullage and sewage it becomes almost

inevitable that the continued presence of storm water in the town is undesirable.

15. The first sign usually seen that this point is reached is the construction of cess-pools by

individuals to save themselves from obvious nuisance (no one will bother to build a

cess-pit unless his land cannot absorb his drainage), the overflow of which is absorbed

I the land.

16. Such cess-pools, being unscientific septic tanks, owing to natural agencies, perform the

work required of them for a time, but invariably become insanitary sooner or later.

Ultimately it becomes necessary to make arrangements for regular removal of the

sewage and storm-water.

17. This can be done

i) By collecting the sewage in receptacles and cess-pools, removing solids and liquids

by land, and making open drains for storm water;

ii) By removing solids by hand and sending the liquids down open drains;

iii) By underground sewers for everything.

18. A system of underground sewers is undoubtedly the most satisfactory for the disposal

of sewage, sullage, and storm water, but in small Indian Municipalities it is impracticable

because of the great cost.

19. Surface-drainage as practiced in this country is a compromise. It is primarily a system

of storm water drains with the additional function of sullage removal.

20. If surface-drains exist for storm water removal only, then sullage-water must be

collected in cess-pits and removed by carts which is a most insanitary and

objectionable arrangement and also exceedingly expensive.

3. DESIGN DETAILS

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The correct determination of the maximum quantity of storm water and the rate

at which received and is capable of being dealt with by surface drains and sewers is a

matter which vitally affects the success or failure of a scheme.

There are, however, so many variable factors, meteorological, physical, and

financial, which govern any one case, that very careful and full consideration is

necessary. Time spent in looking up or in observing the maximum rate of rain fall per

hour, in nothing the intensity and frequency of rainfall due to storms of more normal

character, in mapping out the proportion of urban to rural areas or, more correctly, in

estimating the proportion roofs and paved court-yards bear to the ordinary ground

surface, not only at the time of design but (say) 30 or 40 years ahead, is well invested.

The calculation of the volume of dry weather flow is comparatively simple. It cannot be

greater than the total quantity of water supplied to the town. For any particular area the

dry weather flow is obtainable from the quantity of water supplied per head of

population, the density of the population over the area considered, and the proportion

of the water supply lost in absorption and evaporation before it reaches the drains or

sewers.

The following ranges of values for the estimated value of imperviousness:-

For roof surface assumed to be water tight………….. 0.70 to 0.95 of rainfall.

For asphalt pavements in good order…………………. 0.85 to 0.90 of rainfall

For stone brick and wood block pavements ………….. 0.75 to 0.85 of rainfall

With cemented joints

For ditto with uncemented joints……………………… 0.50 to 0.75 of rainfall

For inferior block pavements with uncemented joints …. 0.40 to 0.50 of rainfall

For macadamized roads…………………………………. 0.25 to 0.60 of rainfall

For gravel roadways and walks………………………… 0.15 to 0.30 of rainfall

For unpaved road surfaces, railroad yards, and vacant lots… 10 to 0.30 of rainfall

For parks, gardens, towns, meadows depending on the ……. 0.05 to 0.25 of rain fall

Surface slope and character of the sub soil

For jungle area and forest land depending on the slope………0.01 to 0.20 of rainfall

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Of ground, and character of sub soil.

4. SIZE OF DRAINS

These tabular statements are compiled drain by drain to determine the sizes of

the drains required to carry off the discharges from the different areas:

They should show---

� The number of the drain and the block in which it is situated;

� The name and side of the road along which the drain runs, i.e., Rusa Road (North);

� The number of sheet upon which the longitudinal section is shown;

� The reference to the longitudinal section by letters;

� The reference to the index plan by letters;

� The additional and total areas to be drained in acres;

� The length of the drain in feet;

� The grade, 1 in;

� The number and type of section of drain or culvert;

� The required discharge in cusecs;

� The maximum velocity at the required discharge.

� The velocity flowing (1/3) or (any other fraction determined upon) full;

� The cusecs of flushing water required to produce a velocity of 2.5 feet per second and

� A column for remarks;

5. ADVANTAGES OF DRAINS

The ideal surface drain section is one which-----

a) Develops a self cleansing velocity with ordinary daily weather flow;

b) Does not give a velocity exceeding a safe limit with its maximum discharge;

c) Possesses structural stability;

d) Is of inexpensive stability;

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e) Whose interior surface is composed of, or lined with, material upon whish sullage or

sewage matter has no corrosive effect, and which does not wear under the action of

grit;

f) The lining of which is smooth so as to minimize as much as possible the fractional

resistance offered to flow;

g) Is capable of being easily cleaned.

h) A road side drain should not ordinarily have a top width of more than 3 feet.

Take the two typical drains sections C & D

In C the function of sloping sides of the drain is mainly to prevent erosion.

In D the side walls act primarily as retaining walls.

In the case of C the angle of slope should not be steeper than the safe angle of

repose of the soil.

Section D would be used where

� It is necessity to keep the top width of the drains as narrow as possible, (for example for

use in narrow streets) and

� Where the soil in which the drain is built fails to stand as a slope of 1 to 1.

For drains of similar cross sectional area, section C will involve the use of less

material than section D.

The following table gives suitable sides slope in various kinds of soil:-

Sl. No.

Angle of side slopes Ratio of side slopes Nature of soil

1 50° to 45° From about ¾ to 1 to 1 to 1

Hard compact earth

2 45° 1 to 1 Well drained gravel or clay

3 40° 1 ¼ to 1 Ordinary gravel

4 35° 1 ½ to 1 Dry sand or loose gravel

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6. DRAIN SECTION AND ITS VELOCITIES

The tables attached to this pamphlet give discharges and velocities of various

types of pamphlet give discharges and velocities of various types of pucca drains these

are;-

� Semi-circular: ¢ = 180°. This type would be used i n the smaller sizes where a restriction

of the top width is necessary. In the large sizes they would be suitable in bad ground.

The glazed surface presented by the stoneware pipe is exceedingly lasting and is

superior in lasting quantities to cement plaster. It is, however, not as easily cleaned as

other types B, D, S.

� ¢ = 120°. This type of drain was designed with ¢ = 120° in order to make use of 1/3 of

the circumference of a stoneware pipe for the invert lining. Owing to its sides not

possessing much stability it should not be used in ground where the sides are likely to

slip in.

� ¢ = 90°.This type was designed for use in nickasi drains where the proportion of sullage

to storm water is small and where a minimum top width of drain is not specially

desirable. The brick lining to the sides is merely a light form of pitching and is meant for

use where the safe angle of repose of the soil is in the vicinity of 40° to 45°.

� ¢ = 140°.This type of drain designed by Mr.silk, l ate sanitary Engineer to the

Government of Bengal, does not lend itself to the use of a stoneware lining. It is,

however, quite feasible to mould the invert in cement concrete thereby adding to its life.

compared with types B and C and W, it is, generally speaking, a much more expensive

drain to construct but does not occupy as much room. The comparatively speaking

massive sides permit of its use in bad ground.

� ¢ = 130°.This is most useful type of drain, inexpe nsive, and of moderate width-lending

itself to use in bad as well as good ground.

� ¢ varies from 35° to 54°. These brick saucer drain s have been added at the request of

the sanitary Engineer to the government of Bihar and Orissa. Their use especially in the

centre or along the sides of paved narrow lanes is indicated constructed as they are

lasting, but their life is shortened if the lanrs carry vehicular traffic. (GD) Angle at base =

90°. This type of drain designed at Dacca by Mr. Disney, sanitary Engineer to

Government, and was being widely used in Bengal. It is intended principally for carrying

house sullage in narrow lanes – where vehicular traffic is small and where drains on

both sides cannot be built for want of space.

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It has lasting quantities and is expensive where stone slabs are available. The

stone slabs can easily be replaced by concrete slabs. It is not suitable for use in broad

thoroughfares with vehicular traffic owing to the longer leg of the drain being tii steep

compared with the camber of the road. In the later case when an underground

collecting drain or sewer is available a kerb channel should be used. It is not expedient

to give tables of discharge and velocities for these kerb channels. Owing to the danger

of obstruction and consequent overflowing on to the collecting drain (care being taken

to provide some of the many methods of preventing silt and road refuse from entering

the sewer) at intervals of from 100’ to 200’ or in very steep ground at longer intervals

(Stone ware pipes) ¢ = 360°. These are ordinary pip e drains and culverts and need no

special mention. (Kutcha – Pucca Drains) – In order to effect a saving in cost it is

usually possible in the case of nickasi drains i.e., drains passing through rural areas, to

provide a pucca invert leaving the sides of earth.

The pucca portion of the drain is designed to take less than ¼ of the full

discharge and it is meant to carry sullage. When flowing full, which is very seldom, the

drain is capable of dealing with a large amount of storm water. The pitching at the

sides and above the invert can and should be made to suit to carry the normal

everyday flow in order to protect the earthen sides from corrosion.

Earthen drains

Let b be the bed width and d the depth of water in trapezoidal drain. Then for a

given discharge and given side slopes there is a ratio of b to d, which makes the cross

section of the drains, and hence the amount of excavation, a minimum.

The internal section of a culvert should correspond as far as possible in shape

to the section of drain upstream of it.

Flagstones are sometimes convenient for use in covering over drains where

they cross roads. Stones 2 inches thick may be used for drains up to 1 foot 3 inches

wide and 3 inches thick up to 2 feet 6 inches and 4 inches thick up to 3 feet 6 inches

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wide: beyond this width a stronger form of covering should be used. There should be at

least 6 inches of road metal above the flags to prevent their being injured by heavy

vehicular traffic

Junction of Drains

Where one drain joins another, the junction should not be at right angles, but the

incoming drain should sweep round in the direction of flow of the receiving drain,

otherwise the discharge of both drains will be seriously interfered with.

Falls

When it is necessary to reduce the velocity of a drain owing to the severity of the

grade, falls on pucca drains which convey sullage should be constructed as ramps.

7. MAINTENANCE OF DRAINS

a) Clean the storm water drains and sewage lines.

b) Clean natural drainage channels.

c) Protecting and improving natural drainage constitute the most important mitigation

measure natural drainage system is mapped.

d) The development which interface or interrupt the natural drainage disallowed legally.

e) The existing encroachment on natural drainage system to be measured and the

capacity for run off is enhanced.

f) Poor management of storm water drains do not have the capacity to drain huge

quantity of water so most of the roads do not have proper camber and adequate inlet

drain points. This leads to handing of water stagnation of rain water on the surface of

roads which results in potholes on the roads and the road accidents. The settlement

located at low lying areas in cities are facing submergence during rainy season.

-------------------@@@@@@@@@@@@--------------------

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MAINTENANCE OF

BUILDINGS

151

CONTENTS

1) INTRODUCTION TO MAINTENANCE OF BUILDING

2) APPROACH TO MAINTENANCE

3) SERVICES IN MULTI-STOREYED BUILDINGS

4) MEANS OF EFFICIENCY MAINTENANCE

5) PARK MAINTENANCE

6) DETERIRORATION IN BUILDINGS

7) CHECK LIST

8) ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF ULB’s

9) TASKS OF ENGINEER

10) INSPECTION OF BUILDINGS AND SERVICES

11) ENCROACHMENT

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1) INTRODUCTION TO MAINTENANCE OF BUILDINGS

The building and its services are under the maintenance phase for 95% of its life

from concept to demolition. It has been proved that a dilapidated and unhealthy

building in a poor environment has a very low quality of life and incidence of anti-social

behavior is much higher.

Reliability of services has been a necessity in multi-storeyed building whether it

is a block of offices or residences. If in a multi-storeyed building lifts are out of order

then the entire life of the building is overshadowed. It can become a matter of life and

death if electricity fails in a hospital particularly when operations are being carried out

by surgeons.

Maintenance operations are carried out with the following objectives:

� To protect a property and its engineering services.

� To increase utilization and reduce breakdown time.

� To ensure safety requirements which are many times statutory, are met with.

What is maintenance?

It is the work undertaken to keep restore or improve every facility in every part of

a building, its services and surroundings to currently-accepted standards and to sustain

utility values of the facility. The main objectives of maintenance operation, as per the

above definition, are

� To protect a property and its engineering services.

� When deterioration occurs due to any reason, it is inevitable to restore it to its original

standard.

� To make improvements whenever required.

� To sustain utility value.

A good maintenance team has to ensure

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1) Safety

2) Efficiency and,

3) Reliability

154

In case of buildings there are many elements which require different approaches

in maintenance operations.

The basic different elements are;

1. Those which should last the life of the building without requiring attention, say

foundations.

2. Those where improvements and sustained operation level is possible by the

replacement of small parts at more or less regular intervals, like water proofing of roof.

3. Those components which are subjected to wear and tear due to human or mechanical

or natural agencies, like flooring.

4. Those components which are proved obsolete as a result of technological advances or

to cater for chancing tastes of user like sanitary fitments.

5. Those components which are exposed to weather and other natural deteriorating

agents.

For all these elements desirable standards have to be laid down with upper and

lower limits of acceptability, Upper limits of acceptability, if exceeded, costs money.

Maintenance operation has also to cater to legal standards such as timely

certification of lifts, fire protection, potability of water, etc.

Maintenance operations have many facts, such as

a) Emergency maintenance: Necessitated by unforeseen breakdown damage or damage

caused by natural calamity like earthquake, floods, etc.

b) Condition – based maintenance, i.e., work initiated after due inspection.

c) Fixed time maintenance: Activities repeated at predetermined intervals.

d) Preventive maintenance: This is intended to preserve by preventing failure and

detecting incipient faults (work is done before failure occurs).

e) Opportunity maintenance: Work done as and when possible within the limits of

operational demand.

f) Day-today care and maintenance.

g) Shut down maintenance: Through overhaul and maintenance after closing a facility.

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h) Improvement plans: This is essentially a maintenance operation wherein the weak links

in the original construction are either replaced by new parts or strengthened.

2) Approach to Maintenance:

Maintenance operations encompass major portion of life of a building. The

building starts deteriorating due to natural causes from the minute it is completed.

During the construction phase, the elements which have been built earlier start

deteriorating even before the building as a whole is complete. Various components of

building like brick work, flooring electrical, sanitary water supply installation have

different economic life’s and various degrading agent act in different ways and with

different speeds of deterioration.

The normal economic life of building is considered as follows:

• Monumental buildings --------- 10 to 200 years

• Framed Construction ------------- 75 years

• Load bearing construction ------- 50 to 60 years

• Semi-permanent structure ------ 30 years

• Temporary structure ------------ 15 years

• Purely temporary ----------------- 5 years

What is maintenance and what does it encompass

Maintenance operation is defined by British Standard: 3811 – 1974 as follows.

“A combination of any action carried out to restore an item in or restore it to an

acceptable condition.”

Note -1: Action refers to those associated with initiation, organization or

implementation

Note – 2: Acceptable condition – which condition agreed for each particular usage.

