Question of the Day: Would pictures or words be easier to encode into memory?

Question of the Day:Question of the Day:Would pictures or Would pictures or words be easier to words be easier to

encode into encode into memory?memory?

Visual CommunicationsVisual Communications

Visual Communications Visual Communications and Persuasionand Persuasion

General Assumptions: Language is General Assumptions: Language is processed in a linear, analytic wayprocessed in a linear, analytic way

Visuals are processed in a spatial, Visuals are processed in a spatial, syncretic waysyncretic way

Central PeripheralRoute Route

Thinking Systematic HeuristicInfluence Arguments Cues Magnitude Equal Equal

PersistenceLonger ShorterResistance Stronger Weaker

The short term persuasive impact of visual The short term persuasive impact of visual information might be increased through information might be increased through

repetition (ex: advertising).repetition (ex: advertising).

Visual Persuasion

Repetition over Repetition over time would time would move the move the

information of information of product product

attributes from attributes from short-term short-term

memory to long-memory to long-term memory.term memory.

Ad from http://www.adbusters.org/spoofads/

Emotional arousal and mood are Emotional arousal and mood are found to affect long term memory.found to affect long term memory.

(ex: flashbulb memories)(ex: flashbulb memories)

Cueing:

Shortcuts to conveying meaning,

calling to mind past experiences

or teaching associations(Example:

Leading Lines)

"the communication pattern that preceded a

particular desired behavior should,

upon its repetition, elicit the behavior

again: the same arguments should

touch the same responsive chord."

(Burgoon, 1981)

Agenda-Setting assumes:

-mass media teaches people

to about the world

-controls access to information-structures the public’s agenda

by making information

covered seem important

Applying agenda setting to advertising: products that are advertised constantly seem popular (social proof, bandwagon)

This is known as “status conferral”

Advertising focuses the attention of

consumers on what values/attributes or products/brands to

consider when formulating

attitudes and arriving at purchase

decisions (Sutherland and Galloway, 1981)

(Example: HMO’s)

Krugman (1965) suggests that ". . . persuasion. . . i.e. overcoming a resistant attitude. . . " is a

nonfactor when evaluating the impact of advertising on the purchase behaviors of

consumers. Instead, advertising leads to an “overlearning”

effect, where recall of product attributes are practically conditioned into consumers.

j;lkn;lnnkj

Gruber (1969),

found “top-of-mind”

brand awareness

parallels the amount of

consumption of a

specific brand in the marketplace.

Axelrod (1968) found top-of-

brand awareness

testing provides a "... sensitive

and stable predictor of purchase..."

behavior

‘

Image Vividness

-Increases attention and retention

Use of vivid, saturated colors, shocking

photos.

Image Salience

-Positions main object near less interesting

objects, so it stands out by contrast.

Single-Channelvs.

Multi-ChannelEffect

Increased distraction leads

to increased heuristic/peripheral

processing.

CLARCCS CuesCLARCCS Cues

(Robert Cialdini, 1980)(Robert Cialdini, 1980)

Identifies 7 heuristics Identifies 7 heuristics (peripheral route) that (peripheral route) that impact the persuasion impact the persuasion process.process.

ComparisonComparison

Comparing your behavior to that of others, and Comparing your behavior to that of others, and adopting the group norms.adopting the group norms.

Learning behaviors and internalizing reasonsLearning behaviors and internalizing reasons

why you participate in such behaviorswhy you participate in such behaviors

Examples: “Seeding the tip jar”Examples: “Seeding the tip jar”

““Candid Camera Elevator”Candid Camera Elevator”

LikingLikingDoing what someone asks because Doing what someone asks because

you like them, even if they take you like them, even if they take advantage of you.advantage of you.

Works best if you think the person Works best if you think the person likes youlikes you..

Works better with attractive people, Works better with attractive people, but not if they have abrasive but not if they have abrasive

(dislikable) personalities (dislikable) personalities

(Example: Sherman Cloutier)(Example: Sherman Cloutier)

AuthorityAuthority

Complying with people because Complying with people because they holdthey hold

positions of authority.positions of authority.

Examples: Milgram Examples: Milgram ExperimentsExperiments

Zimbardo ExperimentsZimbardo Experiments

ReciprocitReciprocity

Based on the societies’ norm that Based on the societies’ norm that you are obliged to give something you are obliged to give something back to someone when they give back to someone when they give

you something. you something.

Examples: Mailed dollar billsExamples: Mailed dollar bills

Commitment/ConsistencyCommitment/Consistency

Once you make a public stand to Once you make a public stand to advocate a position or support a advocate a position or support a cause, you are likely to maintain cause, you are likely to maintain yoursupport in the future. Works yoursupport in the future. Works

because of our need to be because of our need to be consistent, and maintain consistent, and maintain

consonance lives.consonance lives.

Examples: “Foot-in-the-Door”Examples: “Foot-in-the-Door”

““Bait and Switch”Bait and Switch”

Scarcity Works on our belief that rare is good, Works on our belief that rare is good, we covered this when discussing the we covered this when discussing the

“false uniqueness bias” from “false uniqueness bias” from Attribution Theories.Attribution Theories.

Examples:Examples:

““Limited Editions” and “Limited Time Limited Editions” and “Limited Time Only” specials.Only” specials.

Counters or on-screen clock.Counters or on-screen clock.

Research shows a great Research shows a great deal of consistency in deal of consistency in

how people make how people make evaluations.evaluations.

