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Solar Energy is a Electro Magnetic
Wave Radiation
• Radi ation emanated from the sun at a temperature of 5000 o K
• Magnetic Wave travels a distance of 1.5 * 10 8 km
• The Sun subtends and angle of 32’ with the earth
• Solar Constant i.e. Sola r Radiation of 1395 W / m 2 in space
Electro Magnetic Wave Radiation
• Gamma Rays 10 – 8 to 10 – 4 µ m
• X – rays 10 – 5 to 10 – 2 µ m
• Ultraviolet 10 – 2 to 1 µ m
• Visible Spectrum 0.38 to 0.78 µ m
• Thermal Radiation – near infrared and far infrared 1 to 10+ 3
µm
• Radar, T V and Radio 10 + 3 to 10 + 10µ m
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Azimuth angle of the sun:
Often def ined as the angle f rom due north in a c lockwise direction. (sometimes f rom south)
Zenith angle of the sun:
Def ined as the angle measured f rom vertical downward.
Position of the Sun
Path of the Sun
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Declination = 23.45 * Si n (360*(284+n)/365)
Opti mum Ti lt angle = Latitude
for the ma ximum collection through out the year
§ Season Optimization tilt = (Latitude - Declination)
Elevation and Azimuth
Cos θZ = Sin δ * Sin φ + Cos δ * Cos φ * Cos ω
α = 90 - θZ
Solar Path Diagram
http://andrewmarsh.com/blog/2010/01/04/solar-position-and-sun-path
2/6/201
38 Corporate Communication
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Horizontal & Vertical Shadow
http://andrewmarsh.com/blog/2010/01/10/horizontal-and-vertical-shadow-angles
2/6/201
39 Corporate Communication
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Solar Radiation
Global
Direct
Diffused
Global = Direct + Diffused
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© 2011 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
Photovoltaic
n-typesemiconductor
p-typesemiconductor
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Physics of Photovoltaic Generation
Depletion Zone
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How PV Cell produce Electricity:
► When rays of sunlight hit the solar cell electrons are ejectedfrom the atoms.
► Electrons are knocked loose from their atoms, which
allow them to flow through the PN Junction to
produce electricity.
Working of Solar Cell Video
20
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2/6/201
331 Corporate Communication
2/6/201
332 Corporate Communication
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Solar PV Markets Capacity installed in 2011
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2
39
40
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2
PV Module Production, Supply, and Demand
Metrics
41
42
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2
2/6/201
343 Corporate Communication
1,920.00
1,940.00
1,960.00
1,980.00
2,000.00
2,020.00
2,040.00
2,060.00
a-si Cd-Te CIS Mono-si Poly -si HIT
1,990.20
2,028.60
2050.7 2,053.10 2053.1
1966.4
E l e c t r i c i t y E x p o r t e d t o
T h e
G r i d ( M W h ) F o r F i x e d
T i l t
Output vs Technology at Leh, Jammu & Kashmir State
1,600.0
1,650.0
1,700.0
1,750.0
1,800.0
1,850.0
1,900.0
1,950.0
a-si Cd-Te CIS Mono-si Poloy-si HIT
1,862.5
1,820.4
1,712.0
1,750.0 1,750.0
1,905.2
E l e c t r i c i t y E x p o r t e d t o T h e
G r i d ( M W h ) F o r F i x e d T i l t
Output vs Technology at Bangalore, KarnatakaState
1,600.0
1,650.0
1,700.0
1,750.0
1,800.0
1,850.0
1,900.0
1,950.0
a-si Cd-Te CIS Mono-si Poloy-si HIT
1,879.4
1,830.4
1,710.1
1,751.5 1,751.5
1,928.0
E l e c t r i c i t y E x p o r t e d t o T h e
G r i d
( M W h ) F o r F i x e d T i l t
Output vs Technology at Bellary, Karnataka State
1,550.0
1,600.0
1,650.0
1,700.0
1,750.0
1,800.0
1,850.0
1,900.0
1,950.0
a-si Cd-Te CIS Mono-si Poloy-si HIT
1,866.6
1,814.7
1,690.0
1,732.5 1,732.5
1,917.5
E l e c t r i c i t y E x p o r t e d t o T h e
G r i d ( M W h ) F o r F i x e d T i l t
Output vs Technology at Charanka, Gujarat State
1,600.0
1,650.0
1,700.0
1,750.0
1,800.0
1,850.0
1,900.0
1,950.0
a-si Cd-Te CIS Mono-si Poloy-si HIT
1,893.1
1,845.1
1,726.0
1,767.2 1,767.2
1,941.0
E l e c t r i c i t y E x p o r t e d t o T h e
G r i d ( M W h ) F o r F i x e d T i l t
Output vs Technology at Jaisalmer, Rajasthan State
BangaloreCharanka
Leh
0.0500.0
1,000.01,500.02,000.02,500.0
a-si CdTe
CIS Mono-si
Poly-si
HIT
Bangalore 1,8621,8201,7121,7501,7501,905
Brllary 1,8791,8301,7101,7511,7511,928
Charanka 1,8661,8141,6901,7321,7321,917
Jaisalmer 1,8661,8141,6901,7321,7321,917
Leh 1,9902,02820512,05320531966
E l e c t r i c i t y E x p o r t e d t o t h e G r i d
( M W h )
Output vs Technology for Fixed Tilt
2/6/201
344 Corporate Communication
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
a-si CdTe CIS Mono-si Poly -si HIT
21.0 21.3 21.7 21.5 21.5 20.9
30.4 30.3 30.2 30.3 30.3 30.4
35.4 35.2 34.9 35.0 35.0 35.5
P e r c e n t a g e
I n c r e a s e i n O u t p u t
Percentage Increase vs Technology at Leh, Jammu &Kashmir
One-axis
Polar
Two-axis
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
a-si CdTe CIS Mono-si Poly -si HIT
22.5 22.6 22.8 22.7 22.7 22.4
24.0 24.0 23.9 23.9 23.9 24.027.4 27.3 27.1 27.2 27.2 27.5
P e r c e n t a g e I n c r e a s e i n O u t p u t
Percentage Increase vs Technology at Bangalore,Karnataka
One-axisPolarTwo-axis
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
a-si CdTe CIS Mono-si Poly -si HIT
22.1 22.3 22.6 22.4 22.4 22.0
24.3 24.3 24.3 24.3 24.3 24.4
27.9 27.8 27.6 27.7 27.7 28.0
P e r c e n t a g e I n c r e a s e i n O u t p u t
Percentage Increase vs Technology at Bellary,Karanataka
One-axisPolarTwo-axis
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
a-si CdTe CIS Mono-si Poly -si HIT
21.0 21.2 21.6 21.4 21.4 20.9
25.5 25.5 25.5 25.5 25.5 25.5
29.4 29.3 29.0 29.1 29.1 29.5
P e r c e n t a g e I n c r e a s e i n O u t p u t
Percentage Increase vs Technology at Charanka, GujaratOne-axisPolarTwo-axis
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
a-si CdTe CIS Mono-si Poly -si HIT
21.5 21.7 22.1 21.9 21.9 21.3
26.8 26.8 26.7 26.8 26.8 26.8
30.9 30.7 30.4 30.5 30.5 31.0
P e r c e n t a g e
I n c r e a s e i n O u t p u t
Percentage Increase vs Technology at Jaisalm er,Rajasthan
One-axisPolarTwo-axis
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© 2011 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
Inspection Plan of
Civil Foundations
for Solar Power Plants
IS 1498:1970 – Classification & identification of soils for Engineering purposes
IS: 1199 – 1959 – Tes ts on fresh concrete
IS: 13311 (Part 1,2) – 1992 – Tes ts on hardened concrete
IS 516:1959 – Me thods of tests for strength of concrete
IS: 2720 (Part II) – 1973 – Tests on soil – To determine w ater content in s oil
IS: 2720 (Part 4) – 1985 - To de termine the particle size distribution of soil
IS: 2720 (Part 5) –
1985-To determine the liquid limit and plastic limit of soil
IS: 2720 (Part 8) – 1983 - To determine the maximum dry density and the
optim um moisture content of soil
Standard References
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Contents:
Introduction to soil types for foundations
Introduction to foundations
Foundations types used for Solar power plants
3
© 2011 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
Introduction to Soil
types for Foundations
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55
Soil Map of INDIA:
What is Soil?
6
Mineral45%
Air25%
Water25%
Organics5%
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7
GRAVEL SAND
ClaySilt
Minerals
8
Soil Groups
Soil Type Gradation Plasticity
Gravel – G
Sand – S
Silt – M
Clay – C
Organic – O
Well Graded – W
Poorly Graded – P
High Plasticity – H
Low Plasticity – L
Soil type & particle size distribution as follows:
• Gravel : 80 –
4.75 mm
• Sand : 4.75mm – 0.075mm (75 micron)
• Silt : 75 – 2 micron
• Clay : less than 2 micron
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99
Soil Type Allowable Bearing(lb/ft2 - Pound per square foot )
Drainage
BEDROCK 4,000 to 12,000 Poor
GRAVELS 3,000 Good
SAND 2,000 Good
SILT 1,500 Medium
CLAY 1,500 Medium
ORGANICS 0 to 400 Poor
Estimated Soil Load Bearing Capacities
1010101010
Soil Layers:
10
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11
Sand and gravel –
Best
Medium to hard clays – Good
Soft clay and silt – Poor
Organic silts and clays – Undesirable
Peat – No Goo d / Avo id
Peat i s an a ccum ulat ion of p art ial ly decayed vegetat ion matter or o rganic
mat ter .
Soil Strength Classification for Foundations
Laboratory tests for Soil
Following laboratory tests are to be carr ied out to determine the physical and
engineering properties of soil samples:
1. Dry de nsity and moisture content - (IS 2720 part – 2 & 29)
2. Particle size analysis - (IS 2720 part – 4:1985)
3. Specific gravity - (IS 2720 part – 3/se c2:1980)
4. Shear test - (IS 2720 part – 11:1986)
5. Consolidation test - (IS 2720 part – 15:1986)
6. Free swell test - (IS 2720 part – 40:1977 & 41:1977)
7. Consistency Limits
8. Che mical Analysis of representative soil samples
12
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Soil Samples
Disturbed samples: which do not represent exactly how the soil was in itsnatural state before sampling.
