Geological Time Scale

Calendar od Earth’s history based on evidence found in rocks and soil/rocks strata 4 eras – covering 4.6 billion Years

o Precambriano Paleozoico Mesozoico Cenozoic

Distinguished by what organisms lived during that time interval with emphasis based on extinction events

Cenozoic Era

65 million Years ago Current Era Mammals flourished Primates developed Human ancestors 5-7 million years ago Modern Human species ~ 200,000 years ago

Theory of Evolution

All living things are related Have descended with modification from organisms living in the past.

Human Ancestors: Hominins

Anthropoid ancestor, 30-35 million years ago, were still tree dwellers 20 million years ago, climate became drier; forests contracted; savanna habitat increased Common hominoid ancestor only about 5-7 million years ago.

What makes us human?

Bipedal Locomotion Long gestation Long dependency Big Brains

Humans versus Apes

Differences fall into three functional categories that have evolves separately from one anothero Locomotive differences

A foramen magnum that points down A curved lumbar spine A short, flared (versus long and thin) ilium (the upper most section of the hip

bone or pelvis) A string, robust talus (ankle bone) A strong, non-opposable big toe A complex two-way arch system in the foot

o Cranial differences Larger brains (12cc vs 400cc) Larger brains also create:

Flatter face Smaller brow ridges No sagittal crest

o Dental differences Smaller canines

No gaps between upper canine and premolar Relatively small incisors and large molars Very thick molar enamel Parabolic rather than U-shaped dental arch

Major evolutionary Trends in Hominid Evolution

Bipedalism Brain size Jaw shape

o Prognathic jawso Flatter face with more pronounced chinso Reduced canines and diastema

Increases reliance

Species to know

Australopithecus. Afarenus (Lucy)o 3-4 million yearso Ape-like face

Low forehead Bony ridge over eyes Flat nose, no chin

o Cranial capacity 375-500 cco Pelvis and femus = Bipedalo Long arms – arboreal existence?o Scavengers not hunterso Highly sexually dimorphic

A. Africanus H. Habilis

Typical Primate Social Characteristics

Social animals Diurnal (Sleep at night/away during day) Long dependency period Learn from others Prosimians

Includes Lemurs, Tarsiers, and bush babies Africa, Asia, and Madagascar Various degrees of sociability Females dominate

Unlike Humans

Mostly quadrupedal Some nocturnal Stronger sense of smell Insectivores, carnivores, herbivores Mobile ears, whiskers, five facial expressions, snouts, toothcomb

Like other primates

Grasping hands Stereoscopic vision Large visual center

Monkeys

o New world monkey Broad nose with outward facing nostrils Prehensile tail 3 premolars; 2/3 molars per quadrant

o Old world monkeys More closely related to apes/humans Non-prehensile tail Narrow nose downward facing nostrils 2 premolars per quadrant Cheek pouches for storing food

o Unlike Hominoids: Tails (prehensile and nonprehensile) Stronger sense of smell

o Like other primates Rounded braincase Opposable thumbs Large visual center

o 2 types –Greater and Lesser aprèso Large brainso Long arms, short torsos, no tailso Great range of movement in wrist, elbow, and shouldero More bipedal movemento Brachiators

Why Study Sex?o Biological adaption that has become a cultural focus

Selection favors behavior that maximize reproductive success Motivates behavior Biological, psychological, and cultural experience

Study of Primate Sexualityo Biological adaptions of primates (hands, vision, and grooming)

Age of exploration newo Europeans react by considering the people lesser beings Francois Bernier (1684) divides

hum The Term “Race”

o Middle Age Romance language term for a breeding line of animals o Spanish razao English adopted the term applied it to the Irish, then to colonial indigious people

“Race” 16th-18th centuryo Used interchangeably with people, nation, etc.o Racial differences and rankings are “science”

Term emphasizes innate, biological differences. Number of “Races”

o Linnaeus (1735) - 4 races (Europeans, Asians, Africans, Indian Americanso Linnaeus (1758) – 5 races (European, Asians, Africans, Indian Americans, and a trash bin-

like category for any other raceo Blemenbach (1779) – 5 races (Caucasian, Malayan, Mongolian, Ethiopian, American)

Degenerative Theoryo Whites superior because of they were “civilized” – also making classificationso Therefore, first humans (Adam and Eve) were whiteo Other races degenerative forms of Europeans

Continued “Race” Debates – A waste of 200 yearso As few as 3 races and as many as 12o Samuel Morton – created racial categories based on brain size using buck shoto Polygenism – a theory of human origins that the races have a different origins o Monogenism – argues for a single origin of humanity (James Cowles Prichard)

Sickle Cell Anemiao Genetic disease thought to be “African” Disease

Inherited like a recessive condition – must get the gene from both mother and father

When the individual works hard and is stressed for oxygen, the red blood cells are likely to freeze up and sickle.

