QUESTIONNAIRE, INTERVIEW, OBSERVATION research methods research instruments M. Lepiešová, K. Žiaková Institute of Nursing, JFM CU

QUESTIONNAIRE, QUESTIONNAIRE, INTERVIEW, INTERVIEW,

OBSERVATIONOBSERVATION

research methodsresearch methodsresearch instrumentsresearch instruments

M. Lepiešová, K. ŽiakováM. Lepiešová, K. ŽiakováInstitute of Nursing, JFM CUInstitute of Nursing, JFM CU

PREPARATIONPREPARATION

theoretical knowledge of the theoretical knowledge of the problem / issueproblem / issue

systematic review studying the current systematic review studying the current of literatureof literature state of the problem state of the problem

(methodology and (methodology and

expert/scientific)expert/scientific)

SYSTEMATIC REVIEWSSYSTEMATIC REVIEWS

locate, appraise and synthesise evidence from scientific locate, appraise and synthesise evidence from scientific studies in order to provide informative empirical answers to studies in order to provide informative empirical answers to scientific research questions scientific research questions (CRD, NHS Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, The University of York, GB, 2001 ) www.york.ac.uk/inst/crd

→→ EBP (EBN, EBM)EBP (EBN, EBM)

comprehensive search of literature (comprehensive search of literature (WHERE?WHERE?))

examples of rigorous secondary researchexamples of rigorous secondary research

strict scientific design – critically summarise the available strict scientific design – critically summarise the available evidence by applying uniform and rigorous standards of evidence by applying uniform and rigorous standards of appraisal appraisal ((P I C O DP I C O D design; systematic review protocols) design; systematic review protocols)

attempt to minimise BIAS (e.g. selection bias – systematic attempt to minimise BIAS (e.g. selection bias – systematic differences in comparison groups)differences in comparison groups)

SYSTEMATIC REVIEWSSYSTEMATIC REVIEWS

→ → aadvantages:dvantages:attempt to locate attempt to locate allall relevant literature relevant literaturelimit reviewerlimit reviewer''s personal biasess personal biasescontain explicit study inclusion and exclusion contain explicit study inclusion and exclusion criteriacriteriasystematically examine primary study method systematically examine primary study method qualityqualitybase conclusions on studies that are most base conclusions on studies that are most methodologically sound – more accurate and methodologically sound – more accurate and reliable conclusionsreliable conclusionsreduce large amount of information to reduce large amount of information to manageable and key findingsmanageable and key findings

Systematic Reviews – summarySystematic Reviews – summary

rigorous reviews of the evidence base from rigorous reviews of the evidence base from numerous primary studiesnumerous primary studiesuse a method that can be replicateduse a method that can be replicatedprovide health care professionals with clear provide health care professionals with clear guidance for basing their practice on best guidance for basing their practice on best evidence (EBP)evidence (EBP)identify where there are gaps in the evidence identify where there are gaps in the evidence base and therefore generate future research base and therefore generate future research questionquestion

SEARCHINGSEARCHING

comprehensive search of literature (comprehensive search of literature (WHERE? HOW?WHERE? HOW?))

aim aim →→ to get the most extensive coverage of primary to get the most extensive coverage of primary research possibleresearch possible

not the samenot the same as finding lots of journal articles as finding lots of journal articles

HOW?HOW? →→ concepts (PICOD) – maximise concept concepts (PICOD) – maximise concept identification (operator OR) and minimise concept identification (operator OR) and minimise concept combination (operator AND; operator NOT – for exclusion combination (operator AND; operator NOT – for exclusion criteria)criteria)

WHERE? WHERE? →→ electronic databases, research register, hand- electronic databases, research register, hand-searching journals (libraries)searching journals (libraries)

data extraction sheet about studies selected (scope of study data extraction sheet about studies selected (scope of study – PICOD, quality, results)– PICOD, quality, results)

EXAMPLEEXAMPLE

Research question:Research question:

What are the clinical and economic What are the clinical and economic benefits of alternative education provided benefits of alternative education provided by nurses for DM type I. patients?by nurses for DM type I. patients?

PP

II

[[CC]]

OO

EXAMPLEEXAMPLE

How the development of family caregiver How the development of family caregiver role is experienced by relatives of stroke role is experienced by relatives of stroke patients after the discharge?patients after the discharge?

PP – family caregiver, primary carer, informal caregiver, – family caregiver, primary carer, informal caregiver,

caregiving person...caregiving person...