Disturbed samples are used for the more simple tests that will be
performed and particularly for those tests which can be performed byself in the field.
Undisturbed samples: which represent exactly how the soil was in itsnatural state before sampling.
Undisturbed samples are necessary for the more sophisticated testswhich must be performed in the laboratory for more detailed physical
and chemical
analyses. Undisturbed samples must be collected with greater care for
they should represent exactly the nature of the soil.
13
Sample Soil Test Report
14
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© 2011 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
Introduction to Foundations
16
The soil beneath the structures responsible for carrying the loads iscalled FOUNDATION.
The general misconception is that the structural element which transmits
the load to the soil(such as a footing) is the foundation. The figure belowclarifies this point.
Definition of foundation
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Forces acting onto Foundation
17
18
Classification of Foundations
Shallow foundations are placed at a shallow depth beneath the soil
surface. They include footings and soil retaining structures. The depth is
generally less than the width of the footing and less than 3m.
Shallow Foundations
Deep Foundations
Deep foundations are commonly using piles. They are embedded verydeep into the soil. They are usually used when the top soil layer have low
bearing capacity. Deep foundations are usually at depths deeper than 3m.
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Footing
Footing
20
Df
B
Footing
Ground Surface C o l u m n
P
For Shallow Foundation = Df < 4B
Shallow Foundation
P - Normal load
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21
Pile
Hammer
Shaft
Pre
bored
hole
Poured in place fill
Deep Foundations
Ground Surface
Df
B
For Deep Foundation = Df > 4B
22
Laboratory tests for Concrete foundations
Tests on Fresh Concrete -
1. Slump test: To determine the strength of fresh concrete by slumptest as per IS: 1199 - 1959.
2. Compacting factor test: To determine the strength of fresh concrete
by compacting factor test as per IS: 1199 - 1959.
3. Vee-Bee test: To determine the strength of fresh concrete by usinga Vee-Bee consistometer as per IS: 1199 - 1959.
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2323
Laboratory tests for Concrete foundations
Tests on Hardened Concrete:
1. Non-destructive tests
a. Rebound hammer test: To assess the likely compressive strengthof concrete by using rebound hammer as per IS: 13311 (Part 2) - 1992.
b. Ultrasonic pulse velocity test: To assess the quality of concreteby ultrasonic pulse velocity method as per IS: 13311 (Part 1) - 1992.
2. Compression test(Destructive): To determine the compressivestrength of concrete specimens as per IS: 516 – 1959.
Clear horizontal distance between reaction supports
and test foundation
24
a) For pad and chimney, grillages, concrete block foundations or
buried anchors:
L = e + 0,7 x a (m)
Where,
e is the width of foundation in metres;
a is the depth of foundation in metres;
L is the distance between nearest points of reaction supports.
b) For concrete piers, driven piles, drilled and grouted piles, or helixanchors:
L = 3 x e (m)
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Figures:
25
Sample Concrete Test Report
26
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Types of PV Foundation used for Solar Power Plants:
This includes any of the following foundations:
Concrete pier
Driven post
Screw piles
Precast or cast-in-place concrete ballast
27
Concrete pier
o Make sure the bottom of the footing rests on undisturbed soil
free of organic material.
28
o Uses reinforcing bar to firmly
connect the footing at the base
to the concrete pier.
o At the top, a metal post base
connects the concrete pier to the
mounting structure.
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Driven pile systems
29
Driven pile systems are often found to be the more favorablechoice based on cost, installation time, materials, and
environmental impact.
Screw piles
• Screw piles are a steel
screw-in piling and ground
anchoring system used for
structure foundations.
30
• The pile shaft transfers a
structure's load into the
pile.
• Screw piles are also
known as ground screws
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Screw piles or Ground screws
Helical steel plates are welded to the pile shaft in accordance withthe intended ground conditions.
31
Precast or cast-in-place concrete ballast
Ballasted footings are designed for mounting photovoltaic
solar panels quickly.
Capable of relocation and reuse, the footings are intended for
use in demanding applications, where panels need to be
secured in unstable, environmentally sensitive, or impenetrable
ground conditions.
32
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Pile Foundation for Solar PV - Video
33
34
Ground Screw for Solar PV - Video
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THANK YOU
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© 2011 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
Solar Photovoltaic (PV)
System and Safety Measures
1
© 2011 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
Key Elements of a PV System
2
loadEnergy
source
power
conditioning
Energyconversion
Inverter
Charge
Controller
PV Array
Energy
distribution
load
center
Battery
Energy
storage
Electric
utility
network
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3
Solar PV Safety involves
1. Working safely with photovoltaic systems
2. Conducting a site assessment
3. Selecting a system design
4. Adapting the mechanical design to the site
5. Adapting the electrical design to the site
6. Installing subsystem & components at site
7. Performing a system checkout and inspection
8. Maintaining and troubleshooting the system
4
OSHA* Safety Categories
> Personal Protection Equipment (PPE)
> Electrical
> Falls
> Stairways and Ladders
> Scaffolding
> Power Tools> Materials Handling
> Excavation
* - Occupational Safety & Health Administration
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5
Personal Protection Equipment (PPE)
6
Personal Protection Equipment
Responsibilities
EmployerAssess workplace for hazards.
Provide personal protective equipment (PPE).
Determine when to use.
Provide PPE training for employees and instruction in properuse.
EmployeeUse PPE in accordance with training received and otherinstructions.
Inspect daily and maintain in a clean and reliable condition.
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7
Examples of PPE
Eye Safety Glasses, Goggles
Face Face Shields
Head Hard Hats
Feet Safety Shoes
Hands and arms Gloves
Bodies Vests
Hearing Earplugs, Earmuffs
Body Part Protection
Equipment
8
Eye Protection
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9
Preventing Electrical Hazards:
PPE
Proper foot protection (not
tennis shoes)
Hard hat(insulated -
nonconductive)
Rubber insulating gloves,
hoods, sleeves, matting, and
blankets
10
Selecting the Right Hard Hat
Class A
>General service (building construction, ship building,
lumbering)
> Good impact protection but limited voltage protection
Class B
> Electrical/utility work
> Protects against falling objects and high-voltage shock and
burns
Class C
> Designed for comfort, offers limited protection
> Protects against bumps from fixed objects, but does not
protect against falling objects or electrical shock
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11
Hand Protection
12
Electrical Injuries
There are three main types of
electrical injuries:
> Electrocution or death due to
electrical shock
> Severe burns
> Falls (caused by shock)
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13
Dangers of Electrical Shock
> Currents above 10 mA* can paralyze or
“freeze” muscles.
> Currents more than 75 mA can cause a
rapid, ineffective heartbeat & death will
occur in few minutes unless a
defibrillator is used.
> 75 mA is not much current – a small
power drill uses 30 times as much.
* mA = milliampere = 1/1000 of an ampere
14
Personal FallArrest System
(PFAS)
Guardrails Safety Net
Fall Protection Options
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15
Must be independent ofany platform anchorage
and capable of
supporting at least 5,000
pounds (2268 kg)
Safety Line Anchorages
16
Ladder Angle
Non-self-supporting ladders
(that lean against a wall or
other support):
Position at an angle where
the horizontal distance from
the top support to the foot of
the ladder is 1/4 the working
length of the ladder.
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17
Grounding
> Grounding creates a low-
resistance path from a tool to
the earth to disperse unwanted
current.
> When a short or lightning
occurs, energy flows to the
ground, protecting you from
electrical shock, injury and
death.
18
Improper Grounding
>Tools plugged into improperly
grounded circuits may become
energized.
>Broken wire or plug on
extension cord
*Some of the most frequently
violated OSHA standards
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Unsafe Installation Practices - Photos
19
20
Unsafe Installation Practices - Photos
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THANK YOU
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© 2011 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
Site Selection, Resource Assessment
&
Energy Yield Estimation
Photovoltaic System
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Site Selection
3
Good Layout
Good LayoutsHapezoidal Layouts
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Improper Site Selection
Plan for Rock
Blasting
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Compromising With
Placing Modules
Embanking Soil to Level The Site
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Good Topography
Site Survey & Investigation
Some of the other major factors that are to be consideredare
• Atmospheric effect on Solar Radiation
• Daily and Seasonal Temperature Variations
• Site proximity to natural disaster prone areas
• Site climatic conditions with regards to wind speeds,saline atmosphere conditions etc.
• Site land topography. This will impact on the civilfoundation requirements
• Proximity for power evacuation
• Proximity to polluting industries
• Easy site access
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Cognizance for site selection
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Solar Resource Assessment
Step 1
Type the following link in the web browser
http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/sse/sse.cgi ?
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Solar Resource Assessment
Step 2
Click on Meteorology and Solar Energy section. The page as detailedbelow will be displayed
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Solar Resource AssessmentStep 3
• Click on Enter Latitude and
Longitude part of Data tables for
a particular location. The
following page will be displayed
• This is known as Login screen.
User has to enter
– E-Mail ID
– Password of his choice
– Re enter the same password
in third field
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Solar Resource Assessment
Step 4
After entering all the details, by clicking on Submit button, the followingscreen will appear
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Solar Resource Assessment
Step 5
• If the user is interested in solar
radiation assessment in Delhi, one
has to enter the following values
in the latitude and longitude
field of the screen.
Latitude : 28.38 N
Longitude : 77.12 E
After entering the values, the
screen will be as shown.
