Raj Rajeshwari Journal of R Psychological & Educational ... 2019 Issue.pdfRRJPER - Vol. 3 (2) & 4(1) – April, 2019 ISSN 2455-7900 RAJ RAJESHWARI JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL & EDUCATIONAL

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International Journal

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Raj Rajeshwari Journal of

Psychological & Educational

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RNI REG. NO. –HPENG/2016/73536

VOL. 3 (2) & 4(1)

ISSN 2455-7900

April, 2019

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RRJPER - Vol. 3 (2) & 4(1) – April, 2019 ISSN 2455-7900

RAJ RAJESHWARI JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL & EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH- April, 2019 1

HUMOUR STYLES OF EFFECTIVE AND IN-EFFECTIVE SECONDARY TEACHERS

* Madan Kumar & **Dr. Raj Kumar Dhiman

* Assistant Prof. in Education, Raj Rajeshwari College of Education Bhota, Hamirpur (H.P.) – INDIA

**Principal, Raj Rajeshwari College of Education Bhota, Hamirpur (H.P.) - INDIA

ABSTRACT

The Teacher is the single most important key factor in the success of an educationalprogram, reform and advancement. The present study was designed with the objectiveto study the difference in the Humour Styles of Effective and In-Effective secondaryteachers. The Teachers employed in Govt. and Private recognized schools of NadaunBlock in District Hamirpur of Himachal Pradesh were selected for the study. Data wascollected with the help of standardized tools viz. Teachers Communication EffectivenessScale (TCES) by Dr. Raj Kumar Dhiman and Hindi adaptation of Humour StylesQuestionnaire of Martin et al. (2003). by Prof. B. P. Verma. The statistical techniquesof Mean, SD and the ‘t’-test were employed for data analysis. The findings of the studyreported that teachers having effective teaching background were found to be morehumorous in their teaching as compared to their in-effective counterparts.

KEY WORDS : Humour Styles, Teachers, Affiliative, Self-Enhancing, Aggressive, Self-Defeating.....

INTRODUCTIONSchools are making effort to ensure that their Teachers are effective in every way in

subject delivery. A lot of emphasis is placed on the curriculum in schools / colleges butnot on the methodology of delivery of the same. The main focus of this study was toinvestigate the extent to which Teachers use humour while teaching and the effect thatthe use of humour gives to their teaching. As human beings, we have the ability to laughat others and ourselves, to make jokes, to add humour to situations which are seeminglywithout humour, and to be absurd. Humour is part of everyone’s experience, and thosewho have no sense of humour would probably not admit it. Humour has also beenused in Education. Teachers and Teacher Educators of all levels and disciplines havepraised the ability of humour to aid the learning process, to help students’ understanding



of key points and to relax students in moments of anxiety. In a departure from mostprevious humour - related research, Neuliep (1991) investigated the effects of humorby soliciting teacher (rather than student) perceptions of their own humour usage andits effects in the classroom. Injecting humour in the Classroom proceeding can maketeaching interesting.

CONCEPT OF HUMOUR STYLESHumour is defined as the tendency of particular cognitive responses to provoke

laughter, physical reaction, and provoke amusement. Humour is a part of Humanexperience. Humour is experienced across all ages and culture. Humour seems to bedevelopmental in nature, in that children must develop certain cognitive abilities in orderto appreciate a wide variety of humour. One study (Spector, 1996) showed that childrenas young as 8 years are capable of understanding humour based on idioms where “pieceof mind” is an idiom with both literal and figurative meanings. He states that theunderstanding of this humour is related to the students’ development of met linguisticabilities. In the same work, fifth graders were shown to have a significantly higherunderstanding of humorous idioms than third graders. Thus, the understanding of humourimproves between third and fifth grade, lending support to the concept that humourimproves with development for young people. The function of humour can be heavilyinfluenced by style in which it is presented. Individuals tend to use humour in Styles thatare meant to enhance the self and to enhance relationships with others. Martin et al.(2003) developed the Humour Styles Questionnaire (HSQ) as a result of examining thefunctions served by humour. Martin et al. proposed that Self-Enhancing Humour, AffiliativeHumour, Self-Defeating Humour and Aggressive Humour are a result of the functionsindividuals want served by humour usage. Self-Enhancing and Affiliative Humour areproposed to lead to positive effects, while Self-Defeating and Aggressive Humour areproposed to lead to negative effects.

FORMS OF HUMOUR STYLESHumour is one of the major components for effective teaching learning process.

Various authors and educationists have classified humour in their own way but Martin etal. (2003) has given four styles of humour as under:



Affiliative HumourAffiliative Humour is proposed to have mostly positive implications for individuals,

as well as for groups (Martin et al. 2003). Martin et al. states that affiliative humour involvesfunny sayings and actions that are used to amuse others, facilitate relationships and reduceinterpersonal tension.

Self-Enhancing HumourSelf-Enhancing Humour is proposed to have mostly positive implications for

individuals, as well as on groups (Martin et al. 2003). Martin et al. (2003) describes Self-Enhancing Humour as humour that allows individuals to maintain a humorous outlookeven in the face of stress or adversity.

Aggressive HumourAggressive Humour is the use of sarcasm, teasing, ridicule, derision, put-down, or

disparaging humour (Martin et al., 2003). Aggressive humour is proposed to have negativeimplications for individuals, as well as on groups. Aggressive humour may involve themanipulation of others due to its implied threat of ridicule. Users of aggressive humourhave no regard for the potential negative outcomes of its use. Humour used in this fashionis likely to hurt or alienate others.

Self-Defeating HumourSelf-Defeating Humour includes self-disparagement, where the user attempts to say

or do funny things at their own expense (Martin et al. 2003). Self-Defeating Humour isproposed to have negative implications for individuals, as well as on groups. The userallows themselves to become the “butt’ of others attempts at humour. The targetedindividual laughs along while they are being ridiculed and disparaged by others.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATUREThe review of related literature pertaining to the present study has been given as

under:

Research Studies Related to Humour StylesOrnstein & Levine (1981) found that the use of humour by teacher can capture the

interest of the students and reduce tension. The removal of distracting material canincrease attention and decrease classroom disruption.



Ziv (1987) found that aggressive tendency was diminished significantly whenfrustrating subjects was given an opportunity to release tension through laughter.

Nezu et al. (1988) found that humour serve as a moderator of stress for depressive,but not anxiety a symptomatology, regardless of the measures of humour that was usedin the analysis.

Gorham & Christophel (1990) found that the amount and the type of the humourinfluenced learning but not to the same extend as immediacy. Based on this data, theyfelt that the relationship between teacher‘ humour in the class room and learning is bestunderstood when considered along with teacher immediacy. Humour is one type ofimmediacy behavior that teachers can capitalize on in the classroom.

Greenberg (2001) found that the best times to deliver serious points in teaching ora presentation to students is right after they laugh. This is because they need time to relaxtheir minds in the midst of the intense learning and presentations.

Saroglou & Scariot (2002) found that the Humour Styles were related to personalityindifferent fashions. Self-Enhancing and Affiliative Humour were positively related toagreeableness, openness, and self-esteem. Aggressive Humour was negatively related toagreeableness and conscientiousness. Emotional stability was negatively related toemotional stability, conscientiousness, security in attachment, and self-esteem. The resultssuggest that personality may be the best predictor in determining which humor styles areused by individuals.

Martin et al. (2003) found four different Humour Styles in the daily use of humour byindividuals. This also refers to individual differences in the use of humour. Two of theHumour Styles are positive and healthy while the other two are negative and unhealthywithin the context of psychological well-being while “Affiliative” and “Self-Enhancing”Humour Styles reflect the positive and adaptive characteristics of personality, “Aggressive”and “Self- Defeating” Humour Styles address negative and maladaptive aspects ofpersonality traits. The first two positive styles are negatively correlated with anxiety anddepression and positively correlated with self-esteem, extraversion, openness andagreeableness. The last two are negatively correlated with agreeableness andconscientiousness and positively correlated with neuroticism, hostility and aggression.

Verma (2007) & Powers (2005) found that if information is overloaded, it seems tosit in the short - term memory, which cannot process it all and within a short while, things



end up getting so confusing to the student. Humour can also help physiologically to connectthe left-brain activities to the right - brain creative side and thereby allowing students tobetter assimilate the information presented. This is to say that humour presents, in thestudents, some sort of mental sharpness.

Research Studies Related to Effective and In-Effective TeachersChaya (1974) found that effective teachers have significantly better personality

adjustment, favourable attitude towards teaching and emotional stability.Arora (1976) found that effective teachers derive more satisfaction from their work

than ineffective teachers.Grewal’s (1976) in his study found that main predictors of teacher effectiveness are

home, health, social, emotional and total adjustment.Kurian (1994) in a study, ‘Teacher perception of effective classroom instruction at

secondary school level’ found that male and female teachers differ significantly in theirperception of effective classroom instruction.

Kagathala (2002) in a study found that area of schools and higher qualificationaffects teacher effectiveness.

Prasad (2002) found that teacher effectiveness is significantly related to temperamentvariables.

Johnson (2004) in a project study, identified a number of supports for teachereffectiveness. They are mentoring a curriculum that is adaptable and supportive of teacherlearning and a professional culture in which there is deep and sustained interactionbetween novice and veteran teachers.

Strong (2010) investigated that there is no doubt that most teacher in school areeffective and are committed to their students and profession, an are trying there best tomeet students need every day. Research has shown that effective teacher can lead thestudent to learn, even those from poor families or who have uninvolved parents.

After having reviewed the related literature, most of the researcher and their findingindicates that the humour in teaching is very important and makes teacher and his/herteaching effective. The use of humour by teacher can capture the interest of the studentand reduce tension. The removal of distracting material can increase attention and decreaseclassroom disruption. It makes teachers’ teaching effective.



OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDYO. To find out the difference in Humour Styles of Effective and In-Effective Teachers.

HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDYH. There will be no significant difference in Humour Styles of Effective and In-EffectiveTeachers.

DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The study was delimited to fifty (50) Secondary Schools of Nadaun Block in District

Hamirpur of Himachal Pradesh. The study was delimited with regard to size of sample. The study involved the

sample of 200 Secondary School Teachers. The study was delimited to lottery method of probability sampling. The study was delimited to the statistical techniques of Mean, SD and the ‘t’-test

only. The study was delimited to one major Null-Hypothesis. The study was delimited in terms of independent and dependent variables. In the

present study dependent variable was humour styles and independent variablewas teaching effectiveness.

The study was delimited in terms of time, money and resources.

RESEARCH METHODIn the present study descriptive survey method of research was used.