II – role acquisition, role transition, role development... – role acquisition, role transition, role development...

OO – experiencing, perceiving... – experiencing, perceiving...

DD – qualitative approach, qualitative research, qualitative – qualitative approach, qualitative research, qualitative

study, narratives, interviews...study, narratives, interviews...

Adapted by Helder Rocha Pereira

P

D


I




ADVANCED SEARCHADVANCED SEARCH

(carer* OR caregiver* OR family carer* OR family caregiver* (carer* OR caregiver* OR family carer* OR family caregiver* OR home carer* OR home caregiver* OR informal carer* OR OR home carer* OR home caregiver* OR informal carer* OR informal caregiver* OR family caregiving) informal caregiver* OR family caregiving)

ANDAND (role transition OR role acquisition OR role change* OR (role transition OR role acquisition OR role change* OR role development OR transition* OR crisis OR new role*) role development OR transition* OR crisis OR new role*)

ANDAND (qualitative approach OR qualitative research OR (qualitative approach OR qualitative research OR qualitative studies OR qualitative study OR qualitative health qualitative studies OR qualitative study OR qualitative health research OR interviews OR grounded theory OR ethnography research OR interviews OR grounded theory OR ethnography OR phenomenology) OR phenomenology)

NOTNOT (children OR child* OR youth OR infant (children OR child* OR youth OR infant** OR adolescent*) OR adolescent*)




PubMedPubMed

MEDLINE MEDLINE

British Nursing Index British Nursing Index

CINAHL CINAHL

Nursing Allied Health Nursing Allied Health Collection Expanded Collection Expanded

Psychology and Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Behavioral Sciences Collection Collection

EJS E-JournalsEJS E-Journals

LILACS LILACS

Blackwell-SynergyBlackwell-Synergy

ProQuest JournalsProQuest Journals

Sciencedirect-Elsevier Sciencedirect-Elsevier

Taylor & Francis Taylor & Francis

Wiley Interscience Wiley Interscience

CDSR – Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviewshttp://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/mrwhome/106568753/HOME

the Cochrane Collaborationhttp://www.cochrane.org/

Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventionshttp://www.cochrane-handbook.org/

British Medical Journal Clinical Evidencewww.clinicalevidence.bmj.com

MEDLINEhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez

DATABASES of systematic reviews

BIOSIS Previewshttp://thomsonreuters.com/products_services/science/science_products/scholarly_research_analysis/research_discovery/biosis_previews

CINAHL – Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literaturehttp://www.ebscohost.com/cinahl/

DARE – Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects http://www.crd.york.ac.uk/crdweb/

HMIC – Health Management Information Consortium

AMED – Allied and Complementary Medicine Database

ERIC – Educational Resources Information

ASSIA – Applied Social Sciences Index and Abstracts


the aim of research (broad aim, specific objectives)the aim of research (broad aim, specific objectives)

formulation of problems (clear research question formulation of problems (clear research question →→ P I P I [[CC] ] O) O) && hypothesis hypothesis

method selection, instrument / items constructionmethod selection, instrument / items construction

reliability reliability && validity validity

VALIDITYVALIDITYVALIDITYVALIDITY →→ credibility, ability, capability of research credibility, ability, capability of research

instrument to measure and elicit what it is determined to instrument to measure and elicit what it is determined to measure (e.g. length is detected by tape measure).measure (e.g. length is detected by tape measure).

Content Content -- whether the items sampled for inclusion whether the items sampled for inclusion adequately represent the domain of content addressed adequately represent the domain of content addressed by instrument by instrument → correspondence of the instrument → correspondence of the instrument content and the content of the sphere detected content and the content of the sphere detected (process (process done by panel of experts).done by panel of experts).

Construct Construct -- by the instrument we find out the pursued by the instrument we find out the pursued construct, e.g. knowledge, competences, three-construct, e.g. knowledge, competences, three-dimensional perception (by experts, by other instrument)dimensional perception (by experts, by other instrument)

ConcurrentConcurrent -- by comparing the results attained by other by comparing the results attained by other instrument instrument →→ concurrent validity is expressed by the concurrent validity is expressed by the extent of conformity of results. extent of conformity of results.