Vitamin Deficiencyo Rickets – affect bone growth

Allen’s Ruleo The relative size of protruding body parts increases in warmer climates

Archeology o Don’t give a fuck about dinosaurs

o The study of the HUMAN past through material remains, involving themes of change and time.

Modern archeology does not mean finding cool stuff for museumso What was life like in the past?o What does past tell us in presento What does it mean to be human?

Material Cultureo Artifact – a portable object or material used, modified, or created by humans.o Feature – non-portable human-made object – cannot be moved without destroying –

must be studied in the fieldo Ecofact – Non-artifactual remains that have archeological relevance – Provide

information on environment & subsistence.o Site – concentrated traces of human activity – accumulations of artifacts or features.

The preservation of material remainso Inorganic vs. Organico Extreme, stable preservation environments good (lack of bacteria)

Frozen Waterlogged Very dry

Excavationo Systematic uncovering of artifacts and featureso Types of excavation

Vertical Excavated to expose strata Site formation and chronology

Horizontal Opening large areas of particular layers Reveals spatial association between artifacts and features

o Screening Passing soil through mesh to retain artifacts

o Floatation Technique for the recovery of botanical remains

Two basic types of dating techniqueso Relative dating – older/younger not fixed years

Seriation Creating a sequence of artifact types and variability over time

Stratigraphic Sequential dating of deposits (strat) Super position

Three rules of relative time Principles of Superposition Cross-Cutting Relationships Original Horizontality

Bone Chemistry

Three Age System Stone, Bronze, Iron Distinguishing attribute = type of material/technology Thomsen relatively dated tools (seriation), Worsaae validated using

stratigraphy Fluorine/Uranium Dating

Older bone incorporates more fluorine and uranium during fossilizationo Absolute dating – gives a date of date raning in actual years

Types Calendars and Historical Chronologies

o Romans: relative to year of the emperor, sometimes Rome’s founding

o Greeks: date of first Olympic games (~776 BC)o Maya: beginning of a creation cycle 3,114 BC

Measuring growth/absorption Dendrochronology

Study of the annual growth rings of trees Very precise dates Requires good wood preservation

Paleolithic and the Pleistoceneo Dates are almost identical

2.6 million years ago to 12,000 years agoo Continents in placeo Clime = repeated glacial cycleso More Grasslands

Oldowan Toolso Olduvai Gorgeo Homo habiliso Flaks and chopperso Direct percussiono Little standardization or retouchingo Mostly Unifacial

Acheulian Toolso Handaxeo Homo erectuso Swiss Army Knifeo Symmetry and standardizationo Direct percussiono Soft hammero Mostly bifacial

New technologieso Use of Fire (Homo erectus)

Decreased mortality, enter into colder climates, protect from predators, and defrost/tenderize food, kill parasites

o Rafts Explore new areas

Mousterian Toolso Flaketools instead of core toolso Retouchedo Levallois techniqueo Variety of tools

Composite tools Blades

Upper Paleolithico Microliths, atlatls points, and harpoonso Use of new Techniques

Indirect percussion Pressure flaking

Use wear analysiso Microscopic analysis of a tools edge for characteristic wear patternso Experimental Archaeology

First potteryo Japan – Jomono Rope patternedo 15,400 to 18,300 years oldo Yuchanyan Cave, located in China’s Yangtze River basin

Symbolic materialo Art – early traces of art found in carvings, beads, and paintings

Portable art Cave art.

o Oldest Musical Instrument 8.5 inch flute carved from vulture bone 35000 years ago.

Summaryo Stone tools evolved through time to become more complex and specialized

Neolithic (10,000 – 5,000 years ago)o Neolithic Revolution

Domestication and Food Production Ground stone tools Composite tools for plant harvesting Ceramic pottery

o Getting Food Food Collectors

Foragerso Hunting

o Fishingo Gathering

Food Producers Horticulturalist Pastoralists Agriculturalists

o Zooarcheology – the study of animal bones from agricultural siteso Archaeobotany – the study of plants in an archeological setting

Macrobotanical Microbotanical

Phytolith = rigid, microstructure in plant cells Coprolite = fossilized excrement

Domestication The Process

o Notice a desirable trait in a specieso Separate members of the species from natureo Selective breeding (artificial selection)o Exaggerate and stabilize desirable trait(s)o Change in the biological level

Silver Fox Experimento Started in the USSR 1959o Selective breeding of silver foxeso Artificial selection for a single trait – friendliness towards

humanso 35 generations over 40 years created a domesticated foxes of

different colors that were more tame and dog-like Characteristics of State

o Agricultural Innovationso Citieso Record keeping/ writingo Monumental architecture (public and private)o Warfare

Important questions about the Formation of State-level Societieso When and where did the world’s states first develop?o What changed in culture accompanied the rise of state level societies?o Why/how did state level societies evolve?