RESEARCH TOOL USEDThe following research tools were used in the present study for data collection: Teaching Communication Effectiveness Scale (TCES) by Dr. Raj Kumar Dhiman. Hindi Version of Humour Styles Questionnaire of Martin et al. (2003) by Prof. B. P.

Verma.

SAMPLINGIn the present study lottery method of probability sampling was used.

STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES USEDIn the present study the statistical techniques of Mean, SD and the‘t’–test were

employed for data analysis.



ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE DATAThe Table-1 presents the calculated statistics of humour styles of Effective and In-

Effective Secondary Teachers.Table-1

Significance of Mean Difference in Effective and In-Effective Teachers towardsHumour Styles

Humour N M SD df ‘t’-Value SignificanceStyles

Effective In-Effective Effective In-Effective Effective In-EffectiveTeachers Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers

AffiliativeHumour 55 44 28.76 28.11 2.83 2.51 97 1.20 NS

Self-Enhancing55 44 28.85 27.05 2.72 2.70 97 2.46 *

HumourAggressiveHumour 55 44 21.54 19.54 3.66 4.16 97 2.52 *

Self-Defeating55 44 20.89 19.97 2.23 2.79 97 1.76 NS

Humour

*= Significant at 0.05 Level of Significance and NS= Not Significant

The Table-1 indicates that the obtained ‘t’ values were found to be 1.20 and 1.76with respect to Affiliative Humour and Self-Defeating Humour styles, which are notsignificant. It means that Effective and In-Effective secondary Teachers do not differsignificantly with regard to Affiliative and Self-Defeating Humour styles. Hence, the nullhypothesis that, ‘There will be no significant difference in Humour Styles of Effective andIn-Effective Teachers’, was accepted in case of Affiliative and Self-Defeating Humour styles.

The Table-1 also reflects that the obtained ‘t’ values was found to be 2.46 for Self-Enhancing Humour style, which is significant at 0.05 level of significance. The mean valueof effective teachers (M=28.85) is greater than the mean value of in-effective teachers(27.05) for self-enhancing humour style. This implies that effective teachers were moreprone to use of self-enhancing humour style as compared to their in-effective counterparts.The Figure-1.1 shows the significant difference in the mean scores of effective and in-effective teachers with regard to self-enhancing humour style.



Figure-1.1

Showing the Significant Difference in Mean Scores Of Effective and In-EffectiveSecondary Teachers With Regard to their Self-Enhancing Humour Style

28.85

27.0530

25

20

15

10

5

0

Mean

Scores

Category

Effective Teachers In-Effective Teachers

The Table-1 also shows that the obtained ‘t’ values was found to be 2.52 forAggressive Humour style, which is significant at 0.05 level of significance. The mean valueof effective teachers (M=21.54) is greater than the mean value of in-effective teachers(19.54) for aggressive humour style. This implies that effective teachers were more orientedtowards prone towards aggressive humour style as compared to their in-effectivecounterparts. The Figure-1.2 shows the significant difference in the mean scores of effectiveand in-effective teachers with regard to aggressive humour style.



Figure-1.2

Showing the Significant Difference in Mean Scores Of Effective and In-EffectiveSecondary Teachers With Regard to their Aggressive Humour Style

21.54

19.54

25

20

15

10

5

0

Mean

Scores

Category

Effective Teachers In-Effective Teachers

Hence, the null hypothesis that, ‘There will be no significant difference in HumourStyles of Effective and In-Effective Teachers’, was not accepted in case of self-enhancingand aggressive humour styles.

FINDINGS OF THE STUDYOn the basis of the analysis and interpretation of the data the following conclusions

were drawn: The Effective Teachers were found to be more oriented towards Self-Enhancing

and Aggressive Humour styles as compared to their In-Effective counterparts. No significant differences were found in Affiliative and Self-Defeating Humour styles

of Effective and In-Effective Teachers was found.



EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONSThe present study holds several implications for teachers regarding teaching learning-

process. First, teachers should use Humour in the classroom communication. This study

shows that the Teachers having effective background were found to be morehumorous as compare to their In-Effective background counterparts.

Second, teachers should use Humour in the Self-Enhancing Style for positiveoutcome. This research shows that Effective Teachers having Effective Teachingbackground were found to be more oriented towards Self-Enhancing Humour.

REFERENCES

Arora, K. (1976). Difference between effective and ineffective teachers. DoctoralThesis, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi.

Chaya (1974). An investigation into certain psychological characteristics of effectiveschool teacher. Doctoral Thesis, Kanpur University.

Crawford C.B. (1994). Theory & Implication regarding the utilization of strategichumour by leaders. The journal of leadership Studies studies. 1 (4)

Gorham, J., Christophel, D.M. (1990). The relationship of teachers‘ use of humourin the classroom to immediacy and student learning. Communication Education.

Greenberg, D. (2001). To study the use of Humour in your presentation. Doctrinethesis, American Psychological Association Inc.

Grewal, S.S. (1976). Intellectual and personality correlates of teacher effectivenessat the higher secondary stage. Doctoral Thesis, Punjab University.

Johnson, S.M. (2004). The project on the next generation of teachers, finders andkeepers: Helping new teacher survive and thrive in our schools. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.

Kagathala, A.B. (2002). A study of effectiveness of teachers of secondary schools inGujarat. Journal of Education and Psychology. Vol. LIX, No.4 and Volume LX No. 1,Jan-June 26-33.

Krishnaprasad, B. (2002). Teacher effectiveness and temperament variables ofsecondary school teachers. Research and Reflections on Education, Vol. 1, No.2,July-Sept. 2002.

Kurian, Thomas. (1994). Teacher Perception of effective classroom instruction atsecondary school level. M.Ed. thesis, University of Calicu.



Martin & Lefcourt H.M. (1984) Sense of humour as a moderator of the relationshipbetween stress and moods. Journal of personality.

Martin, R.A., Puhlik-Doris , P. Larsen, G., Gray, J. & Weir, K. (2003). Individualdifferences of uses of humour and their relation to psychological well-being:Development of the humor styles questionnaire. Journal of Research in Personality,37(1), 48-75.

Neuliep, J.W. (1991). An examination of the content of high school teacher’shumour in the class room and the development of an inductively derivedtaxonomy of classroom Humour. Journal of Communication Education, 40, 343-355. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03634529109378859.

Nezu A. M. Nezu, C.M. and Blisett,S.E, (1988). Sence of humour as a moderator ofthe relation between stressful event and psychological Distress : A prospectiveAnalysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 54(3),520-525

Ornstein and Levine (1981). The role of humour in teaching. Journal of Education.National University of Singapore Research Network. [Online] Available: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm (February 25, 2010).

Saroglou, V., & Scariot, C. (2002). A study of Personality and education correlates inBelgian high school and college students. European Journal of Personality, 16, 43-54

Solomon, J. C. (1996). Humor and aging well: A laughing matter or a matter oflaughing? (Aging Well in Contemporary Society, Part 2: Choices and Processes)American Behavioral Scientist, 39 (3), 249-271.

Spector, C.C. (1996). Children’s comprehension of idioms in the context of humour.Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in School, 27(4), 307-313.

Stronge, J. H. (2010). Qualities of effective teachers. Alexandria, VA: Associationfor Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Verma, H. (2007). To study the effective use of Humour as a good teaching Master’sdissertation, University of Visakhapatnam.

Ziv A. (1987) “the effect of humour on aggression Catharsis in classroom. Journalof psychology, 1121 (4), 359-364).

Received on 20/02/2019Accepted on 18/04/2019



EMOTIONAL MATURITY OF PROSPECTIVE SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERSSavita Devi

Assistant Prof., Raj Rajeshwari College of Education, Bhota, Distt. Hamirpur (H.P.)-INDIA

ABSTRACTEducation in its broadest sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect

on the mind, character or physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense educationis a process by which Society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skilland values form one generation to another. Education has become one of the mostimportant human activities. Its benefits are immense and without education one cannotlive like an efficient human being. A sound and effective system of education result inthe enfoldment of learners’ potentialities and transformation of their interest’s attitudesand values. Education is a man making process: its specific role is to accelerate theholistic development of body, mind, intellect and emotions. It develops all theintellectual and emotional powers of the individual, so that he is able to meet theproblems of the life squarely and solve them successfully. This paper has been designedto discuss the study of emotional maturity of secondary school teachers in relation totheir marital status and Socio-Economic Status.

KEY WORDS: Marital Status, Socio-economic Status, Physical Ability, Knowledge,Skill, Values, Attitude, Emotional Maturity......

INTRODUCTIONEducation is a process of human enlightenment and empowerment for the

achievement of a better and higher quality of life. A sound and effective system ofeducation results in the enfoldment of learner potentialities and transformation of theirinterests, attitudes and values. It develops all the intellectual and emotional powers ofthe individual, so he is able to meet the problems of life and solve them successfully.Education to be complete must have five principle aspects relating to the five principalactivities of human being: the physical, the vital, the mental, the psychic and the spiritual.Education not only provides us job and livelihood, but also develops our personality. Itshapes our character and makes us mannered and cultured. It expands the intellect ofmind. It controls our mind and heart leading to overall self- control. Education is essentialfor the growth and development of an individual as well as of society. Education in any



society does not depend so much on the other factor as on the teacher. The whole systemof education revolves around the teacher. The teacher plays a significant role in improvingthe quality of education. They should have mastery over contents and pedagogical skills.To be an effective teacher, the teacher should have gone through the training programme.For this B.Ed. training programme is of utmost importance.

CONCEPT OF EMOTIONAL MATURITYEmotion is one of the important aspects of behaviour. Emotions play an important

role in providing a particular direction to our behaviour thus shaping our personality. “Anemotion is a strong filling accompanied by marked physiological changes inside the bodyleading to changes in behaviour in the form of overt responses in an organism”. The concept“mature” emotional behaviour at any level reflects the fruit of normal emotionaldevelopment. In the present circumstances, youth as well as children are facing difficultiesin their life. These difficulties are giving rise to many psychosomatic problems such asanxiety, tensions, frustrations and emotional disturbance.

Emotional maturity is the ability to assess a relationship or situation and to actaccording to what is best for oneself and other person in the relationship. Emotionalmaturity is a state wherein one’s emotional reactivity is considered appropriate and normalfor an adult in a given society. Generally a person can be called emotionally mature if he isable to display his emotions in an appropriate degree with reasonable control.

According to Walter D Smitson (1974), “Emotional maturity is a process on which thepersonality is continuously striving for greater sense of emotional health both intra-physically and intra-personally”.