Then, Click on Submit
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Solar Resource Assessment
Step 6
Choose parameters as per your requirement
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Solar Resource Assessment
Step 7
Clicking on Submit provides the following output
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Energy Yield Estimation
The following stage of evaluation is to carried out while designing
/ verifying• Weather data NASA / METEORNOM
• Simulation programme
• Choice of system components (Max. efficiency components)
• Software to be used
- PVsyst
- RETScreen
- System Advisory Model
- TRANSYS
- PYSOL
• Simulation
• Analysis of yield
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Energy Yield Estimation
Case Study
To design a 5MWp solar PV grid-connected power plant at a
designated location in Bangalore
Design Inputs
• Site Details
– Bangalore , Latitude-13 0 Longitude- 77 0
• DC Plate Rating
– 5 MWp
• Technology
– Thin Film Technology
• Inverter
– Central Inverter
• Grid Voltage for Power Evacuation
– 33 kV
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Energy Yield Estimation
Option : Project design, System : Grid-Connected
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Energy Yield Estimation
Click on Project
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Energy Yield Estimation
Select ‘New Project’ enter the relevant data and then click ‘Site and
Meteo’
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Energy Yield Estimation
Enter relevant data
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Energy Yield Estimation
Click ‘Open’ to enter the Location parameters of the site
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Energy Yield Estimation
Geographical Parameters
Enter Latitude, Longitude, Altitude etc. and go to ‘Monthly meteo’
tab to see the irradiation data
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Energy Yield Estimation
Irradiation Data
Irradiation unit can be chosen as required and click ‘OK’.
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Energy Yield Estimation
Situation & Meteo
Situation and Meteo window appears click ‘Next’
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Energy Yield Estimation
Operating temperature
Depending on site choose summer operating temperature forVmpp Min design (the default is 60⁰ C) and click ‘OK’
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Energy Yield EstimationOrientation
click on ‘Orientation’
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Energy Yield Estimation
Tilt
• Click ‘Unlimited Sheds’ enter the ‘Plane Tilt’, ‘Pitch’, ‘Coll. band
width’ and select the ‘Electrical Effect’ and click ‘Show Optimisation’
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Energy Yield Estimation
Shading loss
Shading Loss is displayed in this window. Close this window and
‘OK’
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Energy Yield Estimation
System
Click ‘System’
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Energy Yield Estimation
Module and Inverter selection
‘Enter Planned Power’, ‘Select PV module’, ‘Select the inverter’
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Energy Yield Estimation
String definition
Select ‘Mod. In series’, enter ‘No. strings’ and click ‘Detailed Losses’
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Energy Yield Estimation
PV Filed losses (Thermal)
Enter ‘NOCT coefficient’ as given in Module datasheet and go to
‘Ohmic Losses’ tab
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2
Energy Yield Estimation
PV Field - losses (Ohmic)
Enter ‘DC circuit loss fraction at STC’, choose ‘Significant length’and enter ‘Loss fraction’, ‘External transformer’ and enter the ‘Iron
loss’ & Inductive loss’ also enter the Vac and go to ‘Module Quality -
Mismatch’ tab.
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Energy Yield EstimationPV Field – losses (Module Mismatch)
Enter the ‘Mismatch Losses’ and go to ‘Soiling Loss’ tab
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2
Energy Yield Estimation
PV Field - Losses (Soiling)
Select the ‘Soiling Loss’ of 3% and go to ‘IAM Losses’ tab
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Energy Yield EstimationIAM Losses
Typical bo value is 0.03 for TF and 0.05 for crystalline and click ‘OK’
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2
Energy Yield Estimation
Click OK
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Energy Yield EstimationSimulation
Click ‘Simulation’
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Energy Yield Estimation
Simulation Parameters
Click ‘Simulation’
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Energy Yield EstimationSimulation Progress
Click ’OK’
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Energy Yield Estimation
Simulation Results
Click ‘Report’
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Energy Yield EstimationPVSYST Design Report
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2
Energy Yield Estimation
PVSYST Design Report
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Energy Yield Estimation
PVSYST Design Report
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© 2011 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
PHOTOVOLTA IC (PV) – INSTALLER
GUIDE
Objective
• Verify System Design
• Managing the project
• Installing electrical components
• Installing Mechanical components
• Completing system Installations
• Conduction system maintenance & Troubleshooting Activity.
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Introduction
Balance of system (BOS) component include all mechanical of electricalequipment and hardware used to assemble and integrate the major
components in a PV system
Example of BOS components include:
3
Types of systems
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Verify system Design
• Determine Clients Need
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Review Site Survey• Obtaining the necess ary information during a site survey helps plan and
execute PV installations in a timely and cost effective manner.
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Tools Used During Site Survey
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Array Location
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1. Enough Area toget maximized
energy
2. Is itshaded?
3.Is the structure
strong enough?
5. How far thearray will be
mounted from
otherequipments?
4. How will thearray be mounted?
Array Location
10
How will the array
be installed &
maintained?
Will the array be subjectedto damage or accessible to
unqualified person?
Are there any local codes or
wind load concerns for areas
of PV installation?
Are there addi tional
safety, install ation or
maintenance concern?
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Array Area
For multiple rows of tilted racks or for tracker installation additionalspacing is required between each array mounting structure to prevent the
row to row shading. Additional area is required for installation of other equipments. Usually
for 1 KW dc crystalline power plant we need approximately 80 to 100 sf of
surface area.
As a thumb rule we can say that for 1 KW power plant approximately 16square meter area is required.
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Perform a shading analysis• PV array should be unshaded at least 6 hours during the middle of the day to
produce the maximum energy possible.
• Ideally there should be no shadow between 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. solar time over
the year, since the majority of solar radiation and peak system output occur
during this period.
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Sun Path finder
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Array mounting method.• PV array can be mounted on the ground, rooftops and other structures that
provide adequate protection, support and solar access. The site conditionsand Results of the s ite survey usually dis tance the best mounting system
location and approach to us e.
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Array mounting systems
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Building integrated
Mounting System
Roof Structure and conditions
Key points:
1. Check out the roof’s load bearing capacity and its underlying
structures so that it can bear the additional load.
2. A civil engineer need to calculate the load with respect to local code
compliance. We can also refer to standard ASCE 7 – minimum loadsfor buildings and other structures.
3. A standard roof mounting structure weighs between 3 and 5 poundsper square feet which is fine for most roofs designed to recentstandards.
4. A span table can help to quantify the load bearing capabilities of rooftrusses or beams. The website for this is www.solarabcs.org.
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Roof Structure and conditions
1. Wind loads are the primary concern for roof top mounting systems. For
hurr icane prone regions the design wind load can be as high as 150 mph
which can exceed the actual wind load of 50 PSF and more in some cornersof roof or structure. A structure engineer is required for the approval of the
structures with respect to the wind load design of the array.
2. Before deciding the PV array mounting system verify with the mountingsystem supplier that the hardware is appropriate for the given application.
3. For comm ercial roof mounting system we can use the ballasted mountingsystem. This is s ignificantly heavier than mounting system designed fordirect structural attachments. But this system needs special load calculation.
The main advantage is the possibility of roof leaks is greatly diminished.
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BOS Location 1. Selection of appropriate location for all the BOS.
2. The BOS have to e w eather resistant. They may need to be installed in the
weather resistant enclosures. For this w e can refer to article 110 from NEC.
3. Avoid installing electrical equipments in locations exposed to hightemperature and direct sunlight and provide adequate ventilation andcooling for heat generating equipments like inverters, generators, chargecontrollers etc. It is always better to have proper IP rating for these
equipments to avoid damage from rain, dust, chemical and otherenvironmental factors.
4. Battery location should be protected from extreme cold area because this will
reduce the available capacity. They should be installed as pe r NEC 480.
5. Protection should be taken to prevent the attack from insects, rodents and
other debris.
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Confirm System Sizing : Size module mounting Area
• If site is selected for array location, it is necessary to determinewhether the place is enough for the proposed number of PV modules.
• For Areas with NON-rectangular shapes, determine the amount ofusable area can be challenged.
• Access to the modules must be provided in case systemmaintenance is needed.
• Smaller array surface area are required to generate the same amountof power with higher efficiency modules.
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Confirm System Sizing : Arrange Modules in mounting area
• Sitting the PV array in the available Mounting area can have a large impact on
the performance of a PV array.
• Each set of modules in a series string must be oriented in the same direction if
the string is to produce its full output potential.
• Is it possible to split a string between two roof faces, provided the modules
keep the exact same orientation
EXAMPLE :
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Confirm System Sizing :Review Energy Storage Systems
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• The battery state of charge is related to the concentration of sulfuric acidconcentration. This is measured by specific gravity.
• Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a solution to the density ofwater.
• A fully charged lead acid cell has a typical specific gravity between 1.26and 1.28 at room temperature.
• The specific gravity may be increased for lead-acid battery used in cold
weather applications. Conversely, the specific gravity can be decreasedfor application in warm climate.
• In very cold climate the battery should be protected from freezing bylimiting minimum temperature in a suitable enclosure or by limiting the
Depth of Discharge.
Confirm System Sizing :Review Energy Storage Systems
Depending on the application or site requirement many factors are consideredto select the battery and for system design as follows:
• Electrical properties: voltage, capacity, charge/discharge rates
• Performance: cycle l ife vs. DOD, system autonom y
• Physical properties: s ize and weight
• Maintenance requirements: flooded or VRLA
• Installation: Location, structural requirements, environmental conditions
• Safety and auxiliary systems: racks, trays, fire protection, electrical BOS
• Costs, warranty and availability.
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Confirm System Sizing: Review Energy Storage System
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Electrical Properties:
voltage, capacity,
charge/discharge rates
Performance:
cycle li fe Vs. DOD,
system autonomy
Physical properties:
Size and weight
Maintenance
requirements:
Flooded or VRLA
Installation: location, structuralrequirements, environmental conditions
Safety and auxil iary systems: racks, trays,fire protection, electrical BOS
Costs,
w arrantyand
availability
Confirm System Sizing :Review Energy Storage Systems
• Racks and trays are used to support battery systems and provide electrolytecontainment
• Racks can be made from metal, Fiberglass or other structural non conductivematerial.
• Metal racks must be painted.
• Due to potential for ground faults, metals or other conductive battery tracks arenot allow ed for open Vent f looded lead ac id batteries more than 48 Voltsnominal.