Osgood, Suci and Tannenbaum Osgood, Suci and Tannenbaum (1957) asked people to map a (1957) asked people to map a

multitude of objects in semantic multitude of objects in semantic space. They claim that, any space. They claim that, any

referent can be located in this referent can be located in this semantic space, and they semantic space, and they

reported three fundamental reported three fundamental dimensions people use for dimensions people use for

evaluations.evaluations.

Relationship among the Three Dimensions

EvaluativeDimension

PotencyDimension

MostImportantfor Attitudes

ActivityDimension

Good-badBeneficial-Harmful

Strong-WeakAssertive-Meek

Fast-SlowActive-Passive

How We LearnHow We Learn

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

Social Learning/ModelingSocial Learning/Modeling

Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningAlso called “instrumental Also called “instrumental

learning” and applies to voluntary learning” and applies to voluntary behavior, where classical behavior, where classical

conditioning applies to reflex.conditioning applies to reflex.

Known as “goal-directed” Known as “goal-directed” learning, in that the organism learning, in that the organism learns the behaviors leading to learns the behaviors leading to rewards and those leading to rewards and those leading to

punishment.punishment.

Reinforcements can be positive or negative Reinforcements can be positive or negative and increase behavior. Punishments and increase behavior. Punishments decrease behavior. Reinforcement decrease behavior. Reinforcement

schedules maintain behavior.schedules maintain behavior.

Positive incentives and negative incentives Positive incentives and negative incentives are learned in the process.are learned in the process.

Classical ConditioningKey Terms

the unconditioned stimulus, or UCSthe unconditioned response, or UCRthe conditioned stimulus, or CSthe conditioned response, or CR

Step 1

UnconditionedStimulus 1

UnconditionedResponse

ConditionedStimulus 2



ConditionedResponse






ConditionedResponse






ConditionedResponse

Step 2

Step 3

Figure 2.2 The Conditioning Process for Pavlov’s Dog

Salivation

Salivation

Salivation

Salivation

Salivation

Salivation

Salivation

Salivation

Salivation

Meat

Meat+Bell

Whistle

Bell+Whistle

Bell

Bell

Whistle

Whistle+Beep

Beep

The CS must be paired with the The CS must be paired with the UCS often enough so that the UCS often enough so that the organism comes to associate the organism comes to associate the CS with the UCR. CS with the UCR.

Once the CS to CR link has been Once the CS to CR link has been established, the CS can serve as established, the CS can serve as the UCS for another CS.the UCS for another CS.

Phases of the Conditioning Process

Basic Principles

RecencyRecencyFrequencyFrequencyStimulus-generalizationStimulus-generalizationStimulus-discriminationStimulus-discriminationExtinctionExtinctionSpontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery

Probability that stimulus evokes desired response in organism

The more recently and The more recently and frequently the conditioning, frequently the conditioning, the greater the probability the greater the probability

that the stimulus will elicit the that the stimulus will elicit the desired response.desired response.

Stimulus-generalization - once a Stimulus-generalization - once a stimulus is conditioned to elicit stimulus is conditioned to elicit a response, similar stimuli may a response, similar stimuli may produce the same response. produce the same response.

There is generalization There is generalization from a particular from a particular

stimulus to stimulus to similar stimuli.similar stimuli.

Stimulus-discrimination - Stimulus-discrimination - when the organism when the organism

responds to particular responds to particular stimuli from a class of stimuli from a class of

objects, and not the other objects, and not the other similar stimuli from that similar stimuli from that

class of objects.class of objects.

Discrimination can be trained.Discrimination can be trained.

Extinction - when a conditioned Extinction - when a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented stimulus is repeatedly presented without reinforcement from the without reinforcement from the unconditioned stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response will weaken conditioned response will weaken and eventually disappear.and eventually disappear.

After a response After a response appears to be appears to be

extinguished, however, extinguished, however, it may occasionally it may occasionally

reappear in the reappear in the presence of the presence of the

conditioned stimulus. conditioned stimulus. This reappearance of This reappearance of

the conditioned the conditioned response is known as response is known as

spontaneous recovery.spontaneous recovery.

Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory

Comes from observing others and Comes from observing others and noticing the consequences of their noticing the consequences of their actions (also called “observational actions (also called “observational

learning”)learning”)

Involves “modeling,” such as learning Involves “modeling,” such as learning to drive a car by watching others --- so to drive a car by watching others --- so

that people can learn without that people can learn without personally going through a “trial and personally going through a “trial and

error” period.error” period.

Frame of ReferenceAttitudes “filter” incoming information.Attitudes “filter” incoming information.Brain organizes stimuli into meaningful patterns called Brain organizes stimuli into meaningful patterns called

Gestalts, which are influenced by our past experiences, Gestalts, which are influenced by our past experiences, motivation and needs. This influences perceptions of motivation and needs. This influences perceptions of attribution, meaning, evaluations, etc.attribution, meaning, evaluations, etc.

““We do not see things the way they are, we see things the We do not see things the way they are, we see things the way we are.” way we are.”

-Talmudic Saying-Talmudic Saying

Triune Brain Theory Triune Brain Theory Brain evolved in 3 stages:Brain evolved in 3 stages:

R-Complex or Reptilian BrainR-Complex or Reptilian Brain

Paleocortex or “Old Paleocortex or “Old Mammalian” BrainMammalian” Brain

Neocortex or “New Neocortex or “New Mammalian” BrainMammalian” Brain

Reptilian Brain -- earliest brain Reptilian Brain -- earliest brain structures (pons, medulla,etc.). structures (pons, medulla,etc.).

