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REVIEW Open Access Psychosomatic treatmentforallergic diseases K a z u f u miYoshihara Abstract S u mmary: Many reportshave been published concerning how psychosocialstressinfluencesthe occurrence and progression o f a lle rg ic diseasessuch asbronchialasthma and atopic dermatitis.Asforasthma,a typicalallergic disease often accompanied by psychosomatic related problems,the GlobalInitiative forAsthma (GINA),internationalmedical guidelinesforasthma,describespsychosocialproblemsascausative factorsofpoorasthma controland asrisk factors f orasthma exacerbation,even ifsymptomsare wellcontrolled.However,because there is little h ig h quality evidence f oreffective treatmentsforasthma patientswith psychosocialproblems,concrete assessmentsand treatmentsforsuch problemsisscarcely described in GINA.Therefore,psychosomatic intervention forasthma patientsisnoteffectively c onducted on a worldwide scale.In contrast,the J a panese Guidelinesforthe Diagnosisand Treatmentof P s y c hosomatic Diseases describe the assessmentand treatmentofpsychosomatic disordersin detail.In the guidelines, psychosocialfactorsare classified in to five categories;1)Relation between stressand asthma occurrence orprogression, 2 ) R e l a t i on between emotion and asthma symptoms,3)Problemsrelated to a patient s c haracterand behaviors,4) P r o b le m s o f d a ily life and Quality ofLife (QOL),and 5)Problemsrelated to fa m ily relationshipsand life history.The e mploymentofa self-administered questionnaire,the P s y c hosomatic Questionnaire related to Asthmatic Occurrence a nd Progression , i s u s e f u l f orclarifying psychosocialfactorsand forsetting up treatmentstrategiesaccording to the problemsidentified.The Japanese guidelineshave been proven to be useful,butempiricalevidence fo r th e ir e f f e c t i v e nessisstillrelatively lim ite d . It w ill b e necessary in the future to accumulate h ig h -q u a lity evidence and to revise t he psychosomatic approachesin the guidelinesthatare universally v a lid . Keywords: Allergy,Stress,Asthma,Psychosomatic assessment,Psychosomatic treatment,Psychosomatic disorder, G u id e lin e I ntroduction Psychosocial stress affects the nervous, endocrine, and i mmunologicalsystems,which are involved in the onset and exacerbation of various diseases.Many studies have r eported psychosocial influences on the onset and pro- gression of allergic diseases such as bronchial asthma and atopic dermatitis [1-11] with psychosomatic path- ology, which is defined as pathophysiological states of s omatic disorders that have been closely affected by psy- chosocial factors in their occurrence and progression and in which organic and/or dysfunctional lesions are f ound [ 1 2 ] . I t i s i mportant to first assess these psycho- s ocial factors and to customize a treatment strategy by clarifying the psychosocialproblems ofeach patient. Concerning asthma, a typical allergic disease often ac- companied by psychosomatic problems,some preparation f actors are inherent to the pathogenesis, such as atopic disposition and airway hyperresponsiveness, while others are acquired preclinical factors (allergens, air pollutants, psychosocialstress in childhood,character,and behavioral problems). These inherent and acquired factors are to- gether called preparatory condition [ 1 3 ] , and asthma de- velops when an inciting factor, such as exposure to an allergen, catching a cold, or psychosocial stress, is com- bined.Manifested asthma may persistorworsen by various i ndividualand environmentalfactors,including emotional s t ates,personalcharacteristics,and behavioralproblems,as wellas daily life problems caused by the disease.Asthma s ymptoms can be improved or cured by reducing the load ofsuch psychosocialfactors. I n the Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA), inter- national medical guidelines for asthma, it is stated that psychosocial factors are important in the control and Correspondence: k y o s h ih a @ c e p h a l .m e d .k y u s h u - u .a c .jp DepartmentofPsychosomatic Medicine,Graduate SchoolofMedical S c i e nces,Kyushu University,3-1-1 Maidashi,Higashiku,Fukuoka 812-8582, J a pan © 2015 Yoshihara;licensee BioMed Central.This is an Open Access article distributed under th e terms ofthe Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0),which permits unrestricted use,distribution,and r e production in any medium,provided the originalwork is properly credited.The Creative Commons P u b lic Domain Dedication waiver(http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/)applies to the data made available in th is article, u n le s s otherwise stated. Yoshihara BioPsychoSocialMedicine (2015) 9:8 DOI10.1186/s13030-015-0036-2

Psychosomatic Treatment for Allergic Diseases - Art

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Psychosomatic Treatment for Allergic Diseases - Art

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  • R E V I E W O p e n A c c e s s

    P s y c h o s o m a t i c t r e a t m e n t f o r a l l e r g i c d i s e a s e sK a z u f u m i Y o s h i h a r a