RELIABILITYRELIABILITY

RELIABILITYRELIABILITY →→ exactness, dependability exactness, dependability of research instrument, the extent of the of research instrument, the extent of the conformity of phenomenon / characteristic conformity of phenomenon / characteristic measured with the realitymeasured with the reality

CronbachCronbach''s s alphaalpha

Kuder - Richardson formula (KR 20)Kuder - Richardson formula (KR 20)

Spearman - Brown formulaSpearman - Brown formula

Methods for collection empirical Methods for collection empirical datadata

QuestionnaireQuestionnaire

InterviewInterview self-reference, self-reported self-reference, self-reported

methods, psychometrymethods, psychometry

human subjectivityhuman subjectivity(awareness and self-(awareness and self-

awareness)awareness)

The object of The object of nursingnursing

unique deliberate human unique deliberate human being with its non-being with its non-

recurring worldrecurring world

questionnaire, interview, observation of questionnaire, interview, observation of own constructionown construction

questionnaire, interview, observationquestionnaire, interview, observation of of other author(s) other author(s)

QUESTIONNAIREQUESTIONNAIRE

a method for acquiring empirical a method for acquiring empirical information based on indirect questioning information based on indirect questioning the respondents with the use of the respondents with the use of predetermined written questions / itemspredetermined written questions / items

sociology sociology →→ the end of the 18th c., first the end of the 18th c., first half of the 19th c.half of the 19th c.

the most the most used used widespread method of widespread method of social sciences and humanitiessocial sciences and humanities

QUESTIONNAIREQUESTIONNAIRE

highly effective methodhighly effective method

economic relatively short timeeconomic relatively short time

(time-saving)(time-saving)

llow costs (cheap)ow costs (cheap)

easy treated and manipulated method (easy to easy treated and manipulated method (easy to elaborate)elaborate)

statistical data evaluationstatistical data evaluation

elimination of researcherelimination of researcher''s influence on s influence on respondentsrespondents


PRETESTPRETEST

properness, clarity, intelligibility, non-properness, clarity, intelligibility, non-suggestiveness/neutrality of the itemssuggestiveness/neutrality of the items

(team of experts/researchers, validity)(team of experts/researchers, validity)

PRE-RESEARCH PRE-RESEARCH (PILOT STUDY)(PILOT STUDY)

sample of 30 – 60 respondentssample of 30 – 60 respondents

STRUCTURESTRUCTURE

TITLE TITLE

INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION (prologue)(prologue)

INSTRUCTIONS INSTRUCTIONS (directions, directives)(directions, directives)

RESEARCH ITEMSRESEARCH ITEMS

CATEGORIZATION ITEMSCATEGORIZATION ITEMS (demographic) (demographic)

TITLETITLE

nature/base of research indicationnature/base of research indication

objectives and meaningobjectives and meaning

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

motivating function motivating function → influences the → influences the return return rateratesocial meaningsocial meaningscientific characterscientific characterterm of deliveryterm of deliveryway of deliveryway of deliveryname and address of a researcher name and address of a researcher (research team / institution) (research team / institution) acknowledgementsacknowledgements

INSTRUCTIONSINSTRUCTIONS

clear and brief directions and orders how clear and brief directions and orders how to fill in the items – technical and formal to fill in the items – technical and formal point of viewpoint of view

Examples: Examples:

answer answer by by your own wordsyour own words

choose one or more possibilitieschoose one or more possibilities

circle...circle...

RESEARCH ITEMSRESEARCH ITEMS

basic structural components, incentive, basic structural components, incentive, stimulation part – questionstimulation part – questionss / statement / statementss

numberednumbered

number of items depends on the focus / number of items depends on the focus / content, scalingcontent, scaling

completing up to 30 min.completing up to 30 min.

RESEARCH ITEMSRESEARCH ITEMScategorization / demographiccategorization / demographic

at the end of the questionnaireat the end of the questionnaire

not intended to identify the respondent not intended to identify the respondent

comparison of population (comparison of population (→ selected → selected categories / subsamples)categories / subsamples)

- age - education- age - education

- sex/gender - occupation- sex/gender - occupation

- marital status - establishment / residence- marital status - establishment / residence

- nationality- nationality

- and others....- and others....

RESEARCH ITEMSRESEARCH ITEMS→ → characteristicscharacteristics

clarity, intelligibilityclarity, intelligibility

(content, linguistic)(content, linguistic)

briefnessbriefness

unambiguityunambiguity

positive formpositive form

non-suggestiveness / neutralitynon-suggestiveness / neutrality

should not be memory - demandingshould not be memory - demanding

AVOID...AVOID...

questions that respondents cannot answer, questions that respondents cannot answer, have no experience, no sufficient have no experience, no sufficient informationinformation

intimate questionsintimate questions

provocative questions, offensive provocative questions, offensive questions / statementsquestions / statements

causal questions (Why?)causal questions (Why?)