This condition shall not be less than that demanded by statutory

requirement.

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The committee on building maintenance Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, UK

defined maintenance as follows.

� To preserve in good working condition building, plant and equipment and services.

� To restore it back to its original standard.

� To improve the facilities depending upon the necessity.

Planning maintenance

To carry out maintenance operations efficiently and in the well planed manner,

maintenance operation.

� Priorities of maintenance operation.

� Form budget and estimates and maintain accounts.

� Make job assignment to employees.

� Carry out contract works management.

� Make analysis of manpower and material requirement.

� Make performance output analysis.

Officers who have worked in maintenance have some opinions built up based on

their perceptions.

A few of standard made by maintenance wing which are not true are

� Labour scheduling cannot be done because of many emergent works and there are

very few workmen.

� There is a dearth of sincere workers.

� Workmen are lazy.

� All jobs are urgent.

� Productivity of maintenance worker cannot be measured like a construction worker.

� Job estimation is not feasible.

� Supervisors have no time to test check work done by workers.

� Maintenance budget is very less.

� Store procedures are lengthy and time consuming.

� There is no time for preventive and corrective maintenance.

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� There is no manual for working as the manual would be out of date by the time it is

prepared.

� There is no time to analyze failures.

Benchmarking in public services

Sound planning and design

o All building norms and specifications to be standardized.

o Architectural and structural design to be undertaken in house as far as possible.

o Detailed planning of all services to make the building operational in all respects.

o Architectural and structural designs to be co-ordinated to evolve an efficient building

system complaint with latest Indian standards.

1. Engineered Construction

o Standardization of different building elements including their pre-fabrication,

mechanization in construction use of innovative materials and technologies adopting

clean development mechanism resulting in conversion of energy and natural

resources.

2. Effective Maintenance:

o To preserve and maintain buildings and services in good operation condition.

o To improve the specification depending upon the development that is taking place in the

built environment.

3. Benchmarking:

o Updation of specification and standards for public works including Delhi Schedule of

Rates, analysis rates, works and maintenance manual on regular basis.

4. Capacity Building:

o Updation of technical knowledge of engineers, architects by effective training and

participation in seminar and workshops etc.

o Effective training to develop managerial skills and handing public grievances so that

engineers, architects and horticulturists become development managers for tomorrow.

o Target oriented training to workers on contemporary skills and behavioral science to

improve service delivery mechanism.

5. Public Private Partnership:

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o To undertake contract or concession agreement with private sector company for

delivering general Residential Accommodation and general pool office accommodation

on payment of user charges (1) Increase the stock of dwelling units thereby providing

housing to Government employees and (2) to increase the office space thereby

providing comfortable working environment to Government employees.

6. Manpower Planning:

o To provide the manpower with professional environment, excellent working

opportunities.

o To provide performance and ability based approach to career development as per

policy of the Government.

7. Transparency in management of works:

o E-tendering shall be introduced.

o Effective use of websites in discharge of regulatory, enforcement and the functions shall

be introduced through integrated computerization.

o Web based work progress monitoring system shall be introduced.

3) SERVICES IN MULTI-STOREYED BUILDINGS

Large office complexes have come up in multi storeyed buildings. Maintenance

of single-tenant multi-storeyed building is comparatively easier as discipline can be

enforced on the user, availability of funds for maintenance would be not problematic.

However most of the multi-storeyed structures are multi-land lord system type

wherein parts and bits of building are sold out along with undivided ownership of

common areas and services. Management of such complex involves employing an

Estate Manager who is responsible for maintaining building.

Estate Management function is grossly misunderstood as merely connected

with sweeping and swabbing. I reality beside effective maintenance of the building it

involves dealing with owners and may be tenants, image building, labour unions etc.

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Estate Management function starts when a project is completed and handed

over. The functions of estate management are very broadly, the management of

infrastructure such as building, compound of the building, parking, parks, electric power

generation and distribution, water supply, plumbing, air conditioning, communications

(internal telephone), transportation (Lifts), fire prevention / protection, fire fighting

measures, environment, machineries and systems security, and liaison.

a) Chocking of drainage/sewerage lines due to undesirable waste being disposed off in sinks,

wash basins, toilets, rain water lines, manholes etc.

b) Disposal of Garbage/ Waste in common areas.

c) Careless dragging of steel furniture, heavy equipment resulting in damage to floors, walls of

staircase and common verandahs.

d) Addition and alteration without clearance from the Estate Officer and without reference to

original design.

4) MEANS OF EFFECTING MAINTENANCE

Repair Estimate

Annual repairs and maintenance estimates for buildings and services are

prepared in the beginning of the year. The estimates cater to day to day reports and

annual (periodical) repairs and should include the whole expenditure on cost of labour

(regular work-charged staff and on muster roll), cost of materials required for day to

day works, cost of work being carried out through work orders and contracts, municipal

and other taxes, if any payable by the government / party, anticipated to be incurred

during the working year on maintenance of buildings in question. Yard stick for civil,

Electrical and Horticulture workers for maintenance is given in the table. The total

estimated cost of maintenance of the buildings/structure during the year should be

within the prescribed limits as approved by the Government/body concerned from time

to time both from annual repairs and special repairs. Norms of expenditure for

maintenance of Govt. Buildings in hilly areas has been under consideration. It has

been decided vide Ministry of works and housing O.M Number 11085/22/81 – WI dated

8th January 1985. That an enhancement of 50% for residential and 25% for non

residential buildings will be permissible over the rates approved for the plains till the

norms are fixed on scientific basis. The funds for special repairs can be carried up to 5

years where considered necessary.

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PLINTH AREA RATES FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING MAINTENANCE

Base year 1979

Sl. No Category Service

Charges Annual Repair

Special Repairs

Age 0-20 20 years

(Rs./Sqm)

Age 21-40 years

(Rs./Sqm)

Above 40 Years

(Rs./Sqm) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS 1 a) H.M houses and

officers entitled to free accommodation

b) MPs accommodation and Govt. officers bungalows

c) Flats d) Permanent

office accommodation

2.40 2.75 1.75 2.90 4.05

2 MPs Flats, Ministers Bungalows, Supreme court and High court Judges Residences

4.80 5.50 2.30 3.85 5.40

3 Hostels 3.10 3.55 1.75 2.90 4.05 4 Rastrapati Bhavan

Vice Presidents House & PM’s House

Actual’s Actual’s Actual’s Actual’s Actual’s

Sl. No Category Service

Charges Annual Repair

Special Repairs

Age 0-20 20 years

(Rs./Sqm)

Age 21-40 years

(Rs./Sqm)

Above 40 Years

(Rs./Sqm)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 NON

RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

1 Normal Offices 2.75 3.15 3 5 7.00 2 North & south

block sectt 1.35 1.55 - - 5.00

3 Parliament House & Sansad Saudha

5.15 5.90 9.65 - 9.65

4 Temporary Office 2.75 3.15 2.35 3.85 -

161

Buildings 5 Supreme Court 5.15 5.90 9.65 - - 6 Hospitals 6.85 7.85 4.65 7.70 10.80 7 Dispensaries 6.85 7.85 4.65 7.70 10.80

Additional & Alterations

Generally, works of additions / alterations in Horticulture are carried out at the

request occupants depending upon interest and utility of individuals and sometimes on

technical reasons. In fact, garden features always require changes. Otherwise it

becomes monotonous. The following operations may be classified under this head.

1. Change in length and design of lawns, hedges, edges shrubbery, planting beds

rockeries

2. Providing special garden structures like pergolas, arches, GI pipe frames, shelters,

seats, water bodies.

5) DETERIORATION IN BUILDINGS

A maintenance engineer is expected to not only maintain the present level of

comfort, etc., but also to improve upon it, and in many cases to rectify defects of design

and construction. Unfortunately, there is not much of data available, nor the subject

has received much of importance in the teaching institutions so far.

There are many reasons for deteriorations which can be enumerated as follows:

a) Structural form and deficiency

b) External Forces

c) Internal Forces

d) Role of substructure

e) Instability in fabric and cladding

f) Instability in materials

g) Dimensional instability moisture

h) Instability due to thermal movements

i) Instability of coatings

j) Instability due to living beings

k) Fire

l) Vandalism

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The older structural forms were rectangles, squares, etc. The cantilever

concepts were limited due to the poor strength of materials. Now the structural

designers try to initiate in RCC, etc., the artistic building of fancy shapes, large

cantilevers, etc., unbalanced spans of structure with noticeable large differences of

defections either due to loading or through thermal changes. All these acrobatics of

design result in cracking in places with attendant problems in maintenance.

External forces to which a building may be subjected are

� Wind

� Seismic

� Snow

� Vibration

� Ground movement due to mining subsidence, deep excavation etc.

� Impact damage

Internal Forces

Deterioration of a building may occur due to unbalanced internal forces. In

load bearing structure, cross walls and connection between gable and from wall

provide self – restraint to movement due to connectivity. Problems occur when due to

incorrect construction practices followed and / or due to deterioration of materials this

connectivity breaks and unbalanced forces are now unleashed on the wall.

Role of Substructure

Quite a large number of problems in the maintenance phase are caused by the

foundations. Foundation engineering and soil mechanics is a very distinct branch of civil

engineering and it very difficult to claim that all civil engineers are well acquainted with the soil

engineering.

163

The foundation problems are complicated by the variability of soil even in a small area.

Soils like loess, black cotton soil, new fills, etc., are definitely treacherous one.

Even if some type of soil investigations might have been carried out yet many of the

engineers do not carry out confirmatory tests while laying actual foundations.

However, the buildings are able to relieve many of overstress caused by foundation by

cracking. Total failure of building due to poor foundation engineering is rather rare, but very

large number of buildings suffers deterioration due to foundation failure.

When changes in ground water table brings alterations in the bearing capacity of soil

dramatically and where the reduction of bearing capacity of soil is not catered for due to rise in

water table, the building may settle badly later when the water table rises.

Foundation of different loading and at different depth will tend to settle differentially.

There is a tendency to keep the non – load bearing walls without much of foundation which

may lead to serve cracking of walls. Tendency to eliminate foundations of non load bearing

walls altogether and supporting them on flooring is normally seen leading to cracks in floors

etc.

Clay Soils

Clay soil movement may be reversible and any cracks must be filled with

compressible filler. Clay soil may have producing hogging in the centre of building

which is indicated by single vertical crack in external walls Clay soil drying out in the

centre of building can produce a crack showing converse symptoms to heave.

In the load bearing structures cracking can occur as shrinkage occurs. A

diagonal crack can also be seen.

164

Clayey strata may exhibit heaves and shrinkage with prolonged wet periods and

dry periods.

Instability in fabric and cladding

In the case of multistoried building where there are cladding precast panels or in

filled non – loading bearing walls this defect is more apparent.

In non – loading cladding of concrete the connection to the structure is important

to prevent problems occurring with differential movements as the frame initially shrinks

followed by long term creep. A creep of 3 mm in 3 – meter panel is the compression

thus caused may get transferred to cladding. The symptoms may be bowing of window

panels, etc.

In the brick fill the differential movements may occur between concrete frame

and the brickwork.

In the traditional stone cladding, problems may arises due to expensive forces of

steam which is due to water seeping into the interface of stone and brick cladding. The

stone cladding has to be properly fixed to the structure by cramps, clamps and pins.

Many times these stones are simply stuck by cement mortar with disastrous result

even in thin stone of 10mm thickness.

Instability in materials

A building develops stability related faults because of weakness in the chemical,

physical and / or dimensional stability of their constituent materials. The useful life of a

building depends fundamentally on the durability of its components. The life will vary

according to the material type, quality of original design, quality of detailing, quality

control during execution, the environment and quality of maintenance.

165

Chlorides ions have been identified as a major cause of corrosion in RC. When

more than 0.4%Chloride ion by weight of cement is present the risk is there. When it

exceeds 1% than the attack would be serving. Where carbonate of concrete has

destroyed the alkalinity on the reinforcement zone then the attack will be serving even

with low chloride ion concentrations.

Marine environment does not mean only structures by the side of sea. It may

extend upto 5km in land depending on the wind velocity.

Sulphate attack

The chemical process hinges on the absorption sulphated ground water by the

concrete and continued supply of sulphated water. The chemical reaction between

sulphate and calcium. Aluminate hydrate (Ca4 AlH3) in the hydrated cement gel

produces volume expansion of 227%.

Presence of soluble sulphates may be in bricks. Sulphides in clinker breeze

used in concrete oxide over long periods develop high sulphate content.

Marshy grounds, brick rubble with gypsum adhering, ashes, mining waste can

also give rise to sulphate attack. Burnt colliery waste residual oil shale, pulverized fuel

ash blast furnace slag can all be problematic. The concrete has to be protected.

Since sulphate attack is water –borne effect the attack will be concentrated n the

water accumulation, flow, etc.

Environmental Pollution

166

The sulphur dioxide discharged by burning fossil fuels is a very powerful agent

of decay when it is aqueous solution. The sulphur emission dissolves in rain water

producing sulphurous acid which may oxidize to sulphuric acid.

Chlorine gas leakages are a common occurrence in industrialized areas. The

chloride ions can harm concrete when acid rain results. Mists contain more acid and

are pervasive.

Alkali-aggregate reaction

The alkali–aggregate reaction is a chemical process. Aggregates containing

reactive silicate respond to the alkaline sodium or potassium oxides produced by

hydration of OPC. In India there have been some failures of this nature.

Corrosion

Corrosion of steel in RCC is well known and does not require much discussion.

Bi-metallic corrosion

Where metals which are far off in the electro-chemical series can cause bi-

metallic corrosion. The example is of aluminum connected copper, etc.

High expansion co-efficient

Exposed metals portions of building which have higher expansion coefficient

compared to building fabric can lead to problems of buckling, distortion, cracking, etc.

167

Organic damage

The growth of vegetation on the surface of building can cause damage.

Dimensional Instability – Moisture movement:

Inadequate attention to the movements of structure causes quite a large number

of maintenance problems. Material movement can be substantial and may involve

large forces.

Moisture movement is the dimensional variation of materials as they respond to

change in moisture content of their surroundings.

Greater the permeability of a material more rapidly, it will respond to fluctuations

in moisture.

One of the prime examples of moisture movement is timber doors and windows.

Brickwork which is subject to one day rain may take a fortnight to dry up. Thus

there could be differential movements within various materials used and this may give

rise to cracks.

Concrete shrinks while it is losing moisture and this can give rise to cracking.

Greater the content more is the drying shrinkage. The irreversible shrinkage of in-situ

concrete can produce cracking in building over a long period extending upto five years.

The concrete frame of a building can unleash large forces while shrinking and

the effect will be more pronounced in unsymmetrical and unbalanced structure.