CHARACERISTICS OF EMOTIONALLY MATURE PERSONA person is said to be emotionally mature when he feels proper emotion in a proper

situation and express it in a proper quantity. An emotionally mature person will possessthe following characteristics :

Almost all the emotions can be distinctly seen in him and their pattern of expressioncan be easily recognized.

Manifestation of emotions is very refined. Usually he expresses his emotions in asocially desirable manner.

He is able to exercise control over his emotions. He is able to hide his emotions. The intellectual powers like thinking, reasoning etc. are properly exercised by in

making any decision. He is more guided by his intellect than his emotions.



He does not possess the habit of rationalization i.e he never gives arguments indefence of his undesirable or improper conduct.

He has the potential to exercise his emotions at a proper time in a proper place.Mature emotional behaviour is characterised by greater stability. Person havingsuch maturity shows no sudden shift from one emotion to another.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATUREThe review of related literature has been given systematically pertaining to the present

study.

RESEARCH STUDIES RELATED TO EMOTIONAL MATURITYLipton et al. (1975) revealed that emotional maturity was a major factor especially as

a predictor of success in essay tests among medical students.Choudhary & Uppal (1996) investigated that adolescents staying at homes with

parents had higher level of achievement motivation (mean 53.58) and had more emotionalmaturity (mean 89.5) as compared to their counterpart staying in the orphanages themeans score of achievement motivation (51.08) and emotional maturity (53.58).

Jha (2002) observed that self-confidence and emotional maturity were positivelyassociated with vigilant style of decision making in case of executives.

Mittal & Bajaj (2003) found that the mother’s emotional maturity is significantlycorrelated to their children’s intelligence. The child who receives maternal love, conducivehome environment and proper care and facilities during their impressionable period oflife help to develop an intellectual competence in their future life. Further, working womenwere found to be more emotionally matured than non-working women. Also, children ofworking mothers were more intelligent than children of non-working mothers.

Singh & Thukral (2010) reported that there exists no significant relationship betweenemotional maturity and academic achievements of high school students. No significantdifferences were observed between boys and girls as well as rural and urban high schoolstudents on the basis of emotional maturity.

RESEARCH STUDIES RELATED TO SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUSBanjamin (1965) concluded that each and every aspects of socio-economic status of

the students is not equally effective but family income plays a relatively important role inhaving better scholastic attainment.

Blood (1976) investigated the relationship between self- esteem, family authority



ability structure, socio-economic status and academic achievements of high schoolstudents. The researcher found that a firm but loving family environment has significantinfluence on academic achievement positively.

Jain (1981) found that the academic achievement of the pupils of urban area wasbetter than that of the pupils of the rural areas and socio-economic level of the pupilsachievement in all the subjects. The pupil belonging to the upper socio-economic levelachieved better than the pupils, whose parents belong to the middle socio-economic levelfollowed by those who belong to the lower socio-economic level.

Singh (1981) conducted a study on the relationship of socio-economic status andhome environment with academic achievement. He found that socio-economic statusand home environment is positively and significantly related to academic achievement.

Mishra (1986) studied the influence of socio-economic status on academicachievement of higher secondary school students in rural and urban areas and found thatthere was a positive relationship between socio-economic status and academicachievement of students.

Kaur (2010) found that different students have different socio economic status andtheir socio economic status score ranged from 46 to 224.

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDYO. To study marital status wise difference in emotional maturity of prospective

secondary school teachers with respect to Emotional Stability, EmotionalProgression, Social Adjustment, Personality Integration and Independence.

HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDYH. There will be no significant marital status-wise difference in the emotional maturity

of prospective secondary school teachers with respect to Emotional Stability,Emotional Progression, Social Adjustment, Personality Integration and Independence.

RESEARCH TOOL USEDIn the present study ‘Emotional Maturity Scale’ developed by Dr. Mahesh Bhargava

was used. It comprises of 48 items in Hindi language with five alternative responses.

SAMPLINGIn the present investigation, a representative sample of 340 prospective secondary

school teachers was drawn from Mandi and Bilaspur Districts of Himachal Pradesh throughconvenient sampling.



STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATADescriptive statistics like Mean, S.D and the‘t’-test were employed.

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATAAnalysis and interpretation of the obtained data was made by keeping in mind the

objective of the study as given below:

MARITAL STATUS-WISE COMPARISON OF EMOTIONAL MATURITY OF PROSPECTIVESECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS

In order to study the marital status-wise significance of difference in the emotionalmaturity of prospective secondary school teachers, the statistical technique of t-test wasapplied. The dimension wise summary of statistical calculations is presented in the Table-1.

Table-1

Variable Married Unmarried ‘t’-Value SignificanceGroup Group

Emotional N= 245 N= 95Stability M= 15.8 M=20.85 8.14 **

SD= 5.1 SD= 5.2Emotional N= 245 N= 95Progression M= 16.56 M=18.32 2.46 *

SD= 5.7 SD= 6.0Social N= 245 N= 95Adjustment M= 14.62 M=15.22 1.14 NS

SD= 4.2 SD= 4.4Personality N= 245 N= 95Integration M= 13.64 M=14.22 1.37 NS

SD= 2.95 SD= 3.7Independence N= 245 N= 95

M= 17.86 M=16.43 2.14 *SD= 5.5 SD= 5.55

**=Significant at 0.01 level of significance, *Significant at 0.05 level of significance and NS= Not Significant



It is evident from the Table-1 that comparing the mean scores of married andunmarried prospective secondary teachers according to all aspects of emotional maturityscale, the hypothesis of the study that, ‘There will be no significant marital status-wisedifference in the emotional maturity of prospective secondary school teachers with respectto Emotional Stability, Emotional Progression, Social Adjustment, Personality Integrationand Independence’, was rejected for emotional stability, emotional progression andindependence, whereas it was accepted for social adjustment and personality integrationdimensions of emotional maturity.

CONCLUSIONSOn the basis of statistical analysis and interpretation of data, the following conclusions

have been drawn:• Married and unmarried prospective secondary school teachers differ significantly

with respect to their emotional stability. The mean score of emotional stability ofprospective married secondary school teachers (20.85) is significantly higher thanprospective unmarried secondary school teachers (15.8), and thus reflecting higheremotional stability.

• There is significant marital status-wise difference in the emotional progression ofprospective secondary school teachers. Prospective married secondary schoolteachers possess significantly higher emotional progression than prospectiveunmarried secondary school teachers.

• There is no significant marital status-wise difference in the emotional maturity ofprospective secondary school teachers in social area.

• There is no significant difference in the mean scores of personality integration ofmarried and unmarried prospective secondary school teachers.

• Married and unmarried prospective secondary school teachers differ significantlyin their emotional maturity with respect to independence area. Thus, it may beinterpreted that the unmarried prospective secondary school teachers have higherindependence than married prospective secondary school teachers.

REFERENCES

• Lipton et. al. (1975). “Influence of Personality on Achievement of Medical Students.”In website(http://www.ncbi.html.nihgov)



• Choudhari, N. and Uppal, A. (1996). “Achivement Motivation and EmotionalMaturity of Adolescents Staying at Home and Orphanage.” Indian PsychologicalReview, Vol.46(1),pp.27-32.

• Bajamin, B.S. (1965). “ Stability and Change in human characteristics.” NewYork,John Willey, p-189.

• Blood (1976). “A Study of Self-Esteem and Socio-Economic Status of High SchoolStudents in Relation to their Academic Achievement”. Ph.D. Education, NorthEastern University.

• Jha, P.k. (2002). “The Function of self-confidence and Emotional Maturity in decisionMaking Styles of the Executives.” Journal of Community Guidance and Research,Vol. 19, pp.419-422.

• Mittal, S. and Bajaj, T. (2003). “Pre-Schooler’s Intelligence as Affected by Mother’sEmotional Maturity.” Journal of Indian Education, Vol. 29(1), pp. 76-79.

• Singh,S. and Thukral, P. (2010). “Emotional Maturity and Academic achievementof High School Students.” Indian Journal of Psychometry and Education, Vol.41(1),pp.40-43.

• Singh (1981). “ A Study of Socio-Economic Status and Home Environment in Relationto their Academic Achievement” M.Phil Thesis in Education, Punjab University.

• Jain, S. (1981). “An Experimental Study of the Relationship Between HomeEnvironment and scholastic Achievement”. Ph.D. Thesis, Edu. Agra, Univ.

• Mishra, M. (1986). “ A Critical Study of the Influence of Socio-Economic Status onAcademic Achievement of Higher Secondary Students in Rural and Urban Areas ofKanpur.” Fourth Survey of Educational Research (1983-88), NCERT, New Delhi, p-1563.

• Kaur, Jasbir (2010). “A Study of Emotional Maturity of B.Ed. Trainees in relation tocertain socio-Demographic Variables. M.Ed. Dissertation, Abhilashi P.G. College ofEducation, Ner- Cowk, Mandi, H.P.




TEACHING LEARNING PROCESS IN CHEMISTRY AND ITS IMPACT ONACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

Ashish Kumar

Assistant Professor, Raj Rajeshwari College of Education, Bhota, Distt. Hamirpur (H.P) - INDIA

ABSTRACTThis paper has been designed to discuss the teaching-learning process of

government and private senior secondary schools in the subject of chemistry in HimachalPradesh. The data was collected from 200 students of +2 Class from 10 senior secondaryschools of Una District in Himachal Pradesh with help of self developed scale namely,‘Scale on Teaching-Learning-Process in Chemistry’ through Purposive technique of non-probability sampling. The t’ test was computed to find out the difference in perceptionson teaching-learning process in chemistry among students of government and privateschools. The findings of the study indicates that government school students werefound less than in their perceptions on teaching-learning process in chemistry ascompared to private school students.

KEY WORDS: Teaching-Learning Process, Quality Education, TechnologicalAdvancements, Imaginative and Artistic Abilities……

INTRODUCTIONIndia is a fast developing country and the basic aim of science education in India is to

improve quality of instruction. Quality of education is directly related with quality ofinstruction in the classroom. The teacher is considered to be the most crucial factor inimplementing the educational reforms at grass root level. It is a fact that academicqualifications, knowledge of the subject matter, competence and skill of teaching affectteaching-learning process. Hence, there is a need to use appropriate methods of teachingin order to present the concepts in an effective way.