Worlds 1st stateso Old World (Grew out of Neolithic villages between 6000 and 4500 years ago)

Mesopotamia (5,500 ya) Egypt (5,100 ya) Indus River Valley (4,800 ya) China (3,800 ya0

o New World

Peru (Inca) (2,200 ya) Mesoamerica (AD 100)

4 cultural changes in Transition of Stateso Agricultural innovation

Irrigation systems Raised fields

o Diversification of labor A few people could provide sufficient food while others could specialize in

crafts, religion, or leadership roleso Emergence of central government

Made sure that different interest groups did not infringe on one another’s rights Ensued safety Levied taxes

o Social Stratification Ways archeologists recognize stratification in ancient civilizations:

The size of dwellings Burial Status

o Writing was independently Invented Five Timeso Theories of State Development

Irrigation Long Distance Trade Circumscription

o Origins of State: The Hydraulic Theory Most primary states depend on irrigation Irrigation construction required centralized government Administrators controlled that vital water resource

o Problems with the Hydraulic Theory Large irrigation does not appear until AFTER the primary state in Mesopotamia Some societies had irrigation but never became a state (Pueblo Indians on the

American Southwest)o Origins of the State: Long Distance Trade

Mesoamerica, Mesopotamia, and Kingdoms of Africa Organizational requirements of producing items for export, redistributing items

imported, and defining trade parties would foster formationo Origins of States: Circumscription Theory

Populations concentrated in agricultural areaso State Formation Depends on…

Number of interacting individuals or groups (system/environment) What they are building on (history/particulars) Their goals (agency/free will)

Logosyllabic Languageso Symbols that represent

Alphabetic Languageo Symbols reflect the pronunciation of the words

o Each symbol has a specific way of being pronouncedo Can be arranged to make different words

Mesopotamian Writing (Economic)o Tokens 8000-3500 BCo Bulla (ENVELOPE) 3500 BCo Cuneiform Tablets 3200 BC

Behistun Inscription (~500 BC) Egyptian Writing (Political)

o Writing Development Over 3,000 years, Ancient Egyptians used 3 types of writing

Hieroglyphic Hieratic Demotic (25th Dynasty)

o Oldest Hieratic First Patience Case File ~1600 BC

48 cases each w/ types of injury, examination of the patient, diagnosis and prognosis, and treatment

o Demotic 26th Dynasty 600 BC Nubians to Greek Replaced hieratic except for religious texts

The Rosetta Stoneo Royal Decree by Ptolemy V in 196 BCo Written in Hieroglyphic, Demotic, and Greeko Romans closed temples – Writing lost from AD 400 until 1822o Found by Napoleon’s troops in the Nile Delta in 1799

Oracle Bone Mesoamerican Writing

Tombs and Pyramids: Archaeology of Death

Why do we bury the dead?o Public health requirement - NOo Respect the deado Closureo Religious belief/culture

How do we burry the dead?o Orientationo Flexed vs extended vs uprighto Primary vs secondaryo Single vs multipleo Good burial and monuments

Earliest Burialso Neanderthals

Shanidar cave Male 30-45 years old Semi-flexed position Grape hyacinths, bachelor’s button. Hollyhocks Suggest Neanderthals first to bury their dead

Undisputed human burials (~130,000 years ago) -Skhul Cave, Israel - Red ochre and wild boar bones

Alternatives to Burialo Burial at seaso Cannibalismo Cremationo Ecological Funeral

Promession/Resomationo Gibbetingo Hanging coffinso Excarnation

Body processingo Excarnation – removing of flesh without intermento Commonly associated with secondary burials

Natural decay/scavenged Butchering

Types of monumentso Structures created to commemorate a person, group of people, deity, or event which

has become Egypt

o Burials and monuments in state (stratified) societies = strong differentiation Cultural Anthropology

o Study of the cultural variation and universals among modern day humans by collecting data

o Methods (fieldwork) Participant observations, interviews, surveys

Methods in Cultural Anthropologyo What types of data-gathering techniques do cultural anthropologists use?o How do cultural anthropologist conduct fieldwork?o What are some of the problems faced by cultural anthropologists?