168

Dimensional Stability – Thermal Movements

Thermal movements of a building are different from moisture movements in as

much as all building material exhibit thermal movements but non-porous building

material is unaffected by moisture movements. Some materials like plastic, aluminum

may have very high coefficient of expansion, whereas it could be very low in some

other materials like brick, stones.

The direct effect of thermally-induced stresses is cracking buckling of elements

even detachment. The indirect effects are ingress of water, breakdown of structural

integrity. Stresses may occur at the junction of elements with different thermal mass.

The integrity of the structural frame means that a movement of the roof slab will

distort columns and beams attached to it. In the same directions as roof movement,

beams will tend to bulge and column lines parallel to movement will have tensile

forces. Walls parallel to movements will tend to crack diagonally. The cracking is worse

towards perimeter of building.

Instability of coatings

When coatings are mentioned, it is basically paint work. External paint work can

make a contribution to the durability of a building as it will protect fabric from

deteriorating influences of environment like rain, sun, etc., by sacrificing itself.

Paints vary in their tolerance of adverse conditions and application methods.

Problems are caused by inappropriate choice of paint.

Paint can have following defects

� Blistering

� Peeling off

� Flaking off

� Alligator cracking

169

� Chalking

� Grinning

� Discoloration

� Bloom

� Poor gloss

� Bittiness (Dirt inclusion)

Instability due to living beings

Insects, pets, moss, lichen fungus, etc,

Fire

A fire which is nothing short of disaster costs quite lot of money in repairs later.

A fire may be the result of deliberate actions such as striking a match. It may also arise

of negligence such as short circuit in the electrical installations. It may arise out of bad

maintenance such as overloaded electrical motors, transformers etc. It may arise as a

result of deliberate arson when a disgruntled individual deliberately sets fire to the

structure.

Vandalism

There is no material which is secured against willful disfigurement. It has to be

kept in mind that poor maintenance and poor housekeeping is one of the reasons for

vandalism. Where hundred broken things exist everyone feels that hundred plus one

will not be noticed. Failure to complete work or repair it promptly enhances possibility

of vandalism.

6) CHECK LIST FOR REPAIRS

Diagonal cracks in brick walls (wide at top and nar row at bottom)

170

Causes

1) Differential settlement of foundation.

2) Shrinkage of clayey soil below foundation (in case foundation is resting on clayey soil).

This sometimes happens from the absorption of moisture by the tree roots in the

vicinity.

3) Structural over load.

Remedies/ precautions

1. Building should be constructed over soil strata having uniform characteristics.

2. Take precautions as mentioned in 2nd category of cracks, in case the building is

foundation on clayey soil.

3. Avoid constructing walls on filled up soil. If it cant be avoided then ensure that filled up

soil is compacted uniformly at O.M.C (Optimum Moisture Content) throughout.

4. Don’t let trees grow too close to building and compound walls specially if the soil

happens to be shrinkable soil/clay. However, if some large tree exists close to a

building and is not causing any problem don’t disturb the tree.

5. Masonry work shall be proceeded symmetrically and uniformly a all levels.

6. Avoid over loading.

Diagonal Cracks in a wall (wide at bottom and narro w at top)

Causes

Differential settlement in foundation due to expansion of clayey soil by

absorption of moisture. This may happen when the rain water finds entry in soil or if a

tree is cut suddenly in the vicinity of structure so that the soil which was earlier

dehydrated by the tree again absorbs moisture and swells.

Remedies

1) In clayey soil, foundation should be taken as much as deep so as to minimize the effect of

moisture entry as much as possible.

2) Adequate plinth protection and drainage arrangement should be made around the building

to minimize the water entry in the foundation.

3) If from any site intended for new construction, some vegetation is removed, don’t

commence construction activity immediately especially if soil is clay. Allow the soil to

absorb moisture, swell and stabilize.

Horizontal Cracks in Brick Mortar Joints

171

Causes

Weakening of mortar due to sulphate attack. These cracks normally occur after

2-3 years of construction as the reaction is slow.

Remedies/precautions

1. Sulphate contents of the bricks should be checked before allowing their use.

2. Brick walls should not be allowed to be damp because sulphate attack happens only in

presence of moisture.

3. The correct remedy is to reconstruct the affected areas

Vertical cracks in long compound wall or retaining wall of masonry at certain

intervals

Causes

Due to not leaving expansion/contraction joints at proper intervals. In cold

weather when the wall tends to contract due to temperature drop but being not allowed

to contract freely, it develops tensile stress and when the tress exceeds the strength,

the wall cracks, similarly, in hot weather wall tends to expand and if expansion is not

allowed to occur freely, compressive stresses will develop in the wall and when they

exceed the strength, wall will break.

Precaution

Leave expansion/contraction joints at regular interval specially in long stretches

of wall.

Cracks in load bearing masonry wall below R.C.C Sla b

Causes

Due to absence of slip joint between R.C.C slab to move freely over wall leads

to cracking in the wall. Sometimes the movement of the slab may also cause cracking

in masonry at lintel and window sill level because here the masonry is weak. These

cracks are observed mainly on the top most storey of the building because roof is more

exposed to temperature variation.

172

Remedies

Before casting RCC slab over brick wall, smooth bearing plaster should be done

over brick walls coupled with white wash/bitumen coating/kraft or tarred paper over it. It

allows slab to move freely over wall due to thermal expansion/contraction/shrinkage.

Vertical cracks at junction of main wall and cross walls

Causes

Improper bonding of cross walls with main walls by not leaving proper keys in

the main wall.

Remedies

Main and cross walls should be properly bonded by proper toothing.

Vertical cracks at junction of RCC column and mason ry

Causes

1. Differential movement between RCC column and masonry due to thermal

expansion/contraction/shrinkage.

2. Differential settlement of RCC column because of its different foundation.

Remedies

1. A groove in plaster should be made at the junction of R.C.C column and brick wall so that

crack remains hidden in the groove and does not look unsightly.

2. Alternately, chicken wire mesh should be provided in plaster at junction of RCC column

and brick walls.

Horizontal cracks in the top most storey below slab

Causes

Cracks are due to deflection of slab and lifting up of edge of the slab. Cracks are

mostly confined to the top most storey because of light vertical load of parapet wall on

slab due to which end of the slab lifts.

Remedies

173

(a) Adopt bearing arrangement of slab as shows in the fig. 76

(b) Avoid large pans of roof slab as possible and provide beams/slabs of adequate stiffness

so as to reduce deflection.

Horizontal creaks between brick parapet wall and ro of slab

Causes

(1) Differential thermal expansion and contraction and differential drying shrinkage of

R.C.C. slab & brick wall.

(2) Due to thermal expansion and arching of slab, if it is not free to expend. This situation

mainly occurs in case of non-projecting slab.

Remedies

(1) Make parapet wall a little inside (say 2”) of the edge of slab so that crack won’t be

visible.

(2) Provide a groove in plaster at the junction of parapet wall and slab so that crack forms

in the groove and doesn’t look unsightly.

(3) Put chicken wire mesh in the plaster at the junction of parapet wall and slab.

(4) Provide adequate insulation cover over roof slab so that its thermal movements are

minimized.

REPAIR OF CRACKS ALREADY OCCURRED IN A STRUCTURE

Following measures can be taken to repair the cracks which have already

occurred due to not taken the adequate preventive measures referred above.

(1) Cracks which are structural or are in a structural member should be filled with pressure

grouting or guniting. The material for such grout can be epoxy or cement (with suitable

admixtures).epoxy can go in very thin cracks also fine as 0.1mm. Its strength and

adhesion is also much more than cement.

(2) Cracks which are non – structural but liable to movement due to consideration (e.g.

roof) can be filled with flexible sealants. A list of such sealants is given in sub-head 3-8.

This will take care of the cracks occurring from all causes in non – structural member.

Flexible sealant takes care of moments in cracks by contracting and expanding along

with cracks.

174

(3) Dead cracks in P.C.C or flooring or walls etc. can be filled with epoxy putty, cement lime

mortar or polymer modification mortar ( for wide cracks ) and with polymer modified

cement grout ( for thin cracks ).

Addition of polymer improves the properties of cement and its adhesion with old

surface. it is advantageous to make a ‘V’ groove in cracks before filling the cracks.

(4) For very fine cracks (specially on roofs) where/sealing of each individual cracks before

filling the cracks.

Note:

(1) Structures made in winter are less liable to cracking due to thermal changes. This is

because in summer, such structures will be subjected to compressive stresses for which

concrete/mortars are quite strong. Further by the compressive stresses of thermal

expansion.

(2) After bricks are removed from kiln, they absorb moisture and undergo an initial expansion,

bulk of which being irreversible. If these bricks are used immediately in a structure after

removal from kilns, lot of expansion will occur in wall or structure. To avoid stresses in

bricks work on account of initial expansion, bricks shouldn’t be allowed to use immediately

after removal from kilns but an intervening period of 2-3 weeks should be allowed before

their use at site.

Dampness in the ceiling below roof slab/terraces/ba lconies

Causes

1. Roof slopes not proper. Water stagnant at some points.

2. Rain water pipe choked. So water collects around that location and gradually seeps

below in the roof.

3. Roofing treatment broken at some place eg. Broken or cracked joints of roofing tiles. So

rainwater directly enters through those points to the roof slab.

4. Roof topping laid with cast-in-situ concrete laid in panels using glass/PVC strips. Since

there is no bonding of concrete with these strips and some air gap remain there due to

shrinkage/contraction of concrete panels, so water tends to seep from the location of

these strips.

5. Roofing done with concrete cast continuously without leaving grooves or joints (and if

grooves or joints are left, then not filling them with proper sealant). This causes cracking

of concrete from where water enters.

175

6. Over Head Water Tank not water proofed so water seeps from it through its pillars to

the roof slab.

7. Area around the over head water tank at roof not properly cleaned. So some vegetation

starts growing due to dampness and makes its way through the roofing from where

water also seeps.

8. Water proofing of roof not properly carried upto the pillars of overhead water tank

because of which water can seep through this junction of pillars to the roof slab.

9. Water from overflow pipe provided in the water tank at roof falls at the roof and loosens

the roof topping there and causes dampness and seepage around that point in the roof

slab.

10. Water proofing treatment done over roof not carried upto specified height over parapet

wall.

11. Inadequate number of rain water pipes provided due to which water stays on roof for a

long time.

Remedies

1. Correct the roof slopes whenever required by putting screed concrete and put adequate

numbers of rain water pipes.

2. Roof should be regularly cleaned and chokage, if any, at the mouth of rain water pipe

should be removed.

3. Cracked joints in roofing tiles should be filled up with polymer mortor or lime mortor

(ordinary cement mortor is likely to crack)

4. Roof topping concrete should not be laid using glass or any other strip. Rather grooves

left at suitable intervals should be filled with flexible sealant.

5. Water proofing should be done inside the overhead water tank on roof.

6. Roof area around and below the water tank should be properly cleaned and no

vegetation should be allowed to grow due to dampness.

7. Overflow pipe provided in he O.H.T at roof should be carried upto the nearest rainwater

pipe.

8. Water proofing of the roof should be carried upto certain height over the pillars of the

water tank.

9. Water proofing treatment done over roof should be carried upto certain height over

parapet wall and then taken inside into parapet wall a little bit by cutting a chase.

176

10. Roof topping concrete should not be cast continuously but rather laid in panels and the

grooves between panels should be filled with a sealant or polymer mixed cement ( e.g

cement + mastercreet or cement +tapecreet etc.)

11. Check water tighteness of roof slab after construction before doing any further

treatment on roof by filling water over the roof slab upto some height and leaving it for

24 hours and whenever water seepage or dripping is noticed; it should be rectified

before doing any further treatment over roof slab.

12. (a) Any cutting, chases carried out on the roof should be carefully filled back, as such

openings create weak spots in the roof.

(b) Unnecessary traffic on the roof should be avoided if the roof is not meant for day to

day usage.

NOTE: an easy way to find out as to where slab is more porous is to pour lime water

on the roof. Whenever water enters, you will see white patch of lime. Similarly

in the ceiling inside the room also you will see white patches of lime whenever

water falls in the room. In villages and small places, lime water is also used to

seal minor voids of slab as a temporary measure.

Seepage in the toilet roof slab and adjacent walls inside

Causes 1. Joints of soil and waste pipes passing through sunken slab not fully sealed water tight.

Hence leakage from joints.

2. Crack in soil or waste pipes passing through sunken slabs.

3. Area between CI floor grating and CI trap below not properly finished with neat cement

and water proofing compound so that water seeps through this area to sunken portion

of the slab.

4. Any other waste pipe (releasing waste water in the same floor trap) not coming upto the

inside edge of CI floor trap because of which some water falls outside the trap and gets

filled in sunken portion of slab.

5. Slope of toilet floor not proper because of which some water stays and collects on some

portion which gradually tries to seep below in the sunken portion causing seepage in

the ceiling of toilet below.

6. Floor trap or W.C trap cracked or hole in the trap because of which water weeps

through the crack or hole to the sunken slab.

Remedies

177

Before filling up the sunken slab:

1. Soil and waste pipes must be pressure tested as per specification and kept under

pressure for specified period.

2. Slope of the soil and waste pipes should be properly checked.

3. A 40mm G.I spout can be provided in the outside wall of sunken floor to draw away the

seeped water, if any and bottom of the sunken floor should also be sloped towards the

spout.

Seepage in the walls of toilet above toilet floor l evel

Causes

Leakage in water supply lines which are concealed in the walls.

Remedies

Make a chase in the wall along the route of water lines in the toilet bathroom

and expose these lines at the location of dampness. Then examine them for leakage.

In most cases leakage occurs at joints of the line either due to cracked fitting or joint

not having been property tightened and sealed by applying “safeda & suta”.

In extreme cases some pipe piece can also be found cracked rusted (especially

when pipes have become quite old) which should be replaced.

As a preventive measure, during the time of new construction, all the water lines

must be pressure tested before concealing them and before accepting the work. This

will save much of future maintenance problem.

Dampness in walls of toilets below toilet floor lev el:

Causes 1) Cleaning eye not properly fixed in the bends of soil and waste pipes outside the building

so that leakage occurs through cleaning eye and wets the adjacent walls.

2) If there is leakage in sunken slab of toilet then from sunken slab the wetness will

appear on the wall of toilet

Remedies 1. Cleaning eyes to be properly fixed in the bends of soil and waste pipes using proper

ruts and gaskets.

178

2. Remove seepage from sunken slab of toilet.

Outside walls of buildings remain wet at roof level

Causes 1. Coping not provide on top of parapet wall so that water stays on the top surface of brick

wall and seeps into wall gradually making it wet.

2. Slope of coping over parapet wall provided in the wrong direction

3. Gola not made on the junction of roofing and parapet wall. Water can enter this junction

and can come through crack.

4. On the roof slab, if the gap between rain water pipe mouth and parapet wall is not

properly sealed, then rain water can come out from the gap around the pipe and make

the outside wall wet.