Interaction

Teacher's ConceptualKnowledge

Student's ConceptualKnowledge

Teacher's ConstructedWorld

Student's ExperiencialKnowledge

Adaptationof World

Adaptationof Actions

Reflectionof Interaction

Reflection onstudentperformance

Discussion

Teaching-Learning ProcessTeaching-learning process in science involves teacher, learner and instructional

material. The instructional material serves as an essential link between the teacher andthe learner. The teacher uses the instructional material according to modern method ofteaching to educate children to realize the predetermined aim of education. Thecomponents of teaching learning process are objective, content and evaluation. Objectivesinclude course objectives, seasonal objective, subject objectives, topic objectives and lesionobjectives. Content or subject matter, include the sequence and organization ofcomponents of knowledge.

THE TEACHING PROCESSThe teaching process starts with the teacher. In teaching-learning process of sciences

the role of teacher has become very challenging , complex and multifaceted on accountof the explosion of knowledge and radical changes occurring in the current areas, emergingconcepts , new technologies , mass media , heterogeneous socio – economic status groupsof students and the explosion of expectations from the teachers. Teaching is thecommunication of factual and interpretive knowledge between teacher and student

Phases of TeachingTeaching is a system of action intended to induce learning. The process of teaching

has been divided in to three phases or stages by Jackson (1966). These stages are:



Pre-Active Phase of Teaching

Interactive Phase of Teaching

Post-Active Phase of Teaching

The first Pre-active phase is the planning phase / stage, which includes all that ateacher does before he actually enters the classroom to teach. the operations in this phaseincludes ; specifying instructions objective , selection of content , sequencing of the contentdeciding strategies to be employed and deployment of the strategies .

Secondly we have the Interactive phase with includes all the behaviors and activitiesbetween the time a teacher enters the classroom and the time a lesson has been deliveredby him. Its operation includes the sizing up of the class, diagnosis of the learner’s action orachievement which includes selection and presentation of stimuli reinforcement orfeedback and deployment of strategies.

Lastly, the post-active or evaluation stage. Its operation includes defining the exactthe dimensions of behavior change that is ,the teacher compares the expected and at theend of his teaching , selection of appropriate testing devices , that is ,the teacher choosestesting the techniques and tools to measure the various dimensions of behavior and thusnot the changes caused by his teaching and results obtained with enable – the teacher tounderstand where he lagged behind in his teaching goals ,why and how he can improvehis teaching by restructuring the teaching situation .

THE LEARNING PROCESSThe learning process starts with the learner. According to psychological findings and

democratic feelings, education starts from the child. According to Gestalt view learning isa relativistic process by which a learner develops a new insight or changes the old ones.The change in insight is referred to as change in the cognitive structure like facts, concepts,beliefs etc.

Instructional ProcessTo maintain and to make teaching learning process more effective teacher specify

teaching objectives , select and organize content and learning experiences and evaluatethe whole instructional process.



Taba (1962) secondary school headmistress was very critical about the superficialnature of education. She says, “a curriculum is essentially a plan of learning and to makeit more dynamic it should be orderly designed according the following eight steps:

Diagnosis of needs Formulation of course objectives Selecting content Organizing content Selection of learning experiences Organization of learning experience Evaluation Checking for balance and sequence

Diagnosis is a very important part of curriculum development. It is a process ofdetermining the facts which need to be taken account while making curricular decisions.Curriculum should accommodate different types of learner and this can best be doneafter determining what the students know, what they can understand, the skills they haveacquired and the mental processes, they had already mastered.

ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENTThe term academic derived from the term academic a school where special types of

instruction are imparted. The term academic means institutional system of formaleducation with school, college and university. The scholastic achievement is the mostimportant goal of education. With the achievement in the field of science, education andculture, the people have understood the importance of education and have becomeeducation minded.

Academic achievement means the amount of knowledge gained by the students indifferent areas of study. Its measurement encourages the students who work hard. It isalso helpful for teacher to know whether teaching methods are effective or not and helpshim in bringing improvement accordingly. Thus assessments help both teachers andstudents to know where they stand.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURESeveral studies has been conducted on the teaching learning process in chemistry



which includes fields like curriculum, use of audio-visual aids, teachers effectiveness, variousstrategies’ of teaching and their effect on teaching.

Sharma & Kumar (1992) conducted a research on 300 secondary school teachers ofHimachal Pradesh and determined the relative importance of various teaching skills interm of preference of practicing teachers. the result of the study shows that the teachersconsider these skills relatively more important which either produced maximum studentinvolvement in teaching learning process or were helpful in accelerating the pace ofteaching by compensations. The skill of promoting pupil participation, using teaching aidsand questioning were thus judged as the most important teaching skill.

Rani (1997) in her study found that the rural science teachers were found to beignorant of the objectives of the science teaching .Inadequate reference materials inlibraries, non existence of library as well as laboratory assistants was observed. Scienceclubs were found to exist only 30% of school students who participated in science clubsactivities and science quiz competition were found to posses’ favorable and positiveattitude toward science.

Dinesh (2006) in his study on the present status of teaching learning process in scienceused by science teachers at high school level and revealed that;

87.5 % of science teacher were aware about objectives in teaching and 12.5 %of teachers were not aware.

87.5% of teachers went to classroom without any prior plan on design. Mostof them felt that there experience as teacher had taught them much more ascompared to what they had learnt.

50% of teachers asks question about previous knowledge while starting thelesson.

100% of teacher used the lecture method, chalk board method and text bookmethod.

89% of the teachers did not take their students to educational trips related totheir subject.

Another very important fact highlighted was regarding practical work The practical laboratories were not in good condition.

Hofstein & Namman (2007) reviewed the status of practical work in science educationand criticized the effectiveness of practical work and claimed that the practical work is



entirely fruitless and has frequently been used without precise and unelaborated purposeand demanded for looking into the real essence of practical work.

Shadreck (2012) evaluated the advanced level chemistry teaching in Gweru districtschools, Zimbabwe and indicated that the teaching of chemistry is faced with a number ofchallenges which include the overloaded curriculum such that there is too much to coverin the available time, inadequate resources, equipment apparatus and consumables.Inadequate equipment, apparatus and consumables do limit the conduction of laboratorypractical work in the schools. Apart from the lack of resources which significantly limit theteaching and learning of chemistry, the chemistry teachers themselves are not wellpositioned to teach chemistry effectively due to deficiencies arising from the use ofinappropriate teaching methods for teaching chemistry. The teachers also do not havesupport staff that is essential adjuncts to allow teachers the time required to plan andimplement an inquiry-based chemistry curriculum.

Several studies have been conducted in the field of curriculum and use of audiovisual aids and their effect on teaching. The researcher felt the need to take up this studya teaching of chemistry to senior secondary classes is a challenging job and there is a needto look in the teaching learning process so as to find out the possible gaps

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDYThe objective of the present study was:

O. To find out the difference towards perception in teaching-learning process inchemistry of +2 students in government and private schools.

HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDYThe hypothesis of the study was:

H. There is no significant difference towards perception in teaching learning processin chemistry of +2 students in government and private schools.

DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDYThe delimitations of the study were:1. The study was delimited to the senior secondary school students of Una District

in Himachal Pradesh2. The study was conducted only on chemistry subject of +2 class.



3. The study was delimited to only 10 senior secondary schools.4. The study was delimited in terms time and resources.

RESEARCH METHODThe present study is descriptive in nature. To evaluate teaching-learning process

in chemistry and its impact on the educational achievement of +2 students, the researcherhas used descriptive survey method.

SAMPLINGThe present study was conducted in ten senior secondary schools of Una District in

Himachal Pradesh. The samples were selected on purposive bases without anyconsideration to gender and social background. 100 Government and 100 Private +2students were selected purposively.

TOOL USEDThe investigator had constructed a scale namely, ‘Scale on Teaching- Learning- Process

in Chemistry” was used to collect the data from subjects.

STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES USEDTo find out the difference in teaching-learning process of the government and private

schools, the t’-test was computed.

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATIONThe analysis and interpretation of data led to draw rational conclusions on the

research problem. The data has been analyzed through statistical techniques to yield certainresults.

The objective was designed to find out the difference towards perception in teaching-learning process in chemistry of +2 students in government and private schools in HimachalPradesh. On the basis of related literature review, the hypothesis for this objective wasformulated as there is no significant difference in perception towards teaching-learningprocess in chemistry of +2 students in government and private schools. In order to verifythe hypothesis, t’- value was computed and results obtained from the t’-test are shown inTable-1.



Table-1

Group N Mean SD SED t’ - Value SignificanceGovt. Sen. Sec. 100 102.7 21.91School Students

2.80 4.08 **Private Sen. Sec. 100 114.1 17.38School Students

**= Significant at 0.01 Level of Significance

The Table-1 depicts that mean score of government students is 102.70 and standarddeviation is 21.91. The mean score of private students is 114.12 and standard deviation is17.38. Standard error of difference of mean is 2.80 and finally calculated t’ value is 4.08and is significant at 0.01level of significance. This means that private school students werefound to have greater perception towards teaching- learning process in chemistry ascompared to government school students. Hence, the hypothesis that, ‘There is nosignificant difference towards perception in teaching-learning process in chemistry of +2students in government and private schools’ was rejected.

The following Graph-1.1 shows the significant difference in mean scores ofgovernment and private +2 students towards perception in teaching-learning process inchemistry.

Graph-1.1

Private School Students Govt. School Students

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

114.1102.7

Mean

Scores

Showing Significant Difference in Perception towards Teaching-Learning Process inChemistry among +2 Students Of Government and Private Schools



FINDING OF THE STUDYIn the light of analysis & interpretation, private school +2 students were found to

have greater perception towards teaching- learning process in chemistry as compared togovernment school +2 students.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDYOn the basis of literature review and finding of the study, the followings may be

helpful in bridging the gap between government and private school teachers to improveand provide equal opportunities to students in teaching-learning process in chemistry inboth settings:

1. Chemistry teachers should be made aware with the objectives of teaching chemistryat secondary level.

2. Technological aids should be used while teaching or demonstrating concepts inchemistry.

3. Learners should be involved in teaching learning process for developing conceptsand improvised apparatus.

4. In-service training programs for chemistry teachers should be organized.5. More emphasis should be given on practical work.6. While teaching more emphasis should be given on scientific methods like heuristic,

project, problem solving and inductive and deductive approaches.7. CCE should be done in an impartial manner.

REFERENCES

Dinesh (2006). Study on present status of teaching –learning process in science.Unpublished M.Ed. dissertation. Punjab University Chandigarh.

Nandita (1997). Evaluation of teaching- learning process in chemistry of seniorsecondary schools. Unpublished M.Ed. dissertation. Punjab University Chandigarh.

Phillip W. Jakson (1966). Three stages of teaching in Educational Technology M.Ed.Book. Walia, J S. pp. 59. Jalandhar: Paul Publishers.

