John Maurice Abel September 9,2014

MSN Batch 11

ST.Paul University Quezon City

Question for Discussion

Chapter 1 – Research and the Problem for Investigation

1. What is research? Why is its process considered cyclical in nature?

the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions. It is cyclical in nature because whenever we finish or answer the prior question another question will arise.

2. How is a problem known to be a research problem?

is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troublingquestion that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation.

3. What are the elements of a research problem?

Purpose of the problem

Subject matter to be investigated

Place or locale where the research will take place

Period or time of study in which the data are to be gathered

Population whom data are collected

4. How is a good research problem selected? What are the guidelines in selecting a research

problem?

Relevance (importance)

How large or widespread is the problem? Who is affected? How severe is the problem?

If a possible research topic is not addressing a priority problem, it is not worthwhile researching it, so you should drop it from your list.

Avoidance of duplication

Has the topic been investigated before within the proposed study area, or in another area with similar conditions?

Can you find answers to the problem in already available, published or unpublished information, or just by using your common sense? If so, you should drop the topic from your list.

Urgency of data needed (timeliness)

How urgently are the results needed for making a decision or developing interventions? Consider which research should be done first and which can be done later.

If the research can’t be done in time, then there is no point in doing it.

Political acceptability In general it is advisable for you to research a topic that has the interest and support of theworeda authorities. This will increase the chance that the results of the study will be implemented.

Avoid any topic which does not have the support of the relevant authorities.

Feasibility Consider the complexity of the problem and the resources you will require to carry out your study.

If you don’t have the manpower, time, equipment and money available, then don’t do the research.

Applicability of results and recommendations

Will your study be practically useful? If your research isn’t going to be useful, then don’t do it!

Ethical acceptability You should always consider the possibility of inflicting harm on others while carrying out research. Always consider whether there are any relevant ethical issues to be concerned about.

If you think the research isn’t ethical or might cause harm or disturbance then don’t do it.

(source: http://labspace.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=454414&section=8.5)

5. How is the title of a research problem formulated?

The Title of a research problem was formulated by the questions and goals of a certain research. It is based on what are the topics of the research and eventually the title determines what the research is all about..

6. How are the general and the specific statement of the problem formulated?

a. General area of investigation -- Madsen’s criteria:�i. Sustain your interest & stimulate your imaginationii. Within your range of competenciesiii. Manageable in sizeiv. Potential to make a contribution to body of

knowledgev. Based on obtainable datavi. Demonstrate your independent mastery of both the vii. subject and method�

b. Literature review usually limited at this pointi. Must make wise choices about what to investigate,

study, ii. Is the topic better suited to a qualitative or

quantitative paradigm?

1. Nature of the problemPreviously studied, much literature –

2. quantitativeExploratory study, lacking theory base -- qualitative

7. Why are assumptions and hypotheses important in research? What functions do they serve?

How are they formulated? Are hypotheses always explicit? Why?

A research hypothesis is the statement created by

researchers when they speculate upon the outcome of a research or

experiment.

Every true experimental design must have this statement at

the core of its structure, as the ultimate aim of any experiment.

The hypothesis are formulated with a number of means, but is

usually the result of a process of inductive reasoning where

observations lead to the formation of a theory. Scientists then

use a large battery of deductive methods to arrive at a

hypothesis that is testable, falsifiable and realistic.

Chapter 2 – Review of Related Literature and Studies

1. What is the nature of related studies and literature?

The statement of the research problem and the literature

review are mutually supportive. The statement of the

research problem clearly defines the subject area to be

treated. The literature review demonstrates that the

research problem has received prior attention, and shows

that further research is needed to resolve the problem.

2. How are related literature and studies formulated?

To be formulated, a literature review must be CLEAR,

COHERENT, and PERSUASIVE analysis of the current state of

the literature and must be related to the main research that

would help in giving the certain facts in regards to the

research.

3. Why are related studies and literature important in research? What are their functions?

Review and related literature and studies is very important because it serves as the foundation of the proposed study. Related literature and studies serve as a guide for the researcher in pursuing his research venture.