Remedies

1. Coping should be provided at parapet wall top ad its slopes should be towards inside

the roof rather than outside wall. Further coping should be projected a little beyond the

wall with drip mould made at the bottom

2. Gola should be made at junction of roofing and parapet and if possible should be taken

a little bit inside the parapet wall by making a chase.

3. Seal the gap around rain water pipe mouth on the roof slab.

Disintegration and weakening of plaster in walls in contact with sewage and

where people frequently urinate

Causes

Due to attack of sulphates and chlorides present in sewage and urine. Theses

compounds react with tricalcium aluminate of cement and cause expansive reaction

leading to disintegration and weakening of plaster.

Remedies

1. Use sulphate resistant cement for doing plaster in such locations.

2. Apply some water proof coating over plaster which is acid and alkali resistant.

Vegetation growing on the roof

Causes

179

Whenever some crack is there in roofing tiles, water seeps from tree. Due to the

presence of water and soil vegetation gets a chance to grow.

Remedy

Cut any vegetation growing on the roof and fill concrete or cement.

Water staying on the roof here and there:

Cause

Slope over the roof for drainage of water not properly provided.

Remedy

Roof drainage is a very important aspect in the building. For proper roof

drainage roof should be divided in few portions (if roof is big) and then each portion

should be sloped towards the corresponding rain water pipe by creating proper ridges

at various places. In actual execution correct slopes and ridges as planned should be

achieved through water level and marking this before casting the concrete.

Water not going smoothly through rain water pipes o n the roof and staying

around the mouth of the pipe

Causes

1) Khurra not provided near the rain water pipe.

2) Strainer not provided.

Remedies

1) Provide khurra near the mouth of rain water pipe.

2) Strainer should be provided having at least 1 ½ to 2 times the area of rainwater pipes.

7) ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITES OF ULB’s

1. ULB should maintain a Register of buildings up to date. The concerned Engineer should

certify to that effect at the end of every financial year after ensuring that necessary

additions in the cost and in structures are made upto date. This certificate should be

furnished by him to the super intending Engineer every year in the month of July.

180

2. The Engineer during his inspection of the Divisional Office should examine this register

to verify that it is being posted and maintained upto date.

3. On similar lines, garden Register will be maintained by Horticulture indicating therein

the original works, addition and alteration works and special repairs.

Safety of Buildings

1. All buildings/structures are required to be inspected once a year by the Engineer in-

charge to ensure that the building/structure is not unsafe for use. In case of electrical

and other installations, the Engineer (Electrical) should inspect the same and record a

certificate to that effect also required to inspect such structures/installations twice a year

and record certificates to that effect.

2. In case of any deficiency found in the structure/installation necessary report should be

made to higher authorities and immediate steps taken to get the same inspected and

further action taken to remedy the defects. The Divisional Officers will also inspect

important buildings/gardens once a year. He shall bring to the notice of his Engineer,

cases where he has reasons to doubt the structural soundness of any

building/structure/installations and the latter will take such action, as he considers

necessary.

3. In case of any, deficiency found in the important buildings like Chief Minister’s house.

Minister’s house, other V.I, Ps report about unsafe condition ministry concerned directly

of through the ministry with his recommendations and proposals for repairs, if any for

disposal of the building.

4. In case it is decided to demolish such unsafe building, it should be disposed off without

land by auction under the powers vested in competent authorities.

Inspection of buildings/installations for safety

1. The Engineers are required to inspect all buildings/structures twice a years to ensure

that the building/structure is not unsafe for use, and they shall record a certificate to that

effect. All buildings/structures are also required to be inspected once year by the

Engineer in-charge ensure that the building/structure is not unsafe for use, in case of

electrical and other installations, the Engineer (Electrical) should inspect the same and

record a certificate to that effect.

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2. In case of any deficiency found in the building/structure. Necessary report should be

made to higher authorities, and immediate steps taken to get the same inspected and

should be taken for with to remedy the defects.

3. The Divisional Officer will also inspect important buildings/structures once year. He

shall bring to the notice of his Engineer, cases where he has reasons to doubt the

structural soundness of any building/structure and the later will take such action as he

considers necessary.

4. In case of any deficiency found in the important building like Chief Minister’s house, and

houses of other V.I.Ps, report about unsafe condition of the house should always be

sent to the Engineer, who will route through the Ministry to the Department/Ministry

concerned, if required, with his recommendations and proposal for repairs.

Demolition of Unsafe buildings/structures

In case it is decided to demolish such unsafe buildings/structure, it should be

disposed of without land by auction under the powers vested in competent authorities.

Disposal of purely temporary structures

o Purely temporary structures erected during the construction of a work may, on the

completion of the work, or when the purpose for which the same were erected has been

served, be sold or dismantled under the sanction of the Engineer who has been

entrusted with full powers.

o If the structure is proposed to be sold without land. The Executive Engineer should fix

the reserve price, taking into consideration the life and condition of the structure and

other local conditions.

Cleanliness in the Colonies

Cleanliness will be maintained in the colonies. The execution of wastes of

repairs in government residences/buildings will not be allowed to stay at the place of

work. Suitable points will be identified in the localities where debris generated from the

day to day work will be stored by the departmental workers or the workers of

contractors. It will be ensured that after days work, debris is collected from the work

place and deposited at the identified spot. Suitable provision will be made in the lifting

of debris periodically from this identified spot. Safeguard will be taken that occupants

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do not throw garbage on this otherwise it would create unhygienic conditions for the

residents.

Any leakage from the water supply line, sewers line or unfiltered water supply

line, noticed in the colonies will be repaired immediately. Water will not be allowed to

stagnate on the roofs, courtyards, roadside to act as breeding place for mosquitoes. All

precautions should be taken to keep the colonies neat and clean. In case unhygienic/

health hazardous conditions are noticed in the portion of areas/service maintained by

local bodies, the same will be reported to them and pursued for action. Overhead tanks

will be provided with lockable covers and mosquito proof couplings. The occupants will

be advised against storage of water in coolers with lockable covers and mosquito proof

couplings. The occupants will be advised against storage of water in coolers not in use

and apply mosquito repellants in the cooler’s pada etc., to check spread of Malaria.

The verifying proper attendance and checking of complaints should also include

the following activities and specific with regard to these shall have to be submitted.

a) Cleaning of water tanks i/c individual tanks on top of terraces.

b) Removal of debris in colonies.

c) Road maintenance i/c pot holes of roads maintained by Corporation, scavenging etc.

d) Cleaning of berms outside the boundary walls of parks.

e) Cutting of grass/trimming of tress in the parks.

f) Street light.

g) Lift operations.

h) General cleanliness of the colony.

i) Other specific common problems of residents of colonies.

j) Misuse of the fire fighting room.

k) Common area lighting etc.

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Improving Maintenance of Residential Colonies and o ffice Buildings

The improvement of maintenance standard to provide better services to the

users has always been one of the most talked about issue amongst various

stakeholders. Each Engineer in charge of maintenances is, therefore, enjoined upon to

carry out maintenance review regularly with specific thrust on the following issues both

in respect of residential and non-residential buildings.

1. Cleaning of overhead tanks including individual tanks on top of the terrace.

2. To provide access ladders for the workmen to attend to repairs on the terraces, which

are inaccessible through regular staircase. Well painted M.S steel ladders should be

provided as ameans of access, preferably on a permanent basis to overhead tanks on

the terrace.

3. Terraces of office buildings to be kept cleared of unserviceable materials, dumped by

various offices.

4. Wild growth in parapets/walls particularly near the R.W pipes , shafts and near gully

traps to be cleared on regular basis and weedicide applied to check its re-growth.

5. All water supply , sewage and drainage lines status to be checked for leakage and

remedial measure initiated.

6. Inspection should also cover outside areas such as the driveways, paths, lawns,

gardens, hedges, trees boundary walls.

7. Inspection of septic tanks provided if any and their cleaning.

8. Inspection of all storm water drainage works/system and removal of chokage before

and during monsoon periods.

9. Inspection of pumps, softening plant and the tube well pumps etc. to be checked for

their trouble free functioning whenever provided.

10. Replacement of broken glasses in the window.

11. Removal of construction malba in colonies on year basis.

12. Identification of proper space for construction materials for the contractors in the colony.

13. Disposal of unserviceable materials from the service centres.

14. Road maintenance including repair of potholes in roads maintained.

15. Cleaning of berms along the roads.

16. Cleaning of berms outside the boundry walls of park.

17. Cutting of grass/trimming of trees in the parks.

18. Street lights and common areas lighting.

19. Lift operations including its cleanliness – Lift operators to be available at the lift.

20. General cleanlinessof the colony.

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21. Other specific common problems of residents of colonies.

Collection and Removal of (Garden)/ (park) Rubbish, Filth etc. As per Municipal

Act

1. Sanitation and public health is the combined responsibility of the Owners/occupiers of the

premises, (as indidual citizens of the city) and the chairperson, (in the capacity as head of

ND/MC/Local body)

2. It is the duty and obligation of owners/occupiers to have the premises swept and cleaned

and to cause rubbish collected and to be deposited in dust bins, receptacles, depots etc.

within 24 hours. The daily surface cleansing of all streets and removal of the sweepings.

3. The chairperson is duty bound as per the Act to arrange for dustbins, receptacles etc. for

the temporary deposit of rubbish, filth etc. he has to further provide vehicles etc for final

disposal of rubbish, filth etc.

4. The Act defines rubbish. It includes ashes, broken bricks, broken glasses, dust malba,

mortor and refuse of any kind.

5. The definition of premises, as per Act, includes the garden, ground and outhouse if any,

appear training to the building and part of a building.

6. The sweeping from garden or any horticulture wastes are thus covered under the

definition of premises and rubbish as states above

7. Disposal of rubbish from streets, public places, gardens, parks in the duty of the council.

8. Ulb’S field officials should therefore take up the following actions.

8.1 Ensure daily cleaning/cleansing and lighting of streets, public streets and other public

place from Corporation.

8.2 Dustbins, receptacles, deposits of appropriate type and size capacity to be got provided

from Corporation.

8.3 The rubbish should be deposited inside dustbins, receptacles etc because throwing of

rubbish outside is a punishable under the Act.

Complaint Register

Complaint register is an important document maintained at Service Centers. All

complaints received at service centre are entered in the complaint register and these

are closely watched to ensure that the complaints are attended to as expeditiously as

possible.

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9. TASKS OF ENGINEERS

1. The Junior Engineer / A.E will generally follow the time chart of duties at Service Centers

as given in above table.

2. The A.E shall make it a point to review the complaints recorded in the complaint register at

least once a day. The A.E shall invariably carry out personal inspections of the complaints

attended to the everyday to ensure that the work has been carried out satisfactorily suitable

instructions shall be given to the W.C staff for rectification of the defects.

3. While reviewing the complaints register, JE shall examine if there are complaints of a

repeated nature from the same house. Such complaints shall be personally investigated by

the AE to examine if there is any slackness on the part of the WC staff.

4. Complaints of the nature of special repairs and periodical repairs like white washing,

painting, rewriting, which cannot be attended on daily basis shall be transferred to the

register of special repairs and periodical repairs.

REPAIRS

Day to day repairs is carried out by ulb’s in all the buildings under its

maintenance. The works which are to be attended on day to day basis such as

removing chokage of drainage pipes, man holes, restoration of water supply,

replacement of blowns fuses, repairs to faulty switches, watering of plants, lawn

mowing, hedge cutting, sweeping of leaf falls etc. are attended under day to day

service facilities. These services are provided after receipt of complaint from the users

at the respective service centres. Complaints of periodical nature like white washing,

paintings etc.., which are usually got attended through contractors and cannot be

attended on daily basis is transferred to register of periodical repairs.

ANNUAL REPAIRS

The works of periodical nature like white washing, colour washing, distempering,

painting etc. are called Annual Repair works and these are generally undertaken

through system of contractors

The periodicity of applying white washing and color washing for a building has been

laid down by the Government. The periodicity is two years for white washing and color

washing and three years for painting. In addition, works such as patch repair to plaster,

minor repairs to various items of work, replacement of glass panes, replacement of

wiring damage due to accident, replacement of switches, sockets tiles, Gap filling of

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hedges/perennial beds, replacement/replanting of trees, shrubs, painting of tree

guards, planting of routine type, can be collected and attended to for a group of houses

at atime and particular period of yard stick for annual repairs cover both the above

facilities.

MAINTENANCE NORMS, FREQUENCY OF APPLICATION OF FINISHING ITEMS

Sl. No.

Periodicity

Res. Bldg

Offc Bldg Hospitals Laboratories Schools

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 White

washing/colour washing

2 years 2 years 2 years 2 years 2 years

2 Applying Dry Distemper 2 years 2 years 2 years 2 years 2 years

3 Painting with plaster paint, synthetic enamel paint, Oil bound distemper, acrylic paint, acrylic distemper

3years 2 years

1 years Corridor

O.T.rooms 2 years –

other areas

2 years 3 years

4 Painting external surface with water proofing cement paint

3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years 3 years

5 Cleaning and disinfecting of water storage / distribution tanks, water mains

6 months

6 months 3 months 3 months 3 months

6 Cleaning of Manholes/Gully chambers/inspection chambers and flushing of building sewers

1 year 1 year 6 months 1 year 1 year

7 Cleaning of storm water drains 1 year 1 year 1 year 1 year 1 year

8 Painting steel water tanks inside with bitumastic paint

2 years 2 years 1 year 2 years 2 years

9 Polishing wooden doors/ windows with sprit polish/ polish/ synthetic acrylic polish

5 years 5 years 5 years 5 years 5 years

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10 Text mat or poly mat based equivalent synthetic silicon based exterior paint

5 years 5 years 5 years 5 years 5 years

11 Cleaning Electrical installations, fans etc.

1 year 1 year 1 year 1 year 1 year

12 Premix , semi dense/ dense carpeting of roads

5 years 5 years 5 years 5 years 5 years

13 Collection of water samples for physical, chemical and bacteriogical analysis of water

6 months

6 months 6 months 6 months 6 months

Preventive maintenance is carried out to avoid the breakdown in case of

machinery or occurrences of maintenance problems in buildings and services.

ACCESSIBILITY FOR MAINTENANCE

It is necessary that the place to be maintained is capable of being reached for

maintenance to be carried out. Access varies from day to day needs to access for a

trained and experienced man to attend to a maintenance problem.

In some of the structures regular shafts have been provided for water supply

and sanitary installations. The shafts are too tight and there is no working space for

workman. The problem is compounded by inadequate light in the shafts. Not only the

elbow space has not been provided but there is no working platform for workman.

Replacement of glass panels in the window have become another, In general

the windows open outside and putty is also placed accordingly. In addition, for

residential buildings, grill work is provided for safety of residents. The window has

generally a full sized glass sheet as a result it has become difficult to replace and even

clean these glass panes. The problem is acute in buildings beyond three storeys.