Rani (1997). Evaluate the rural science teachers about objectives of scienceteaching. Unpublished M.Ed. dissertation. Punjab University Chandigarh.



Shadreck (2012). Evaluate advanced level chemistry teaching. international journalZimbabwe

Sharma, Kumar (1992). Present status of teaching-learning process in science.

Unpublished M.Ed. dissertation. Punjab University Chandigarh. Taba (1962). Models of curriculum design in Knowledge & curriculum B.Ed. Book

(Semester- IV ), 237 by Vashistha, R. K. (2019). Bhiwani: Laxmi Book Depot.




NATURE AND DIMENSIONALITY OF ORGANIZATIONALCITIZENSHIP BEHAVIUOR

Ashutosh VermaResearch Scholar, Himachal Pradesh University Business School, H. No -283, Prakash Cottage,

Solanipuram Roorkee-247667, Uttarakhand-INDIA

ABSTRACTThe article discusses the existing literature on organizational citizenship behaviour

(OCB) to bring out a comprehensive theoretical framework for the construct, alongwith the multiple dimensions as proposed by research scholars. Specifically, the purposeis to highlight the nature of OCB in terms of its dimensionality. Implications for furtherconsideration on the OCB domain have also been presented.KEY WORDS : Organizational Citizenship Behaviour, Framework, Construct,Dimensionality......

INTRODUCTIONThe way the organizations operate in today’s globalized world is altogether different

from the industrial age, where the main emphasis was on improving productivity of workers.In today’s time, the competitive ability of an organization and behaviors that improveindividual as well as organizational efficiency are valued (Turnipseed & Murkison, 2000).As a result the interest in the field of organizational citizenship behavior has increasedover the years for managers as well as scholars (Howard, 1995; Le Pine, et al., 2002). Theincreased interest has resulted in more than 650 research articles being published on OCBand related constructs since inception, (Dekas et al., 2013). Also the willingness of theemployee’s to “go above and beyond” the formal job description is considered a vitalcondition for effective organizational functioning. (Barnard, 1938; Katz & Kahn, 1978;Organ, 1990). Such behaviours were termed as discretionary behaviours which reflectedcooperation, but not compulsory gestures exhibited by the employees, and were neitherrewarded nor compensated by the official reward system, (Bateman & Organ, 1983; Smith,Organ, & Near, 1983; Organ & Konovsky, 1989). The results of several empirical researchesindicate that the organizations have benefitted through OCB in terms of improving salesperformance, customer satisfaction, resolving customer complaints and improving in terms



of quality and quantity of product or the services offered, (Karambayya, 1990; Podsakoff& MacKenzie, 1994; MacKenzie, Podsakoff, & Ahearne, 1998; Walz & Niehoff, 1996;Koys, 2001; Podsakoff, Whiting, Podsakoff, & Blume, 2009).

Several terms closely linked with OCB have been used in literature by different scholars: extra-role behaviour (Van Dyne, Cummings, & Parks, 1995), organizational spontaneity(George & Brief, 1992; George & Jones, 1997), civic organizational behaviour (Graham,1991), pro-social organizational behaviours (Brief & Motowidlo, 1986; George, 1990,1991; George & Bettenhausen, 1990; O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986) , and contextualperformance (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993, 1997; Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994,Borman, White & Dorsey, 1995;).

This diversification brings in the issue of conceptual clarity of organizational citizenshipbehaviour. There has been a lack of consensus among the researchers regarding theconstruct itself as well as model for OCB, (Yen, Li & Niehoff, 2008). Also the rapid growthof OCB has made it difficult for the scholars to keep up with the developments in the field,(Podsakoff et al., 2000).

In context with the above discussion, the purpose of this paper is to give theoreticalframework for OCB including its dimensionality as proposed by various researchers sinceinception in early 1980s.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF OCBThe origin of OCB concept can be traced back to 1938, when Chester Barnard gave

the theory of “cooperation and organization”, (Barnard, 1938). According to Barnard,“willingness to cooperate” is essential for the growth and survival of the organization.Taking into account, the observations of Chester Barnard, (Katz, 1964), identified threebasic types of behaviours that are important for an organization to survive and functionwell, 1) people must be induced to enter and remain within the system, 2) they must carryout their role assignments in a dependable fashion, and 3) there must be innovative andspontaneous activity in achieving organizational objectives which go beyond the rolespecification. According to him the in-role behaviours are the assigned roles well definedby the job description. Extra- role behaviours are actions which are not specified by roleprescriptions but they surely facilitate the accomplishment of organizational goals. Katzdidn’t use the term organizational citizenship behaviour then, rather he classified theextra-role behaviours as “innovative and spontaneous behaviours”. Katz (1964, p132),



stated “an organization which depends solely upon its blueprints of prescribed behaviouris a very fragile social system”. It is extremely essential for the organizational survival andeffectiveness that the employees must engage themselves in the extra-role behaviours.Katz (1964), gave five different dimensions of “innovative and spontaneous behaviours”:cooperating with others, protecting the organization, volunteering constructive ideas, self-training, and maintaining a favourable attitude toward the company. According to Katzand Kahn (1966), Organizational well-functioning depends heavily on extra-role behaviours,therefore managers need employees who contribute more than what is prescribed intheir work contract.

It was Bateman & Organ (1983), who gave the term “citizenship”, which in turn gaverise, to the term “Organizational Citizenship Behaviour” (OCB), (Bateman & Organ, 1983;Smith, Organ & Near, 1983). Organ (1988: 4) defined organizational citizenship behavioursas “individual behaviour that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by theformal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning ofthe organization. By discretionary, we mean that the behaviour is not an enforceablerequirement of the role or the job description, that is, the clearly specifiable terms of theperson’s employment contract with the organization; the behaviour is rather a matter ofpersonal choice, such that its omission is not generally understood as punishable.” Borman& Motowidlo, (1993, p 73) termed these behaviours as “Contextual performance”, anddefined as “behaviours that do not support the technical core itself so much as they supportthe broader organizational, social and psychological environment in which the technicalcore must function”. One thing that differentiated contextual performance (Borman &Motowidlo, 1993, 1997; Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994, Borman, White, & Dorsey,1995), from OCB was that it was not required for these behaviour to be extra-role andneither was it non rewarded. The contextual performance, just like OCB included actionslike helping others, following work rules and regulations, volunteering for extra jobactivities.

According to (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993) contextual performance differed fromtask performance in the sense, that such contributions have a generalized value acrossjobs and organizations whereas the task performance varies in nature. These behavioursand their contribution were valued by the leaders in the organization which gained supportfrom several studies, (Orr, Sackett & Mercer 1989; MacKenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, P. M., &Fetter, R. 1991; Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994; Borman, White & Dorsey, 1995)



The working definition of OCB given by Organ (1988), was also criticized by Morrison(1994). He stated that “OCB is ill-defined and varies from one employee to the next andbetween employees and supervisors, (Morrison, 1994, p 1561). Overlap of severalconstructs of ERB: OCB, principal organizational dissent, (POD), pro-social organizationalbehaviour, (POB) and whistle blowing (WB) were also addressed regarding the workingdefinition, (Van Dyne et al., 1995).

The issues faced by Organ (1997) in defining OCB as extra-role behaviour lied inblurred usage of concepts “roles” and “jobs”. These roles were found to have evolved,from leader -subordinate, give and take relationship (Dansereau, Graen & Haga, 1975). Itwas further suggested that some forms of OCB lead to monetary compensation,(MacKenzie, Podsakoff, & Fetter, 1991; Werner, 1994).

Giving a due recognition to the conceptual difficulties with the working definition(Organ, 1988), Organ, redefined OCB as behavior that contributes “to the maintenanceand enhancement of the social and psychological context that supports task performance”(Organ, 1997, p. 91). This definition was much similar with contextual performance asdefined by (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993; 1997, Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994). AlthoughOCB has been defined specifically as stated still, there seems to be lot of overlap as far asits dimensionality is concerned. In the next section, the dimensionality of OCB as proposedby different research scholars is emphasized upon with an objective to synthesize theliterature on the same and bring in the similarities and differences in the given constructs.

DIMENSIONALITY OF OCBSince the time organizational citizenship behaviour was first introduced by Bateman

and Organ (1983), there has been a lot of advancement in this field. The rapid developmentin the area has brought in several issues along with, one of them being the issue of keepingup with the developments, and the other most crucial issue is the overlap of differentdimensions proposed by the scholars, (Podsakoff et al., 2000). The following sectionsummarizes the contribution of research scholars in terms of dimensionality of the OCBconstruct.

Smith, Organ & Near (1983), conducted a study to elaborate on the nature andpredictors of citizenship behavior. Two separate dimensions: Altruism and GeneralizedCompliance were identified as a result. While Altruism captured behaviour that was directlyand intentionally aimed at helping a specific person in face-to face situations (e.g. , helping



people who have been absent, assisting someone with heavy workload, guiding new peopleeven though not required), Generalized Compliance on the other hand depicted a moreimpersonal form of conscientiousness citizenship behaviour. This dimension involvedbehaviour of an individual like being punctual, not wasting time, and complying with theorganizational rules and regulations. Although this dimension did not aim to help a specificindividual but was in the best interest of the organization.

Five years later, Organ (1988) proposed a five dimension model of OCB: Altruism,Conscientiousness, sportsmanship, Courtesy and Civic Virtue. Altruism refers to voluntarybehaviour of an individual with an objective to help the other person in case he faces anissue with a task or problem, helping new employee, and guiding them even if it is notrequired. Courtesy refers to proactive behaviours in order to avoid potential problemswhich may arise in the organization, not creating problem for the co-workers.Sportsmanship refers to tolerating the inconveniences and work impositions withoutcomplaining .Conscientiousness refers to behaviours that go beyond the minimum jobrequirements and include actions like punctuality, following organization rules andregulations. Civic virtue refers to those behaviours that are in best interest of theorganization e.g. attending meetings, responding to emails on regular basis, keeping abreastof the developments that may help organization.

Organ, (1990 a; 1990b) came up with another classification two years later after heproposed the five-dimensional model to include Peacemaking and Cheerleading. This modelhad the dimensions: Altruism, Courtesy, Peacemaking, Cheerleading and Sportsmanship.(Podsakoff, Whiting, Podsakoff, & Blume, 2009). Here Altruism was referred as thosevoluntary actions by an individual that aimed at helping other person having problemswith work, helping a co-worker in case of backlog, getting materials needed by a colleaguethat can’t be procured by his own. Courtesy signified all those behaviours that preventedproblem for others, providing advance notice to someone for work scheduling.Peacemaking dimension aimed at helping to prevent and resolve conflict. Cheerleadingreferred to the motivating behaviour, encouraging co-workers for professionaldevelopment and sportsmanship referred to behaviour reflecting tolerance, and notcomplaining in spite of the inconveniences.