4. What are the characteristics of good related literature and studies?

a) The materials must be as recent as possible. This is important because of the rapid social. Political, scientific, and technological changes. Discoveries in historical and archaeological research have also change some historical facts. Researchers in education an psychology are also making great strides.

b) Materials must be as objective and unbiased as possible. Some materials are extremely one sided, either politically or religiously biased. These should be avoided

c) Materials must be relevant to the study. Only materials that have some similarity to or being on the problem researched on, should be cited.

d) Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or data to make them valid and reliable. There are cases where fictitious data are supplied just to complete a research report.

e) Materials must not be too few but not too many. They must be sufficient enough o give the researcher insights into his problem or to indicate the nature of the present investigation. The number may also depend upon the availability of related materials. Ordinarily fifteen to twenty-five may do for a master’s thesis and from twenty and above for a doctoral dissertation, Depending upon their availability and depth and length of discussion. For undergraduate theses about ten may do.

5. From what sources may related literature and studies located?

a) Books, encyclopedias, almanacs and other similar referencesb) Articles published in professional journals, magazines,

periodicals, newspapers and other publications.c) Manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches, letters and

diaries.d) Unpublished theses and dissertations.e) The Constitution and laws and statutes of the land.f) Bulletins, circulars and other emanating from government

offices and departments, especially from the office of the president of the Philippines and DepEd.

g) Records of schools, public and private, especially reports and other activities.

h) Reports from seminars, educational or otherwise.

i) Official reports of all kinds, educational, social, economic, scientific, technological, political, etc. from the government and other entities.

Chapter 3 – Historical Research

1. What is a historical research?

It is the type of research that examines past events or combinations of events to arrive at an account of what has happened in the past

2. How is a problem or topic chosen for historical research?

a) Uncover the unknown, b) Answer questions, c) Identify the relationship that the past has to the

present, d) Record and evaluate accomplishments of individuals,

agencies, or institutions, e) Aid in understanding the culture in which we live.

3. From where are the data for historical research gathered? What are the sources?

a) Current issues in educationb) Desire to understand the impact of a specific individual,

an institution, or a social movement on an educational policy or educational reform

c) You might want to understand the relationship among different events (e.g., decisions to use busing and then to drop busing to schools)

d) Desire to understand the historical roots of an educational policy

e) You may even decide that past events have not been presented accurately so you decide to write up your new interpretation (which must be based on some evidence).

4. How are data analyzed by internal criticism? By external criticism?

Garraghan divides source criticism into six inquiries:

1.When was the source, written or unwritten, produced (date)?

2.Where was it produced (localization)?

3.By whom was it produced (authorship)?

4.From what pre-existing material was it produced (analysis)?

5.In what original form was it produced (integrity)?

6.What is the evidential value of its contents (credibility)?

5. Why is it important to use both internal and external criticism?

External criticism refers to determining the authenticity, validity, or trustworthiness of the source (to see if the source is what it claims to be); internal criticism refers to the determination of the reliability or accuracy of the information contained in the source; it is important for determining what a good interpretation is of the information contained in the source.

6. What are the guidelines in writing an effective historical research?

7. What characteristic of a historical research?

Present historical investigations primarily aim for critical search for truth.

In making your historical report the actual events and the conditions of the time are not violated,exaggerated,or distorted.

8. What could be good topics for historical research?

a) Current issues in educationb) Desire to understand the impact of a specific individual,

an institution, or a social movement on an educational policy or educational reform

c) You might want to understand the relationship among different events (e.g., decisions to use busing and then to drop busing to schools)

d) Desire to understand the historical roots of an educational policy

e) You may even decide that past events have not been presented accurately so you decide to write up your new interpretation (which must be based on some evidence).

Chapter 4 – Descriptive Research

1. Explain what is a descriptive research?

The descriptive research attempts to describe, explain and interpret conditions of the present i.e. “what is’. The purpose of a descriptive research is to examine a phenomenon that is occurring at a specific place(s) and time. A descriptive research is concerned with conditions, practices, structures, differences or relationships that exist, opinions held, processes that are going on or trends that are evident.

2. Give the characteristics of descriptive studies.

a. Descriptive research ascertains prevailing conditions of facts in a group or case under study.

b. It gives either a qualitative or quantitative, or both, description of the general characteristics of thegroup or case under study.

c. What caused the prevailing conditions is not emphasized.

d. Study of conditions at different periods of time may be made and the change or progress that tookplace between the periods may be noted or evaluated for any value.

e. Comparison of the characteristics of two groups or cases may be made to determine their similaritiesand differences.

f. The variables or conditions studied in descriptive research are not usually controlled.

g. Descriptive studies, except in case studies, are generally cross-sectional, that is, it studies the differentsection belonging to the same group

h. Studies on prevailing conditions may or can be repeated for purposes of verification and comparison

3. What are the advantages of descriptive researches?

The two main benefits of this research method is being able to use various forms of data as well as incorporating

human experience. It givesresearchers the ability to look at whatever they are studying in so many various aspects and can provide a bigger overview as opposed to other forms of research.