Overhead tanks have been provided over the buildings. With a view to keep the

roof inaccessible for the residents, no residents, no terrace staircase has been

188

provided to reach the terrace. In the day to day maintenance, however the

maintenance staff are called upon to go to the terrace to check the overflow and the

like for which regular access is necessary. Ladders should be provided as a means of

access preferably on a permanent basis.

Buildings of monumental nature are finished with special treatment on roof, false

ceiling, wall paneling and carpeting on wall which may require to be attending. It is

necessary to have permanent arrangements for reaching such heights as a part of

maintenance tools.

10) INSPECTION OF BUILDING AND SERVICES

Periodical Inspections

A. Buildings and Services

The starting point of maintenance to building is the regular inspection of

buildings. It should be carried out periodically with a view to keep down the restoration

cost to the minimum and to attend essential repairs at the opportune moment.

The symptoms of malfunctioning varies from building to building and the

resulting deterioration varies with reference to the climatic conditions, pollution, fungi,

the insect attack, subsidence, flooding, intensity of usage, careless usage and the like.

It is necessary to know when the building should be inspected, what should be

inspected, at what level of deterioration a component should be replaced or repaired

and whether any preventive maintenance is called for.

As per citizens charter and guidelines issued by Government, programme for

maintenance work for the ensuring year is to be finalized by 30th April of the even year.

To achieve this it is necessary that all buildings should be inspected by in March and

April. In general the Engineer should inspect each and every building under his charge

once ever six months the Engineer once in a year and the Executive Engineer should

inspect all buildings where serious defects have been brought to the notice of higher

authorities on a priority basis so as to take prompt remedial action.

189

There is necessity to ensure and maintain uniformity for objective inspection of

the buildings as it is difficult for every member of staff to know what should be

inspected.

The following reports help in the reports:-

1. Preparation of a need based estimates for annual, special and extraordinary repairs of

buildings.

2. Preparation of programmes for undertaking major repairs according to an established

programme bringing minimum inconvenience to the residents/occupants.

3. A regular inspection prevents/forestalls an unexpected breakdown of a building. This

becomes necessary as we have to maintain buildings even beyond their normal life

period.

TAKING OVER

Buildings along with their services are designed and constructed to meet

specific requirement. So as to ensure full user satisfaction, it is necessary that the

buildings and services on their completion should be subjected to intensive review by

the team of construction and maintenance engineers.

During the course of construction, certain tests and checks are entrusted to

contracting agencies; these are tested and taken over by the Engineer in charge before

accepting materials and equipments. Maintenance in charge should ensure that these

are handed over to him at the time of handing over of facility.

HANDING /TAKING OVER OF BUILDING & SERVICES

1. Name of work/location

2. Salient details of the building.

a) Type of structure.

b) Plinth area floor wise.

c) Type of Foundation.

d) Special treatments/linings

� Acoustic treatment

� False floors

� Special type of flooring

� False ceiling

190

� Vapour barrier treatment

� Under deck/over deck insulation

3. W/S and Sanitary installations

a) Water supply

� Sources of W/S to the building and source wise capacity

� Brief specification of W/S distribution system.

b) Details of tube wells if any

� No. of tube wells

� Yield of each tube well

� Type of boring and depth

� Brief specifications of boring pipes

c) Type of W/S distribution

� OH tank details like material, lining, height, capacity etc.

� W/S sump details like material, depth, capacity etc.

d) Sewerage System

� Specification of sewerage system

� Out fall of sewerage system

� Sewage sump details if any

� Sewage treatment plant details if any

4. Contract details

a) Name of the building contractor and address

b) Agreement

c) Completion period

� Commencement date

� Date of completion

d) Approximate completion cost

� Building

� W/S and Sanitary

� Electrical and Air conditioning

5. Major defects noticed at the time of handing over / taking over:

191

� Building work

� W/S and sanitary installations

� Electrical and A/C works

6. Handing over of completion drawings

� Architectural drawings no’s

� Structural drawing no’s

� Water supply, sewerage & drainage drawing no’s

� Electrical & A/C drawing no’s

CHECKING AGAINST SEEPAGE

Terrace of all the buildings may be inspected well ahead of the monsoon rains in

June and December and necessary repairs carried out. The roofs should be cleaned

and debris removed from the roof to avoid blockages in roof gutters and rain water

pipes. Rainwater inlets should be checked and ensured that there are no damages

around these. Vertical rain water pipes should be properly clamped to the walls.

Seepage through cracks developed over chejjas is very common. It should be ensured

that required repairs are carried out the junction of chejjas with the walls.

CHECKING OF EXTERNAL AREAS

Open areas and lawns should be inspected and measures taken to ensure that

rain water does not accumulate therein, whenever storm water drains are under the

maintenance the same should be desilted and paved surfaces or bunds repaired.

CHECKING OF SEWERS AND SEWAGE INSTALLATIONS

All inspections chambers, manholes and sewer lines should be cleaned and

flushed to establish free flow of sewage. Sewage sumps should be cleaned of

accumulated girt, sand and sludge. Bunds of oxidation ponds should be strengthened

whenever necessary.

POST MONSOON / CYCLONE MEASURES

Inspite of pre-monsoon measures taken for various buildings / services, very

often these are affected during the monsoon and cyclones. In coastal or cyclone prone

areas, the services are affected more. Immediately after monsoon all important

192

structure/services should be inspected by a team of engineers from all disciplines

concerned with the maintainance and work should be planned to put the services in

order immediately.

Overhead cables, uprooted light poles, restoration of power supply, disinfecting

of water supply lines/ installations, ensuring normal water supply. restoration of sewage

pumping operations, flood relief works, repair to breaches to embankment of roads and

bunds are some of the important areas which are to be attended immediately after

monsoon/cyclone.

11) ENCROACHMENT

Since the Government buildings standing on the land and the land underneath

and appurtenant there to along with the land under roads, parks, toilets, play grounds

situated in Government colonies come under the administrative control

encroachments.

STEPS FOR DETECTION /REMOVAL OF ENCROACHMENTS

A close watch will be kept to ensure that encroachments do not take place in

their jurisdictions. ULB’s in the case of transfers, will prepare detailed note/list of the

encroachments already existing in their areas and action taken/proposed to be taken

will be mentioned clearly in their handing over reports to their successors

1. Whenever any construction activity going on in the locality is noted by the J.E/A.E on their

inspection carried out by them on day to day basis, they will verify whether the construction

is according to building plans sanctioned by the local bodies. Immediate steps shall be

taken to stop or demolish the construction which are being carried out in the absence of

sanctioned building plans

2. A report will be sent to the Director of Estates in case the building activity is within the

premises allotted by the Directorate of Estates or in the area appurtenant to the premises

allotted by them. For this purpose, area within the compound wall and gate of the premises

will be considered as appurtenant to the premises allotted by the Directors of the Estate.

3. In case of unauthorized construction/ encroachment is not stopped /removed by the

encroacher, a notice may be issued to him by Estate Officer of the area under P.P Act

1971. Side by side FIR may be lodged with the police against the defaulter/encroacher.

4. Action will be taken by the Estate Officer under the P.P Act 1971 and eviction proceedings

will be passed.

Police help will be taken and unauthorized encroachments will be removed.

-------@@@@@@-------

193

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2. G¥ÀPÀgÀtUÀ¼ÀÄ ( É ï) («±ÉõÀ PÁ¬ÄzÉUÀ¼À C£ÀéAiÀÄ)

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• ¥ËgÀ À sÉUÀ¼À ºÀtPÁ¹£À ªÀåªÀºÁgÀ PÁ£ÀÆ£ÀħzÀÞªÁV £ÀqÉAiÀÄÄwÛzÉAiÉÄÃ?

F J¯Áè CA±ÀUÀ¼À£ÉÆß¼ÀUÉÆAqÀ ÉPÀÌ vÀ¥Á ÀuÉ ªÀgÀ¢AiÀÄ£ÀÄß £ÀUÀgÀ À sÉ/¥ÀÄgÀ À sÉ/¥ÀlÖt

¥ÀAZÁA¬ÄwUÉ C£ÀĪÉÆâ¹zÀ £ÀAvÀgÀ, F £ÀUÀgÀ À sÉ/¥ÀÄgÀ À sÉ/¥ÀlÖt ¥ÀAZÁ¬Äw ªÀgÀ¢AiÀÄ£ÀÄß

¸ÁªÀiÁ£Àå À sÉAiÀÄ°è ªÀÄAr¹, ªÀgÀ¢AiÀÄ°è GzÉÝò¹zÀ CA±ÀUÀ¼À §UÉÎ ÀÆPÀÛ PÀæªÀÄ PÉÊUÉÆAqÀÄ,

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206

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PÀ£ÁðlPÀ ¥ËgÀ À sÉUÀ¼À C¢ü¤AiÀĪÀÄ 1964gÀ 290£ÉAiÀÄ PÀ®A ¥ÀæPÁgÀ

• ¥ËgÀ À sÉUÀ¼À ÉPÀÌ¥ÀvÀæUÀ¼ÀÄ PÁ®PÁ®PÉÌ, PÀ¤µÀ× ªÀµÀðPÉÌ MAzÀÄ ¨Áj gÁdå ¯ÉPÀÌ¥ÀvÀæ

E¯ÁSɬÄAzÀ vÀ¥Á ÀuÉUÉ M¼ÀUÁUÀvÀPÀÌzÀÄÝ.

• ÉPÀÌ vÀ¥Á ÀPÀgÀÄ ¥ËgÀ À sÉAiÀÄ J¯Áè zÁR¯ÁwUÀ¼ÀÄ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ ÉPÀÌ¥ÀvÀæUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ¥Àj²Ã° ÀĪÀ

C¢üPÁgÀ ºÉÆA¢gÀÄvÁÛgÉ.

• ¥ËgÀ À sÁ ¤¢ü¬ÄAzÀ ÀPÁðgÀ ¤UÀ¢ü¥Àr¹zÀ zÀgÀzÀ°è ÉPÀÌvÀ¥Á ÀuÁ ±ÀĮ̪À£ÀÄß gÁdå

ÉPÀÌ¥ÀvÀæ E¯ÁSÉUÉ ¥ÁªÀw À ÉÃPÁUÀÄvÀÛzÉ.

207

¯ÉPÀÌ vÀ¥Á ÀPÀgÀ C¢üPÁgÀ

PÀ£ÁðlPÀ ¥ËgÀ À sÉUÀ¼À C¢ü¤AiÀĪÀÄ 1964gÀ 291£ÉAiÀÄ PÀ®A£À G¥ÀPÀ®A 1gÀAvÉ, £ÀUÀgÀ

ÀܽÃAiÀÄ ÀA ÉÜUÀ¼À ÉPÀÌ vÀ¥Á ÀuÉ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ ÉPÀÌvÀ¥Á¹UÀgÀ C¢üPÁgÀ PÁAiÉÄÝ ¥ÀæPÁgÀ F PɼÀPÀAqÀAvÉ

EgÀÄvÀÛzÉ.

• ÉPÀÌ vÀ¥Á ÀPÀgÀÄ AiÀiÁªÀÅzÉà PÀqÀvÀ, zÁR¯Áw, gÀ²Ã¢, RÄzÀÄÝ ºÉýPÉUÀ¼ÀÄ, ¥ÀvÀæ

ªÀåªÀºÁgÀUÀ¼ÀÄ, n¥ÀàtÂUÀ¼ÀÄ ªÀÄÄAvÁzÀªÀÅUÀ¼À£ÀÄß vÀªÀÄä ªÀÄÄAzÉ ºÁdgÀÄ ¥Àr ÀĪÀAvÉ

ªÀiÁqÀ®Ä °TvÀ gÀÆ¥ÀzÀ°è ÀÆa À§ºÀÄzÀÄ.

• ÉPÀÌ vÀ¥Á ÀPÀgÀÄ ¥ËgÀ À sÉAiÀÄ ÀA§¼À ¥ÀqÉAiÀÄÄwÛgÀĪÀ ¹§âA¢UÀ¼À PÀqÀvÀ, zÁR¯Áw, gÀ²Ã¢,

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AiÀiÁªÀÅzÉà D¹ÛAiÀÄ dªÁ¨ÁÝj ºÉÆA¢gÀĪÀ C¢üPÁjUÀ¼À£ÀÄß, ¥ËgÀ À sÉAiÉÆA¢UÉ £ÉÃgÀ

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• ÉPÀÌ vÀ¥Á ÀPÀgÀÄ, ¥ËgÀ À sÉAiÀÄ CzsÀåPÀëgÀÄ CxÀªÁ ÀzÀ ÀågÀ£ÀÄß, CªÀjAzÀ §AiÀÄ ÀĪÀ ¤¢ðµÀÖ

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°TvÀªÁV DºÁé£ÀªÀ£ÀÄß ¤ÃqÀ§ºÀÄzÀÄ (G¥ÀPÀ®A 2gÀAvÉ).

• ÉPÀÌ vÀ¥Á ÀPÀgÀÄ, G¥ÀPÀ®A 1gÀ ¥ÀæPÁgÀ ¤ÃqÀĪÀ DºÁé£ÀPÉÌ PÀ¤µÀ× ªÀÄÆgÀÄ ¢£ÀUÀ¼À CªÀ¢ü

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• ÉPÀÌ vÀ¥Á ÀPÀgÀÄ, F G¥ÀPÀ®A£À°è E®èzÀ AiÀiÁªÀÅzÉà «±ÉõÀ PÁgÀtUÀ½UÁV, F

PÁgÀtUÀ¼À£ÀÄß °TvÀªÁV w½¹, JgÀqÀÄ ªÁgÀUÀ½VAvÀ PÀrªÉÄ CªÀ¢üAiÀÄ ÀÆZÀ£É ¤Ãr,

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vÀ¥Á ÀuÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄß AiÀiÁªÀÅzÉà ÀÆZÀ£É ¤ÃqÀzÉà DgÀA©ü À§ºÀÄzÀÄ.

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• AiÀiÁªÀ£Éà ªÀåQÛ F ªÉÄð£À PÀ®AUÀ¼À°è ºÉýzÀ CA±ÀUÀ½UÉ ÀA§AzsÀ¥ÀlÖAvÉ

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100 gÀÆ¥Á¬ÄªÀgÉUÉ zÀAqÀªÀ£ÀÄß «¢ü À§ºÀÄzÁVzÉ.

• DzÀgÉ, F PÀ®A ¥ÀæPÁgÀ AiÀiÁªÀÅzÉà PÀæªÀÄ PÉÊUÉƼÀÄîªÀ ªÀÄÄ£Àß ¥ËgÁqÀ½vÀ ¤zÉÃð±À£Á®AiÀÄzÀ

¤zÉÃð±ÀPÀjAzÀ °TvÀ C£ÀĪÀÄw ¥ÀqÉAiÀÄĪÀÅzÀÄ CUÀvÀå.

