Rapein NamibiaGender Research and

advocacy project LeGaL assistaNce ceNtRe

2006

an assessment

of the Operation

of the combating

of Rape act 8 of 2000

© LegalAssistanceCentre2006

4KörnerStreet Windhoek POBox604 Windhoek Namibia 264-061-223356 264-061-234953 Email–info@lac.org.na Website–www.lac.org.na

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ISBN978-99945-61-21-6

RAPE in Namibia �

Acknowledgements ..............................................................v��Overv�ew ............................................................................�x

PART 1: THE PROBLEM OF RAPE

Chapter 1INTRODUCTION ........................................................... 1

Chapter 2THE INCIDENCE OF RAPE IN NAMIBIA ....................... 3

1. REPORTED RAPEs .............................................................3A. Pol�ce stat�st�cs ..................................................................3

Sex of rape victims ..............................................................7Age of rape victims ..............................................................8Regional comparisons, 2000-2005 ....................................10Regional comparisons over time .......................................16Reported rape in Namibia and South Africa ......................27

B. Internat�onal compar�sons ..............................................22Reported rape in Namibia and South Africa ......................27

2. UNREPORTED RAPEs ......................................................29Marital rape ...............................................................................36Child rape ..................................................................................44Tournaments .............................................................................50Rape of sex workers ..................................................................53San vulnerability to rape ...........................................................54Rape of persons with disabilities ..............................................55Rape of prisoners ......................................................................55International comparisons of unreported rapes ......................55

BOx: WHy DO PEOPLE RAPE CHILDREN? ....................................................48

PART 2: THE LAW REFORMs

Chapter 3NAMIBIA’s COMBATING OF RAPE ACT ....................... 67

1. THE BACkGROUND TO THE LAW ....................................682. OvERvIEW OF THE COMBATING OF RAPE ACT ..............743. THE DEFINITION OF RAPE ..............................................76

A. sexual Act ..........................................................................77

B. Coerc�ve c�rcumstances ...................................................79Threats of harm other than bodily harm ..........................80Age of consent ...................................................................81Complainant affected by intoxicating liquor ....................86Failure to disclose HIV status to sexual partner ................86Gang rape ...........................................................................87Marital rape ........................................................................88

4. sENTENCING ...................................................................92The concept of minimum sentences ........................................92Categories of minimum sentences ...........................................94Exceptions to the minimum sentences ....................................99Suspended sentences .............................................................100Remission of sentence ............................................................100

5. BAIL ...............................................................................1006. NEW EvIDENTIARy PROvIsIONs ..................................106

Capacity of perpetrators under age 14 ..................................106Abolition of cautionary rule for offences of a sexual nature ....106Evidence of previous consistent statements .........................109Delay between rape and laying of charge ..............................109

CON

TENTs

�� RAPE in Namibia

Evidence of the psychological effects of rape ....................... 110Evidence of previous sexual conduct or experience of complainant ............................................................................. 111Evidence of similar offences by accused ................................ 116

7. PRIvACy.........................................................................117Closed court ............................................................................ 117No publication of information revealing identity of complainant ............................................................................. 119

8. PROvIsIONs CONsIDERED AND WITHDRAWN .............121Vulnerable witnesses .............................................................. 121Victim compensation ..............................................................125Rights of complainant in rape trial .........................................127Speedy trial .............................................................................128Informing complainant of rapist’s release from prison .............128

9. RELATED IssUEs ...........................................................129Concerns about false charges .................................................129Concerns about case withdrawals ..........................................130HIV testing of accused rapists ................................................ 131Other suggestions from the Parliamentary Committee ........ 132

10. COMBATING OF IMMORAL PRACTICEs AMENDMENT ACT .........................................................135

Chapter 4LAW REFORM ON vULNERABLE WITNEssEs .......... 141

1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................1422. CRIMINAL PROCEDURE AMENDMENT ACT

24 OF 2003 ...................................................................143Who is a “vulnerable witness”? ...............................................145Special arrangements .............................................................145Evidence of child witnesses ....................................................146Other protections for vulnerable witnesses...........................148Medical reports .......................................................................148Criminal versus civil proceedings ............................................149Assessment of the vulnerable witness provisions ..................149