Handles autonomic tasks Handles autonomic tasks (breathing, etc.), sex (for species (breathing, etc.), sex (for species

survival) and aggression (for survival) and aggression (for individual’s safety). individual’s safety).

Knowledge stored Knowledge stored here is instinctual.here is instinctual.

Neocortex -- new mammalian brain Neocortex -- new mammalian brain structures (cortex) handle logic. structures (cortex) handle logic.

Split into right and left hemispheres. Split into right and left hemispheres. The right side is associated with The right side is associated with

spatial, syncretic processing and the spatial, syncretic processing and the left handles linear, analytic left handles linear, analytic

processing.processing.

Cognitive ResourcesCognitive Resources

Our definition -- everything Our definition -- everything happening in your brain at any happening in your brain at any

given moment, (Memory, given moment, (Memory, Attention, Mood, Analytic Attention, Mood, Analytic

skills, etc.)skills, etc.)

2 Types of Knowledge:2 Types of Knowledge:

-Knowledge by Acquaintance-Knowledge by Acquaintance-Knowledge by Description-Knowledge by Description

Associated with Symbolic vs. Associated with Symbolic vs. Spontaneous CommunicationSpontaneous Communication

SSSyyymmmbbbooollliiiccc SSSpppooonnntttaaannneeeooouuusss

BBBaaasssiiisss LLLeeeaaarrrnnneeeddd BBBiiiooolllooogggiiicccaaalll

III nnnttteeennntttiiiooonnn IIInnnttteeennndddeeeddd UUUnnniiinnnttteeennndddeeeddd

EEEllleeemmmeeennntttsss SSSyyymmmbbbooolllsss---bbbeeeaaarrr aaarrrbbbiiitttrrraaarrryyymmmeeeaaannniiinnnggg

SSSiiigggnnnsss---MMMeeeaaannniiinnnggg iiisssiiinnntttrrriiinnnsssiiiccc

CCCooonnnttteeennnttt PPPrrrooopppooosssiiitttiiiooonnnsss

BBBrrraaaiiinnn

SSStttaaattteeemmmeeennntttsssttthhhaaattt cccaaannn bbbeeelllooogggiiicccaaallllllyyyaaannnaaalllyyyzzzeeeddd ------ cccaaannnppprrrooovvveeeddd fffaaalllssseee

LLLeeeffftttHHHeeemmmiiisssppphhheeerrreee

CCCooonnnsssiiissstttsss ooofffmmmoootttiiivvvaaatttiiiooonnnaaalll aaannndddeeemmmoootttiiiooonnnaaalll ssstttaaattteeesss(((dddeeesssiiirrreeesss aaannndddfffeeeeeellliiinnngggsss)))

RRRiiiggghhhtttHHHeeemmmiiisssppphhheeerrreee

HEURISTIC-SYSTEMATIC MODEL (HSM)HEURISTIC-SYSTEMATIC MODEL (HSM)(Chaiken, 1995; Chaiken et al., 1989).(Chaiken, 1995; Chaiken et al., 1989).

Heuristics are mental shortcuts, or stereotypes, and Heuristics are mental shortcuts, or stereotypes, and are often used in place of systematic reasoning. are often used in place of systematic reasoning.

The HSM has two principles at its foundation, the The HSM has two principles at its foundation, the least effort principle and the sufficiency principle. least effort principle and the sufficiency principle.

These principles indicate how people are likely to These principles indicate how people are likely to process new information, and how resulting process new information, and how resulting

attitudes may affect perceptions attitudes may affect perceptions regarding the information.regarding the information.

Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo)Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo)

Considers the central (analytic) route and peripheral Considers the central (analytic) route and peripheral (syncretic/everything else) route(syncretic/everything else) route

Deals with encoding information into memory and the Deals with encoding information into memory and the resulting attitudes toward the information.resulting attitudes toward the information.

Asserts that people’s processing of information depends Asserts that people’s processing of information depends largely on their motivation to pay attention to the message.largely on their motivation to pay attention to the message.

Fluctuations in levels of attention makes noticeable Fluctuations in levels of attention makes noticeable differences, in both people’s understanding of the information, differences, in both people’s understanding of the information,

and also in their attitudes toward the information. and also in their attitudes toward the information.

BalanceBalance

TheoriesTheories

Premises of Balance TheoriesPremises of Balance Theories

People seek consistency in their People seek consistency in their viewsviews

The common premisesThe common premises Inconsistency causes stressInconsistency causes stress Inconsistencies are fixed through Inconsistencies are fixed through

attitude change.attitude change.

Balance Theory

You Jerry Springer

Your Friend

++

+

Everything is Everything is balanced, so balanced, so

there’s no stress.there’s no stress.

Balance Theory

You Jerry Springer

Your Friend

+

-+Now there’s a Now there’s a problem, since problem, since

you want to you want to know how your know how your

friend can’t friend can’t like Springer.like Springer.

Sources of ImbalanceSources of ImbalanceSource-propositionSource-propositionAttitude componentAttitude componentBehavior-attitudeBehavior-attitude

Source - PropositionSource - PropositionSource: a person or groupSource: a person or groupProposition: message from the Proposition: message from the

person or groupperson or groupDiscrepancy: message differs from Discrepancy: message differs from

what we believe the source would what we believe the source would say.say.

Ex: George W. says “this country Ex: George W. says “this country sucks”sucks”

Attitude - componentAttitude - componentInconsistencies Inconsistencies between any two between any two attitudesattitudes

Ex: Love your pet Ex: Love your pet cow, but love cow, but love hamburgershamburgers

Behavior - AttitudeYour actions are inconsistent Your actions are inconsistent

with your attitudeswith your attitudesYou think cigarettes are bad, but You think cigarettes are bad, but

you occasionally smoke.you occasionally smoke.