• If batteries are connected in series to produce more than 48 V, then the
batteries must be connected in a manner that allow s the series strings ofbatteries to be separated into s trings of 48 V or less for maintenance.
• Overcurrent protection device or other such protective equipment's should beinstalled on the battery side to protect battery f rom fault currents.
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Charge controller operations• A battery charge controller limits the Voltage and current delivered to battery
from a charging source to regulate state-of-charge.
•
A CC is required in most PV systems that use battery storage.• PV array must not be capable of generating voltage or current that will
exceed the CC input voltage & current
• The CC rated continuous current mus t be 125% of the PV array Shot circuit
O/p current.
• The CC m aximum i/p voltage should be greater than the m aximum systemvoltage
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Charge controller operations : Set points Set Point:
Set points are the battery voltage levels at which a charge controller performs
regulation or control functions. The [proper regulation set points are critical foroptimal battery charging.
28
1. Regulation Voltage (VR) is the
maximum v oltage set point the controller
allows the battery to reach bef ore the array
current is disconnected or limited.
2. The array Reconnect Voltage(ARV) – f or interrupting ty pe controllers, is
the v oltage set point at which the array is
reconnected to charge the battery
3. Low Voltage Disconnect (LVD) – defines the maximum battery depth of
discharge at the given discharge rate.
4. Load Reconnect Voltage(LRV)- the set point where load are
reconnected to battery. A higher LRV
allows a battery to receiv e more charge
before loads are reconnected t o the
battery.
For a ty pical lead acid cell a LVD set point of 1.85
VPC to 1.91 VPC corresponds to a DOD of 70 to
80% at C/20 discharge rates or lower.
Load
Battery Bank
InverterCharge
controller
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Charge controller operations : PWM VS Advance CC
:
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Charge controller operations
• The temperature Compensation is a feature of CC that automatically adjusts
charge regulation voltage for battery temperature changes.
• The sensors can be internal or may be fixed to batteries.
• Temperature compensation is recommended for all types of sealed batteries,
which are more sensitive to overcharging than flooded type.
• Temperature compensation Helps to ful ly charge a battery during colder
conditions, and helps protect i t from Overcharge and Over discharge.
• For larger systems, the O/p of multiple CC may be connected in paralle l and
used to charge a single battery bank.
•
A diversionary CC diverts excess PV array power to Auxil iary loads whenprimary battery is fully charges.
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Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
• A MPPT Charge controller operates PV arrays at Maximum power
under all operating conditions independent of battery voltage.
• MPPT can improve array utilization and allow non-stnadard and higherarray operating voltages, requiring smaller conductors and fewersource circuit to charge lower voltage battery bank.
• Normally the O/p current of a MPPT will be less than or equal to the I/pCurrent.
• If a MPPT CCU is used it is important to consult the Manufacturer’sspec to determine the Maximum O/p load.
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Series connections
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Parallel connections
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PV Inverter Stand Alone inverter: operates from battery and supply power independent of the
ele ctrical utility system. They may also include battery charger to operate froman independent AC source such as generator.
Bi-modal inverter: battery based interactive inverter acts as diversionary charge
controllers by producing AC power o/p to regulate PV array battery charging andsends excess power to the grid when energized.
.
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PV Inverter Utility-interactive or grid connected inverter: operates from PV arrays an supply
pow er in parallel w ith an electrical production and distribution network.
Types:
1. Module level inverter: They include AC modules and micro inverters. They are
sm all and rated for 200 to 300W maximum. Advantages of these inverters are,they include individual module MPPT and better energy harvest from partially
shaded and multi directional arrays. More safer than string inverters as themaximum dc voltage on array is for a single module (35 -60V).
2. String Inverter: small inverters in the 1 KW to 12 KW s ize range, intended for
residential and small commercial applications. Generally single phase and
limited to 1 to 6 parallel connected source circuits.
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Different types of Grid interactive inverters.
36
Central inverter – 30 kW to 1 MW
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Specification of inverters
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Inverter Standards
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2
Review Wiring and conduit size calculations
Determine circuit current :
PV Power Source Maximum circuit current :
Inverter output circuit current :
39
Calculate required ampacity of the conductor (Wire)
The required am pacity of conductors is based on :
• Maximum Circuit current
• Size of overcurrent protection device
• Ambient temperature of the conductor
• Type of conductor and insulation
• The conduit fill of the conductor
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2
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2
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2
Calculate Voltage Drop
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46
Link to calculate the voltage drop:
http://www.csgnetwork.com/voltagedropcalc.html
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2
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Personal protective equipment's
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2
PV string cables, PV array cables and PV DC main cables shall beselected and erected so as to m inimize the risk of earth faults and short-circuits.
Wire Management: Array conductors are neatly and profess ionally held inplace
Wiring systems shall withstand the expected external influences such aswind, ice formation, temperature and solar radiation.
49
Install Wiring systems
Install Wiring systems Protection by use of class II or equivalent
insulation should preferably be adopted on theDC side.
Common Installation Mistakes with WireManagement:
1. Not enough supports to properly control cable.
2. Conductors touching roof or other abrasivesurfaces exposing them to physical damage.
3. Conductors not supported within 12 inches ofboxes or fittings.
4. Not supporting raceways at proper intervals .5. Multiple cables entering a single conductor cable
gland (aka cord grip)
5. Pulling cable ties too tight or leaving them tooloose.
6. Bending conductors too close to connectors.7. Bending cable tighter than allowable bending
radius.8. Plug connectors on non--‐locking connectors not
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Install Grounding system
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Utility Interconnection
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2
Installing Mechanical Components
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CIVIL CONSTRUCTIONS
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2
Install PV modules
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Selection of Modules
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2
Install PV modules
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Commission of systems
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3
Visual Inspection
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Test the System
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THANK YOU.
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© 2011 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
IEC 62446: Grid Connected Photo Voltaic Systems –
Minimum Requirements for System Documentation,
Commissioning Tests and Inspection
Learning Objective
.
2
commissioning tests
inspection criteriadocumentation
To verify the safeinstallation and correct
operation of grid
connected solar Powerplants
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Content
Clause 4:System documentation requirements
Clause 4.2: System Data
Clause 4.3:Wiring diagram
Clause 4.4: Datasheets
Clause 4.5:Mechanical design information
Clause 4.6:Operation and maintenance information
Clause 4.7:Test results and commissioning data
Clause 5 :Verification
Clause 5.2:Inspection
Clause 5.2: Testing
Clause 5.2: Verification reports
3
© 2011 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
Clause 4: System
documentation requirements
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5
4.2 System data - Basic system information
6
Project identification reference (where applicable).
Rated system power (kW DC or kVA AC).
PV modules and inverters - manufacturer, model and quantity.Installation date.
Commissioning date.
Customer name.
Site address.
PV m odules and inverters - manufacturer, model and quantity.
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4.2.2 System designer information
Information shall be provided for all bodies responsible for the design of thesystem. Where more than one company has responsibility for the des ign of
the system, information's together with a description of their role in theproject.
7
System designer,company.
System designer , contactperson.
System designer,postal address,
telephonenumber and e-mail address.
4.2.3 System installer informationInformation shal l be provided for all bodies responsible for the installation of
the system. Where more than one com pany has responsibility for theinstallation of the system, information should be provided for all companiestogether with a description of their role in the project.
8
System installer,company
System installer, contactperson.
System installer,postal address,
telephonenumber and e-
mail address.
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4.3 Wiring diagram
9
Array - generalspecifications
PV string
information
Arrayelectrical
details
Earthing andovervoltage
protection
a) Module type(s)
b) Total number of
modules
c) Number of
strings
d) Modules perstring
a) String cable
specifications –
size and type.
b) String over-
current protective
device
specifications
c) Blocking diode
type (if relevant).
a) Array main
cable
specifications –
size and type.
b) Array junction
box locations
c) DC isolatortype, location
and rating
d) Array over-
currentprotective
devices – type,
location and
rating (voltage
/ current).
a) Details of allearth / bonding
conductors
b) Details of any
connections to
an existingLightning
Protection
System (LPS).
c) Details of anysurge
protectiondevice installed
(both on AC
and DC lines)to include
location, type
and rating.
AC system
a) AC isolator
location, type
and rating.
b) AC
overcurrent
protective
device
location, typeand rating.
c) Residualcurrent device
location, typeand rating
(where fitted).
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4.4 Datasheets
Datasheets shall be provided for the following system components
NOTE The provision of datasheets for other significant system
components should also be considered.
11
Module datasheet for all types ofmodules used in the system - tothe requirements of IEC 61730-1.
Inverter datasheet for all types of
inverters used in the system.
4.5 Mechanical design information A data sheet for the array mounting system shall be provided.
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4.6 Operation and maintenance information
Operation and maintenance information shall be provided and shall
include, as a minimum, the following items:
13
Procedures
f or verif ying
correct
system
operation.
A check list
of what to
do in case
of a
system
f ailure.
Emergency
shutdown /
isolation
procedures
Maintenanceand cleaning
recommendat
ions (if any).
Considerations
for any future
building works
related to the PVarray (e.g. roof
works).
Warranty
documentation for
PV modules and
inverters - to includestarting date of
warranty and period
of warranty.
Warranty
Documentation on any
applicable
workmanship orweather-tightness
warranties.
© 2011 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
Clause 5 : Verification
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5.3 Inspection (Requirements)
PV array design and installation
PV system - protection against overvoltage / electricshock
PV system - AC circuit special considerations
PV system - labelling and identification
PV system - general installation (mechanical)
15
© 2011 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
PV array design and
installation.
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Stand Alone SPV power Plant
17
Grid Connected SPV power plant
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Field Inspection Checklist for Array:
1. Number of PV modules and model number matches plans and specsheets
2. with the module model number and quantity of modules confirmed, the
physical layout of the array should match the supplied s ite plan.
Common Installation Mistakes with Array Modules and Configurations:
1. Changing the array wiring layout without changing the subm itted electricaldiagram.
2. Changing the module type or manufacturer as a result of supply iss ues.
3. Exceeding the inverter or module voltage due to improper array design.
4. Putting too few modules in series for proper operation of the inverter during
high summer array temperatures .