4. What techniques of research are used under descriptive researches? Explain each.

Descriptive research is a multifaceted research approach. It can include quantitative data such as the use of empirical information, or can depict qualitative sources such as patterns of disease. Descriptive research requires gathering data that will describe an event and presenting the information in an organized, and often visual, manner. Description is used to explain the answer to "what is" and to depict patterns that emerge during a study through a variety of research techniques.

5. Differentiate between normative survey and case study.

Normative survey deals with standardized instruments like mental ability test, stress and personality questionnaire, morale and job satisfaction questionnaire.

Case study is an intensive and descriptive analysis of a single subject. It examines a social unit as a whole, and the unit may be a single typical individual, a family, a social group, a social institution, or a community.

6. What are the advantages of surveys over case studies? Its disadvantages?

Advantages

Typical, average or normal. The result of the survey may be used for prediction. It makes possible the formulation of generalization

Can provide information about many people since it’s

cheap and easy to do

Disadvantages

Provides information about behavior that can’t be

observed directly

Relies on self-report data, which can be misleading

Doesn’t allow conclusions about cause-and-effect

relationships

Sometimes gives incomplete information

Sometimes relies only on self-report data, which can be

misleading

7. What is content analysis? What are its uses?

is a method in the social sciences for studying thecontent of those types of empirical documentation which can be briefly referred to - with Hodder - as mute evidence, "that is written texts and artifacts".

Chapter 5 – Experimental Research

1. Explain the process of experimental research?

Construct an experimental design that represents all the elements, conditions, and relations of the consequences.

1. Select sample of subjects.2. Group or pair subjects.3. Identify and control non experimental factors.4. Select or construct, and validate instruments to

measure outcomes.5. Conduct pilot study.6. Determine place, time, and duration of the experiment.7. Conduct the experiment.

Compile raw data and reduce to usable form.

Apply an appropriate test of significance.

2. Differentiate a dependent from an independent variable. What are their functions in an

experimental research?

In an experiment, the independent variable is the variable that is varied or manipulated by the researcher, and the dependent variable is the response that is measured.

An independent variable is the presumed cause, whereas the dependent variable is the presumed effect.

3. Give the distinguishing features of experiments.

Pretest-Posttest DesignCheck whether the groups are different before the manipulation starts and the effect of the manipulation. Pretests sometimes influence the effect.

Control GroupControl groups are designed to measure research bias and measurement effects, such as the Hawthorne Effect or the Placebo Effect. A control group is a group not receiving the same manipulation as the experimental group. Experiments frequently have 2 conditions, but rarely more than 3 conditions at the same time.

Randomized Controlled TrialsRandomized Sampling, comparison between an Experimental Group and a Control Group and strict control/randomization of all other variables

Solomon Four-Group DesignWith two control groups and two experimental groups. Half the groups have a pretest and half do not have a pretest. This to test both the effect itself and the effect of the pretest.

Between Subjects DesignGrouping Participants to Different Conditions

Within Subject DesignParticipants Take Part in the Different Conditions - See also: Repeated Measures Design

Counterbalanced Measures DesignTesting the effect of the order of treatments when no control group is available/ethical

Matched Subjects DesignMatching Participants to Create Similar Experimental- and Control-Groups

Double-Blind ExperimentNeither the researcher, nor the participants, know which is the control group. The results can be affected if the researcher or participants know this.

Bayesian ProbabilityUsing bayesian probability to "interact" with participants is a more "advanced" experimental design. It can be used for settings were there are many variables which are hard to isolate. The researcher starts with a set of initial beliefs, and tries to adjust them to how participants have responded

4. Explain how experimental designs are conducted.

In quantitative research, the amount of data measured can be enormous. Data not prepared to be analyzed is called "raw data". The raw data is often summarized as something called "output data", which typically consists of one line per subject (or item). A cell of the output data is, for example, an average of an effect in many trials for a subject. The output data is used for statistical analysis, e.g. significance tests, to see if there really is an effect.The aim of an analysis is to draw a conclusion, together with other observations. The researcher might generalize the results to a wider phenomenon, if there is no indication of confounding variables "polluting" the results.If the researcher suspects that the effect stems from a different variable than the independent variable, further investigation is needed to gauge the validity of the results. An experiment is often conducted because the scientist wants to know if the independent variable is having any effect upon the dependent variable. Variables correlating are not proof that there is causation.