PART 3: THE ACT IN ACTION

Chapter 5 METHODOLOGy ...................................................... 151

1. sOURCEs OF DATA ........................................................152A. Pol�ce dockets .................................................................152B. Court reg�sters ...............................................................152C. Interv�ews........................................................................153D. Court cases ......................................................................155E. Consultat�ve workshop ..................................................155

2. MEAN, MEDIAN AND MODE .........................................1563. DETAILs OF POLICE DOCkET sAMPLE ..........................1574. DETAILs OF COURT REGIsTERs ....................................159

Chapter 6 THE RAPE ............................................................... 161

1. COMPLAINANTs ............................................................162Sex of complainants ................................................................162Age of complainants ...............................................................163Rapes of persons with disabilities ...........................................168

2. PERPETRATORs ............................................................173Number of perpetrators .........................................................173Sex of perpetrators .................................................................176Age of perpetrators ................................................................177

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3. CIRCUMsTANCEs OF THE RAPE ...................................181Relationship between complainant and accused ...................181Rape within marriage ..............................................................187Rape across versus within language groups ............................187Sexual act ................................................................................189Coercive circumstances ..........................................................192Weapons ..................................................................................198Injuries to complainant ...........................................................199Time and place of rape ............................................................202Rape in police cells and prisons ..............................................203Perceptions of service providers ............................................207HIV cure myth .........................................................................209

BOx: WHAT CAUsEs GANG RAPE? ............................................................. 175BOx: WHy DO yOUNG BOys RAPE? ........................................................... 180BOx: sExUAL ABUsE By FATHERs AND UNCLEs ...................................... 183BOx: “DATE RAPE” DRUGs ......................................................................... 198

Chapter 7REPORTING THE RAPE TO THE POLICE AND POLICE INvEsTIGATION .......................................... 211

1. ADDREssING PUBLIC RELUCTANCE TO LAy CHARGEs .......................................................................212

2. CRIMINAL CHARGEs OR COMPENsATION UNDER CUsTOMARy LAW .........................................................217

3. PERCEIvED BARRIERs TO LAyING CHARGEs WITH THE POLICE ...................................................................220

4. HOW sOON ARE RAPEs REPORTED TO THE POLICE? ......2225. REsPONsE OF POLICE sTATIONs AND WOMAN

AND CHILD PROTECTION UNITs ...................................227Unsympathetic and unhelpful police responses .....................228Improving the operation of the Woman and Child Protection Units ......................................................................233

6. POLICE INvEsTIGATION ................................................236A. Procedure for �nvest�gat�on of rape cases .................238B. Transport .........................................................................239C. F�rearms ..........................................................................239D. Involv�ng prosecutors at an early stage ......................240

7. sTATEMENTs TAkEN By POLICE ..................................242A. Interv�ew�ng procedures ...............................................242B. Language of statements ...............................................248

8. IDENTIFICATION PARADEs ...........................................2509. sUPPORT FOR THE vICTIM .............................................255

A. soc�al workers .................................................................255B. volunteer v�ct�m support serv�ces ...............................257

BOx: WHO CAN LAy A CHARGE OF RAPE? CAN MINORs LAy A CHARGE OF RAPE WITHOUT ADULT AssIsTANCE? ................................... 220BOx: CAN A COMPLAINANT IN A RAPE CAsE BE sUED FOR DEFAMATION IF THE ACCUsED Is FOUND NOT GUILTy? ......................... 221BOx: RAPE – WHAT TO DO ......................................................................... 222BOx: PROBLEMs WITH A WOMAN AND CHILD PROTECTION UNIT? ........ 232

Chapter 8MEDICAL EvIDENCE ...............................................259

1. THE IMPORTANCE OF MEDICAL EvIDENCE ..................2602. THE NATIONAL FORENsIC sCIENCE INsTITUTE ............2613. RAPE kITs .....................................................................263

Design of rape kits ..................................................................263Availability of rape kits ............................................................264Contents of rape kits ..............................................................266The chain of evidence .............................................................267

4. COLLECTION OF MEDICAL EvIDENCE ...........................273Time lapse between rape and medical examination ..............273