• EzÀPÉÌ ªÀÄÄ£Àß, ¥ËgÁqÀ½vÀ ¤zÉÃð±ÀPÀgÀÄ, AiÀiÁgÀ «gÀÄzÀÞ PÀæªÀÄPÉÌ ²¥sóÁgÀ ÀÄì

ªÀiÁqÀ ÁVzÉAiÉÆà CªÀjUÉ PÁgÀt PÉý £ÉÆÃnÃ¸ï ¤ÃqÀ ÉÃPÀÄ.

ZÁeïð ªÀÄvÀÄÛ ¸ÀZÁðeïð

¯ÉPÀÌ vÀ¥Á ÀuÉAiÀÄ ªÀÄÄRå CA±ÀUÀ¼ÀÄ (PÀ®A 294)

FUÁUÀ Éà G ÉèÃT¹zÀAvÉ, ÉPÀÌ vÀ¥Á¸ÀuÁ ªÀgÀ¢AiÀÄ°è F PɼÀPÀAqÀ «µÀAiÀÄUÀ¼À §UÉÎ

«ªÀgÀUÀ½gÀÄvÀÛzÉ:

• ÉPÀÌ vÀ¥Á ÀuÁ ªÀgÀ¢AiÀÄ°è PÁ£ÀƤUÉ «gÀÄzÀÞªÉAzÀÄ PÀAqÀħgÀĪÀ J¯Áè ¥ÁªÀwUÀ¼ÀÄ

ÉÃgÀÄvÀÛªÉ.

• AiÀiÁªÀÅzÉà ªÀåQÛAiÀÄ ¤®ðPÀëöå CxÀªÁ zÀÄ£ÀðqÀvɬÄAzÀ DVgÀ§ºÀÄzÁzÀ £ÀµÀÖ CxÀªÁ

PÉÆgÀvÉUÀ¼À ¥Àæ¸ÁÛ¥À EgÀÄvÀÛzÉ.

• AiÀiÁªÀÅzÉà ªÀåQÛ ÉPÀÌPÉÌ ÉÃj À ÉÃPÁzÀ AiÀiÁªÀÅzÉà ªÉÆvÀÛªÀ£ÀÄß ÉPÀÌPÉÌ vÉÆÃj ÀzÉ EzÀÝ°è, D

CA±ÀªÀ£ÀÄß zÁR° À ÁVgÀÄvÀÛzÉ.

• F ªÉÄð£À PÀ®AUÀ¼À°è ¥Àæ¸ÁÛ¥ÀªÁUÀzÀ ÉÃgÉ AiÀiÁªÀÅzÉà ÉPÀÌ¥ÀvÀæzÀ CxÀªÁ ªÀ ÀÄÛUÀ¼À

C ÀªÀÄ¥ÀðPÀ ¤ªÀðºÀuÉAiÀÄ §UÉÎAiÀÄÆ CAvÀºÀ C¢üPÁj/£ËPÀgÀ/UÀÄwÛUÉzÁgÀgÀ «ªÀgÀUÀ¼À£ÀÄß

CªÀgÀ ºÉ ÀgÀÄ À»vÀ zÁR° À ÁUÀÄvÀÛzÉ.

209

• ªÀiÁqÀ ÁzÀ ªÉZÀÑPÉÌ ªÉÇZÀgï, zÁ¸ÁÛ£ÀÄ ÉPÀÌ CxÀªÁ EvÀgÉ «ªÀgÀªÀ£ÀÄß ¤ÃqÀzÉ EgÀĪÀ

ÀAzÀ sÀðzÀ°è DPÉëæ¹gÀĪÀ ªÉZÀÑzÀ ¥Àæ¸ÁÛªÀ EgÀ ÉÃPÁUÀÄvÀÛzÉ.

»ÃUÉ gÁdå ÉPÀÌ¥ÀvÀæ E¯ÁSÉAiÀÄ ¤AiÀÄAvÀæPÀgÀÄ ¤ÃrzÀ zÁR¯ÁzÀ «ªÀgÀUÀ¼À DzsÁgÀzÀ°è,

zÀÄgÀÄ¥ÀAiÉÆÃUÀ ªÀiÁrzÀ CxÀªÁ ¤®ðPÀëöå¢AzÀ £ÀµÀÖPÉÌ PÁgÀtgÁzÀªÀgÀ ªÉÄÃ É ¥ËgÁqÀ½vÀ

¤zÉÃð±ÀPÀgÀÄ ºÀt ªÀ ÀƯÁwUÉ ÀÆPÀÛ PÀæªÀÄ PÉÊUÉƼÀÀÄzÁVzÉ.

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Proceedings)UÉ C£Àé¬Ä ÀÄvÀÛzÉ.

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¤ªÀð» À¢gÀĪÀÅzÀÄ, DAiÀÄ-ªÀåAiÀÄ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ ªÀÄAdÆgÁw E®èzÀ ªÉZÀÑ, PÁAiÉÄÝUÉ «gÀÄzÀÞªÁzÀ ¥ÁªÀw

EvÁå¢UÀ¼ÀÄ ÀZÁðeïð £ÀqÀªÀ½PÉUÉ C£Àé¬Ä ÀÄvÀÛzÉ.

ZÁeïð ªÀÄvÀÄÛ ÀZÁðeïð £ÀqÀªÀ½PÉ PÀæªÀÄ

PÀ£ÁðlPÀ ¥ËgÀ À¨sÉUÀ¼À PÀ®A 296gÀAvÉ

• EAvÀºÀ ÀAzÀ sÀðUÀ¼À°è ¥ËgÁqÀ½vÀ ¤zÉÃð±À£Á®AiÀÄzÀ ¤zÉÃð±ÀPÀgÀÄ (£ÀUÀgÀ À sÉUÀ½UÉ)

(C¢ü ÀÆZÀ£É ¸ÀASÉå £ÀCE 37/nJªÀiïJ¸ï 2005, ¢£ÁAPÀ 3-12-2005) CxÀªÁ

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f¯Áè¢üPÁjUÀ¼ÀÄ ¥ÀæªÀiÁtÂÃPÀj ÀÄvÁÛgÉ.

• £ÀAvÀgÀ §gÀºÀ gÀÆ¥ÀzÀ°è vÀªÀÄä wêÀiÁð£ÀzÀ PÁgÀtUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ¤gÀƦ ÀÄvÁÛgÉ. ºÁUÀÆ EzÀgÀ

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• ÀA§A¢ü¹zÀ ªÀåQÛAiÀÄÄ MAzÀÄ ªÉÃ¼É EzÀ£ÀÄß vÉUÉzÀÄPÉƼÀî®Ä ¤gÁPÀj¹zÀgÉ, D ªÀåQÛ

¤gÁPÀj¹zÀ ¢£ÀzÀAzÀÄ CzÀ£ÀÄß PÀæªÀħzÀÞªÁV ¹éÃPÀj ÀĪÀÅzÁV vÉUÉzÀÄPÉƼÀî¯ÁUÀĪÀÅzÀÄ.

PÀ£ÁðlPÀ ¥ËgÀ À¨sÉUÀ¼À PÀ®A 297gÀAvÉ

• ¤zÉÃð±ÀPÀgÀÄ CxÀªÁ f¯Áè¢üPÁj ¥ÀæªÀiÁtÂÃPÀj¹zÀ ¥ÀæwAiÉÆAzÀÄ ªÉÆvÀÛªÀ£ÀÄß ÀÆZÀ£Á ¥ÀvÀæ

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CUÀvÀå wzÀÄÝ¥Àr ªÀiÁrzÉ.

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212

COMMUNITY

PARTICIPATION

213

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN OPERATION AND MAINTENANC E IN ULB’S

1. Introduction

Operation and maintenance activities rarely encompass only technical issues.

Managerial, social, financial, and institutional issues also play roles in advancing infrastructure

sustainability. There are a myriad of ways to implement effective operation and maintenance of

rural water supply and sanitation services in developing countries. Community participation is

one way to achieve this. Committees of users (ideally gender balanced) can organize

responsibility for the operation and maintenance of a system.

This requires adequate training, both technical and organizational, and a commitment to

a sustainable operation. Costing calculations and the introduction of fees – however small, in

cash or in-kind – are in almost all cases necessary, and a vital part of participatory planning and

community sensitization. Another way to achieve effective operation and maintenance is

through private or public enterprises. Such enterprises should work with local authorities and

government bodies responsible for control of quality, consistency, and equity of services.

Regardless of which measures are applied to a local situation, the inclusion of operation

and maintenance of any planned system remains a vital component of its continuing success –

provision of sustainable services.

Community participation has created a new dimension to the way practitioners and

academics view 'urban management' in today's cities. What we mean by community

participation, at what stages it may be implemented and its importance in urban services. Why

is community participation important? Because it provides the commitment from the

communities themselves. Community participation as an approach can eventually provide

project effectiveness, efficiency and empowerment. Although sustainable community

participation and management alone cannot guarantee success, it can play a vital role in creating

both an effective and efficient water and/or sanitation project.

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What is meant by community participation, stages where 'community participation' can

occur, the importance of community participation in urban services, incentives and

disincentives for community participation, pre-conditions for successful community

participation.

2. Defining community participation

In simple terms 'community participation' refers to the involvement of the people in a

community in development projects (UNCHS, 1991; Sheng, 1992; Korten, 1987; Garilao,

1987). Since social, economic, educational, and other conditions differ from one community to

another, the form and degree of people's involvement in development activities also vary. This

makes it difficult to define community participation precisely. However, since it implies action

by the people to solve their own problems, it can be understood in terms of activities performed

by the communities in their own development projects.

There is a wide range of types of community participation. At one end of the scale there

may be merely some community participation in an agency designed and executed project. At

the other, is full community planning, implementation and management of a project with no

agency involvement.

Different forms of community involvement

The following is a list of different forms of community involvement which may include

certain members or beneficiaries in the community.

• Community leaders consulted by agency;

• Whole community consulted by agency;

• Financial contribution;

• Material contribution;

• Labor and skill contribution;

• Operation and maintenance management;

• Project management;

• Women's representation in decision making;

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• Involvement in health education or campaigns; and

• providing specialized community workers such as health educators, etc.

2.1 Stages where 'community participation' can occur in the project cycle

Community participation can take place at any one of numerous stages in a development

project cycle, namely:

Needs assessing- expressing opinions about desirable improvement, prioritizing goals and

negotiating with agencies Planning- formulating objectives, setting goals, criticizing plans.

Mobilizing- raising awareness in the community about needs, establishing or actuating

organizational structures within the community.

Training- participating in formal or informal training activities to enhance communication,

construction, maintenance and financial management skills.

Implementing- engaging in administration, supervision or other management activities;

contributing directly to the actual work of construction or maintenance with labor and materials;

store-keeping; contributing cash towards costs, paying for services or membership fees of

community organizations; deciding rules.

Monitoring and evaluation- participating in the appraisal of work done, recognizing

improvements that can be made and redefining needs.

2.2 The role of NGOs or CBOs in urban services

Experiences in many developing countries during and since the International Drinking

Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981-1990) demonstrate that even the best run water,

sanitation or solid waste management schemes cannot successfully be implemented, operated

and maintained without the full involvement and commitment of the users (IRC, 1993).

Involvement and commitment of the users are usually funnelled through the assistance of Non-

Governmental and Community-Based Organizations. Overall, Non-Governmental

Organizations (NGOs) and Community-Based Organizations (CBOs) have a growing

importance and a new role as development organizations. One of the main reasons why NGOs

have developed is because the public sector has not been able to adequately deliver services to

meet the needs of the population. This is especially true for the low income areas. As a result

NGOs have become major partners of the public sector in an effort to address local needs.

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Defining NGOs

NGOs and CBOs refer to intermediary non-government groups channeling financial,

technical, intellectual and further support to other groups within society. They often also

provide similar forms of support to government entities. We use the term 'NGO' to refer only to

those organizations in society that are involved in development work.

Incentives for community participation

In many cases people will have mixed motives regarding their participation in the

community. The following are some of the main reasons why people are usually willing to take

part in community participation.

• Community participation motivates people to work together on a development project.

People within a community are motivated to work towards community participation for a

number of reasons, such as their perception of the benefits from the project and/or a number

of financial and/or social incentives to continue working on a project;

• Social, religious or traditional obligations for mutual help. Community members may find

social, religious and/or traditional reasons to work on community participation in their

neighborhood.

• Genuine community participation. Individuals may be involved in the identification,

planning and implementation of projects and in the use and maintenance of the development

project. They see a genuine opportunity to better their own lives and for the neighborhood as

a whole.

• Remuneration in cash or in kind. Community members may find this to be one of the main

motivating factors to take part in community participation in their development project.

Why participate?

The following is a list of some of the important reasons why community participation is

one of the essential criteria for successful development projects:

• More will be accomplished;

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• Services can be provided more cheaply;

• There is an intrinsic value in participation;

• There is a catalyst for further development and a sense of responsibility is encouraged;

• There is a guarantee that a felt need is involved;

• ensures that 'things are done the right way';

• Valuable indigenous knowledge is used;

• People are freed from dependence on others' skills; and

• People are more conscious of the causes of their poverty and what they can do about it.

Other additional benefits often recognized by other authors are: projects are more likely to

be self-sustaining;

• Increased involvement of women; and

• It is more likely that health benefits will be maximized Source: Narayana, 1996.

Disincentives for community participation.

The following are some of the main disincentives for individuals and/or community to

be involved in community participation. Some of these reasons include:

• An unfair distribution of work amongst members of the community. Some members in the

community may feel that they are asked to take on extra work tasks that provide them little

financial/social or other incentives;

• A highly individualistic, movement oriented society. Individuals may not feel a sense of

community and thereby question the purpose of their involvement in a development project;

• The feeling that the government should provide the facilities. The community may feel that

the development project is simply another way of exploiting people.

3. Pre-conditions for successful community participation in urban services

For community participation to be successful it is suggested that certain pre-conditions

must be met. The pre-conditions that are cited below are not exclusive but rather reflect some of

the major criteria that can make a development project successful through the use of community

participation.

• There must be a community demand for an improved system. The people must WANT to

solve 'their' problem.

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• The information required for individuals or communities to make informed decision must be

available. Information campaigns will often be necessary to 'market' desirable water supply,

sanitation and solid waste management services. Examples should be built in the locality for

inspection by those who are likely to be 'customers' in the future.

• Technologies and levels of service must be compatible with the community's needs and

capacity to finance, manage and maintain them. This concept refers to providing appropriate

technology that can be sustained by the community.

• The community must understand its options and be willing to take responsibility for the

system. It must be clear from the start how the system will be paid for by the community

and/or with the assistance of an outside agency.

• The community must be empowered to make decisions to control the system.

The issue of community leadership training, committee training and skills training is an

essential part of 'empowering' the community as a whole.