Chapter 6 – Collection of Data

1. How are data classified according to source? What are their advantages and disadvantages?

A primary source is a source cited for some new idea, creative thought, or data originating in that source, and not derived from another author or another source. Primary sources usually have some immediate connection or contact with the source of the new idea, thought, or data. For example, the primary source of some experimental data might be written by the scientist who performed the experiments. The primary source of a quotation might be written by someone who was present when the thing was said. The primary source of a historical theory is usually written by the historian who first conceived that theory. The primary source of information about a fictional universe is usually written by the author of that fictional universe.

A secondary source is any source cited for its second-hand information from a different work. Secondary sources are not the originators of new ideas, creative thoughts, or data; they merely act as a conduit for such information. For example, if an author compiles research data from several scientists into a table for comparison, she is a secondary source with respect to that data. If an author paraphrases a quotation in another source, she is a secondary source with respect to that quotation. If an author in a historiography summarizes a historical theory from the 1800s, she is a secondary source as to that historical theory. An encyclopedia about a fictional universe is a secondary source as to the works of fiction defining that fictional universe.

Some secondary sources, such as textbooks and treatises, are further described as tertiary sources. However, the tertiary source concept is not as significant and clear-cut as the others, and the category has less relevance to Wikipedia, except for the fact that Wikipedia is itself a tertiary source.

2. What are the characteristics of a good research instrument? Explain each.

Usability refers to the ease with which an instrument can be administered, interpreted by the participant, and scored/interpreted by the researcher

Validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure and performs as it is designed to perform. It is rare, if nearly impossible, that an instrument be 100% valid, so validity is generally measured in degrees. As a process, validation involves collecting and analyzing data to assess the accuracy of an instrument. There are numerous statistical tests and measures to assess the validity of quantitative instruments, which generally involves pilot testing

Reliability can be thought of as consistency. Does the instrument consistently measure what it is intended to measure? It is not possible to calculate reliability; however, there are four general estimators that you may encounter in reading research:

1. Inter-Rater/Observer Reliability: The degree to which different raters/observers give consistent answers or estimates.

2. Test-Retest Reliability: The consistency of a measure evaluated over time.

3. Parallel-Forms Reliability: The reliability of two tests constructed the same way, from the same content.

4. Internal Consistency Reliability: The consistency of results across items, often measured with Cronbach’s Alpha.

Chapter 7 – The Questionnaire

1. What is a questionnaire?

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case.

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a questionnaire as a means of gathering

data?

The advantages of questionnaires

a) Practicalb) Large amounts of information can be collected from a large

number of people in a short period of time and in a relatively cost effective way

c) Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with limited affect to its validity and reliability

d) The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified by either a researcher or through the use of a software package

e) Can be analysed more 'scientifically' and objectively than other forms of research

f) When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other research and may be used to measure change

g) Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new theories and / or test existing hypotheses

The disadvantages of questionnaires

a) Is argued to be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e. changes of emotions, behaviour, feelings etc.

b) Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation by the researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of information without explanation

c) Lacks validityd) There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is beinge) There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has

put inf) The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the

full context of the situationg) People may read differently into each question and therefore

reply based on their own interpretation of the question - i.e. what is 'good' to someone may be 'poor' to someone else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not acknowledged

h) There is a level of researcher imposition, meaning that when developing the questionnaire, the researcher is making their own decisions and assumptions as to what is and is not

important...therefore they may be missing something that is of importance

3. What are the guidelines in the formulation of questions in a questionnaire? Explain, justify and

give examples each.

The purpose of the investigation or research project must be established before the questionnaire is drawn up. The purpose dictates what type of information should be obtained with the questionnaire. At this stage the researcher must do a thorough literature study on the subject under investigation.

Decide whether a questionnaire is the most suitable method to capture the desired information.

The purpose of the investigation will determine the target group, that is the respondents to whom the questionnaire is directed.

The target group will determine the manner in which the questionnaire is to be completed. In other words whether the questionnaires will be posted to the respondents, completed in a group under supervision, be completed during personal interviews, etc.