RESEARCH ITEMSRESEARCH ITEMS→ types / kinds→ types / kinds

FILTER questions FILTER questions ((→ separation of the → separation of the subsample)subsample)

CONTROL / CHECKING questions CONTROL / CHECKING questions ((→ → detection of the falsity of answersdetection of the falsity of answers))

INTRODUCTORY questionsINTRODUCTORY questions


DIRECTDIRECT

INDIRECT (PROJECTIVE)INDIRECT (PROJECTIVE)


OPEN-ENDED / OPENED / NON-STRUCTUREDOPEN-ENDED / OPENED / NON-STRUCTURED

completely completely on on the decision of the respondentthe decision of the respondent

answers without restraints, by his/her own wordsanswers without restraints, by his/her own words

easily constructedeasily constructed

difficult process of data management and difficult process of data management and evaluation evaluation

used in pre-researchused in pre-research

supplementary questionssupplementary questions


CLOSED / STRUCTURED CLOSED / STRUCTURED fixed with the choice of answerfixed with the choice of answerchoice of answer from alternatives offeredchoice of answer from alternatives offereddifficult preparation / constructiondifficult preparation / constructioneasy process of data management and easy process of data management and interpretationinterpretationeasy process of items filling easy process of items filling schematic and simplifiedschematic and simplified

DICHOTOMOUS / DICHOTOMICDICHOTOMOUS / DICHOTOMIC

You are a) You are a) manman b) b) womanwoman

Have you received nursing care of high Have you received nursing care of high quality?quality?

a) a) yesyes b) b) nono

POLYTOMOUSPOLYTOMOUS / POLYTOMIC / POLYTOMIC

Have you received nursing care of high Have you received nursing care of high quality?quality?

yes – donyes – don't know / 't know / unable to qualify – nounable to qualify – no


SEMI-OPENED / SEMI-CLOSEDSEMI-OPENED / SEMI-CLOSED

Which of the following factors influences Which of the following factors influences your pain mostly?your pain mostly?

a)a) effort (physical activity)effort (physical activity)b)b) lonelinesslonelinessc)c) change of positionchange of positiond)d) angerangere)e) other other (write down).......................................(write down).......................................

SCALINGSCALING

enables detection of the intensity / extent enables detection of the intensity / extent of the phenomenon characteristicof the phenomenon characteristic''s s

evaluation is expressed by the position on evaluation is expressed by the position on the scalethe scale

scales - 3,5,7,9 degrees (odd number of scales - 3,5,7,9 degrees (odd number of degrees)degrees)

dondon''t knowt know ( in the middle) ( in the middle) → avoids → avoids forcing of evaluation, respondent doesn't forcing of evaluation, respondent doesn't have clear, well-defined attitudehave clear, well-defined attitude

SCALINGSCALING

LIKERT SCALELIKERT SCALE

FREQUENCY SCALEFREQUENCY SCALE

SCALE OF GRADUAL OPERATION – SCALE OF GRADUAL OPERATION – HIERARCHICHIERARCHICALAL ARRANGEMENT ARRANGEMENT


1 2 3 4 5

excessively dissatisfied

dissatisfied neither dissatisfied nor satisfied

satisfied excessively satisfied

1 2 3 4 5

strongly disagree

rather disagree

than agree

don't know rather agree than

strongly agree


A. INTERPERSONAL A. INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSRELATIONS

A A

44

RARA

33

RDRD

22

DD

11

1. I am satisfied with the relationships at 1. I am satisfied with the relationships at the workplace. the workplace.

44 33 22 11

2. I am respected by my superiors. 2. I am respected by my superiors. 44 33 22 11

3. There is positive atmosphere at my 3. There is positive atmosphere at my workplace. workplace.

44 33 22 11

4. My opinions can be expressed with no 4. My opinions can be expressed with no doubts. doubts.

44 33 22 11

A - strongly agree; RA - rather agree; RD - rather disagree; D - strongly disagree

FREQUENCY SCALEFREQUENCY SCALE

1. While 1. While experiencing the experiencing the pain, I want to be pain, I want to be alone.alone.

always

5

many

times

4

often

3

seldom

2

never

1

2. While 2. While experiencing the experiencing the pain, I seek the pain, I seek the presence of others. presence of others. 5 4 3 2 1