• The community should have the institutional capacity to manage the development and

operation of the system and the solution must be within their means.

The community should have the human resources to manage these institutions.

• There should be a policy framework to permit and support community management. The

government must frame its legislation so that community development committees and co-

operatives are legal.

• Effective external support services for the community must be available from governments,

donors, NGOs or private sector. The people must have faith in these supporting programme

personnel. There needs to be good co-ordination between these external groups.

• The challenge of community management must be simple enough at first so that people can

participate yet become increasingly complex so that they can grow in their ability to deal

with problems and feel an increasing sense of accomplishment. This idea refers to the

importance of creating early recognizable success so as to create enthusiasm for the rest of

the project.

4. Summary

Community participation in urban neighborhood development projects, we have listed

some of the main reasons why community participation has and can continue to work

effectively in water, sanitation and solid waste management, Roads, Drains and Buildings

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projects at the neighborhood level. As cities continue to grow, there is a need to look at

available resources including residents who can assist in implementing, developing and

undertaking neighborhood projects.

If local governments want to focus on providing both effective and efficient urban

services they have to focus more on community participation for the provision of urban

services. Such operations are, however, only successful when they have the cooperation of Non-

Governmental and Community-Based Organizations. These organizations play a key role since

they work directly with citizens in neighborhoods and can assist most effectively in the

implementation of the schemes. However when local governments decide to cooperate with

these organizations in order to obtain the participation of citizens, they have to face the dilemma

of sharing some of their responsibility and power. This will require that local governments

perceive their roles in a more democratic way, so that Non-Governmental and Community-

Based Organizations and citizens can become partners in more effective urban services for the

city as a whole.

References

Garilao, E. 1987. 'Indigenous NGOs as strategic institutions: Managing the Relationship with

Government and Resource Agencies'. World Development. 15, pp. 113-121.

IRC, 1993. Community management today- The role of communities in the management of

improved water supply stems. Occasional Paper 20. The Hague.

Korten, D., 1987. 'Third Generation NGO Strategies: A Key to People-Centered Development'.

World Development. 15, pp. 147-150.

Narayan, D.1996. Toward participatory research. World Bank Technical Paper number 307.

World Bank. Washington D.C.

Sheng Y.K., 1992. 'Community participation in Low-income housing projects: problems and

prospects' Community Development Journal. 25, (1), pp. 56-65.

UNCHS (United Nations Centre for Human Settlements). 1991. Human Settlements

Development through Community Participation. UNCHS- Habitat. Nairobi.

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CASE STUDIES

221

Content

1. Successful 24 x 7 Water Supply in a Small town

Malkapur

2. Community Toilet

3. Sewerage System

4. Slaughter House Goa

5. Slaughter House, Mysore

6. Residential Quarters at Bangalore

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CASE STUDY ON SUCCESSFUL 24X7 WATER SUPPLY IN A SMALL TOWN

MALKAPUR

The water supply system in Malkapur town is the first initiative in India where the entire

town is operating on 24x7 basis. The initiative at Malkapur has led to remarkable efficiency

improvement:

i) Per capita daily consumption reached an average of 110 liters;

ii) Water requirement reduced by 30 percent;

iii) Operational cost requirement reduced by Rs. 75,000 per month;

iv) Revenue collection efficiency increased from 60 to 80 percent;

v) Sufficient pressure in the distribution network has reduced electricity consumption of the

Municipal Council as well as for the consumers to the extent of 27.528 kilowatt (KWH) per

month; and, finally, unaccounted for water (UFW) represents between 8-12 percent, which

is an extremely good performance. The water supply system is operated by the technical

unit under the supervision of the Municipal Council.

The Malkapur area is well known for its enterprising farmers and an efficient co-

operative sector managing sugar mills, lift irrigation systems, milk production, and collection

and selling. It is fast growing town because adjoining Karad does not have space to

accommodate a growing population. A piped water supply scheme, commissioned in 1988, was

designed for an expected population of 14,000 in 2010 on the basis of 40 lcpd. In 2001, the

population was already about 23,000 surpassing the initial forecast, which resulted in poor

service levels. The GP could not meet minimum requirement for water even after operating the

system for all those hours of the day when electricity was available. There was no fixed time for

water supply to the citizens; it was usually two or three hours every alternate day. People had to

resort to tanker and bore well water. The GP was under pressure and also depended on 11 bore

wells with power pumps, in addition to the piped water supply system. With no fixed schedule

for water supply, people had to wait day or night. The poor, unreliable, untimely service led to

non recovery of water charges for the GP. Trying to provide service under the given constraints,

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the GP incurred additional expenses on energy for bore well pumps and tankers. Augmentation

of the water supply system was approved in June 1999 but started in December 2002. The

system was designed to provide 55 lpcd of water for a population of 67,196 people projected for

the year 2030. The bulk water system consisted of water abstraction from perennial river

Koyna, and pumping it to the water treatment plant. Water supply distribution was done through

the earlier system. The next phase for improving the water supply in Malkapur focused on the

distribution network. Maharashtra Jeevan Pradhikaran (MJP) suggested the concept of 24x7

water supply. The engineers of MJP provided “the” critical input, extensive mobilization and

high quality technical support to the GP to ensure this 24x7 initiative succeeded. In January

2007, the GP met and resolved in the Gram Sabha to effectively implement 24x7 water

supplies. The elected representative and MJP engineers formed teams and conducted ward wise

meeting of consumers and women in particular and explained the benefits of 24x7 water supply.

The charges would be only for the water they used as read by a meter as against the earlier flat

rates. To curb excessive utilization of water by the consumers, the elected representatives,

supported by MJP, agreed on the telescopic rates tariff structure and decided on three slabs with

the following rates: up to 70 lpcd at Rs. 4.50 per 1,000 liters; 70 to 120 lpcd at Rs. 7.00 per1,

000 liters and above 120 lpcd at Rs. 10.00 per 1,000 liters. Rates for commercial connections

were decided as Rs. 9, 14, and 20 per 1,000 liters depending on the type of activity.

The main outcomes of shifting to a 24x7 water supply are:

• Improvement in delivery time and services. 24x7 supply has totally removed the constraints

of waiting for irregular water

• And reported that 100 percent of the samples were potable and free from contamination.

• The survey carried out by Anganwadi Sevika indicated that the water borne diseases in

children have reduced remarkably to near zero level.

• Wasteful use of water has reduced by about 30 percent. Demand management by IEC and

the telescopic tariff structure contributes to this performance.

• Valves are no longer required to be operated in the distribution network and consumers do

not depend anymore on the valve operators.

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• The type of water meters installed can be read remotely by driving through the streets using

handheld devices and radio frequency. Data are free from errors compared to manual

handling. Thus the earlier annual billing procedure is now carried out on a monthly basis.

• Huge savings in electricity have been made as water in no longer required to be pumped by

people living in two or three storey buildings.

• A simple automation such as operating raw water pumps from the water treatment plant

using GSM technology has reduced the cost of operation as the raw water pumping station

is now unmanned.

Conclusion

• This is as per urban areas where the distribution network is to be laid totally afresh are the

best areas where the system can be replicated successfully. The scheme is sustainable, both

physically and financially. The water availability in the source river Koyna is sufficient. The

system capacity is sufficient to take care of fluctuations in demand for another 10-15 years.

Financially, the scheme is sustainable as the operations cost and revenue match closely. The

Municipal Council has decided to increase the rates every year to retain the sustainability of

the system. In fact, a committee of the ruling party, opposition party, experts and those who

were opposing the initiative or requesting for lower rates has been constituted. The

committee has been tasked to propose rates in such a manner that there will be no loss in

operating the system. The recovery levels are also increasing.

Location: Satara District, Maharashtra

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CASE STUDY ON COMMUNITY TOILET

India – SHE creates a WAVE of change in Trichy

We are so used to turning our eyes away when we see somebody defecating in the open that we fail to reflect on this widespread practice, prevalent much more in India than in other countries. It is not only visually disturbing but has hazardous implications for public health in our cities.

Some people may engage in open defecation out of habit or laziness, but for the large part of the population of urban India that lives in slums, more often than not, it is not a matter of choice. They have no private toilets and no access to community toilets that actually function. Damaged septic tanks and broken drainage pipes make community latrines unusable. Children go to the nearby drain or wherever they find open spaces. Women wait for nightfall to answer nature’s call, and then too only in groups for fear of assault. It is difficult to maintain hygiene for children as they typically do not have access to water to wash their bottoms and soap to wash their hands.

Tiruchirapally (Trichy to most people), the famous temple town of the South, is the fourth-largest city in Tamil Nadu, and is located on the banks of the Cauvery with a population of just over a million — of which 25 per cent live in slums. Trichy has 211 “approved” slums and as many as 75 “unapproved” slums which are located on railway land, Government of India land, and land belonging to the Waqf Board and other private owners. Until the end of the 1990s the slums of Trichy, with their sanitation and toilet facilities in an appalling state, were no different from the rest of the country. But things began to change about 10 years ago, and Trichy has not looked back since. The city was ranked 6th in India in the sanitation ranking of Indian cities by the ministry of urban development in 2009-10.

It all started with a major initiative launched by the NGO Gramalaya in 2000, mobilising women in the slums in self-help groups (SHGs) and launching an awareness campaign on sanitation through training. They were able to get the support of Water-Aid, a UK-based NGO, to fund the building/renovation of 25 community toilets and child-friendly toilets in the slums, which would be managed by the women of the community on a pay-and-use basis. Sanitation health education teams were set up by the SHGs to propagate the message of sanitation, monitor the behaviour of residents, and supervise the maintenance of the toilets.

A community toilet complex typically has 10-12 seats for women and 10-12 for men. Child-friendly toilets are separately provided in an adjacent area, for children up to the age of eight. Each toilet has a tap which supplies 24×7 water. Some have graduated to “sanitary complexes” with room for bathing and washing. Each facility receives its water supply from the Trichy City Corporation (TCC), and a bore well is also provided by the corporation. Each has a provision of underground storage of water and an overhead tank to which water is pumped. TCC has ensured that water is made available also in summer months through tankers. The corporation waives the electricity charge for the pumping of water for the first few years of operating the toilets. Afterwards, the tariff for community toilets is levied at the lower domestic rate and not commercial rate.

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The cost of a typical community toilet was around Rs 3 lakh in the initial years that Water-Aid built such complexes. Today, the cost is around Rs 12 lakh. The success of the women in managing and maintaining the community toilets encouraged the TCC to build more of them, so that all the 211 approved slums now have community toilets. Out of a total of 347 such toilets (some slums have more than one), 284 are connected to the sewerage system and 63 function through a septic tank. About 100 toilets are being managed on a pay and use basis by SHGs with Gramalaya, and another 40 by other NGOs. For the rest, the TCC and/or ward councillors take the responsibility for managing the toilets.

I visited the community toilet at the Kamala Nehru Nagar slum where the toilet was inside the slum area. In West Devathanam, I visited another complex where the toilet is located between the slum and a public road and caters to the needs of the slum as well as the floating population surrounding the slum. Shanmugavalli, a 30-year-old woman in charge at the Kamala Nehru Nagar community toilet was brimming with confidence. With her increased SHG responsibilities, she finds a 10th class qualification embarrassing, and has enrolled for a BA correspondence course. Her 17-year-old daughter has enrolled for engineering.

At the community toilets run by SHGs, sanitary health education team members take turns to sit at a table placed outside the toilet complex with tokens to sell as people come to use the toilet. They engage cleaners who clean the complex two to three times a day. I found that the toilets were cleaner than what we may typically find in cinema halls in Delhi.

It is clear from the systems they have put in place to manage and maintain these toilets that these women understand the economics of it all. The collection from user charges is used to pay their electricity bills, the cleaner, the guard who keeps the watch, and expenses of minor repairs. The typical user charge varies from 50 paise to Re 1 per use, while children, the elderly and the physically challenged have free access. The accounts are meticulously-kept and are audited by the TCC.

All teams make a small subscription to come together under Women’s Action for Village Empowerment (WAVE) which is a registered society. Monthly meetings of WAVE allow them to discuss their problems and learn from each other in finding solutions. A member of the TCC is also invited to these meetings. They are now extending their sphere to cover solid waste management and better delivery of other public services.

After initial resistance to their cause, men wanted to have a part of the action when the women seemed to be succeeding in making their slums clean. The women obliged by creating AWASH (Association for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene) so that men could also contribute to improving the water and sanitation scenario of their joint habitat. Men also find a role through WATSAN (water and sanitation) committees in monitoring the progress of the overall sanitation status of the slums in the city. The municipal commissioner, T. T. Balsamy, was very appreciative of the role played by the NGOs and the communities in bringing about the much overdue transformation. As Geetha Jegan, executive director of Gramalaya put it: “Together, the city corporation, the NGOs and the communities from the slums of Trichy have transformed the sanitation scenario in Trichy.”

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Trichy has shown the way. Other cities in India must follow to completely get rid of open defecation and work for better sanitary conditions.

CASE STUDY ON SEWERAGE SYSTEM INTRODUCTION 80 % of water supply is returned as waste water; as such 80% of 670MGD by optimization in 2006 workout to 536 MGD, however there is considerable abstraction of groundwater to meet water requirements by individual households. Based on a study conducted in the year 1999 to assess actual quantity of sewage generated, it was observed that as against 580 MGD of planned water supply, the observed sewage generation was599 MGD.The sewage generation in Delhi has been assessed at 719 MGD in 2005 (by theCPCB - Feb 2005) as against planned water production of 670 MGD of water by DJB indicating water usage of almost 900 MGD of water. With the partial commissioning of Sonia Vihar Water Treatment Plant water supply is augmented by about 65 MGD thus generating another 52 MGD of sewage. Thus in all fairness sewage generation as on date appears to be in the vicinity of 719 + 80% of 65 =52 + generation on account of additional ground water usage after CPCB report= 800 MGD approximately. The present installed capacity of STPs is 512.6 MGD, thus a wide gap of almost 300 MGD. Sewer system is in existence having a length of 350 km varying from 4 inches to2100 mm in diameter. Sewer System including two Sewage Pumping Stations is operated and maintained by NDMC. Brick sewers are old and settlements are occasionally observed both on brick sewers as well as NP2 class RCC sewers. Sewage is delivered to DJB for treatment. SEWAGE COLLECTION SYSTEM Sewerage facilities are provided through net work of sewers in planned colonies; unauthorized / regularized colonies, urban villages and JJ Resettlement colonies. As per present policy sewers are not provided in unauthorized colonies and rural villages. TREATMENT SYSTEM At present there are 17 Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs), equipped to treat 512.4 MGD of sewage capacities varying from 2.2 MGD to 140 MGD. DESIGN AND OPERATIONAL CAPACITY The cumulative inflow of sewage at all the STPs is 345.41 MGD. Treated sewage effluents by and large confirm to the standards set forth by DJB as also to the consent conditions set by DPCC, BOD 20 mg/l and SS 30 mg/l; except Keshopur STP. Keshopur STP is in urgent need of renovation and as of now does not treat sewage to desired standards resulting in partially treated sewage going into surface drains. As of now 800 - 346 = 454 MGD of untreated sewage and another 72 to 74 MGDof partially treated sewage, ie; 454 + 72 = 526 MGD sewage goes to the river system through 19 outfall drains (16 directly into the river and 3 into Agra canal).