Consider the conditions under which the questionnaire is to be completed. The conditions in a hut in the informal sector differ considerably from conditions in an air-conditioned hall with comfortable desks.

Discuss the size of the sample, the definition of the population and the actual drawing of the sample with a statistician. The final draft of the questionnaire must also be discussed with the statistician and the research consultant. The hypotheses to be tested must preferably be formulated beforehand to ensure that all relevant information is included in the questionnaire.

Ensure that all information which may later be necessary for evaluation of the realisation of the sample is included in the questionnaire.

The question of anonymity must be addressed. It must be clearly explained to the respondent that all information will be considered confidential and that no personal information will be published. No information that can identify the respondent should be on the questionnaire.

For example, the questionnaires should not be numbered prior to sending it to the respondent. An exception must be made in the case of studies where information must be obtained before and after certain events or actions and the two sets of data must be linked. In this case information such as a student number must be used and the situation must be explained to the respondent.

Chapter 8 – The Interview

1. What is an interview? What are the functions of the participants in an interview?

An interview is a conversation between two or more people where questions are asked by the interviewer to elicit facts or statements from the interviewee. Interviews are a standard part of journalism and media reporting, but are also employed in many other situations, including qualitative research.

Interviews are completed by the interviewer based on what the interviewee says.

Interviews are a far more personal form of research than questionnaires.

In the personal interview, the interviewer works directly with the interviewee.

Unlike with mail surveys, the interviewer has the opportunity to probe or ask follow up questions.

Interviews are generally easier for the interviewee, especially if what is sought are opinions and/or impressions.

Interviews are time consuming and they are resource intensive.

The interviewer is considered a part of the measurement instrument and interviewer has to be well trained in how to respond to any contingency.

Interview provide an opportunity of face to face interaction between two persons;hence it reduces conflicts

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the interview as a means of gathering

data?

There are many methods. When considering what type of qualitative research method to use, Qualitative Interviewing has many advantages. Possibly the greatest advantage of Qualitative Interviewing is the depth of detail from the interviewee. Interviewing participants can paint a picture of what happened in a specific event, tell us their perspective of such event, as well as give other social cues. Social cues, such as voice, intonation, body language etc. of the interviewee can give the interviewer a lot of extra information that can be added to the verbal answer of the interviewee on a question. This level of detailed description, whether it be verbal or nonverbal, can show an otherwise hidden interrelatedness between emotions, people, objects unlike many quantitative methods of research.

In addition, Qualitative Interviewing has a unique advantage in its specific form. Researchers can tailor the questions they ask to the respondent in order to get rich, full stories and the information they need for their project. They can make it clear to the respondent when they need more examples or explanations.

Not only can researchers also learn about specific events, they can also gain insight into people’s interior experiences, specifically how people perceive and how they interpreted their perceptions. How events affected their thoughts and feelings. In this, researchers can understand the process of an event instead of what just happened and how they reacted to it.

Another advantage of Qualitative interviewing is what it can give to the readers of academic journals and papers. Research can write a clearer report to their readers, giving them a “fuller understanding of the experiences of our respondents and a greater chance to identify with the respondent, if only briefly.”

Now Qualitative Interviewing is not a perfect method for all types of research. It does have its disadvantages. First, there can be complications with the planning of the interview. Not only is recruiting people for interviews hard, due to the typically personal nature of the interview, planning where to meet them and when can be difficult. Participants can cancel or change the meeting place at the last minute. During the actual interview, a possible weakness is missing some information. This can arise from the immense multitasking that the interviewer must do. Not only do they have to make the respondent feel very comfortable, they have to keep as much eye contact as possible, write down as much as they can, and think of follow up questions. After the interview, the process of coding begins and with this comes its own set of disadvantages. First, coding can be extremely time consuming. This process typically requires multiple people, which can also become expensive. Second, the nature of qualitative research itself, doesn’t lend itself very well to quantitative analysis. Some researchers report more missing data in interview research than survey research, therefore it can be difficult to compare populations