Cognitive Dissonance TheoryCognitive Dissonance TheoryCognition: perception of an object or Cognition: perception of an object or

ideaideaTwo sets of cognitions can be Two sets of cognitions can be

mutuallymutually dissonantdissonant consonantconsonant irrelevantirrelevant

Example: Working out and smokingExample: Working out and smoking

Dealing with Cognitive Dealing with Cognitive DissonanceDissonance

Derogate the sourceDerogate the source RationalizeRationalize

Seek social supportSeek social support ““Misperceive” the source’s positionMisperceive” the source’s position Compartmentalize: ignore or forget Compartmentalize: ignore or forget

discrepanciesdiscrepancies Convince the source of his/her errorConvince the source of his/her error

Modify attitudesModify attitudes

Balance Theories/Cognitive Balance Theories/Cognitive Dissonance Link to Dissonance Link to

Frames of ReferenceFrames of ReferenceFrames of Reference can change Frames of Reference can change drasticallydrastically

Ex: Attitude/Behavior Component and Ex: Attitude/Behavior Component and Korean War POW’sKorean War POW’s

Attribution Theory

Deals with how people perceive the causes of behavior.

Based on causal inferences.Personal Causes vs. External

Causes.

Kelly’s Attribution Model

Suggests three factors when determining causality: distinctiveness, consistency and consensus.

Kelly’s Attribution Model

Distinctiveness - comparing behavior in different (unrelated) situations

Consistency - comparing trend in related situations over time.

Consensus - comparing person to others.

Kelly’s Attribution ModelAbility to infer correctly based on

these three factors is limited by certain recurring biases: self-serving bias, false consensus bias and false uniqueness bias.

Biases Self-serving bias (accept responsibility for

the good, assign blame for the bad)False consensus bias (everyone does it) false uniqueness bias (snob appeal).

Discounting and Augmenting Principles

Considers perceived motivations of message source.

Perceived source intention is one of most important variables in persuasion.

Discounting Principle

Discounting Principle: the more possible causes there are for a behavior, the weaker the perceived viability of any single cause.

For example: former President Bush saying we should vote for his son.

Augmenting PrinciplesAugmentation Principle: an unexpected

position from a source perceived as biased will strengthen the persuasive power of the message

Bush saying, “after serious consideration, I think you should have voted for Gore.”

Self-Perception Theory

People observe their own behavior and then make inferences about their attitudes.

If one doesn’t posses a strong attitude, or given an issue much thought, they may infer that they approve of the behavior after engaging in it.

People make internal attributions and external attributions to explain their behavior.

Weiner’s Attribution Model

Also interested in the perceived causes of actions and behaviors.

Considers the following factors: intention, controllability, stability, and locus of control (internal vs. external).

Behavior - Belief Models

Considers beliefs people have, and how this information is used to form their

attitudes.

Theory of Reasoned Action One of the most important reasons to study attitudes

is to gain insights into how attitudes may be changed. The Reasoned Action Model is useful for developing

attitude change strategies because it focuses directly upon attributes that may be impacted by the message source.

Theory of Reasoned Action

Predicts likelihood of behavior by gauging behavioral intention.

Deals with behaviors that are voluntary.

Looks at intention as a step between attitude and behavior, with behavioral

intention as the determinant of behavior.

Components of Reasoned Action

Mainly focuses on two components: Attitude, and the Subjective Norm.

Also considers perceived behavioral control, and demographics.

Attitude Component

The individual's attitude toward the behavior, which represents the degree to which a person favorably or unfavorably evaluates the behavior.

Attitude Toward Behavior

Represents the degree to which a person favorably or unfavorably evaluates the

behavior Determined by calculating

Expectancy*ValueAB=biei

Where i is each consequence, and N is total number of beliefs.

n

i=1

Constitutes the individual's beliefs that people, who are important to him/her, think he/she should or should not perform the action in reference.

SN=(NB)i(MC)I

NB= normative beliefs MC=motivation to comply M is number of referents (people)

Subjective Norm

M

i=1

Example in Advertising

General Conclusions1. It is crucial to influence several beliefs,

since this will change the attitude toward behaviors and subjective norms. Changes in these two components are likely to impact intentions and the behaviors themselves.

General Conclusions2. With respect to beliefs that

are singled out for change, it is necessary to influence salient beliefs in a population and introduce new, non-salient ones.

General Conclusions3. It is vital to change the value placed on

particular evaluative statements.

General Conclusions4. Changing the perception of the # of

people who comply can impact the subjective norm, as will downplaying the importance or questioning motives of non-compliant people.

The Spiral of Silence Theory provides

additional insight into group conformity.

Source Credibility

Source credibility is defined as a set of perceptions about the source held by

the receiver. Perceived Source (PS) competence, PSintention, PStrustworthiness, and

other factors are perceptions the receiver has of the source.

Source Credibility

According to Hovland, Janis and Kelley, there are two main

perceptions that determine source credibility.

These involve beliefs about the speakers trustworthiness and

expertise.

Expertise

Expert sources are described as trained, experienced, skillful, informed, authoritative, able, intelligent, etc.

Research indicates that expertise should be emphasized by the persuader when greater changes in beliefs are desired.

How does argument strength (strong vs. weak arguments) impact expertise?

Trustworthiness

Trustworthiness deals with the perceived intentions and disposition of the source.

Consider the effect of the “reformed” speaker. Are they effective? Why or why not?

How do people judge messages that they overhear?