19
Ratings for DC Components
• DC components rated for current and voltage maxima (Voc stc
corrected for local temperature range and module type; current at
Isc @ stc × 1.25
Note:
1) Overload protection may be omitted to PV string and PV array
cables when the continuous current-carrying capacity of the cable
is equal to or greater than 1,25 times ISC STC at any location.
2) Overload protection may be omitted to the PV main cable if thecontinuous current-carrying capacity is equal to or greater than
1,25 times ISC STC of the PV generator.
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DC switch disconnector
In every PV installation it is
necessary to isolate thephotovoltaic panel from therest of the system.
DC Isolators must have ahigher performance than thetraditional AC Isolatorsbecause breaking directcurrent is more difficult thanbreaking alternating current.
DC switch disconnectorshould be fitted to the DC sideof the inverter.
25
415V, 63A, 3pole AC MCB
Example to calculate the disconnect devices
• Example of PV sizing of disconnect switches.
Determine the minimum size in terms of Voltage and current of the disconnect based onfollow ing informations:
Maximum input operating range : 300 -480 V dc
Maximum input voltage (Voc) : 600V
Maximum rated input current : 800A (DC)
Maximum input Isc rating : 1200 A (DC)
Maximum rated output current : 300 A (AC)
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Example to calculate the disconnect devices
Solution :
• PV Disconnect
Maximum continuous input current = maximum input short circuit current rating* 125%
= 1200A * 125% = 1500A (DC)
Maximum input Voltage (Voc) = 600 V (DC)
The PV dis connect switch must be rated for minimum of 1500A (dc) @ 600
V (dc). PV disconnect devices for 1000Vdc shall be evaluated under UL98B.
27
Blocking diodes.
If blocking diodes are used,
their reverse voltage should berated for 2 × Voc STC of the
PV string.
The blocking diodes shall be
connected in series with the
PV strings.
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Type B residual current device.
Residual current device for which tripping is
ensured:
for residual sinusoidal alternating currents up to 1000
Hz.
for residual alternating currents superimposed on a
smooth direct current of 0.4 times the rated residual
current.
for residual direct currents which may result from
rectifying circuits. for residual smooth direct currents.
31
Protection against electromagneticinterference.
The area of all wiring loops shall be as small as
possible, to minimize voltages induced by lightning.
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Lightning.
In the event of a lightning strike or
surge the surge arrestor conductsthe charge bleeding it out of the
circuit to ground.
33
Each LIGHTNING ARRESTER shallbe earthed through suitable size earthbus bar with earth pits.
© 2011 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
PV system - AC circuit
special considerations.
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AC circuit special considerations.
Means of isolating the inverter should be provided
on the AC side.
Inverter protection settings should be programmedto local regulations.
36
AC circuit special considerations.
In the selection and erection of devices for isolationand switching to be installed between the PVinstallation and the public supply, the public supplyshould be considered as the source and the PVinstallation shall be considered the load.
To allow maintenance of the PV inverter, means ofisolating the PV inverter from the DC side and the
AC side shall be provided.
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© 2011 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
labelling and identification
Labelling.
All circuits, protective devices,switches and terminals aresuitably labelled.
All DC junction boxes (PVgenerator and PV array boxes)
carry a warning label indicatingthat active parts inside theboxes are fed from a PV arrayand may still be live afterisolation from the PV inverterand public supply.
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2
Labelling.
Main AC isolator are clearlylabelled.
Dual supply warning labels arefitted at point ofinterconnection.
Single line wiring diagram isdisplayed on site.
Inverter protection settings andinstaller details are displayedon site.
Emergency shutdownprocedures are displayed onsite.
40
PV system - general installation (mechanical)
Ventilation has to be
provided behind arrayto prevent overheating /
fire risk.
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2
General installation (mechanical)
rray frame and materialas to be corrosionsistant.
rray frame has to beorrectly fixed and stablend roof fixings should beeatherproof.
42
Cable entry has to be weatherproof.
43
Cables through roofing shall be
contained in roof-entry boxes,
which also shall form a
waterproof seal to avoid
leakage.
All Cable entry shall be thoroughly
sealed and made waterproof with
UV-resistant silicone sealant or
equivalent.
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2
© 2011 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
Testing : PV array
Parameters of testing
1. polarity test
2. string open circuit voltage test
3. string short circuit current test
4. functional tests
5. insulation resistance of the DC circuits
6. continuity of protective earthing and/or equipotential bondingconductors
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2
polarity test
The polarity of all DC cables shall be verified using suitable test
apparatus. Once polarity is confirmed, cables shall be checked to
ensure they are correctly identified and correctly connected into
system devices such as switching devices or inverters.
46
Array Parameters – Voc & Isc
PV string - open circuit voltage measurement
• The open circuit voltage of each PV s tring should be measured usingsuitable measuring apparatus. This s hould be done before closing any
switches or ins talling string over-current protective devices (where fitted).
• Measured values should be com pared with the expected value. Comparisonto expected values is intended as a check for correct installation, not as a
measure of module or array performance.
• For systems with multiple identical strings and where there is stable
irradiance conditions, voltages between strings shall be compared. These
values s hould be the same (typically within 5 % for s table irradianceconditions). For non stable irradiance conditions, the following methods can
be adopted:
• testing may be delayed
• tests can be done using multiple meters, with one meter on a
reference string
• an irradiance meter reading may be used to adjus t the currentreadings.
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2
PV string - current measurement
• Like the open circuit voltage measurements the purpose of a PV
string current measurement test is to verify that there are no major
faults within the PV array wiring. These tests are not to be taken as
a measure of module / array performance.
• Two tests methods are possible and both will provide information on
string performance. Where possible the short circuit test is preferred
as it will exclude any influence from the inverters.
a) PV string – short circuit test
b) PV string – operational test
48
PV string – short circuit test procedure• Ensure that all PV strings are isolated from each other and that all
switching devices and disconnecting means are open.
• A temporary short circuit shall be introduced into the string under
test. This can be achieved by either:
a) A short circuit cable temporarily connected into a load break
switching device already present in the string circuit.
b) The use of a “short circuit switch test box” – a load break rated
device that can be temporarily introduced into the circuit to create a
switched short circuit.
In either case the switching device and short circuit conductor shall be
rated greater than the potential short circuit current and open circuit
voltage.
The short circuit current can then be measured using either a clip on
ammeter or by an in-line ammeter
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2
PV string – operational test procedure
• With the system switched on and in normal operation mode
(inverters maximum power point tracking) the current from each PV
string should be measured using a suitable clip on ammeter placedaround the string cable.
• Measured values should be compared with the expected value. For
systems with multiple identical strings and where there are stable
irradiance conditions, measurements of currents in individual strings
shall be compared. These values should be the same (typically
within 5 % for stable irradiance conditions).
• For non-stable irradiance conditions, the following methods can be
adopted:
a) testing may be delayed
b) tests can be done using multiple meters, with one meter on areference string
c) an irradiance meter reading may be used to adjust the current
readings.
50
Array insulation resistance - PrecautionsPV array DC circuits are live during daylight and, unlike a conventional AC
circuit, cannot be isolated before performing this test.
Performing this test presents a potential electric shock hazard, it is important to
fully unders tand the procedure before starting any work. It is recomm endedthat the following bas ic safety measures are followed:
• Limit the access to the working area.
• Do not touch and take measures to prevent any other persons to touch anymetallic surface with any part of your body when performing the insulation
test.
• Do not touch and take measures to prevent any other persons from touching
the back of the module/laminate or the module/laminate terminals with anypart of your body when performing the insulation test.
• Whenever the insulation test device is energized there is voltage on thetesting area. The equipment is to have automatic auto-discharge capability.
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2
PV array insulation resistance test - test
methodThe test should be repeated for each PV array as a minimum. It is also
possible to test individual strings if required. Two test methods arepossible:
TEST METHOD 1 - Test between array negative and earth followed by
a test between array Positive and Earth.
TEST METHOD 2 - Test between earth and short circuited array
positive and negative.
52
PV array insulation resistance test - testmethod• Where the structure/frame is bonded to earth, the earth connection
may be to any suitable earth connection or to the array frame (where
the array frame is utilized, ensure a good contact and that there is
continuity over the whole metallic frame).
• For systems where the array frame is not bonded to earth (e.g.
where there is a class II installation) a commissioning engineer may
choose to do two tests: a) between array cables and earth and an
additional test b) between array cables and frame.
• For arrays that have no accessible conductive parts (e.g. PV roof
tiles) the test shall be between array cables and the building earth.
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2
PV array insulation resistance test - test
method• Before commencing with the test: limit access to non-authorized personnel;
isolate the PV array from the inverter (typically at the array switchdisconnector); and disconnect any piece of equipment that could have an
impact on the insulation measurement (i.e. overvoltage protection) in the junction or combiner boxes.
• Where a s hort circuit switch box is being used to test to method 2, the arraycables should be securely connected into the short circuit device before theshort circuit switch is activated.
• The ins ulation resistance test device shall be connected between earth andthe array cable(s) as appropriate to the test method adopted. Test leadsshould be made secure before carrying out the test.
• Follow the insulation resistance test device instructions to ensure the testvoltage is according to Table 1 and readings in MΩ. The insulation
resis tance, measured with the test voltage indicated in Table 1, issatisfactory if each circuit has an insulation resistance not less than theappropriate value given in Table 1.
• Ensure the system is de-energized before removing test cables or touchingany conductive parts.
54
PV array insulation resistance test - testmethod
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2
5.4.2 Continuity of protective earthing and/or
equipotential bonding conductors
Apply current = 2.5 X fuse rating
Fuse rating = 1.35 X Isc
For example if the string have current of 8A, the fuse rating w ill be 10.8A =15A
Apply current = 2.5 X 15 = 37.5 A
56
PV PV PV PV PV
PowerSupply
5.4.6 Functional tests
The following functional tests shall be performed:
a) Switchgear and other control apparatus shall be tested to ensure correctoperation and that they are properly mounted and connected.
b) All inverters forming part of the PV system shall be tested to ensure correctoperation. The test procedure should be the procedure defined by theinverter manufacturer.
c) A loss of mains test shall be performed: With the system operating, the main
AC isolator shall be opened – it should be observed (e.g. on a displaymeter) that the PV system immediately ceases to generate. Following this,the AC isolator should be re-closed and it should be observed that the
system reverts to normal operation.