3. What are the types of interviews?

Screening Interview

Telephone Interview

Video Conferencing

One-on-One Interview

Panel Interview

Group Interview

General Group Interview/Information Session

Sequential/Serial Interview

4. What are the steps necessary for an effective interview? Explain each.

a. Do your preparation

· Focus on areas of most relevance to the vacant role· Pay more attention to the candidate’s recent experience· Design your key questions with an emphasis on desired competencies· Investigate any gaps in employment or illogical career moves· Manage time expectations…..if the candidate is expecting the interview to last an hour and you close it after half an hour then they may assume they have not done well

b.  Choose an appropriate environment

· Interviewing is about attracting as well as assessing so the right environment is important· Try to avoid large rooms / boardrooms – they can be intimidating· Avoid sitting behind a desk or opposite the candidate – this can create a barrier and appear confrontational. · Sit the candidate with their back to any distractions

c. Relax the interviewee

· It is your responsibility to establish rapport, not the candidates

d. Structure the interview and stick to it 

· Greet the candidate· Outline the interview agenda· Move onto the main questioning stage· Describe the organisation and the role· Answer the candidates questions· Close the interview

e. Ask Effective Questions

· The interview should not be a form of conversation, it should be structured to obtain information about the candidate in order to make a good recruitment decision

DO………

· Use open questions· Use probing and clarifying questionsAVOID…..· Closed questions· Leading questions· Loaded questions· Multiple questions

f. Encourage the candidate to talk

· Remember that the candidate should be the one doing the talking. Where a good conversation is 50:50, in an interview the candidate should be talking for approx. 75% of the time.· Use verbal affirmations i.e. mmm, aha etc. and nod your head· Use positive body language, avoid crossing your arms, frowning or looking bored

f. Be a conscious listener

· Do not make snap decisions or make assumptions about a candidates ability by their appearance, degree of eye contact etc.· Make every effort not to make a decision within a matter of minutes. A candidate is, understandably, not always at their best in the first few minutes of an interview.· If using a pre-planned questionnaire be prepared to adapt and adjust these depending on the candidate

g. Note down key information

· Take notes throughout the interview which should be clear and concise· Notes should be evidence based – fact versus opinion· Not subjective – for example ‘No personality’ or ‘Is a star’· Remember that candidates have the right to view all notes

taken during the interview.

h. ‘Sell the Company’

· Remember that the candidate will be assessing the company during the interview. As the interviewer you are the representative of the Company· Treat the candidate with professionalism at all times – don’t keep them waiting, make sure they have all the information they need at the start and finish of the interview· Present a positive image of the organisation, its culture and the team they may join· Remember that information given should be consistent with the messages given by other interviewers and everyone else the candidate encounters during the selection process. Contradictory information might put the candidate off· Don’t oversell. Be realistic about the position and what the individual’s working life might be like if they join the company

i. Close the interview professionally

· Once the candidate has been given the opportunity to ask their questions, the interviewee should bring the meeting to a close· Thank the candidate for their time and explain the next step· Provide timeframes if possible· Make sure the candidate leaves the interview with a good impression

Chapter 9 – Observation

1. Define observation in research.

Observation is a fundamental way of finding out about the world around us. As human beings, we are very well equipped to pick up detailed information about our environment through our senses. However, as a method of data collection for research purposes, observation is more than just looking or listening. Research, simply defined, is “systematic

enquiry made public” (Stenhouse, 1975). Firstly, in order to become systematic, observation must in some way be selective. We are constantly bombarded by huge amounts of sensory information. Human beings are good at selectively attending to what is perceived as most useful to us. Observation harnesses this ability; systematic observation entails careful planning of what we want to observe. Secondly, in order to make observation ‘public’, what we see or hear has to be recorded in some way to allow the information to be analysed and interpreted

2. Why is observation needed in research? What are its purposes?

The term 'systematic' observation is usually associated with observation undertaken from the perspective of quantitative research where the purpose is to provide reliable, quantifiable data. This usually involves the use of some kind of formal, structured observation instrument or schedule. The observation method being used will clearly identify: the variables to be observed, perhaps by means of some kind of behavioural checklist; who or what will be observed; how the observation is to be conducted; and when and where the observations will take place

Observation can provide rich qualitative data, sometimes described as 'thick description' (Geertz, 1973), for example, where the relevant phenomena have been carefully observed and detailed field notes have been recorded. Typically, the researcher would not approach the observation with pre-determined categories or questions in mind. Because of this openness, observation in qualitative research is often referred to as unstructured.