Gathering Datao Cultural anthropologists conduct research in libraries and museums

Other Techniqueso Census Taking/Surveyso Mapping

o Document Analysiso Collecting Genealogieso Photography

Fieldworko Typically involves

Living with people you study Learning their language Surveying environments/material possessions Spending long periods observing everyday behaviors and interactions in natural

settings Basic stages of field research

o Select a research problemo Formulate a research designo Collect the datao Analyze the datao Interpret the data

Difficulties of fieldworko No two fieldwork situations are the same but all anthropologists experience similar

problems and issues Common issues in Fieldwork

o Gaining acceptance in the communityo Understanding how to operate within the local structureo Taking precautions against investigator bias

Other issues in fieldworko Choosing knowledgeable informants (Key informants)o Coping with cultural shocko Earning a new language

Types of researcho Ethnography/Within-Culture Comparison

Participant-observation Fieldwork

o Cross-cultural comparisons Regional comparisons Cross-cultural surveys

o Historical research Ethnohistory

Ethnographyo Firsthand study of a local cultureo Understand the whole of a particular culture, not just fragmentso Do not isolate variables or attempt to manipulate the outcome of events

Napoleon Chagnono Lived with Yanomamo in Venezuelan rainforest from 1960s until 1990so Shaki – Peksy Bee

o Interested in social patterns and genealogieso Methods have been questioned

Kinship and cultural supportin Brazilo Based on cultural and colonial history, a strong emphasis is placed on extended kinship

in brazilo Extended kin are seen as the primary source of help in times of needo Hypothesis: those persons with less access to kin support will be stressed and have

higher blood pressure. Regional controlled comparison

o “The Changing Samoans” Study examined the effects of culture exchange and migration on health and

nutrition Compared three communities in Samoa

Cross-Cultural comparisono Cross cultural survey

Human relations Area Files Codes on sociocultural characteristics of hundreds of societies Can test many kinds of hypotheses about cultural practices

Summaryo Anthropologists use various methodso Because of our subject matter, anthropologists try to be flexible and electric in research

methods. Yanomamo Marriage

o Lineage exogamyo Village Endogamyo Polygyny

Sex != Marriage; Incest Taboo != Exogamyo Exogamy prohibits marriage within certain culturally defined social categories but this

does not necessarily restrict sexual relations amount members of the category or groupo Incest avoidance != Incest Prohibition

Reasons for Tabooo No sexual attractiono Forbidden unconscious impulseo Family Problemso Make new friendso Fear of inbreeding

Bilateral Kinshipo One’s relatives on both mother’s and father’s side are equal in importance or

unimportance Kindred describes a person’s bilateral set of relatives who may be called upon

for some purpose. Marriage

o Socially approved sexual and economic union of two or more people

o Rights and obligations between spouses and their future childreno Fairly Universalo Helps with problems found in all societies.

Arranged Marriageo Families negotiate marriages for other immediate family memberso Still common in parts of Southeast Asia, Africa, and Middle Easto Usually aristocratic familieso Bethrothals – marriages arranged when possible partners are still children

Outdated custom in much of India, China, Japan, and parts of Europe. Marriage Ceremonies in US

o Mostly constructed of European marriage customs Bride wears white Throw rice Marriages are not arranged Groom must ask for bride’s hand from father Service conducted by religious leader.

Different Marriage Customso Brides in China typically have 3 wedding dresses for the occasiono In India, brides and family paint their hands and feet.

Different Marriage Customso Among the Zulu, groom and brides family engage in a dance off and groom slaughters

cow; bride places money inside the stomach of the cow to symbolize that she is now part of the family

o In Borneo, bride and groom are not allowed to use the bathroom for 72 hours. Other marriage customs

o Broom Jumpo Breaking glasso Cake pullo Rowdy Escort Partyo Humiliation of Groom/Brideo Ransom of the shoeso Young Bridesmaid

Economic Aspects of Marriageo Bride Price/Service – most Common

Grooms pays or works for bride’s family Common in Africa and Pacific Islands

o Nandi – Bride price: 6 cattle, 2 sheep, shells, and moneyo Inuit – 1 seal.

Getting Foodo Food Collectors

Foragers Hunting Fishing

Gatheringo Food Producers

Horticulturalists Pastoralists Agriculturalists

Intensive Industrial

Food Collectorso Foraging – a food getting strategy where wild plant and animal resources are obtained

through gathering, hunting, scavenging, or fishing General Features of foragers

Small communities Nomadic lifestyle Division of labor based on age and gender Complex foragers

o Hunting Primarily a male activity A wide array of techniques and equipment have been developed to hunt and

butcher prey Spears, atlatis, bow and arrow, traps, lithic technology, etc.

o Fishing A wide variety of fishing techniques

Nets, lines, kites, spears, and poison Societies that have access to marine resources have larger, more permanent

settlements, and more complex Pacific Coast New Guinea

o Gathering Typically female activity, children often help Involves collection of wild plants, eggs, insects, small (slow-moving) animals, etc. Much more important in warmer climates than in cold weather.