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Medical examination of minors ............................................... 274Getting medical evidence from perpetrators ........................278Compulsory HIV testing of alleged perpetrators of rape ......285What medical evidence is being collected in rape cases? ......288Problems with collection of specimens by doctors ...............290J-88 forms ...............................................................................292Lab results ...............................................................................302

BOx: Is DNA EvIDENCE ADMIssABLE IN NAMIBIAN COURTs? ...............270BOx: THE COsT OF PATERNITy TEsTs WHERE A PREGNANCy REsULTs FROM RAPE .................................................................................285BOx: WHAT COULD HAPPEN TO DOCTORs WHO INTENTIONALLy FAIL TO LIsT INjURIEs OF RAPE vICTIMs ON THE OFFICIAL FORMs? ............296

Chapter 9PEP AND OTHER MEDICAL sERvICEs FOR RAPE vICTIMs ........................................................309

1. APPROPRIATE HEALTH sERvICEs.................................3102. OFFICIAL GUIDELINEs ...................................................3123. HEALTH sERvICEs FOR RAPE vICTIMs IN PRACTICE .....3144. PAyING FOR POsT-RAPE MEDICATIONs ......................3195. OvERvIEW OF PROBLEMs IDENTIFIED ........................321

BOx: ABORTION ..........................................................................................310

Chapter 10ARREsTs AND CHARGEs ........................................ 323

1. DETECTION AND ARREsT .............................................324A. Detect�on and arrest rate .............................................324B. Promptness of arrests ...................................................329

2. CHARGEs .......................................................................330A. Mult�ple cr�mes ...............................................................330B. Common-law rape versus Combat�ng of Rape Act ........ 331C. s�ngle versus mult�ple charges of rape .......................332D. Attempted rape ..............................................................337

Chapter 11BAIL ........................................................................ 341

1. sTATIsTICs ON BAIL .....................................................342Police docket sample ..............................................................342Court register sample .............................................................343Overview .................................................................................345

2. kEy INFORMANTs’ PERCEPTIONs ON BAIL .................3463. THE COMPLAINANT’s RIGHTs IN REsPECT OF

THE BAIL HEARING .......................................................3474. BAIL CONDITIONs .........................................................3555. CONTINUED PUBLIC OPPOsITION TO BAIL ..................358

Chapter 12CAsE OUTCOMEs, CAsE WITHDRAWALs AND CRIMINAL TRIALs ................................................... 361

1. OvERvIEW OF CAsE OUTCOMEs ..................................362Outcome by case .....................................................................362Outcome by perpetrator .........................................................364Overview .................................................................................367Factors influencing convictions ..............................................369Prosecution and conviction rates in Namibia over time ........370International comparisons on attrition in rape cases ............370

2. BAsIC CIMINAL PROCEDURE ........................................3793. CAsE WITHDRAWALs ....................................................383

Number of case withdrawals ..................................................383Time frame for withdrawals ...................................................384

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Withdrawals initiated by complainants ..................................388Withdrawals by prosecutors ...................................................393Location of withdrawals ..........................................................394

4. CRIMINAL TRIALs FOR RAPE ........................................395A. Reduc�ng trauma to compla�nant ................................395B. Representat�on for accused ..........................................399C. Closed court ....................................................................402D. Postponements ...............................................................404

Statistics on postponements ............................................404Key informant opinions on scheduling and posponements .................................................................. 411

E. Improv�ng the process ................................................... 414F. Length of tr�al.................................................................421G. New ev�dent�ary rules ....................................................423

Abolition of special cautionary rule in rape cases ............423Limitations on evidence of complainant’s previous sexual experience .............................................................424Evidence of similar sexual offences by perpetrators.......424Expert evidence on the psychological effects of rape ......425Overview ...........................................................................425

H. Adm�ssab�l�ty and cred�b�l�ty of ev�dence from ch�ldren ............................................................................426

I. vulnerable w�tness prov�s�ons ......................................430j. Court �nterpretors ..........................................................436k. Fa�rness to accused ........................................................436L. Appeals .............................................................................437M. spec�al courts for sexual offences? .............................437