Williams & Anderson (1991), were of the opinion that Organ’s five-dimension modelof OCB could be reduced into two broad categories (Hoffman et al., 2007). They came up



with the concept of OCB-I (OCB-individual) and OCB-O (OCB-organization). OCB-I includedtwo dimensions of Organ’s (1988) model: Altruism and Courtesy whereas the remainingthree dimensions : conscientiousness, civic virtue, and sportsmanship formed part of OCB-O. Here OCB-I were the behaviours that directly benefitted the specific individuals, and inthis manner contributed towards the organization. OCB-O on the other hand signifiedthose behaviours that benefitted the organization in general. Such behaviours includegiving advance notice when on leave, abiding rules and regulations.

Graham (1991) identified the following dimensions of OCB: Organizational loyalty,organizational obedience, and organizational participation. Organizational loyalty isidentification with the organization as a whole. Such behaviour includes defending theorganization against threats, cooperating with the fellow workers and working in order tocreate a good reputation for the organization. Organizational obedience is following theprotocol, respecting the rules and regulations, working as per the job description, respectingthe organizational policies. Organizational participation is reflected by behaviour like activeparticipation in the organization functions, attending meeting not mandatory but importantfor the organization image, building on new ideas.

Borman & Motowildo (1993, 1997) identified behaviour of employees that endorsed,supported and defended the organizational objectives. The other dimension they identifiedwas helping and cooperating with others. This behaviour included assisting the co-workers,helping customers. It was identical with the OCB-I (Williams &Anderson, 1991).Another dimension compliance which meant respecting and obeying the organizationalrules and regulations, meeting deadlines was identical with OCB-O (Williams & Anderson,1991). They also highlighted the behaviours like persistence and exhibiting extra effortsfor attainment of goals. Volunteering for carrying out the activities that are not prescribedin the job description.

Morrison (1994) identified a five-dimensional framework for OCB: altruism,conscientiousness, sportsmanship, involvement, and keeping up with changes. Hereinvolvement means keeping abreast of the changes, participating in the organizationalactivities, meetings (Morrison, 1994, p 1552). Keeping up with the changes means beingaware about the organization events and being aware of the changes that are happening.These two dimensions involvement and keeping up with changes clearly overlap withcivic virtue (Organ, 1988). There was an overlap in given altruism dimension with altruism



and courtesy dimensions, (Organ, 1988). However the conceptualization of theconscientiousness dimension was a bit narrower in comparison to the one proposed by(Organ, 1988).

Moorman & Blakely (1995) gave four dimensions for OCB: interpersonal helping,individual initiative, personal industry, and loyal boosterism. Interpersonal helping meansassisting colleagues in work related problems, and voluntarily helping new employees tosettle in their new jobs. Individual initiative implies positive communication with the co-workers for improving individual and group performance. Personal industry is performingextra tasks and making extra effort which is beyond the call of duty. Loyal Boosterismmeans the act of promoting the organization image to the outsiders. The last dimensionof loyal boosterism is very much similar to spreading goodwill concept by (George & Brief1992).

Van Scotter & Motowidlo (1996) gave two dimensions of OCB: interpersonalfacilitation and job dedication. Interpersonal facilitation encompasses wide range ofinterpersonal actions that help maintain the interpersonal and social context needed tosupport the effective task performance in organizational setting; (Van Scotter &Motowidlo, 1996).These behaviours are similar to other dimensions as defined by scholars.Interpersonal behaviours include altruism and courtesy (Smith, Organ, & Near, 1983;Organ, 1988) and helping co-workers (George & Brief 1992). Job dedication on the otherhand was found to be similar to generalized compliance dimension of Organ (1988).

George & Brief (1992) and George and Jones (1997) identified two dimensions:Helping behaviours and Spreading Goodwill. The first dimension was identical with OCB-I (Williams & Anderson, 1991). It included voluntary form of help that the employeesprovided to each other for facilitation and attainment of goals. It also included helping co-workers with a heavy workload, giving instructions while using new technology. The otherdimension, spreading goodwill is a way of voluntarily contributing to the organizationaleffectiveness by representing the organization to wider communities for the organizationalbenefit. This behaviour is basically aimed at highlighting one’s organization as supportiveand caring .

In view of the above context, considering the issue of overlap among thecategorizations and usage of different labels for the same dimension, over thirty differentforms of OCBs were identified by (Podsakoff et al., 2000). These were clubbed in seven



common themes: (1) Helping Behaviour, (2) Sportsmanship, (3) Organizational Loyalty, (4)Organizational Compliance, (5) Individual Initiative, (6) Civic Virtue, and (7) SelfDevelopment .

A person exhibiting “helping behaviour” prevents problems at work by helping co-workers voluntarily or helping co-workers once a problem had occurred. He also does notcreate problems for co-workers. Helping behaviour has been identified as one of the mostimportant forms of citizenship behaviour by all the researchers who have worked in thisfield, (Organ, 1988, 1990a, 1990b; Smith, Organ & Near, 1983; Williams & Anderson,1991 Borman & Motowidlo, 1993, 1997; Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996). An attempthas been made by (Podsakoff et al., 2000) to bring out the commonalities in the dimensionsgiven by different scholars. The first part of Helping behaviour as identified by (Podsakoffet al., 2000 covers altruism, peacemaking and cheerleading dimensions (Organ, 1988,1990b), interpersonal helping (Graham, 1989, Moorman & Blakely, 1995), OCB-I (Williams& Anderson, 1991), interpersonal facilitation (Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996), and helpingco-workers (George & Brief, 1992; George & Jones, 1997). The second part of the definition(not creating problem for the co-workers) coincides with Organ’s (1988, 1990b) courtesydimension, which involves helping others by taking steps to prevent the creation ofproblems for co-workers.

Organ (1990b: 96) defined sportsmanship as “a willingness to tolerate the inevitableinconveniences and impositions of work without complaining.” As opined by (Podsakoffet al., 2000), by being a “good sport,” an individual would not take rejection of his ideason a personal level and would not complain if he was inconvenienced by others, maintainsa positive attitude when things are not favourable, and is willing to sacrifice his personalinterest in favour of the group.

A person staying committed to the organization even in unfavourable circumstancesis considered to have a strong organizational loyalty. Organizational loyalty in essenceincludes promoting the organization, protecting it against threats and remaining committedin adverse conditions, (Podsakoff et al., 2000). Organizational loyalty coincides withGraham’s (1989) loyal boosterism and organizational loyalty, George & Brief’s (1992)spreading goodwill, Borman & Motowidlo’s (1993) endorsing, supporting, and defendingorganizational objectives dimension, means promoting the organization to outsiders,protecting and defending it against external threats.



When a member accepts the rules, regulations, and procedures of the organizationeven when no one is supervising or monitoring compliance is seem to display behaviourtermed “organizational compliance”. An organizational member who volunteers for extraresponsibilities or shows extra enthusiasm in accomplishing his goal reflects “individualinitiative”. Organizational compliance has been labelled as generalized compliance bySmith et at.,(1983), organizational obedience by Van Dyne, Graham, & Dienesch (1994),OCB-O by Williams and Anderson, abiding organizational rules and procedures byBorman & Motowidlo (1993), and some features of Van Scotter & Motowidlo (1996)job dedication.

Individual initiative refers to employees voluntarily working above and beyond thecall of duty, making extra efforts and displaying high amount of enthusiasm. This dimensionis termed as extra-role just because of the fact that it involved the engagement of anindividual in task related behaviours and that is on a voluntary level. This dimension overlapswith conscientiousness (Organ, 1988), personal industry and individual initiative (Graham,1989; Moorman & Blakely, 1995), making constructive suggestions (George & Brief, 1992),volunteering to carry out task activities, and persisting with enthusiasm (Borman &Motowidlo, 1997), and partially the job dedication dimension (Van Scotter & Motowidlo,1996).

Civic virtue is yet another dimension showing commitment to the organization atmacro-level. Such behaviour is reflected by willingness to participate in the governance ofthe organization, keeping abreast with the latest developments in the environment, andlooking for larger interest of the organization as a whole. This dimension correspondswith civic virtue (Organ, 1988, 1990b), organizational participation (Graham, 1989), andprotecting the organization dimension (George & Brief, 1992).

The last dimension of self development is voluntarily improving one’s knowledge,skills, and abilities in one’s job, (Podsakoff et al., 2000). Self development might include“seeking out and taking advantage of advanced training courses, keeping abreast of thelatest developments in one’s field and area, or even learning a new set of skills so as toexpand the range of one’s contributions to an organization”, (George & Brief ,1992: 155).A careful examination reveals that the OCB dimensions identified and grouped under theseven common themes by and far are very similar to the five dimensions of “innovativeand spontaneous” behaviour, given by Katz (1964), (Podsakoff et al.,2000)



THREE-DIMENSION INTEGRATED MODEL OF CITIZENSHIP PERFORMANCE

Coleman & Borman (2000) observed that the number of behavioural elements thatfit in definition of OCB have increased rapidly, but the extent to which these elementsrepresent the broader underlying constructs had not been identified by the researchscholars. Hence by comparing the previous models of OCB and related constructs in termsof similarities and differences (Smith et al., 1983; Organ, 1988; Borman & Motowidlo,1993; Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996; Van Dyne et al., 1994), Coleman & Borman (2000)developed a “three-dimension integrated model of citizenship performance”. The modelwas divided into three categories: interpersonal, organizational, and job/task citizenshipperformance.

The interpersonal dimension of the model refers to behaviours that benefitmembers of the organization and corresponds partly with the altruism of Smith, Organ& Near (1983) , courtesy by Organ (1988), with OCB-I by Williams & Anderson (1991),social participation by Van Dyne et al., (1994), interpersonal facilitation by Van Scotter& Motowidlo (1996) and Morrison (1994).

The second dimension, organizational citizenship performance depicts the behavioursthat benefit the organization. Such behaviours add on to the efficiency of the organizationby enhancing the performance and shares similarity with OCB-O by Williams & Anderson(1991), generalized compliance of Smith et al., (1983), civic virtue, sportsmanship, andconscientiousness given by Organ (1988), involvement, keeping up with changessportsmanship, and conscientiousness dimensions of Morrison (1994), loyalty andobedience of Van Dyne et al., (1994), and the job dedication dimension of Van Scotter &Motowidlo (1996).

The final dimension of job/task citizenship performance are the behaviours thatbenefit the job/task, and correspond with functional participation of Van Dyne et al.,(1994) and job dedication of Van Scotter & Motowidlo (1996).