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TYPE OF TREATMENT All the STPs are designed on Activated Sludge Process, except (a) 10 MGD STP at Coronation STP with Bio filters, (b) 2.2 MGD STPs each at Delhi Gate and Dr Sen Nursing Home nalla with high rate Bio filters / Densadeg Technology, (c)Mehrauli, Najafgarh & Vasant kunj STPs with extended aeration and (d) 40 MGD Rithala STP II with UASB technology. It is observed that the capacity of sewage treatment has not kept pace with growth of water supply. Apparently due to meeting water requirements of the growing population getting priority. The existing capacity needs to be optimally utilized and steps taken to augment the same to meetrequirements by 2011 & 2021 complying with standards of treatment. ISSUES REQUIRING ATTENTION

1. Present day generation of sewage is estimated at 800 MGD, as such 800 –270 = 530 MGD of untreated sewage is polluting the river Yamuna.

2. Renovation and restoration of designed capacity.

3. Owing to overflow from sewers into storm water drains (SWDs), there is a need to

segregate the sewage flow from entering into SWDs. 4. The trunk sewers are reported to be considerably silted, and need to bed silted, repaired

and renovated, where ever required, to restore their capacity in a time bound manner.

5. Efficiency of STPs and Sewage Pumping Stations may be verified (as many of them are several years old) to ascertain to actual quantity of sewage pumped and reaching the STPs. Presently, inflows are based on rated capacity of pumping.

6. There is need to generate power from the sewage gas obtained from the sludge digesters

to tide over power problems as also as a measure of abatement of air pollution. 7. Utilization of treated sewage effluents for gardening and agricultural need may not only

be explored but implemented as early as possible so that irrigation demand is met from treated effluents.

8. The design capacity of CETPs needs to be optimally utilized and the conveyance system

needs to be checked for full capacity utilization.

9. A suitable methodology needs to be worked out for scientific disposal of sludge. 10. Un-interrupted power supply and stable voltage at STPs and SPSs is a necessity to

maintain sewerage treatment pumping of sewerage. …..00000…..

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CASE STUDY ON SLAUGHTER HOUSE GOA

INTRODUCTION As per 1989 survey, India has the world’s largest population of livestock, with nearly 191 million cattle. 70 million Buffaloes, 139 million Sheep and Goat,10 million Pigs and over 200 million poultry. About 36.5% of Goat, 32.5% of Sheep, 28% of Pigs, 1.9% of Buffaloes and 0.9% cattle are slaughtered every year. The reported per capita availability of meat in India is about 1.4 kg per annum, which is rather low compared to 60-90 kg in European countries. As reported by the Ministry of Food Processing, as of 1989, a total of 3616recognized slaughter houses slaughter over 2 million cattle and buffaloes, 50million sheep and goat, 1.5 million pigs and 150 million poultry annually, for domestic consumption as well as for export purposes. While the slaughter houses come under the purview of the animal husbandry division of Ministry of Agriculture mainly for the purpose of funding towards expansion and modernization activities, the respective local bodies are mainly responsible for day-to-day operation/maintenance of the slaughter houses. Most of the slaughter houses in the country are service-oriented and, as such, perform only the killing and dressing of animals without an onsite rendering operations. Most of the slaughter houses are more than 50 years old without adequate basic amenities viz. proper flooring, ventilation, water supply, lairage, transport etc. In addition to these deficiencies, slaughter houses suffer from very low hygiene standard posing a major public health and environmental hazards due to discrete disposal of waste and highly polluted effluent discharge. Unauthorized and illicit slaughtering has also increased manifold and thus the related problems. Goa meat complex Ltd is a modern abattoir was established in 1982. The plant has area of 20 hec. Having all amenities to workmen like Dormitory, toilet, security rooms, Office & rest room and residential quarters. The plant has own 2 bore wells and overhead tank which storage capacity of 1 lakh liters per day. The present slaughter house has facilities for preparation of by- products like bone meal, blood meal, meat meal, glands, horns and hooves and tallow which gives a good return. The slaughter houses have capacity of slaughtering 150 animals per day in one shift of 8 hours. Fully equipped slaughtering line for 30 animals per hour, by- product utilization, meat deboning and cold storage are the main features of the slaughter house. To make the plant really ‘modern’, an effluent treatment plant takes care of the waste disposal which prevents water pollution of the surrounding. The unit is well connected with Road and also Airport is nearby the factory & major ports like Vasco, Mangalore & Mumbai are easily approachable. Processing capacity per day of the plant is as follows: a. Chilling room 20 MT b. Blast freezer 16 MT c. Plate freezer 10 MT d. Chilled meat 20 MT per day e. Frozen meat 20 MT per day

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PROCESS OF THE SLAUGHTER HOUSE The animals are brought to the Goa meat complex factory Usage by different traders. Antimortem inspection is done by Govt. veterinary doctor and animals which are fit for human consumption are being passed for slaughter. Then the animals are kept in the lair age for fasting for 24 hours, where ample amount of water is provided. Then the animals are passed for slaughter where first step is stunning (The animal is made un conscious).The animals move in a straight line while being dressed right from the stunning to carcass exit without any interruption, reversion or overlapping of the animal, carcass, byproduct or waste. For hygienic reason the slaughter house and the line is divided in separate section as under:

a) Stunning b) Bleeding c) De-hiding or skinning d) Dressing e) Quartering f) Weighing g)

Washing

These are a continuous process and except for stunning all operation are carried out while carcass would be hanging on overhead rail. The slaughter man is required to move about in various section; they are stationed along the rail on which the carcasses are moved from operation to operation in the slaughtering line. Each slaughter man therefore is able to carry out his special operation in a perfect manner. All carcasses and edible offal’s pass through a centralized inspection area before leaving the slaughter hall. The flow of operation continues in a proper sequence and so the best possible transportation and great safety in maintaining control and identity of all products is obtained. Since the capacity of the line is 30 animals per hour, it does not require the first degree mechanization. However, mechanization has been provided where ever possible and desirable to achieve more efficiencies and hygiene. In-edible rendering department has been sufficiently separated from the main slaughter house. Disposal of the effluent from the slaughter house is by irrigation after it has been treated. The BOD value of the effluent from slaughter house, meat packing units and stock yards varies from 2200 to 9100 mg per liter. For irrigation purposes it is intended to bring down the BOD value to 400 mg per liter of the effluent. Also the PH values of the effluent, which is as high as 13-14 is brought down to 7. This prevents the increase of the alkalinity of the land. Also the effluent to be treated is free from fats and grease. This prevents in increase alkalinity of the land, also the effluent to be treated is free from fats and grease. GOA MEAT COMPLEX LTD.MODERN ABATTOIR, MARRV ASADA, USGAO, GOA 403 407

…..00000…..

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CASE STUDY OF SLAUGHTER HOUSE, MYSORE

Mysore city is a fast developing urban centre in Karnataka and is the second largest city

in the state. Mysore city is currently having only a small animal slaughter house facility at

Rajendranagar, Kesare. This was established 50 years back and was upgraded in 1977.

The slaughter house is run by the Mysore City Corporation, however the slaughtering

activity is undertaken by the local licensed butchers. MCC has nearly 200 licensed butchers.

Presently, 350 animals comprising of Goats and Sheep are slaughtered per day to

produce 6300 Kgs of meat. On slaughtering, blood is spilled on the floor along with pieces of

skin, hair, bones, hide, meat trimmings, rumen, stomach and intestinal contents, tissues and

condemned meat etc. This amounts approximately350-400 kgs per day. All of this is washed to

clean the floor using 8750 ltrs of water every day. Therefore the quantity of effluent that flows

is also 8750 ltrs.

The washed effluent from the slaughter house is being discharged into the Underground

drain through the open drain without any treatment. This finally leads to the Sewage Treatment

Plant (STP) at Kesare, located on the Northern outfall on Bangalore road.

The slaughter house is surrounded by residential houses and it is necessary to

maintaining clean surroundings.

The solid and liquid waste is being managed in a way that results in pollution problems

in the area. MCC is now desirous of setting up an Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) for small

animal slaughter house that caters to the present demand. In view of a modern abattoir

proposed for the city to cater for large and small animals the proposal as desired by MCC is

made to treat the Waste Water corresponding to resent flows with least investment and avoiding

permanent structures for treatment. The present building has made provision for collection of

roof rain water and led into a tank. The area identified for construction of ETP happens to be

adjoining the tank. The tank is presently not used and as such it is proposed to make use of the

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tank. In view of bright sun shine during summers it may be useful to provide for cover to the

ETP components located above the ground.

Slaughter house waste is one such waste which deteriorates the environment very

rapidly and hence requires treatment prior to its disposal.

Slaughter house waste consists mainly of blood, skin, hair, horns, flesh, undigested food,

hide and dung etc.

Solid waste is basically the bones, greens, rejected/diseased meat, pieces of hide,

undigested food etc. All slaughter house waste is organic in nature. This waste has no long

lasting impact on the environment. However there are certain issues to be addressed to treat

slaughter house waste.

i) Blood : This is the major component of the waste effluent to be treated. This cannot be let

off into the nalas or drainage system, without proper treatment.

ii) Solid wastes : This waste decomposes gradually. However the disposal of solid waste needs

greater attention as this attracts vultures. Vultures fly high and hover around the

slaughter house and thereby causing nuisance to the aviation sector. It is non

hazardous.

iii) Odors : The slaughter house waste on decomposition emits an obnoxious odour which

attacts vultures and also makes the whole place look unhealthy and unhygienic.

On an average 350 animals are slaughtered per day. The organic waste thus generated is

washed using 10000 ltrs. of water. The waste water thereafter that flows contain blood, pieces

of skin, hair, bones, flush, undigested food, excreta, urine etc. will be proposed to get useful

water. After going through so many settlen and filters can be used for many non potable

application like gardening.

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CASE STUDY ON RESIDENTIAL QUARTERS AT BANGALORE

SALIENT FEATURES

Period of construction : 1983

Investigations done : 2000

Type of Superstructure : Four storied RCC framed structure with masonry filler

walls

Type of foundation : Isolated footing

OBSERVATIONS

Based on Structural Drawings and Soil Investigation Report

1. Filled-up soil extends to about 1.8 – 2.0 metre below ground level. The natural sub-soil water level

was reportedly more than 100 metres below GL.

2. The foundation was resting on clayey soil strata.

3. The depth of RCC footing was observed at 1.80 metre below GL.

4. Internal partition walls at ground floor were without grade beams and supported direct on flooring.

5. The outer walls were supported on grade beams.

6. The outer RCC footings were having lower foundation pressures as compared to internal RCC

footings.

Based on Visual Observations

Linked to Damage at Ground Floor

1. About five years back, diagonal cracks reportedly developed in the internal masonry walls at

ground floor only.

2. Cement concrete flooring and internal partition walls on ground floor developed more severe

settlement cracks with horizontal cracks in the walls and skirting.

3. A storm water drain existed with dry masonry lining outside the complex at a distance of above 2.0

metre from the two blocks of quarters. The drain is cut off during road construction about five years

back and has no disposal point. No complaint was ever heard of stagnant storm water in such a dead

end drain. Naturally, the rainwater continued to seep intermittently into foundation of quarters.

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Linked to Damage at other floors

1. The two blocks under distress were located at the lowest ground surface level in the

complex.

2. Diagonal cracks were indicative of relative settlement of internal columns. The pattern of

cracks in panel walls observed identical on all the upper floor. These cracks were observed

only in the recent past.

3. No damage to or cracking of RCC beams or columns due to over loading was observed.

4. The crack pattern was symmetrical and mirror – image about the central axis drawn

through the connecting stair lobby.

5. Across the road, which was constructed over filled up soil, a low-lying park is located. In

the recent past, this park is in disuse and being used being used as dumping ground, which

resulted in blockage of drainage points to the adjoining nallah. This caused continued

ponding of water at a level higher than the foundation level.

Linked to corrosion damage

1. The thickness of concrete cover to RCC columns found non-uniform and inadequate at

places.

2. Some RCC Chajjas and facias damaged and a few others split along the reinforcement,

apparently due to corrosion of embedded steel.

FIELD TESTS

Trial Pits

1. Though, the natural sub-soil water level was reported to be much deeper, sub soil water

was encountered even above foundation level understandably due to seepage of water

through filled up soil from a water pond recently developed across the road.

2. It was all filled up soil strata above foundation level and the foundation was resting on pure

clayey soil.

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Carbonation Depth of RCC Columns

The carbonation test on all the external columns of the buildings were carried out. It was

observed that concrete in columns had carbonated in the range of 5mm to beyond

reinforcement.

Carbonation depth Number of Reading (in %)

Upto 10mm 26%

11mm – 25 mm 18%

26mm – 40mm 11%

Beyond reinforcement 45%

CONCLUSIONS 1. Damage at ground floor in the form of cracks in internal panel walls and floor settlement

noticed about five years back occurred due to settlement of filled up soil underneath the

floors and walls on account of intermittent seepage of storm water from dry pitched

masonry drain around the buildings.

2. Cracks in internal panel walls at upper stories including ground floor and settlement of

floors in the recent past is attributed to:

a) Percolation of water in clayey sub-soil strata below foundation level due to continuous

ponding in the nearby low lying ground and consequent differential settlement on

account of highly varying bearing pressures below the footings.

b) Poor drainage of rainwater due to non-functioning of surface/storm water drains in the

complex, responsible for percolation of rainwater into foundation below.

The main cause for early distress of RCC members in the building attributed to

a) Inadequate thickness of cover concrete.

b) Accelerated carbonation of cover concrete due to alternate wetting and drying of concrete in

exposed RCC members.

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REHABILITATION MEASURES

1) Arresting further differential settlement of footin g

a) PVC sheet barrier as per the arrangement shown in the figure to be provided near the building

upto the level below the footing of columns to prevent flow of rain/subsoil water from sides to

save the buildings from damage due to settlement.

b) The ground surface is the complex to be dressed and provided with adequate slope to discharge

the rain water as quickly as possible. The plinth protection provided all round the buildings to be

repaired and made pucca to ensure that no rain/surface water accumulates or percolates into the

soil near the building.

c) After allowing the settlement to stabilize for a period of at least 12 months, the repair to masonry

to be carried out as specified. Flooring to be redone wherever damaged.

Source : Repairs and Rehabilitation Unit, CDO, CPWD, New Delhi

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