BOx: NEW PROvIsIONs ON DEALING WITH DELAys ................................401

Chapter 13sENTENCEs FOR RAPE ...........................................439

1. sENTENCEs FOR RAPE PRIOR TO THE NEW LAW ...... 4402. sENTENCEs FOR RAPE UNDER THE NEW LAW............442

A. Case law .................................................................................Jurisdictional limits of the various courts ........................442Minimum sentences in the Combating of Rape Act .........442Judicial interpretation of “substantial and compelling circumstances” ..................................................................444Examining sentences for rape on appeal .........................449

Minimum sentences for second and subsequent convictions ........................................................................450

B. stat�st�cs ..........................................................................451

C. Percept�ons of serv�ce prov�ders..................................467Application of the prescribed minimums .........................467“Substantial and compelling reasons” to depart from the minimum sentences ...................................................469Deterrent effect ...............................................................470Rehabilitation of prisoners ...............................................471Increased minimum sentences in the new Criminal Procedure Act ................................................................... 474

D. Publ�c percept�ons ..........................................................476

Chapter 14FALsE CHARGEs ..................................................... 479

1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................4802. PROCEDURE ..................................................................4903. sTATIsTICAL EvIDENCE ................................................4904. PERCEPTIONs OF sERvICE PROvIDERs .......................4925. RECOMMENDATIONs ....................................................495

v� RAPE in Namibia

Chapter 15MEDIA IssUEs ........................................................497

1. BACkGROUND ................................................................4982. PERCEPTIONs AND PRACTICE ......................................498

Chapter 16LEGAL DUTIEs AND POTENTIAL LIABILITIEs ...........505

1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................5062. sOUTH AFRICA ..............................................................5073. CANADA .........................................................................5124. CONTRARy DEvELOPMENTs IN OTHER COUNTRIEs ......5155. POTENTIAL NAMIBIAN DEvELOPMENTs .....................516

Chapter 17RAPE AND THE NEW CRIMINAL PROCEDURE ACT 25 OF 2004 ...................................................... 521

1. BAIL ...............................................................................5222. EvIDENTIARy PROvIsIONs ...........................................5253. PRIvACy PROvIsIONs ...................................................5254. vULNERABLE WITNEss PROvIsIONs .............................5265. NEW PROvIsIONs TO PROTECT vICTIMs’ RIGHTs .......530

Legal representation of victim .............................................. 531Victim impact statement ....................................................... 531Victim compensation ..............................................................532

6. REMOvAL OF TIME LIMITs ON RAPE PROsECUTIONs ......5337. COMPETENT vERDICTs .................................................5338. sENTENCEs ....................................................................534

Chapter 18RAPE sTATUTEs IN OTHER COUNTRIEs IN AFRICA ... 539

1. TANzANIA .................................................................... 5402. BOTsWANA ...................................................................5423. zIMBABWE ....................................................................5434. LEsOTHO ........................................................................5465. kENyA ...........................................................................5496. sWAzILAND ....................................................................5517. sOUTH AFRICA ..............................................................5528. CONCLUsION ..................................................................558

Chapter 19sUMMARy OF RECOMMENDATIONs ......................... 561PART A: GOvERNMENT ............................................................562

1. Cab�net ................................................................562 2. Parl�ament ..........................................................563 3. M�n�stry of safety and secur�ty .......................564 4. M�n�stry of Health and soc�al serv�ces ............572 5. Nat�onal Forens�c sc�ence Inst�tute .................575 6. M�n�stry of just�ce .............................................577 7. M�n�stry of Gender Equal�ty and Ch�ld Welfare ...588 8. Trad�t�onal leaders .............................................589

PART B: sTAkEHOLDERs OUTsIDE THE GOvERNMENT ..........590 1. NGO commun�ty ..................................................590 2. Telecom ...............................................................591 3. Donor commun�ty ..............................................592 4. Med�a ...................................................................592 5. Legal profess�on .................................................592

Append�xCOMBATING OF RAPE ACT 8 OF 2000 ......................593

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ACkNOWLEDGEMENTsMost of this study was drafted and edited by Dianne Hubbard,

co-ordinator of the Gender Research and Advocacy Project (GR&AP) of the Legal Assistance Centre (LAC), with support and assistance from the entire staff of GR&AP.