DISCUSSIONAccording to Hoffman, Blair, Meriac, & Woehr (2007), OCB is considered a relatively

recent concept and there have been several repetitions in terms of definitions over thepast 20 years. The ambiguity concerning the definition of OCB and how OCB should bemeasured has always been existent. The linkage of OCB with several other terms such as



: extra-role behaviour, (Van Dyne, Cummings, & Parks, 1995), organizational spontaneity(George & Brief, 1992; George & Jones, 1997), civic organizational behaviour (Graham,1991), pro-social organizational behaviours (Brief & Motowidlo, 1986; George, 1990, 1991;George & Bettenhausen, 1990; O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986), and contextual performance(Borman & Motowidlo, 1993, 1997; Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994, Borman, White &Dorsey, 1995;) has always been a point of concern for the research scholars.

In this study, an attempt was made to provide a comprehensive theoretical frameworkfor better understanding of the OCB construct. Starting from the idea conceptualizationof Chester Barnard (1938), contribution of Daniel Katz (1964) and the definition of theconstruct by Organ (1988) is presented. The criticism of definition given by Organ (1988),in terms of its discretionary behaviour and non rewarding nature of OCB to its modificationby Organ (1997), is brought into light. Also the similarity of OCB construct with contextualperformance, Borman and Motowildo (1997) has also been highlighted.

In context with the dimensionality of OCB, it has been found that varied dimensionshad been explored by the scholars from time to time. The prime issue that comes withmultidimensionality of the construct is the overlap of these dimensions. Hence an attemptwas first made to highlight the contribution of various research scholars along with thedimensions they had given followed by the consolidated framework given by Podsakoffet al.,(2000) and three-dimensional integrated framework by Coleman and Borman (2000).

IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The current study intended to provide a comprehensive theoretical framework forthe OCB construct, with an objective to provide a background on its evolution and clarityon the construct. It also highlighted the similarities and the dissimilarities with other relatedterms used in OCB literature. The other major objective of the study was to highlight thework of research scholars and present the dimensionality of organizational citizenshipbehaviour, giving an insight into the shared similarities within the given dimensions.

The current study provides a base for the research scholars for clarifying their doubtson the OCB construct and get a better understanding by going through its multipledimensions as explored from time to time.

Although the study gave an insight into the similarity and dissimilarity between OCBwith contextual performance, further exploration is needed in terms of other relatedconstructs i.e extra-role behaviour (EOB), principle organization dissent (POD) and whistle



blowing (Van Dyne, Cummings, & Parks, 1995), organizational spontaneity (George &Brief, 1992; George & Jones, 1997), civic organizational behaviour (Graham, 1991), andpro-social organizational behaviours (Brief & Motowidlo, 1986; George, 1990, 1991;George & Bettenhausen, 1990; O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986).

Though the study highlighted the value of OCB by managers and Organizations, (Orr,Sackett & Mercer 1989; MacKenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, P. M., & Fetter, R. 1991; Motowidlo& Van Scotter, 1994, Borman, White & Dorsey, 1995) yet the issue of distinction betweenthe in-role and citizenship behaviours still exists for the employees and managers, whichrequires further attention.

The intent of the study was to bring out the multiple dimensions of the construct,but in no way an attempt has been made to focus on either the determinants, antecedentsor the consequences of OCB. The current study does provide a base for the researchers toexplore the construct and dive further in the OCB Ocean to come out with the determinants,antecedents and the consequences thereof.

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT: IMPORTANT ARTICLES AND MOVEMENTSSavita Devi

Assistant Prof., Raj Rajeshwari College of Education, Bhota, Distt. Hamirpur (H.P.)-INDIA

ABSTRACTEducation is globally acknowledged as the most powerful means of empowering

girls and women and protecting them from the violation of their human rights. Investingin girls’ and women’s education can transform, and even save, lives-the lives of girlsand women, and the lives of their families and communities. It is one of the mosteffective ways to achieve positive, sustainable change in the world, for everyone.Women and girls in the developing world are often denied opportunities for education.Lack of education limits prospects, decreases family income, reduces health, puts womenand girls at risk of trafficking and exploitation, and limits the economic advancement ofentire countries. World Education believes that education for girls and women is thesingle most effective way to improve the lives of individual families as well as to bringeconomic development to poor communities worldwide. Experience has shown thatwhen women have the freedom to make their own economic and social choices, thechains of poverty can be broken; families are strengthened; income is used for moreproductive purposes; the spread of sexually transmitted disease slows; and sociallyconstructive values are more likely to be handed down to the young. The principle ofgender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its Preamble, FundamentalRights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles. The Constitution not only grantsequality to women, but also empowers the State to adopt measures of positivediscrimination in favour of women. Within the framework of a democratic polity, ourlaws, development policies, Plans and programmes have aimed at women’sadvancement in different spheres. India has also ratified various internationalconventions and human rights instruments committing to secure equal rights of women.Key among them is the ratification of the Convention on Elimination of All Forms ofDiscrimination against Women (CEDAW) in 1993. So, the present article has beendesigned to discuss the important articles and movements pertaining to womenempowerment.

KEY WORDS: Empowerment, Constitutional Articles, Movements, Population, Equality,Development, Discrimination, Educational opportunities, Employment......



INTRODUCTIONThe principle of gender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its Preamble,

Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles. The Constitution notonly grants equality to women, but also empowers the State to adopt measures of positivediscrimination in favour of women. Within the framework of a democratic polity, ourlaws, development policies, Plans and programmes have aimed at women’s advancementin different spheres. India has also ratified various international conventions and humanrights instruments committing to secure equal rights of women. Key among them is theratification of the Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women(CEDAW) in 1993.

World Education has a long history of successfully working with local partners todesign, manage, and evaluate community-based initiatives to advance the conditions ofgirls and women. World Education’s programs help Girls enrolment and stay in school andhelp women gain access to or create new educational, financial, and social resources intheir communities. World Education is also committed to empowering girls and womento improve their own lives, the lives of their families, and the conditions in theircommunities. For parents—and especially mothers—this means creating conditions thatensure their daughters have equal access to basic education, are able to make informeddecisions about their futures, and are able to protect themselves from trafficking, sexualexploitation, and HIV, for example by improving educational opportunities for girls andwomen, World Education helps women develop skills that allow them to make decisionsand influence community change. In turn, these programs have a positive impact on someof the most profound issues of our time: Population growth, HIV, peace and security, andthe widening gap between the rich and poor.

Educated women will participate more in the labour force and, in turn, contribute tothe GDP.Children of educated mothers (especially daughters) are more likely to go toschool and have higher levels of educational attainment.

“The persistent constraints and deprivations that prevent many of the world’s womenfrom achieving their potential have huge consequences for individuals, families,communities and nations. Expanding women’s ability to make decisions and take advantageof opportunities is critical to improving their lives as well as the world we all share.”

“Experience has shown that when women have the freedom to make their owneconomic and social choices, the chains of poverty can be broken; families are



strengthened; income is used for more productive purposes; the spread of sexuallytransmitted disease slows; and socially constructive values are more likely to be handeddown to the young.”

Today more girls than ever go to school. However, despite progress, women andgirls continue to face multiple barriers based on gender and its intersections with otherfactors, such as age, ethnicity, poverty, and disability, in the equal enjoyment of the rightto quality education. This includes barriers, at all levels, to access quality education andwithin education systems, institutions, and classrooms, such as, amongst others:

Harmful gender stereotypes and wrongful gender stereotyping Child marriage and early and unintended pregnancy Gender-based violence against women and girls Lack of inclusive and quality learning environments and inadequate and unsafe

education infrastructure, including sanitation Poverty

The international community has recognised the equal right to quality education ofeveryone and committed to achieving gender equality in all fields, including education,through their acceptance of international human rights law. This means that states havelegal obligations to remove all discriminatory barriers, whether they exist in law or ineveryday life, and to undertake positive measures to bring about equality, including inaccess of, within, and through education.

The principle of gender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its Preamble,Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles. The Constitution notonly grants equality to women, but also empowers the State to adopt measures of positivediscrimination in favour of women. Within the framework of a democratic polity, ourlaws, development policies, Plans and programmes have aimed at women’s advancementin different spheres. India has also ratified various international conventions and humanrights instruments committing to secure equal rights of women. Key among them is theratification of the Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women(CEDAW) in 1993.

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONSThe Constitution of India not only grants equality to women but also empowers the

State to adopt measures of positive discrimination in favour of women for neutralizing



the cumulative socio economic, education and political disadvantages faced by them.Fundamental Rights, among others, ensure equality before the law and equal protectionof law; prohibits discrimination against any citizen on grounds of religion, race, caste, sexor place of birth, and guarantee equality of opportunity to all citizens in matters relatingto employment. Articles 14, 15, 15(3), 16, 39(a), 39(b), 39(c) and 42 of the Constitutionare of specific importance in this regard.

Constitutional Privileges(i) Equality before law for women (Article 14)(ii) The State not to discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion,

race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them (Article 15 (i))(iii) The State to make any special provision in favour of women and children (Article

15 (3))(iv) Equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or

appointment to any office under the State (Article 16)(v) The State to direct its policy towards securing for men and women equally the

right to an adequate means of livelihood (Article 39(a)); and equal pay for equalwork for both men and women (Article 39(d))

(vi) To promote justice, on a basis of equal opportunity and to provide free legal aidby suitable legislation or scheme or in any other way to ensure that opportunitiesfor securing justice are not denied to any citizen by reason of economic or otherdisabilities (Article 39 A)

(vii) The State to make provision for securing just and humane conditions of workand for maternity relief (Article 42)

(viii) The State to promote with special care the educational and economic interestsof the weaker sections of the people and to protect them from social injusticeand all forms of exploitation (Article 46)

(ix) The State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people(Article 47)

(x) To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all thepeople of India and to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women(Article 51(A) (e))



(xi) Not less than one-third (including the number of seats reserved for womenbelonging to the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes) of the total numberof seats to be filled by direct election in every Panchayat to be reserved for womenand such seats to be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in a Panchayat(Article 243 D(3))

(xii) Not less than one- third of the total number of offices of Chairpersons in thePanchayats at each level to be reserved for women (Article 243 D (4))

(xiii) Not less than one-third (including the number of seats reserved for womenbelonging to the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes) of the total numberof seats to be filled by direct election in every Municipality to be reserved forwomen and such seats to be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in aMunicipality (Article 243 T (3))

(xiv) Reservation of offices of Chairpersons in Municipalities for the Scheduled Castes,the Scheduled Tribes and women in such manner as the legislature of a Statemay by law provide (Article 243 T (4))

Legal ProvisionsTo uphold the Constitutional mandate, the State has enacted various legislative

measures intended to ensure equal rights, to counter social discrimination and variousforms of violence and atrocities and to provide support services especially to workingwomen.