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2
THANK YOU.
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© 2011 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
Shadow affect on PV panels.
© 2011 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
INTRODUCTION
The choice of a proper location is the first and the very essential
step in solar system design procedure. The modules have to befixed w ith proper tilt angle and distance to prevent Shadow on
the module for efficient operation.
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Sun
• The sun is a gaseous body composed mostly
of hydrogen.
• Gravity causes intense pressure and heat at
the core initiating nuclear fusing reactions.
• Even when planet Earth is 93 m illion m iles away, we still receive
an amazing quantity of usable energy from the sun.
3
Solar energy in India.
Today, more than 40% of the Indian population, or
approximately 1,25,000 villages, have no access to reliable electricity.
If 1.25% of Indian Land is used to harness Solar energy, It would
yield 8 million Mega watt.
It is equivalent to 5909 mtoe(million tons of oil equivalent) per year.
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Solar Radiation Spectrum
5
Solar Radiation
• Solar irradiance is the intensity of solar power, usually expressed in
Watts per square meter [W/m^2]
• Since the proportion of input/output holds pretty much linearly for
any given PV efficiency, we can very easily evaluate a system
performance by measuring irradiance and the PV module output.
• Solar spectral distribution is important to understanding how the PV
modules respond to it.
• Most Silicon based PV devices respond only to visible and the near
infrared portions of the spectrum.
• Thin film modules generally have a narrower response range.
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Solar Intensity on Planets.
7
Solar Radiation
www.cabrillo.edu/.../Chapter%202%20 Solar %20 Radiation
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Latitude
North Pole
South Pole
Lines of latitude arenumbered from 0° at theequator to 90° at the North
Pole.
Lines oflatitude arenumbered from 0°at the equator to90° at the South
Pole.
][
9080
70
60
50
40
20
30
10
90
80
70
60
50
40
20
10
30
Longitude
The prime meridian is the vertical line that marks the zero degree longitudemeasurement on the globe of Earth.
Lines of longitude are numbered east from the Prime Meridian to the 180°
line and west from the Prime Meridian to the 180° line.
PRIME MERIDIAN
W e s t L on gi t u d e
E a s t L on gi t u d e
180°N
EW
S
North Pole
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True South
In the Northern Hemisphere,
stationary PV arrays are orientedsouth to maximize PV output. But
using your compass to find south
will only give you an indication of
magnetic south, not True South.
.
13
The difference in the orientation is called as magnetic
declination.
True North
In the Southern Hemisphere,stationary PV arrays are orientednorth to maximize PV output. But
using your com pass to find northwill only give you an indication of
magnetic north, not True North.
The follow ing link can be used to f ind the magnetic declination at any place.
http://magnetic-declination.com/
14
Usually the magnetic declination should be either subtracted oradded to your magnetic compass reading to find True North orTrue south. The declination is based on your latitude and
longitude.
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Altitude-Azimuth coordinate system
Based on what an observer sees in the sky.Zenith = point directly above the observer (90o)
Nadir = point directly below the observer (-90o
) – can’t be seen Horizon = plane (0o)
Altitude = angle above the horizon to an object (star, sun, etc)
(range = 0o to 90o)
Note: lines of azimuthconverge at zenith
Zenith angle.• Zenith is the point in the sky directly overhead a particular location –asthe Zenith angleӨz increas es, the sun approaches the horizon.
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Solar Radiation
Tilt angle is the vertical angle between the horizontal and thearray surface
• Array orientation is defined by two angles:
www.cabrillo.edu/.../Chapter%202%20 Solar %20 Radiation
Altitude and Azimuth angle.
Solar Altitude Angle is the vertical angle between the sun and the
horizon –added to the Zenith angle is equal to 90º. Azimuth Angle is the horizontal angle between a reference direction.In the solar industry we call south 180º and this angle will range between
90º (east) and 270º (west).
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Array Azimuth Angle.
Array Azimuth Angle is the horizontal angle between a
reference direction – typically south - and the direction anarray surface faces.
Solar Declination.
• Solar Declination is the angle between the equatorial plane and the ecliptic plane
• The solar declination angle varies with the season of the year, and rangesbetween –23.5º and +23.5º
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Solstices.
Summer Solstice is at
maximum solar declination
(+23.5º) and occurs aroundJune 21st –Sun is at Zenith at
solar noon at locations 23.5º N
latitude.
Winter Solstice is at minimum
solar declination (-23.5º) and
occurs around December 21st
At any location in the Northern
Hemisphere, the sun is 47º
lower in the sky at noon onwinter solstice than on the
summer solstice – Days are
significantly shorter than nights.
Sun path
Sun path refers to the apparent significant seasonal-and-hourly
positional changes of the sun as the Earth rotates, and orbits
around the sun.
Sun path helps us to find,
Azimuth angle and Altitude angleFor particular place at specific
Time of the day.
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Steps to find Azimuth angle and Altitude angle.
Step 1: Select the sun path diagram for the site latitude (or nearest latitude).
For Bangalore 12˚58’ North latitude may be selected. Step 2: Find the date curve for December 21. Step 3: Find the hour line for 9:00 am and mark its intersection with the curve of December 21. Step 4: Lay a straight-edge from the center of the chart from the observation point) through the marked
hour point to the perimeter cir cle. Read the Azimuth Angle from the perimeter scale. For this
example (α) = 127˚. Step 5:
On he straight line, measure the distance in mil limeter between the perimeter circle and themarked point. Each mil limeter represents one degree of altitude angle. This distance will be
measured 28.5 mm. This means the altitude of the sun at 9:00 am of December 21 in Bangalore
is (θ) = 28.5˚.
23
For a certain location, for a certain day and hour, azimuth and altitudeangles may be defined by the following procedure. For this purpose the sun pathdiagram prepared for that location should be used.
Example : Define the position of the sun in Bangalore at 9:00 am of December 21.
SUN path for Bangalore.
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Hourly Sun Path
25
Annual Sun Path
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The main aspect to study are
• Tilt of the solar panel.
• Shadows of extern elements.
• Shadows of own elements.
27
Edge shadowing.
Shading of one region of a module
compared to another leads to
mismatch is PV modules.
28
Edge shadowing which may happen in PVfield due to dust accumulated on the tilted PVarray. This happens intensively in the bottom
edges of the panels causing another type ofreduction of the PV output.
Edge shading is also possible to
happen in field due to the shadows
cast by other PV cells and the tilt, the
orientation and the surface
temperature variation of the PV panel.
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Orientation angle
• The most favorable orientation is 180º South (North
hemisphere).
• For Southern hemisphere 0º North.
• An orientation deviation below 20º (East or West) cause
negligible system losses.
31
Distance between panel rows
A basic rule would be to avoid shadows during the 6 – 8 central
hours of the day, in the day of the year with less radiation.
This implies calculating the angle of the sun (height regarding the
line of the horizon) to +/- 3 - 4 hours regarding the solar midday. This
angle will vary depending on the latitude.
The objective is to avoid that the top of the front panel projects a
shadow to the lowest part of the panel that is placed behind.
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Distance between the panels.
D = Sin ( + Θ ) * H
Sin
(Θ ) The variable is the tilt of the panels.
(H ) The height of the panel.
(α ) is a function of the latitude of the installation and the optimal sun
elevation.
(D ) is the distance between the panels.
33
Minimum space between the panels.
Space between two rows of solar structures should be atleast twice
of the height of the solar panel structures at the highest point of tilt.This minimum space is required to avoid shadow of one row of solar
structure to fall on the row behind it.
Similarly if there is an obstacle, on the southern side of the solar
structure/modules the distance of the solar structure/module facing
the obstruction should be atleast twice the height of the obstruction.
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Hot-Spot Heating
•Hot-spot heating occurs when there is one low current solar cell in a
string of at least several high short-circuit current solar cells.
• One shaded cell in a string reduces the current through the good
cells, causing the good cells to produce higher voltages that can
often reverse bias the bad cell.
• Power gets dissipated in the “poor” cell.
35
Hot spot effects
Local overheating, or "hot-spots", leads to destructive effects cell
or glass cracking, melting of solder or degradation of the solar cell.
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Bypass Diodes
One by pass diode per solar cell is too expensive option. Amount mismatch depends on the degree of shading.
A partial shading will cause a lower forward bias voltage.
The maximum group size per diode, without causing damage, is
about 15 cells/bypass diode, for silicon cells.
Normally for 36 cell module 2 bypass diodes are used.
37
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Grounding and Bonding in
Photovoltaic Installations
Grounding
• Grounding is the process of connecting a system, equipment or both
to the earth.
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3
Bonding
• Bonding is the process of connecting to conductive objects together.
• Grounding and bonding means that conductive parts are connected
together and to the earth.
Grounding Faults
4
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Grounding and Bonding in PV Modules
7
Grounding hardware knowhow:• Type of metal Aluminum, Copper or Stainless Steel
• Type of Screw Thread Cutting or provided with Nut
• Nut Bolt
Combination
Washer types
Grounding and Bonding in Inverters
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Grounding of Grid connected PV System
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Grounding of Roof Mounted PV System
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Grounding and Bonding
Grounding hardware
Grounding and Bonding in PV Modules
14
Bolts and screws
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Grounding and Bonding in PV Modules
15
Tightening Torque in N-m – Indicative Values
Wire size
Slotted head screw
Hexagonal
head
Slot w idth – max
1.2 mm and slot
length max 6.4
mm
Slot w idth – over
1.2 mm and slot
length over 6.4
mm
Upto 4 mm2 2.3 4.0 8.5
Recessed Allen or Square drive
Socket width across flats in mm Torque (Nm)
3.2 5.1
4.0 11.3
4.8 13.6
5.6 16.9
6.4 22.6
7.9 31.1
9.5 42.4
12.7 56.5
14.3 67.8
Electrochemical Potential
16
Copper
Tin plated Copper Stainless Steel
Aluminum
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Electrochemical Potential
17
Electrochemical Potential
18
Stainless steel with Aluminum with slight trace
of chloride in the environment
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Dissimilar Metal Combination –
Electrochemical Potential
19
Do you see any issue here ??