3. While 3. While experiencing the experiencing the pain, I am patient. pain, I am patient.

5 4 3 2 1

SCALE OF GRADUAL OPERATION – SCALE OF GRADUAL OPERATION – HIERARCHICHIERARCHICALAL ARRANGEMENT ARRANGEMENT

Put the subjects in order by their favour from Put the subjects in order by their favour from 11 – at least favourite to – at least favourite to 55 – the most favourite – the most favourite

.....Nursing.....Nursing

.....Patient.....Patient''s Needs and Nursing Processs Needs and Nursing Process

.....Philosophy and Ethics in Nursing.....Philosophy and Ethics in Nursing

.....Anatomy / Physiology.....Anatomy / Physiology

.....Medical Terminology.....Medical Terminology

ADMINISTRATIONADMINISTRATION

directdirect

indirect indirect ((post post mail, e-mail)mail, e-mail)

combinationcombination

RETURN RATERETURN RATE

the proportion of questionnaires returned the proportion of questionnaires returned and distributedand distributed

representativeness of data obtainedrepresentativeness of data obtained

20% disinterested persons20% disinterested persons

(not topical choice of problems, high (not topical choice of problems, high demands on the process of items filling, demands on the process of items filling, incomprehensibility of the items)incomprehensibility of the items)

60 – 75% return rate required60 – 75% return rate required

EVALUATIONEVALUATION

the scoring systemsthe scoring systems

results of particular subscalesresults of particular subscales

arithmetic mean, standard deviationarithmetic mean, standard deviation

absolute and relative ratesabsolute and relative rates

INTERVIEWINTERVIEW

method based on direct questioning method based on direct questioning

performed with the clear aim performed with the clear aim

interpretation of data is expert, scientific interpretation of data is expert, scientific →→ QUAL + QUANTQUAL + QUANT

exploratory technique exploratory technique →→ to catch / to to catch / to detect / to identify / to verify detect / to identify / to verify

main research instrument / supplementary main research instrument / supplementary method (trend today method (trend today → → MIXED METHOD MIXED METHOD STUDY DESIGN)STUDY DESIGN)

INTERVIEW PREPARATIONINTERVIEW PREPARATION

registration of registration of answersanswers (written (written notesnotes, , audio records)audio records)

pre-researchpre-research

skills / competences skills / competences of researcher / the of researcher / the rolerole

introductionintroduction

core (working phase)core (working phase)

terminationtermination

PREPARATIONPREPARATION STRUCTURESTRUCTURE

TYPES OF INTERVIEWTYPES OF INTERVIEW

unstructured (non-standardised, non-unstructured (non-standardised, non-categorised) interview categorised) interview

semi-structured interviewsemi-structured interview

structured (standardised, categorised) structured (standardised, categorised) interview interview

obvious (apparent) / secret (hidden)obvious (apparent) / secret (hidden)

diagnostic / therapeuticdiagnostic / therapeutic

phone interviewphone interview

OBSERVATIONOBSERVATION

systematic, purposeful, concentrated, centred systematic, purposeful, concentrated, centred observation with the purpose to find out, to observation with the purpose to find out, to search, to explore, to detect...search, to explore, to detect...

to capture the moments of objective reality most to capture the moments of objective reality most exactly (with high degree of objectivity, validity, exactly (with high degree of objectivity, validity, reliability)reliability)

prepared / organized beforehandprepared / organized beforehand

the choice of object (individual, group)the choice of object (individual, group)

environment, situations, eventsenvironment, situations, events

phenomenon (actions, interactions)phenomenon (actions, interactions)

time (frequency, duration)time (frequency, duration)

OBSERVATION PREPARATIONOBSERVATION PREPARATION

literature search / systematic literature search / systematic

review of literature / studyreview of literature / study

project (research proposal) / project (research proposal) /

samplingsampling

types of observation (inside-types of observation (inside-

participation, outside- participation, outside-

nonparticipation, open, hidden, nonparticipation, open, hidden,

terrain, direct, indirect...)terrain, direct, indirect...)

recording, categories, codingrecording, categories, coding

training the training the observerobserver

reliability \ reliability \ exactnessexactness

errors of errors of observation observation (observer biases)(observer biases)


QUESTIONS....?

Thank you for your attention...

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Documents

QUESTIONNAIRE, INTERVIEW, OBSERVATION research methods research instruments M. Lepiešová, K. Žiaková Institute of Nursing, JFM CU