Expertise and SimilaritySometimes receivers comply with sources who

are similar to themselves, and expertise can make the source appear very dissimilar.

People sometimes look for “social proof” from the behaviors of people “just like them.”

Under what conditions should “similar” sources be used vs. “expert” sources.

Other Credibility FactorsComposure - very important for first impression;

people appearing tense or nervous are usually not persuasive.

Dynamism - like extroversion, perceptions of the speaker as being powerful, strong, potent, active, energetic, healthy and outgoing

Sociableness - whether the source seems friendly, nice, helpful, likable, and deferent.

Message Learning ApproachMessage Learning Approach

World War IIWorld War IIPropagandaPropagandaPublic OpinionPublic Opinion4 Underlying Processes4 Underlying Processes

1. Attention1. Attention

People must first notice the People must first notice the messagemessage

Commercial techniques for Commercial techniques for breaking through the clutter breaking through the clutter (orienting response, violating (orienting response, violating reality, etc.)reality, etc.)

2. Comprehension2. ComprehensionPeople have to understand the People have to understand the

message in order to be message in order to be persuaded (message learning persuaded (message learning

does not account for peripheral does not account for peripheral cues).cues).

Language and organization of Language and organization of messages is important.messages is important.

3. Yielding

Message must raise questions or in Message must raise questions or in the receiver’s mindthe receiver’s mind

Message should provide incentives to Message should provide incentives to change mind, or imply punishments change mind, or imply punishments

for a failure to change.for a failure to change. Use of evidence (beliefs) with Use of evidence (beliefs) with statistics, testimonials, etc., will statistics, testimonials, etc., will

change attitudes.change attitudes.

4. Retention4. RetentionReceiver must remember the Receiver must remember the

message.message.Receivers should elaborate on Receivers should elaborate on

argumentsargumentsEasy to remember information Easy to remember information

(such as slogans) are most (such as slogans) are most effective.effective.

Independent Variables Independent Variables Affecting PersuasionAffecting Persuasion

MessageMessageSourceSourceRecipientRecipientChannelChannel

MessageMessageUse of logic versus emotionSidedness (1 versus 2-sided

messages)Primacy versus recency (p. 70)Repetition (Ex: Geiko)

SourceSource

Impacts incentivesImpacts incentives ExpertiseExpertise TrustworthinessTrustworthiness

Impacts yieldingImpacts yielding similaritysimilarity powerpower attractivenessattractiveness

ReceiverReceiver

Making the persuasive appeal Making the persuasive appeal appropriate for the audience.appropriate for the audience.

Psychographics: Personality: self-Psychographics: Personality: self-esteem, IQ, anxiety, dogmatismesteem, IQ, anxiety, dogmatism

Demographics: age, gender, social Demographics: age, gender, social classclass

ChannelChannelInterpersonal versus mass mediaInterpersonal versus mass mediaHot vs Cold Media (MacLuhan)Hot vs Cold Media (MacLuhan)

All together now….All together now….

Message Learning Process has 4 stages:Message Learning Process has 4 stages: AttentionAttention ComprehensionComprehension YieldingYielding RetentionRetention

Persuasive messages impacted by other Persuasive messages impacted by other variables:variables: source, message, receiver, channelsource, message, receiver, channel

Message Message CharacteristicsCharacteristics

Denotation and Connotation

Denotation - Literal definition of the word; “dictionary meaning.”

Connotation - Emotions or attitudes attached to and evoked by word.

Connotations are positive or negative.

Denotative Meaning Considerations

Misunderstanding of words due to:Level of Abstractness

Jargon (technological, legalese, etc.)Euphemistic pleasantries

Book recommends ways to reduce misunderstanding (page 212).

Connotative Meaning Considerations

The three major dimensions of connotative meaning are evaluative, activity and

potency (Osgood, 1958).

Also important to consider are the different types of emotions words evoke.

Message OrganizationMessage OrganizationSpatial Order- arranging information “in space”

Example: starting at the front of the bus we have the headlights, moving to the middle we have the some rugrats, and at the rear are the brake lights.

Temporal Order - arranging Temporal Order - arranging information “in time”information “in time”

Example: using timelinesExample: using timelines

Problem-Solution Order -Problem-Solution Order -Presenting a problem, Presenting a problem, then giving a solution.then giving a solution.

The worst approach is The worst approach is presenting a problem and presenting a problem and not proposing a solution.not proposing a solution.

Psychological Order -Psychological Order -

predicting the psychological reactions of the audience.

Example: Monroe’s Motivated Sequenceattentionneed satisfactionvisualizationaction

Toulmin ModelToulmin ModelProvides a pattern for structuring Provides a pattern for structuring arguments, outlining 3 elements:arguments, outlining 3 elements:

EvidenceEvidence - information (data, - information (data, testimony ,etc.) that’s relevant testimony ,etc.) that’s relevant

to the argument. to the argument. ClaimClaim - statement the persuader - statement the persuader wants the audience to believe.wants the audience to believe.

WarrantWarrant - explains why the data is - explains why the data is linked to the claim. Warrants can be linked to the claim. Warrants can be explicit or implicit. Strong warrants explicit or implicit. Strong warrants

are logically sound.are logically sound.

)

Aristotle identified three primary Aristotle identified three primary characteristics of persuasive appeals:characteristics of persuasive appeals:

Logos -- the logical appeal of the messageLogos -- the logical appeal of the message

Pathos -- the emotional appeal Pathos -- the emotional appeal of the messageof the message

Ethos -- the perceived “ethics” Ethos -- the perceived “ethics” of the sourceof the source

Although persuasive strategies will usually Although persuasive strategies will usually focus primarily on one of these three focus primarily on one of these three

factors, all three should be considered when factors, all three should be considered when developing persuasive messages.developing persuasive messages.