Field research was coordinated by Wairimu Munyinyi, a VSO volunteer based at the LAC. Data was collected by:

Wairimu Munyinyi, who collected data from police dockets and court records, interviewed key informants and researched rape of persons with disabilitiesAmanda Dodge, a legal intern sponsored by the Canadian Bar Association through the Young Professionals International Program funded by the Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs, who collected data from police dockets and court records and interviewed key informantsTracy Orr, a master’s student from the University of Michigan School of Public Health, who collected data from police docketsAnne Rimmer, a development worker sponsored by the Catholic Institute for International Relations (CIIR), who conducted focus group discussions with community members and analysed J-88 formsNaomi Kisting, LAC staff member, who conducted focus group discussions with community membersDr Suzanne LaFont, visiting scholar, who analysed data on tournamentsUniversity of Namibia (UNAM) law students Nailoke Mhanda, Andy Mokgatle, Ingrid Lerato Soabes and Wilhem Swartbooi, who collected data from police dockets.

Legal research was provided by: Dianne HubbardLeigh-Anne Agnew, legal consultantElizabeth Fischer, a legal intern provided through the Human Rights Program and the Summer Public Interest Fund of Harvard Law SchoolNermeen Saba Arastu, a legal intern funded by the University of Pennsylvania Law School International Human Rights FellowshipSonia Eggerman, a legal intern sponsored by the Canadian Bar Association through the Young Professionals International Program funded by the Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs.

Data entry and analysis was carried out by Christa Schier, who also assisted enormously with the final product and provided answers to endless queries about the statistics. Most of the tables in the report are based on her data analysis.

We would also like to thank NAMPOL, which provided statistics specifically for the study and facilitated our access to police dockets, and the Ministry of Justice, which allowed access to court registers.

The study was funded primarily by the Royal Danish Embassy in Pretoria, South Africa, with some supplemental funding from Austrian Development Cooperation through the North-South Institute and HIVOS. The budget for the project was supervised by Anne Rimmer.

Layout is by Perri Caplan, and administrative support was provided by Naomi Kisting.

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Thanks to the many persons from a wide range of fields who agreed to be interviewed for this study, with special thanks to those rape complainants who were willing to talk about painful episodes in their lives.

Thanks also to those who took time to discuss the preliminary findings and recommendations at the workshop hosted by Legal Assistance Centre on the draft report in November 2006.

We dedicate this study to all those who have experienced rape, in the hope that the information and recommendations in the report can help improve Namibian’s response to this horrendous crime.

“The Combating of Rape Act 8 of 2000 is one of the most progressive laws on rape in the world. Implicit in the Act is a recognition that rape is not a sexual crime, but that it is a crime of violence and power which uses sex as a weapon to humiliate and destroy.”

Narn�a Bohler-Muller, “Valuable lessons from Namibia on the combating of rape”,

South African Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 14, No. 1, 2001 at 74.

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OvER

vIEWThis study examines national police statistics on rape, plus a

sample of rape cases which originated during 2000-2005, to see how Namibia’s Combating of Rape Act 8 of 2000 is working in practice.

Reported rapes and attempted rapes in 2003-2005 amount to 1100-1200 cases per year, which is equal to about 60 reported cases per 100 000 people in Namibia – as compared to about 117 reported cases per 100 000 people in South Africa and about 9 reported cases per 100 000 people in Kenya.

It is impossible to determine if the increase in the number of reported rapes and attempted rapes over time results from an increase in the number of rapes being committed, an increase in the number of rapes being reported, or a mixture of these two factors.

Recent police statistics indicate that just over one-third of all victims of rape and attempted rape are under age 18.

The expanded gender-neutral definition of rape is being applied in practice. Both females and males are laying charges of rape, although rape complainants are still overwhelmingly female. The broad definition of “sexual act” applied by the new law is being utilised, even though the majority of rape cases still involve sexual intercourse. Similarly, the broad new definition of “coercive circumstances” is also being applied as intended. All of the different types of coercive circumstances are being recognised in practice, even though most rapes still involve force or threats of force.

Most rapes in our sample were committed by partners, family members or acquaintances, with only about 12% of all rapes being committed by strangers. About 11% of the rape cases examined involved multiple perpetrators. The vast majority of perpetrators (more than 99%) were male, and about 13% of the perpetrators were young men under the age of 18.