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…and here ??
21
…and here ??
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…finally here ??
23
Grounding
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IS 3043 – Code of Practice for Earthing
Applicable for Land Based installations
• Soil Resistivity Depends upon Climate
Important considerations:
• No natural Drainage ..but no water flowing over it
• Artificial Treatment NaCl, CaCl, Na2CO3, CuCO4,
Soft Coke, Charcoal
• Shape of Electrode Plate, Rods, Pipe
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Grounding
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IS 3043 – Code of Practice for EarthingEarthing Resistance, RE
• Resistance of Metal Electrode, RM
• Resistance of earthing conductor that runs
between the main earthing bus bar and the
earthing electrode, RC
• Contact resistance between electrode and soil, RD
• RE = RM + RD + RC
Grounding
30
IS 3043 – Code of Practice for Earthing
Earthing Resistance, RE
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Grounding
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IS 3043 – Code of Practice for EarthingEarthing Chamber (Pit) Example
Grounding
32
IS 3043 – Code of Practice for Earthing
Material selection for Earthing electrodes
• Should exhibit galvanic potential
• Resistant to corrosion, Copper, Galvanized Mild Steel
• Damage to cables and other underground services due to
electrolytic actions between dissimilar metals
• Material compatible with other metals in vicinity
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Wire Sizes
33
Wire Size (cross sectional area) depends uponfollowing:
• Admissible Maximum temperature
• Admissible Voltage drop
• Electromechanical stresses likely to occur due
to short circuits
• Other mechanical stresses to which the
conductors may be exposed• Series/ Parallel connections of PV modules
Wire Sizes
34
Grounding wire size
• For PV Module – Shall not be less than the
supply wires used in PV Module, but not lessthan 4 sq. mm
• For Installation – Not less than 10 sq mm
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Fuse / Circuit Breaker rating
35
As per IEC 61730-1, the Current rating of
Series Fuse / Circuit Breaker is required to
be at least 1.25 times of Short Circuit
Current rating
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Lightning Protection Systems
2
IS:2309:1989 – Protection of buildings and allied structures against
lightning
IEC 61643-1 – replaced by: IEC 61643-11
IEC 1024-1 – replaced by: EN 62305-3
IEC 62305-3 – Protection against lightning(Physical damage to
structures and life hazard)
IEC 62305-1 – Protection against lightning : General principle
2
Standard References
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3
Cloud electrification – E
Field es tablished between
clouds & ground
Dow n leader approaches, EField increases to point of
initiation of upward streamers
Upward leader propagatestow ard down leader to
complete ionised path
between clouds & ground
E Fields 5-15kV/m
E Fields >200kV/m
3
Understanding the Lightning Discharge
Lightning
4
Atmospheric discharge of electricity may be accompanied by
thunder or dust storms.
Can travel at speeds of 2,20,000 km/h (1,40,000 mph)
Can reach temperatures approaching 30,000 C (54,000 F),hot enough to fuse silica sand into glass channels
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Lightning Protection Systems
5
Systems designed to protect a structure from damage due tolightning strikes by intercepting such strikes and safely
passing their extremely high voltage currents to "ground".
Most lightning protection systems include a network of
lightning rods, metal conductors, and ground electrodes
designed to provide a low resistance path to ground for
potential strikes.
6
Lightning Protection System - Components
► Lightning Rod or Air Terminal
► Surge Protection Device
► Down conductor
► Other components
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Lightning rod or Air terminations
88
Down Conductor
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Surge Protection Device
Appliance designed to protect electrical devices from voltage spikes.
Surge arresters can be viewed as a simple switch between two lines.When voltage rises as a result of a transient, the switch operates by
diverting the energy away from the equipment.
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Other Components
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Example:
Note: During verification of Solar power plants lightning arresterinspection will depend upon the type of arresters used at site.
14
Rolling sphere radius, mesh size and protection angle:
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Position Angle Method (PAM)
16
Number of Thunderstorm Days Map of India
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LA Photos
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Lightning Protection Devices - Video
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Solar Photovoltaic Power Plant
- Power Evacuation System
Photovoltaic System
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Power Evacuation System Design
• LT panel & associated switchgear
• Power Transformer specification
• HT panel & associated switchgear
• HT Metering
Power Evacuation Scheme
A typical MW Power Evacuation scheme
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Power Evacuation Schematic
5
Design –
Power Evacuation
The power evacuation scheme broadly consists of
• LT panels & associated switchgear
• Power transformer of suitable rating
• HT Panel & Switchgear
• HT Metering
• DP structure to facilitate power evacuation to the HT line
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Power Transformer (1/2)
• Power transformer rating to be suitably designed based on the solar
farm output rating• Primary Voltage same as the Output voltage of the PCU - LT winding
can be 433 volts (standard) or any other voltage to match with the
inverter output
• Secondary Voltage be equal to the Grid voltage to which power to be
evacuated - HT winding to chosen based on the inter connection
voltage – 11kV / 33 kV / 66 kV??
• KVA rating based on the number & rating of Inverters connected to
the Primary
• Should be suitable for operation with pulsed Inverter
• Impedance of max 6 %
• Minimum iron loss
• Off load taps +/- 2.5 % and +/-5 % on HV side
9
Power Transformer (2/2)
• Preferred vector grouping is DYN11 (standard)
• Transformer to have multiple LT windings if used with transformer
less inverters
• To comply with the requirements of IS : 2026
• Provide all protections like Buchholtz relay, Oil Temp ,Winding Temp,
Silica gel breather etc.
• Should specify whether you need Cable Box type termination or bus
duct termination
• To be provided with a Shield winding and grounded to the tank
• Either of the transformer windings neutral will need to be earthed
to provide a quick path for clearing of earth faults
• Neutral grounded resistors or neutral grounded transformers to be
used to facilitate the neutral point earthing
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HT Panel & Switchgear (1/2)
• HT panel provides for interconnection from the HT winding of the
transformer to the HT transmission line
• HT panel also provides for protection, interlocking , annunciation
and tripping
• HT panel typically consists of suitably rated HT breakers, VT’s , CT’s ,
relays, meters, relevant annunciation panel etc.
• The breaker should be of appropriate voltage class depending on the
grid voltage
• The current rating should be at least 25% higher than the current
that is expected to be pumped
• Rating of the HT panel should be chosen keeping in view of the max
fault current that it should withstand depending on the substation
11
HT Panel & Switchgear (2/2)• Protective relays like O/C, E/F , IDMT, Reverse Power relay etc. to be
provided
• HT Panel can house the Energy meter to record the power exported
• In some cases separate metering kiosk including a Check meter
(utility) will have to be placed near the 2 Pole / 4 Pole Structure
• The cable from HT Panel or Metering kiosk needs to be terminated
on a 2 Pole structure or 4 Pole structure.
• GOD switch with fuse will be mounted on the structure. Rating
should match with the system requirements.
• The transmission line will be terminated on this.
• Suitable Lightning Arrestor should be provided
• Where double circuit termination is required , 4 pole structure may
be used
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HT Metering
• HT metering panel provides for metering of the energy fed to the
grid on the HT side
• This meter is generally used by the utility authorities to quantify the
amount of energy fed into the grid.
• HT meter to conform to relevant standards.
• HT meter to have facility for communication with standard SCADA
systems
13
Transmission Line (1/2)
• The power generated at the Solar Plant has to be delivered at the
Substation (grid injection point ). This calls for an Overhead
transmission line between SPP and S/S
• The components in the overhead transmission line –
- Pole with concrete foundation - Insulators
- Conductors - Cross arms
- Stays - Earthing
- Ground Operated Device - Anti climbing device
- Danger Boards
• Each of the above items have to comply with relevant IS standards
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Sizing of load
• Identify the loads (fan, lights etc).
•
Hour of operation.• Number of days per week
3
Load Calculations
4
LoadType
Numbers Hour ofoperation
Power(W)
kWh
fan 16 7 60 6.72
Tubelights
15 7 40 4.2
computer s
3 5 200 3
printer 2 1 300 0.60
Xeroxmachine
1 1 2000 2
AC 2 4.5 2000 18.00
AC Energy required to run these loads on230V AC
34.52 kWh
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Decide on system voltage
Capacity of power plant System Voltage
Less than 1 kW 12 V
1 – 3 kW 24 V
3 – 8 kW 48 – 96 V
10 – 20 kW 120 – 240 V
5
Battery Bank Sizing
6
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PV array Sizing
7
ExampleWhat will be the system required to run 4 CFL (11W) for 4 hours with 3
days of autonomy?
• Load calculation = 4 (CFL) X 11 (W) X 4 (Hours ) = 176 Wh
• System Voltage = 12 V (less than 1 kW).
Battery bank Sizing
• Ah per day required = 176 / 12 = 14.6 Ah
• Battery capacity = 3 (Autonomy) X 14.6 Ah (Ah per day) / 0.9 (batt. eff.) X0.8 (DOD)
= 60.83 Ah = 12 V, 75 Ah (As 60 Ah battery not available)
PV array sizing
•
Ah Required from PV array = 14.6 Ah (Ah required for load) / 0.8 (invertereff.) = 18.25 Ah
• Average current drawn = 18.25 (Ah from PV )/ 5 (ESSH) = 3.65 A
• This ampere can be achieved by looking the panel specification, generally75 Wp panel delivers 3.5 to 4 A current and 12 V.
• Panel in series = 3.65 (Avg. current drawn) / current of one panel = 1Number
• Panel in parallel = 12 (system voltage) / 12 (Module voltage) = 1 Number
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Question
Q1 . What will be the system required to run 2
CFL (11W) & 1 DC fan (20 W) for 3 hours with3 days of autonomy?