Forewarning and After-Warning (Allyn & Festinger, 1961; Benoit, 1998).

Forewarning has been shown to have an Forewarning has been shown to have an important effect on message evaluation important effect on message evaluation

When receivers are forewarned about a When receivers are forewarned about a source’s position or intention, they are source’s position or intention, they are

more likely to begin internal more likely to begin internal counterarguing, especially if they believe counterarguing, especially if they believe the source position is incongruent with the source position is incongruent with

their own.their own.

Mere Thought StudiesMere Thought Studies

Research indicates that prior Research indicates that prior knowledge or experience relating to knowledge or experience relating to the message content affects the message content affects counter-arguing and argument-counter-arguing and argument-bolstering, since people will use bolstering, since people will use their own internally generated their own internally generated messages based on past experiences messages based on past experiences when evaluating a message when evaluating a message (Hamilton & Stewart, 1993).(Hamilton & Stewart, 1993).

Kiesler and Kiesler (1964) Kiesler and Kiesler (1964) found that although found that although forewarning can diminish the forewarning can diminish the persuasiveness of a persuasiveness of a message, there would be no message, there would be no impact on persuasion if the impact on persuasion if the information regarding the information regarding the source position were source position were disclosed after presenting disclosed after presenting the message.the message.

Powerful and Powerless Speech*Powerful speech bolsters credibility *Powerful speech bolsters credibility

*People do not like to see members of *People do not like to see members of their own gender appear powerless. their own gender appear powerless.

*The importance of powerful speech *The importance of powerful speech style increases when the channel of style increases when the channel of the presentation is print.the presentation is print.

Powerless speech typically has more Powerless speech typically has more intensifiers, hedges, questioning forms, intensifiers, hedges, questioning forms,

hesitation forms and “hyperpolite” behavior.hesitation forms and “hyperpolite” behavior.

Language Intensity Language Intensity

Intense language can be obscene or Intense language can be obscene or non-obscenenon-obscene

Bradac, Bowers, and Courtright (1980)Bradac, Bowers, and Courtright (1980)

outlined general considerations of outlined general considerations of intense language (page 214)intense language (page 214)

Three main types of Three main types of obscenities people obscenities people

usually use:usually use:

Sexual, Excretory, Sexual, Excretory, Religious.Religious.

1-Sided versus 2-Sided Messages2-sided messages are usually 2-sided messages are usually preferable, especially when:preferable, especially when:

*the audience is more educated*the audience is more educated

*the audience disagrees with the *the audience disagrees with the source positionsource position

*the audience may be exposed to *the audience may be exposed to messages opposing the sourcemessages opposing the source

*a celebrity is endorsing a product*a celebrity is endorsing a product

1-sided messages are preferable 1-sided messages are preferable when the audience already agrees when the audience already agrees

with the sourcewith the source

Fallacies in Reasoning

Messages are sometimes Messages are sometimes designed to exploitdesigned to exploit

fallacies in reasoning fallacies in reasoning that are so common they that are so common they

seem systematic.seem systematic.

TransferTransferLinking otherwise unrelated objects or Linking otherwise unrelated objects or

symbols together to transfer symbols together to transfer characteristics, such as positioning a characteristics, such as positioning a

product with an American flag.product with an American flag.

Ad HominemAd Hominem attacks (name-calling) are a attacks (name-calling) are a form of transfer, linking a person, or idea, form of transfer, linking a person, or idea, to a negative symbol to raise suspicion. to a negative symbol to raise suspicion.

A more subtle form of transfer involves A more subtle form of transfer involves using connotations. People opposing budget using connotations. People opposing budget

cuts may call a politician "stingy," while cuts may call a politician "stingy," while supporters might call them "thrifty."supporters might call them "thrifty."

TestimonialsTestimonials are another common are another common form of transfer, such as:form of transfer, such as:

Celebrity Endorsements - can even be Celebrity Endorsements - can even be somewhat effective with individuals somewhat effective with individuals

who are not qualified to make who are not qualified to make judgements about a particular issue. judgements about a particular issue.

Such as Mariah Carey supporting Such as Mariah Carey supporting Bush, though there is no reason to Bush, though there is no reason to

think that she knows what is best for think that she knows what is best for this country.this country.

Transfer ContinuedTransfer Continued

Another type of testimonial is Another type of testimonial is the the Plain-Folks AppealPlain-Folks Appeal

Here non-celebrities are used Here non-celebrities are used to show the idea is "of the to show the idea is "of the people," such as the “cab people," such as the “cab driver” recommending a driver” recommending a

headache medicine. headache medicine.

The implicit argument is “if The implicit argument is “if it’s good enough for him, it’s it’s good enough for him, it’s

good enough for me.”good enough for me.”

EquivocationEquivocationEquivocal language is vague or

imprecise, and such messages can be effective because people read in their own meaning (ie, “a thousand points

of light”). "Glittering Generalities" are equivocal words that can mean different things to different people, but are usually

accepted as positive so the propagandist knows the message will

be accepted (ie, family values).

Euphemistic LanguageEuphemistic LanguageA euphemism is a pleasant word that pacifies the audience in order to make an unpleasant reality

more palatable.

Euphemisms can be bland in emotional intensity, confusing, and might even map the idea to

something opposite of it’s true nature (such as naming the MX missile the “peacekeeper”).