Food productiono Beginning about 10,000 years ago, certain people in diverse geographic locations made

the revolutionary changeover to FOOD PRODUCTION Three Types of Food Production

o Horticulture The growing of crops of all kinds of relatively simple tools and methods

General Featureso Slightly larger communities (villages)o Semi-nomadic lifestyleo Part-time political officialso Fairly infrequent food shortages

o Pastoralism

The subsistence technology principally involving the raising of large herds of animals

Small Communities Semi-nomadic lifestyle Part-time political officials Frequent food shortages Moderate differences in individual wealth

o Agriculture Involves techniques that enable people to cultivate fields permanently

Plow technology Irrigation Fertilizer Crop Rotation Monocrop Fields

Large Population Cities Frequent Food Shortages Considerable differences in wealth Full time political and administrative officials

Sex and Gendero Biology differentiates the sexeso Society differentiates male and female roleso Gender roles ascribed to men and women vary greatly from culture to culture

Sex o Maleo Female

Gendero Masculineo Feminine

Sexual Dimorphismo Females

Wider Pelvis Greater % of body weight

o Males: Taller and heavier Greater % of muscle Greater grip strength Larger heart and lungs

Gender Roleso Societies expectations of the behavior of the sexes in societyo Gender roles are not only different cross-culturally, but also change over time within a

society. Gender Roles in all culture

o In virtually all cultures:

Women are expected to focus on child-raising Men tend to have more power.

Anthropology of Religion

Why Study Religion?o Universal human traito It is (apparently) unique to our specieso Highly variable

Religiono Is any set of attitude, beliefs, and practices pertaining to supernatural power, whether

that power be forces, gods, spirits, ghosts, or demons. Supernatural beings

o Gods Spirits believed to have created the world or exert control over it

o Demons Negative, evil beings

o Tricksters Annoying, practical jokes

Lokio Ghosts

Soul becomes trapped Religion

o Belief in the supernatural Beings, powers, or forces not subject to the laws of nature Must be accepted on the basis of faith

o Reflects worldview of a group Reinforces social norms

Where we have come from; where are we going? Provides a moral code

Ten commandmentso Social needso Provides “Cosmology”

A set of principles/beliefs about Nature of life and death How the universe was created Origin of society Relationship of individuals and groups to one another Relationship of humans to nature

Creation Mythso Thoughts, words, dreams, or secretions of divine beings (Bible, Quran, Ancient Egypt)o Earth Diver (US Native Americans)o Series of worlds or changes into terrestrial world (Aztec)o World Parent (Ancient Mesoamerica)

The Universality of Religion

o The need to understand Animism Animatism

o Reversion to Childhood Feelings Anxiety and Uncertainty The need for Community

Variation in Religious Beliefso Types of Supernatural Forces and beingso The Character of Supernatural Beingso Structure of Hierarchy of Supernatural Beingso Intervention of the Gods in Human affairso Life After Deatho Types of Supernatural forces and beings

Supernatural forces Supernatural beings

Gods Spirits Ghosts Ancestors

o Structure or Hierarchy of Supernatural Beings Monotheistic Religions Polytheistic Religions

o Ways to interact with the Supernatural Prayer, taking drugs, simulations, feasts, and sacrifices

o Blood letting Indigenous Beliefs and Practices

o Many indigenous groups have distinct religious systems of beliefs and practices in the same way that they have their own languages and cultures.

Globalizationo The ongoing spread of goods, people, information, and capital around the worldo Maritime Europe = 16th centuryo Industrializationo Factors that influence globalization

Transportation Telecommunications

Characteristics of Art in Nonindulstrial Contextso Serves useful, practical purposes

In everyday life In ritual

o Uses culturally significant symbols, motifso Emphasis on repetitiono Identity of artist usually not importanto Emphasis on process

Characteristics of Art in Industrial Contextso Are separated from everyday lifeo Symbols and motifs independent of contexto Emphasis on innovationo Identity of artist is importanto Product is paramount – commoditization

What happens why local artisans produce for the global market?o Preservation or revitalization of native craftso BUT the product changeso AND social organization changes

Folk Art Movementso Political aspects

Promoted to support national identityo Psychological aspects

Nostalgia for a ‘simpler’ lifestyle Appeal of the local, particular