Although women may be victims of any of the crimes such as ‘Murder’, ‘Robbery’,‘Cheating’ etc, the crimes, which are directed specifically against women, are characterizedas ‘Crime against Women’. These are broadly classified under two categories :

(1) The Crimes Identified Under the Indian Penal Code (IPC)(i) Rape (Sec. 376 IPC)(ii) Kidnapping & Abduction for different purposes ( Sec. 363-373)(iii) Homicide for Dowry, Dowry Deaths or their attempts (Sec. 302/304-B IPC)(iv) Torture, both mental and physical (Sec. 498-A IPC)(v) Molestation (Sec. 354 IPC)(vi) Sexual Harassment (Sec. 509 IPC)(vii) Importation of girls (up to 21 years of age)

(2) The Crimes Identified Under the Special Laws (SLL)



Although all laws are not gender specific, the provisions of law affecting womensignificantly have been reviewed periodically and amendments carried out to keep pacewith the emerging requirements. Some acts which have special provisions to safeguardwomen and their interests are:

(i) The Employees State Insurance Act, 1948(ii) The Plantation Labour Act, 1951(iii) The Family Courts Act, 1954(iv) The Special Marriage Act, 1954(v) The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955(vi) The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 with amendment in 2005(vii) Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956(viii)The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 (Amended in 1995)(ix) Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961(x) The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971(xi) The Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition) Act, 1976(xii) The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976(xiii) The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006(xiv) The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 1983(xv) The Factories (Amendment) Act, 1986(xvi) Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986(xvii) Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987(xviii) The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005

SPECIAL INITIATIVES FOR WOMEN(i) National Commission for WomenIn January 1992, the Government set-up this statutory body with a specific mandate to

study and monitor all matters relating to the constitutional and legal safeguards providedfor women, review the existing legislation to suggest amendments wherever necessary, etc.

(ii) Reservation for Women in Local Self -GovernmentThe 73rd Constitutional Amendment Acts passed in 1992 by Parliament ensure one-

third of the total seats for women in all elected offices in local bodies whether in ruralareas or urban areas.



(iii) The National Plan of Action for the Girl Child (1991-2000)The plan of Action is to ensure survival, protection and development of the girl child

with the ultimate objective of building up a better future for the girl child.(iv) National Policy for the Empowerment of Women, 2001The Department of Women & Child Development in the Ministry of Human Resource

Development has prepared a “National Policy for the Empowerment of Women” in theyear 2001. The goal of this policy is to bring about the advancement, development andempowerment of women.

Some of the major constitutional provisions on women education in India are as follows:There are some changes regarding the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution. During

1976 our constitution was amended in many of its fundamental provisions. Under theConstitution of India, the Central Government has been specifically vested with severaleducational responsibilities. One of the unique features of Modem Indian Education isthe tremendous advancement of Women’s Education. Education of the girls is consideredto be more important than that of the boys.

The Constitution makes the following provisions under different articles:Article 15(1) provides that the State shall not discriminate any citizen on groups only

of sex.Article 15 (3) reads: ”Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any

special provision for women and children.”The well-known National Policy on Education was concerned about the status and

education of women in the country. It envisages that education would be used as a strategyfor achieving a basic change in the status of women. It opined that the national system ofeducation must play a positive role in this direction.

The Policy states, “Education will be used as an agent of basic change in the status ofwomen. In order to neutralize the accumulated distortions of the past, there will be a wellconceived edge in favour of women.”

WOMEN’S MOVEMENTS IN INDIA: FORMS AND MAIN NATIONAL ORGANISATIONSThe status of women has been the central concern of many reform movements before

and after independence. Leaders of the BrahmaSamaj and the AryaSamaj were concernedwith issues like sati, remarriage, divorce, female education, purdah system, polygamy,and dowry.



Justice Ranade criticised child marriages, polygyny, restrictions on remarriage ofwidows, and non-access to education.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy played an important role in getting the sati system abolished.Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Maharishi Karve pleaded for remarriage of widows.Gandhijitook interest in collective mobilisation of women to fight for political freedom aswell as for their social and political rights.

Some scholars have examined the role of women in political independencemovements at micro level, i.e., on regional basis. For example, Aparna Basu (1984) andPravinSheth (1979) studied it in Gujarat, Raghavendra Rao (1983) in Karnataka, and UmaRao (1984) in Uttar Pradesh.

According to Govind Kelkar (1984), women’s role in the freedom movement wasthat of the ‘helpers’ rather than that of comrades.

Ghanshyam Shah has referred to some scholars who have pointed out women’s rolein tribal, peasant and other movements in Bihar and Maharashtra. For example, ManoshiMitra (1984) and Indra Munshi Saldanha (1986) have analysed women’s militant role intribal movements when women confronted authorities, wielding traditional weapons andmaintaining lines of supplies to the rebels in their hidden places.

Sunil Sen (1984), Peter Custers (1987), etc., have analysed their role in peasants’movements in Telengana, West Bengal and Maharashtra. Meera Velayudhan (1984) hasanalysed their role in communist-led movement of coir workers in Kerala. Sen has pointedout women’s participation in struggles launched by trade unions in iron ore mines inMadhya Pradesh.

The important national organisations were: Bharat Mahila Parishad (1904), Bharat StriMahamandal (1909), Women’s Indian Association (1917), National Council of Women in India (1925) and All India Women’s Conference (1927) and Kasturba Gandhi National Memorial Trust.These organisations took up issues like women’s education, abolition of evil social

customs (purdah, child marriage) equality of rights and opportunities and women’s suffer-



age. Some women leaders with the support of the Congress party, demanded right offranchise and representation in legislatures.

It could be said that Indian women’s movements worked for two goals: one, liberationor uplift of women, i.e., reforming social practices so as to enable women to play a moreimportant and constructive role in society; and two, equal rights for men and women, i.e.,extension of civil rights enjoyed by men in the political, economic and familial spheres towomen also.

Jana Everett (1979) calls the former as ‘corporate feminism’ and the latter as ‘liberalfeminism’. The strategies used by women’s bodies were: making demands by organisingpublic meetings, presenting views to government officials, forming committees toinvestigate conditions and holding conferences to mobilise women.

The factors that provided the required incentive to women’s movements were: effectof western education on the male domination on women and on the concept ofcomplementary sex roles, leadership provided by educated elite women, interest of malesocial reformers in changing social practices sanctioned by religion, changing socio-religiousattitudes and philosophies, and decreasing social hostility and opposition of males towomen’s associations engaged in self-help activities, and benevolent attitude of politicalnational leaders towards fledgling women’s movements and their enthusiastic support towomen campaigns.

The declaring of 1975-85 decade as the International Women’s decade also gaveimpetus to women’s movements for removing the notion of inferiority of women andgiving them a sense of identity. The Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB) established bythe Government of India in 1953, also promotes and strengthens voluntary efforts for thewelfare of women. The Ministry of Welfare, Government of India, too gives grants tovoluntary organisations for activities like construction/expansion of hostels for workingwomen in cities.

We may now conclude our discussion on social movements by stating that socialmovements in India mainly focused either (a) on achieving system stability by arrestingthe onslaught of rapid social change and reinforcing the existing values and norms and (b)attempting system change through the destruction and replacement of the old andinduction of new structures.

It can be averred that social movements were either change-resisting or change-



promoting, i.e., those which aimed at the participants’ deprivation and concerned withtheir welfare and uplift. We concentrated on those reform movements which pursuedtheir goals through institutionalised means, without unleashing violence and were initiatedby some ideological groups through mobilisation process.

The analysis of six types of movements suggests that movements are generallyinitiated and spread by charismatic leaders or by political parties and religious organisations.In the former case, the ideologies are transmitted downwards while in the latter case,these are transmitted upwards. Once any movement based on certain ideology changes,it is not necessary that it will spread in course of time, it can gain in strength and it can alsolose its vitality either because it is considered irrelevant or because it is suppressed by thegovernment.

Other thing which emerges from the analysis is that:(i) Social movements are products of a social structure and emerge out of certain

conditions in the social structure,(ii) Social movements themselves have a structure which makes them functional

relative to their goals, and(iii) Social movements have consequences for the social structure of which they are

the products.

CONCLUSIONThings are better for everyone. Just by improving the education of girls, improves

the whole group that they are a part of society. Girls’ education is a strategic developmentpriority. Better educated women tend to be healthier, participate more in the formallabour market, earn higher incomes, have fewer children, marry at a later age, and enablebetter health care and education for their children, should they choose to become mothers.All these factors combined can help lift households, communities, and nations out ofpoverty. Empowering women to participate fully in economic life across all sectors isessential to build stronger economies, achieve internationally agreed goals for developmentand sustainability and improve the quality of life for women, men, families andcommunities.

REFERENCES Agarwal, B. (2001). Gender Inequality, Cooperation, and Environmental

Sustainability.” In Economic Inequality.



Bhardwaj, Tilak Raj (2001), Education of human values, New Delhi: MittalPublication.

https://www.mhrd.gov.in. Mohanty, Jagannath (2003). Human Rights Education. New Delhi: Deep & Deep

Publication. Mokta, Naveen (2007). Education for Values, Environment & Human Rights. Shimla:

JMD Publications.




Raj Rajeshwari Journal of Psychological & Educational Research (A Half Yearly-Reviewed & Refereed International Journal)

CONTENTS

Sr. No. Title Page No. (S)

1. HUMOUR STYLES OF EFFECTIVE AND IN-EFFECTIVE SECONDARYTEACHERS - Madan Kumar & Dr. Raj Kumar Dhiman 1-11

2. EMOTIONAL MATURITY OF PROPECTIVE SECONDARY SCHOOLTEACHERS - Savita Devi 12-18

3. TEACHING LEARNING PROCESS IN CHEMISTRY AND ITS IMPACTON ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLSTUDENTS - Ashish Kumar 19-28

4. NATURE AND DIMENSIONALITY OF ORGANIZATIONALCITIZENSHIP BEHAVIUOR - Ashutosh Verma 29-44

5. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT: IMPORTANT ARTICLES ANDMOVEMENTS - Savita Devi 45-55

Documents

Raj Rajeshwari Journal of R Psychological & Educational ... 2019 Issue.pdfRRJPER - Vol. 3 (2) & 4(1) – April, 2019 ISSN 2455-7900 RAJ RAJESHWARI JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL & EDUCATIONAL