Being fired has connotations of being at fault, while being downsized is euphemistic, as the connotation

is vague, (maybe the company is becoming smaller), though the end result is the same.

Social ProofSocial ProofA Band Wagon appeal uses social A Band Wagon appeal uses social proof, and the implicit argument is proof, and the implicit argument is "everyone else is doing it, and so "everyone else is doing it, and so

should you." should you."

Since few of us want to be left behind, Since few of us want to be left behind, this technique can be quite successful, this technique can be quite successful, and people get swept into the inertia and people get swept into the inertia

of the mob.of the mob.

ExtrapolationExtrapolationThe tendency to make huge predictions The tendency to make huge predictions

about the future on the basis of a few small about the future on the basis of a few small observations, also called “Slippery Slope” observations, also called “Slippery Slope”

reasoning when you imply that small things reasoning when you imply that small things always lead to bigger things.always lead to bigger things.

The tendency (and fallacy) is to plot two or The tendency (and fallacy) is to plot two or three points, draw a curve through them, three points, draw a curve through them,

and extend it indefinitelyand extend it indefinitely."."

FEAR

All other things being equal, the more All other things being equal, the more frightened people are by a frightened people are by a

communication, the more likely they communication, the more likely they are to take preventive action. are to take preventive action.

We already know a We already know a coping mechanismcoping mechanism must be present for a fear appeal to must be present for a fear appeal to work, and people have to believe the work, and people have to believe the coping mechanism will be effective in coping mechanism will be effective in addressing the threat, and that they addressing the threat, and that they

are capable of performing the are capable of performing the recommended behavior.recommended behavior.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Fundamental Needs - Safety needs, physiological needs (food, shelter).

Psychological Needs - Esteem needs (feeling competent, getting

recognition) and Love needs (being accepted).

Self-Actualization Needs - Working to fulfill one’s potential, becoming

altruistic, etc.

ConventionalismConventionalismConsidered the third major Considered the third major aspect of authoritarianism, aspect of authoritarianism, (after submission and (after submission and

aggression/hostility).aggression/hostility).

Conventionalism is a strong Conventionalism is a strong attachment to group attachment to group

conventions, usually the more conventions, usually the more ““middle range/class” valuesmiddle range/class” values..

Social Judgement TheorySocial Judgement Theory

Useful for Useful for understanding understanding

attitude change in attitude change in

““ego-involved” ego-involved” group members.group members.

Considers a Considers a person’s latitude of person’s latitude of acceptance,acceptance,latitude of rejection,latitude of rejection,and latitude of and latitude of non-commitmentnon-commitment

Social JudgementSocial Judgement

Theory also considers Theory also considers

both Assimilation both Assimilation

and and

Contrast EffectsContrast Effects

Psychological Psychological Reactance TheoryReactance Theory

Considers how people Considers how people “react” to rules or “react” to rules or

laws imposed on them. laws imposed on them. Sometimes known as Sometimes known as reverse psychology.reverse psychology.

DESIGNING A PERSUASION DESIGNING A PERSUASION EXPERIMENTEXPERIMENT

Sampling the populationSampling the populationManipulating Persuasion VariablesManipulating Persuasion Variables

Population SamplingPopulation Sampling

Goal is a random sample, Goal is a random sample, where any person has the where any person has the same chance of being same chance of being included in the experiment.included in the experiment.

Non-random samples are Non-random samples are biased, and cause sampling biased, and cause sampling error.error.

Examples of biased Examples of biased samplingsampling

Telephone SurveysTelephone Surveys““Call-in to our show” pollsCall-in to our show” pollsCollege campus recruitingCollege campus recruitingMall interceptsMall intercepts

The experimenter manipulates the The experimenter manipulates the independent variables (IV), then independent variables (IV), then

measures the impact of the measures the impact of the manipulation on the dependent manipulation on the dependent

variable (DV)variable (DV)

For example: You might to gauge the For example: You might to gauge the effect of source age (IV) and source effect of source age (IV) and source gender (IV) on perceived source gender (IV) on perceived source trustworthiness (DV).trustworthiness (DV).

Conducting StudiesConducting Studies

Manipulating Manipulating Persuasion VariablesPersuasion Variables

Source characteristicsSource characteristicsMessage characteristicsMessage characteristicsSocial SettingsSocial SettingsChannel of communicationChannel of communication

Variables TypicallyVariables TypicallyManipulatedManipulated

ManipulatingManipulatingSource TraitsSource Traits

For example: competence, trustworthiness, For example: competence, trustworthiness, dynamismdynamismFor instance, we might want to know whether a source For instance, we might want to know whether a source who is perceived as more competent is more who is perceived as more competent is more persuasive.persuasive.

AttitudeAttitudeChangeChange

SourceSourceCompetenceCompetence

++

Manipulating Message Manipulating Message CharacteristicsCharacteristics

For example: Message characteristics: For example: Message characteristics: intensity, diversity, coherenceintensity, diversity, coherenceWe might like to know the extent to which We might like to know the extent to which fear appeals change attitudes.fear appeals change attitudes.


FearFearAppealAppeal

++

Receiver StatesReceiver StatesFor example: anxiety, attentionFor example: anxiety, attentionWe could manipulate receivers' We could manipulate receivers' state of anxiety, and then examine state of anxiety, and then examine whether people are more easily whether people are more easily persuaded when they are stressed persuaded when they are stressed than when they are calm.than when they are calm.


StateStateAnxietyAnxiety

--

Channel VariablesChannel VariablesFor example: mass media or For example: mass media or interpersonal vs. internetinterpersonal vs. internetAre campaign advertisements on Are campaign advertisements on television more persuasive than television more persuasive than printed advertisements?printed advertisements?