Q2 What will be the system required to run 2CFL (11W) for 3 hours with 3 days of
autonomy?
9
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PV System –
Operation and Maintenance.
Check list of Maintenance.
1. Module.
2. Washing the PV array.
3. Junction Box inspection.
4. Disconnect device inspection.
5. Inspection of cables.
6. Checking the operation of the inverter .7. Checking the output of string voltages and currents.
8. Spare Parts stock management
9. Documenting any deficiencies.
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Types of maintenance.
Predictive.
Preventive.
Corrective.
3
Predictive maintenance
It tries to predict the plant performance in the
future, to prevent possible malfunctions by certain
actions.
i.e. If an element life time is supposed to be X
years, it can be programmed to be substituted the
year X-1, in order to avoid a serious failure.
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System producing less than expected, it could
be due to:
o Shade from trees, other buildings, overhead cables, aerials.
o Mismatch of ratings between PV panel and inverter.
o Regulation problems/defective inverter.
o Mismatch of panels connected in array.
o Faults in the DC wiring.
o Defective modules.
o Defective (module) bypass diodes.
o Imbalance (voltage, current, frequency)
caused by the utility grid.
7
Panel Analysis.
8
To detect the defective panels within thearray:
a. Test both the voltage and the current foreach panel:
The voltage may be reduced if acell has any defects.
Production defects
b. The hot spots may produce a voltage reduction:
They can be detected visual ly, but a thermo graphic camera can helpto find them out.
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Module Maintenance.
9
Defective cells.
Yellowing (The panel becomes
yellow)
Defective connection boxes.
Broken glass.
Delamination
Others..
They should be visually detected.
Mounting structure inseption.
Check for corrosion in the
mounting structures.
Document if any corrodedparts.
10
Repaint the corroded parts in order to prevent
further destruction of the structure.
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Module wiring and ground inseption.
Check the wiring for signs of chewing by
squirrels, and look for cuts, gashes, or wornspots in the wiring’s insulation. Replace anydamaged wire runs.
Check the frame ground connections between
modules.
11
Check for any hanging wires under the modules.
Tie all the wires together with a cable ties.
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Tighten all loose nuts and bolts, holding the
modules to the mounting rack and to themounting clips.
13
Washing the PV array.
Solar Panels are always exposed to the externalenvironment which leads to deposition of dust and debris.This causes shading in part of the array hence considerablyreducing the output of PV array.
Regular cleaning of PV array to remove the deposits on thepanels is necessary for its efficient performance.
Use a clean sponge or cloth for cleaning, to avoid scratchingon the module and no chemical should be left on the glassafter cleaning.
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Self-Cleaning Solar Panels.
Washing the panels can be time-consuming or
require costly automation and it takes a lot of water,
a precious resource.
With the new technology, solar panels can be
automatically cleaned without water or labor.
The panels are made-up of electrodynamic screens
(EDS).
15
Junction Box.
Open the junction box
and look for any dirty,loose, creatures or
broken connections,
and correct as
necessary.
The junction boxesshould be IP 65/66/67rated.
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Disconnect device.
18
• Periodical inspections will be done, specially in the
connections.
• If any defect is detected, the device will be
immediately replaced.
• The spare part stock is important.• Maintain a log of number of time it tripped.
Preventive:
Cable
To check the connections
between the different
equipments.
To check those parts where thecable cover can be damaged.
Check high losses/voltage drop
in cables. Check the
calculations, possibly replace
with larger cables.
19
Preventive
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Preventive maintenance.
It is necessary to define the maintenance tasks and their
periodicity and then create a record of preventive
maintenance on every element, with the date of
accomplishment.
20
Example: Preventive maintenance calendar 20XX
Task Periodicity Date
Checking the cable state Yearly
Retightening of theelectrical connections
Yearly
String Inverters compared to Central Inverters.
Reliability and Longer Life.
Productivity.
Ease of Installation.
Flexibility.
Space and Heat of Inverters. Higher Power Inverters have to be used.
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Disadvantages of String inverters
compared to Central Inverters.
Cost.
String inverters typically costs twice that of Central
Inverter.
This is the biggest disadvantage of string inverter
compared to Central inverters.
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Placement of String inverters
String inverters areplace on the rackbelow the modules.
This is said to causeproblems as it isplaced on the hottestpart of the solarsystem and could lead
to problems in case ofhigh insolation areas.
24
Not useful in utility solar power plants.
Solar Power Plants of more than 1 MW in size have not
used string inverters.
As string inverters are more useful in power plants of
smaller size where maximum power is needed and
where there are problems of shading, debris etc.
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Inverter Output Performances.
1. Output Voltage.
2. Output Current.
3. Output Power.
4. Output Power Factor.
5. Efficiency.
6. DC injection Current.
7. Total Harmonic Distortion (THD).
8. Current Harmonic Test.
26
Inverter overheating due to clogged vents, badventilation.
Clean inverter.
Relocate inverter.
Improve room ventilation.
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No DC voltage at the inverter input.
• Too dark, not enough light. Come back at a bettertime when there is enough sunlight.
• Main DC disconnect/isolator in open position?Defective disconnect/isolator ?
• Check voltage at disconnect/isolator input.
• String fuses blown(lightning strike).
• Excess voltage suppressor has short-circuited thearray to earth. Check excess voltage suppressor.
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Fault/possible cause/solution.
Inverter indicates DC input voltage during theday but nothing is being put onto the grid.
Blown fuses, activated circuit breakers and ground fault interrupts onthe AC side between inverter and grid, The main utility fuse, Checkthese.
The inverter has detected a fault in the array and shut down. Checkany fault indicators. Test strings individually in the PV arraycombiner box.
Possibly isolate the string which is causing the inverter to shut downby disconnecting one string at a time until string with fault isidentified.
The inverter has detected a grid fault or grid operating outsidedesign parameters for the inverter causing the inverter to shut down.
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Incorrect installation.
o String not correctly wired.
o Not plugged into connectors properly.
o Loose connections.
o No voltage on terminals in PV array combiner box.
o Incorrect DC polarity in circuit.
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Fault indication : The array current is lowerthan would be expected under high conditionsof solar radiation.
Fault/possible cause/solution
Check if the array is shaded or if there is dirt on it.Remove source of shade or clean.
Defects in module, Strings cables caused by storms orlightning etc. ? Visual inspection, Check strings in PVarray combiner box - Voc, Isc, Impp. Take measurementsin conditions of constant sun, not in changeableconditions. Ideally also test with peak watt meter andcompare with measurements made duringcommissioning.
Disconnected terminal? Loose connectors?
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possible cause/solution.
Defective bypass diodes in individual modules-causedby lightning / voltage surge? Short circuited diodesbridging over cell strings and reducing module output.Use process of elimination-first strings, then modules.
Damage to module or cells caused by lightning. Celldamage may not be visible. Take module outputreading. Replace module.
Short circuit in module junction box due to moisture andcompare with data sheet.
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© 2011 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
Stand-alone system
maintence.
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The amp-hour capacity.
The number of amp-hours a battery can deliver, is
simply the number of amps of current it can discharge,
multiplied by the number of hours it can deliver that
current.
Theoretically, a 200 amp-hour battery should be able to
deliver either 200 amps for one hour, 50 amps for 4
hours, 4 amps for 50 hours, or one amp for 200 hours.
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Battery is not charging.
Battery is not charging Measure PV array open circuit voltage and
confirm it is within normal limits. If voltage is low or zero, check the
connections at the PV array itself. Disconnect the PV from the
controller when working on the PV system.
Measure PV voltage and battery voltage at charge controller
terminals if voltage at the terminals is the same the PV array ischarging the battery. If PV voltage is close to open circuit voltage of
the panels and the battery voltage is low, the controller is not
charging the batteries and may be damaged.
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Essential spare parts.
• Solar module.• Solar array cable.
• Junction Boxes.
• Fuses.
• Switches.
• batteries.
• battery charge controls.
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Instructions
For each installation provide a separate
a)user manual,
b)technician’s manual and
c)installation manual,
in the language most appropriate to the installation site.
The manuals must include the following information:
User manual:
• Daily, weekly and monthly maintenance tasks
• Health and safety guidance.
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Technicians’ manual:
• Periodic preventative maintenance checks.
• Diagnostic and repair procedures.
• Health and safety guidance.
• Itemized list of spare parts including part numbers.
• Resource recovery and recycling procedures.
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Installation manual
Installation design rationale.
Site-specific drawings (if applicable).
Full installation instructions, including array siting
recommendations.
Wiring diagrams.
Full commissioning instructions.
Health and safety guidance.
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Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA) System:
The SCADA system shall incorporate integrated systemcontrol and data acquisition facilities.
It should be capable of communicating with individualInverters and provide information of the entire Solar PVGrid connected power plant.
The SCADA shall provide information of theinstantaneous output energy and cumulative energy foreach of the Inverters as well as for the entire powerplant, changing of operator modes.
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Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition(SCADA) System:
The integrated SCADA shall have the feature to be usedboth locally (at two locations) via a local computer andalso remotely via VSAT or the Web using either astandard modem or a GSM / WIFI modem.
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© 2011 Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
Examples of bad design /
manufacture / workmanship
Examples of failures
scorched points
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Examples of failures
7,5°C
72,2°C
20
40
60
SP01
Contact problems(thermographic pictures of modules)
Examples of failures
Thermographic pictures of modules with different failures
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Examples of Deficiencies
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Examples of Deficiencies
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Examples of Deficiencies
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Examples of deficiencies in installation
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Examples of deficiencies in installation
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Thermal Images
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Cognizance for site selection
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Training Need in following areas
• PV System Installer certification programme intended to meet industry
requirement through cooperation with leading PV stake holders, NGO’s
and professional associations
• Work shop for system integrators / artisans @ District level
• Fundamentals of Solar Energy
• Familiarization of - PV Module and its characteristic
- B O S compone nts
• Criticality of integration parameters
• Do’s & Do - not’s of system integration
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THANK YOU.