Despite the creation of Woman and Child Protection Units (WCPUs) staffed by many committed police officers, some rape complainants still receive an unsympathetic response when reporting rapes – particularly rapes by husbands or other partners. This may stem in part from the lack of adequate training for WCPU personnel.

Police response also continues to be hampered by practical problems such as lack of transport, the absence of expertise for dealing with child rape complainants and inadequate com-munication between police stations regarding WCPU staff who are “on call” after-hours.

Police investigation techniques could be improved by earlier involvement of prosecutors, particularly now that the Office of the Prosecutor-General has established a specialised unit for handling sexual offences and domestic violence.

Problems with police statements are sometimes a barrier to successful prosecution; this could be improved by the use of tape-recorded statements in the complainant’s mother-tongue.

Now that all rape cases are handled by WPCUs, Parliament should allocate a specific budget to WCPUs for this purpose.

One of the weakest aspects of the criminal justice system’s response to rape pertains to the collection and use of medical evidence, which is often crucial in obtaining convictions. Many doctors who examine rape complainants appear to lack sufficient time, training and sometimes commitment to the task. More intensive training and monitoring of doctors who carry out this task is crucial if conviction rates are to be increased.

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One big problem in this respect appears to be a breakdown in communications between police, prosecutors, courts and the National Forensic Science Institute, with courts being told that lab results are not yet ready when they are in fact waiting to be collected. New systems of distribution and control of rape kits are in the process of being established, but presiding officers could address this problem immediately by the simple expedient of insisting on confirmation from the lab in any instance where a postponement is requested on the grounds of unfinished lab results.

The provision of medical services for rape complainants, including post-exposure prophylaxis to reduce the chances of acquiring HIV from the rape, is not yet satisfactory – particularly in rural areas. However, the Ministry of Health & Social Services is still in the process of rolling out these services and providing appropriate training to those responsible for administering such medications. Public awareness of the need for post-rape medications appears to be low.

One way to improve official response would be to establish a regular, informal forum for key role players from different ministries and institutions to come together to discuss issues and problems across sectors.

Only 16% of the perpetrators accused of rape or attempted rape are convicted of either of these crimes. The most serious gap is between charge and trial. About one-third of all rape complainants request withdrawal of their cases, usually within 1-2 months of laying the charge – with almost two-thirds of these cases involving rapes perpetrated by partners, family members or acquaintances. It may be that some of these complainants prefer to resolve the matter by means of compensation under customary law, although technically this remedy could be pursued at the same time as a criminal charge for rape.

Case withdrawals could be reduced by the introduction of a victim’s assistance programme staffed primarily by trained volunteers who could support the survivor, help explain the court process, assist with logistical questions, keep the complainant informed of the progress of the case and accompany the complainant to court proceedings. This could reduce trauma to the rape complainant and at the same time free prosecutors to focus on the legal issues.

Most of those interviewed appeared to be familiar with the provisions aimed at assisting vulnerable witnesses in court, and had utilised many of them to the extent that available resources permitted – particularly the use of support persons, having the presiding officer re-state questions to the complainant, moving furniture or dispensing with robes to make the atmosphere less intimidating, and using screens or closed-circuit television to shield the complainants from seeing the accused. However, there are also indications that the options for vulnerable witnesses are often being ignored, possibly because of a lack of clarity on who is responsible for suggesting them.

The most consistent procedural oversight is lack of implementation of the provision on closed court, with few service providers being aware that the new law requires the court to be closed during the entire rape trial unless the complainant requests otherwise.

The minimum sentences appear to be working in practice, although the statistics suggest that courts often look to the minimum sentences as being fixed sentences instead of base level sentences – especially when it comes to the heavier minimums of 10 and 15 years. Members of the public often call for stiffer sentences for rapists, but the study findings indicate that it would make more sense to spend energy and public resources on decreasing case withdrawals and increasing conviction rates.

Namibia’s Combating of Rape Act appears to be one of the most progressive rape laws in southern Africa to date, and other African countries have looked to it as a model in many respects. Therefore, the recommendations contained in this study may be useful beyond the borders of Namibia.

All of the recommendations contained in the report are compiled in Chapter 19 for easy reference.

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