ImmediacyImmediacyof Feedbackof Feedback

++

Types of Types of Attitude MeasuresAttitude Measures

1. Physiological measures taken 1. Physiological measures taken from body (blood pressure, from body (blood pressure, skin conductance, heart rate, etc.)skin conductance, heart rate, etc.)2. Surveys2. Surveys

Physiological MeasuresPhysiological Measures

Mostly show a level of arousal, but Mostly show a level of arousal, but currently can’t differentiate between currently can’t differentiate between

different emotions. For this reason , they different emotions. For this reason , they lack validity, (since the same level of lack validity, (since the same level of

arousal can accompany extreme positive or arousal can accompany extreme positive or extreme negative affect), and lack extreme negative affect), and lack

reliability (since they will not consistently reliability (since they will not consistently report the same result when what they are report the same result when what they are

measuring is held constant).measuring is held constant).These measures are also time consuming These measures are also time consuming

and require expensive equipment.and require expensive equipment.

Respondents are asked to indicate their attitudes by responding Respondents are asked to indicate their attitudes by responding to a series of items on a questionnaire (using paper and pencil). to a series of items on a questionnaire (using paper and pencil).

Analyzed using statistical procedures, (counting frequencies Analyzed using statistical procedures, (counting frequencies and measuring magnitudes.and measuring magnitudes.

Many researchers still use one question (single-item) scales to Many researchers still use one question (single-item) scales to measure with, but these are unreliable measurements for measure with, but these are unreliable measurements for statistical analyses.statistical analyses.

Surveys

People circle a number that indicates the People circle a number that indicates the magnitude of their position, and this magnitude of their position, and this

number is used for statistical analyses.number is used for statistical analyses.

For example:For example:

Everything I learn at UConn interests me.Everything I learn at UConn interests me.

Definitely Not 1 2 3 4 5 DefinitelyDefinitely Not 1 2 3 4 5 Definitely

Nothing beats a brew before taking examsNothing beats a brew before taking exams

Definitely Not 1 2 3 4 5 DefinitelyDefinitely Not 1 2 3 4 5 Definitely

Likert ScalesLikert Scales

A set of opposite (bipolar) words are presented to the respondent separated by seven blanks. People put a mark in the blanks, and each blank has a numerical value for coding.

For example:

How do you feel today

Tired Alert

These measures can have problems, since they are sometimes measuring different things with the same question --- people might say “well, I’m tired today,

but I’m alert”.

Bipolar Adjectives

Semantic Differential ScaleSemantic Differential Scale

SingleSingle statement followed by a statement followed by a seriesseries of of bipolar adjectivesbipolar adjectives

““I think the Campus newspaper is”I think the Campus newspaper is” Fair __ __ __ __ __ UnfairFair __ __ __ __ __ Unfair Biased __ __ __ __ __ UnbiasedBiased __ __ __ __ __ Unbiased Accurate __ __ __ __ __ InaccurateAccurate __ __ __ __ __ Inaccurate Factual __ __ __ __ __ Opinionated”Factual __ __ __ __ __ Opinionated”

Decent ScalesDecent Scales

Are high in reliabilityAre high in reliability Produce results in consistent ways.Produce results in consistent ways.

Are high in validityAre high in validity Measure the concept they’re meant to measure.Measure the concept they’re meant to measure.

Childrenand

Persuasion

Piaget’s Stages of Child Development1. Sensorimotor (birth-2 years old)2. Preoperational (age 2-7)3. Concrete Operational (age 7-11)4. Formal Operation (age 11-15)

Sensorimotor Stage

Assimilation/Accommodation cycle starts as reflexive actions

turn into action schemes.

Operant conditioning is very effective with in sensorimotor

stage.

Object concept and object permanence develops in first

two years.

Pre-Operational Stage

Representational thought expands rapidly with the development of language and symbolic play.

Thought sequences are not logical yet; mostly there is complexive thinking

(jumping between ideas without coordinating them),

and egocentrism (the belief that others literally see things the same

way they do) .

Concrete-Operational

Start of logical thought, but only regarding concrete

objects.

Concept of conservation (mass, length, number)

develops early in this stage.

Formal Operational

Abstract thought and hypothetical reasoning develops.

Children start to differentiate fantasy from reality, and can now

assume artificial premises that are known to be false.

A central component of Piaget's developmental theory of learning and thinking is that both involve the participation of the learner.

Piaget believes knowledge is not merely transmitted verbally but

must be constructed and reconstructed by the learner.

Piaget asserted that for a child to know and construct knowledge of the world, the child must act on

objects and it is this action which provides knowledge of those

objects (Sigel, 1977).

Optimal Learning Conditions

According to advertising research, children quickly go into a “flow state,” described as a “highly

pleasurable experience of total absorption in a challenging activity.” (Montgomery, 1996)

Inoculation TheoryInoculation Theory (McGuire, 1964) (McGuire, 1964)

Originally intended to help strengthen belief systemsOriginally intended to help strengthen belief systems

to prevent persuasion.to prevent persuasion.

Followed study of POW’s in Korean War.Followed study of POW’s in Korean War.

Here are the steps of effective inoculation: Here are the steps of effective inoculation:

Warn the receiver of the impending attack. Warn the receiver of the impending attack.

Make a weak attack. Make a weak attack.

Get the receiver to actively defend the Get the receiver to actively defend the attitude.attitude.

Documents

Question of the Day: Would pictures or words be easier to encode into memory?