3. What are the types of observation? Explain each.

Casual and Scientific observation – An observation can be

sometimes casual in nature or sometimes it may act

scientifically. An observation with a casual approach

involves observing the right thing at the right place and

also at the right time by a matter of chance or by luck

whereas a scientific observation involves the use of the

tools of the measurement, but a very important point to be

kept in mind here is that all the observations are not

scientific in nature.

Natural Observation – Natural observation involves

observing the behaviour in a normal setting and in this

type of observation, no efforts are made to bring any type

of change in the behavior of the observed. Improvement in

the collection of the information and improvement in the

environment of making an observation can be done with the

help of natural observations.

Subjective and Objective observation – All the

observations consist of the two main components, the

subject and the object. The subject refers to the observer

whereas the object refers to the activity or any type of

operation that is being observed. Subjective observation

involves the observation of the one’s own immediate

experience whereas the observations involving observer as

an entity apart from the thing being observed, are

referred to as the objective observation. Objective

observation is also called as the retrospection.

Direct and Indirect observation – With the help of the direct method of observation, one comes to know how the observer is physically present in which type of situation is he present and then this type of observation monitors what takes place. Indirect method of observation involves studies of mechanical recording or the recording by some of the other means like photographic or electronic. Direct observation is relatively more straight forward as compared to the indirect observation.

Participant and Non Participant observation –

Participation by the observers with the various types of

operations of the group under study refers to the

participant type of observation. In participant

observation, the degree of the participation is largely

affected by the nature of the study and it also depends on

the type of the situation and also on its demands.But in

the non participant type of observation, no participation

of the observer in the activities of the group takes place

and also there occurs no relationship between the

researcher and the group.

Structured and Unstructured observation – Structured

observation works according to a plan and involves

specific information of the units that are to be observed

and also about the information that is to be recorded. The

operations that are to be observed and the various

features that are to be noted or recorded are decided well

in advance. Such observations involve the use of especial

instruments for the purpose of data collection that are

also structured in nature. But in the case of the

unstructured observation, its basics are diametrically

against the structured observation. In such observation,

observer has the freedom to note down what he or she feels

is correct and relevant to the point of study and also

this approach of observation is very suitable in the case

of exploratory research.

Controlled and Non Controlled observation: Controlled

observations are the observations made under the influence

of some of the external forces and such observations rarely

lead to improvement in the precision of the research

results. But these observations can be very effective in

the working if these are made to work in the coordination

with mechanical synchronizing devices, film recording etc.

Non controlled observations are made in the natural

environment and reverse to the controlled observation these

observations involve no influence or guidance of any type

of external force.

4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using observation as a means of gathering data?

a) It makes it possible to collect different types of data.

Being on site over a period of time familiarizes the

researcher to the community, thereby facilitating

involvement in sensitive activities to which he/she

generally would not be invited.

b) It reduces the incidence of "reactivity" or people acting in

a certain way when they are aware of being observed.

c) It helps the researcher to develop questions that make sense

in the native language or are culturally relevant.

d) It gives the researcher a better understanding of what is

happening in the culture and lends credence to one's

interpretations of the observation. Participant observation

also enables the researcher to collect both quantitative and

qualitative data through surveys and interviews.

e) It is sometimes the only way to collect the right data for

one's study

Chapter 10 – Ethical Standards

1. Why are ethical standards important in research?

First, norms promote the aims of research, such as

knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For example,

prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or

misrepresenting research data promote the truth and avoid

error. Second, since research often involves a great deal of

cooperation and coordination among many different people in

different disciplines and institutions, ethical standards

promote the values that are essential to collaborative work,

such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness.

For example, many ethical norms in research, such as

guidelines for authorship, copyright and patenting policies,

data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer

review, are designed to protect intellectual property

interests while encouraging collaboration. Most researchers

want to receive credit for their contributions and do not

want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely.

Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that

researchers can be held accountable to the public. For

instance, federal policies on research misconduct, conflicts

of interest, the human subjects protections, and animal care

and use are necessary in order to make sure that researchers

who are funded by public money can be held accountable to

the public. Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to

build public support for research. People more likely to

fund research project if they can trust the quality and

integrity of research. Finally, many of the norms of

research promote a variety of other important moral and

social values, such as social responsibility, human rights,

animal welfare, compliance with the law, and health and

safety. Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm

human and animal subjects, students, and the public. For

example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical

trial may harm or even kill patients, and a researcher who

fails to abide by regulations and guidelines relating to

radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health and

safety or the health and safety of staff and students.