    A b s t r a c t

    S u m m a r y : M a n y r e p o r t s h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d c o n c e r n i n g h o w p s y c h o s o c i a l s t r e s s i n f l u e n c e s t h e o c c u r r e n c e a n dp r o g r e s s i o n o f a l l e r g i c d i s e a s e s s u c h a s b r o n c h i a l a s t h m a a n d a t o p i c d e r m a t i t i s . A s f o r a s t h m a , a t y p i c a l a l l e r g i c d i s e a s eo f t e n a c c o m p a n i e d b y p s y c h o s o m a t i c r e l a t e d p r o b l e m s , t h e G l o b a l I n i t i a t i v e f o r A s t h m a ( G I N A ) , i n t e r n a t i o n a l m e d i c a lg u i d e l i n e s f o r a s t h m a , d e s c r i b e s p s y c h o s o c i a l p r o b l e m s a s c a u s a t i v e f a c t o r s o f p o o r a s t h m a c o n t r o l a n d a s r i s k f a c t o r sf o r a s t h m a e x a c e r b a t i o n , e v e n i f s y m p t o m s a r e w e l l c o n t r o l l e d . H o w e v e r , b e c a u s e t h e r e i s l i t t l e h i g h q u a l i t y e v i d e n c ef o r e f f e c t i v e t r e a t m e n t s f o r a s t h m a p a t i e n t s w i t h p s y c h o s o c i a l p r o b l e m s , c o n c r e t e a s s e s s m e n t s a n d t r e a t m e n t s f o r s u c hp r o b l e m s i s s c a r c e l y d e s c r i b e d i n G I N A . T h e r e f o r e , p s y c h o s o m a t i c i n t e r v e n t i o n f o r a s t h m a p a t i e n t s i s n o t e f f e c t i v e l yc o n d u c t e d o n a w o r l d w i d e s c a l e . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e J a p a n e s e G u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e D i a g n o s i s a n d T r e a t m e n t o fP s y c h o s o m a t i c D i s e a s e s d e s c r i b e t h e a s s e s s m e n t a n d t r e a t m e n t o f p s y c h o s o m a t i c d i s o r d e r s i n d e t a i l . I n t h e g u i d e l i n e s ,p s y c h o s o c i a l f a c t o r s a r e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o f i v e c a t e g o r i e s ; 1 ) R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s t r e s s a n d a s t h m a o c c u r r e n c e o r p r o g r e s s i o n ,2 ) R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n e m o t i o n a n d a s t h m a s y m p t o m s , 3 ) P r o b l e m s r e l a t e d t o a p a t i e n t s c h a r a c t e r a n d b e h a v i o r s , 4 )P r o b l e m s o f d a i l y l i f e a n d Q u a l i t y o f L i f e ( Q O L ) , a n d 5 ) P r o b l e m s r e l a t e d t o f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d l i f e h i s t o r y . T h ee m p l o y m e n t o f a s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e , t h e P s y c h o s o m a t i c Q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e l a t e d t o A s t h m a t i c O c c u r r e n c ea n d P r o g r e s s i o n , i s u s e f u l f o r c l a r i f y i n g p s y c h o s o c i a l f a c t o r s a n d f o r s e t t i n g u p t r e a t m e n t s t r a t e g i e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h ep r o b l e m s i d e n t i f i e d . T h e J a p a n e s e g u i d e l i n e s h a v e b e e n p r o v e n t o b e u s e f u l , b u t e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e f o r t h e i re f f e c t i v e n e s s i s s t i l l r e l a t i v e l y l i m i t e d . I t w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y i n t h e f u t u r e t o a c c u m u l a t e h i g h - q u a l i t y e v i d e n c e a n d t o r e v i s et h e p s y c h o s o m a t i c a p p r o a c h e s i n t h e g u i d e l i n e s t h a t a r e u n i v e r s a l l y v a l i d .

    K e y w o r d s : A l l e r g y , S t r e s s , A s t h m a , P s y c h o s o m a t i c a s s e s s m e n t , P s y c h o s o m a t i c t r e a t m e n t , P s y c h o s o m a t i c d i s o r d e r ,G u i d e l i n e

    I n t r o d u c t i o nP s y c h o s o c i a l s t r e s s a f f e c t s t h e n e r v o u s , e n d o c r i n e , a n di m m u n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s , w h i c h a r e i n v o l v e d i n t h e o n s e ta n d e x a c e r b a t i o n o f v a r i o u s d i s e a s e s . M a n y s t u d i e s h a v er e p o r t e d p s y c h o s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e s o n t h e o n s e t a n d p r o -g r e s s i o n o f a l l e r g i c d i s e a s e s s u c h a s b r o n c h i a l a s t h m aa n d a t o p i c d e r m a t i t i s [ 1 - 1 1 ] w i t h p s y c h o s o m a t i c p a t h -o l o g y , w h i c h i s d e f i n e d a s p a t h o p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t a t e s o fs o m a t i c d i s o r d e r s t h a t h a v e b e e n c l o s e l y a f f e c t e d b y p s y -c h o s o c i a l f a c t o r s i n t h e i r o c c u r r e n c e a n d p r o g r e s s i o na n d i n w h i c h o r g a n i c a n d / o r d y s f u n c t i o n a l l e s i o n s a r ef o u n d [ 1 2 ] . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o f i r s t a s s e s s t h e s e p s y c h o -s o c i a l f a c t o r s a n d t o c u s t o m i z e a t r e a t m e n t s t r a t e g y b yc l a r i f y i n g t h e p s y c h o s o c i a l p r o b l e m s o f e a c h p a t i e n t .

    C o n c e r n i n g a s t h m a , a t y p i c a l a l l e r g i c d i s e a s e o f t e n a c -c o m p a n i e d b y p s y c h o s o m a t i c p r o b l e m s , s o m e p r e p a r a t i o nf a c t o r s a r e i n h e r e n t t o t h e p a t h o g e n e s i s , s u c h a s a t o p i cd i s p o s i t i o n a n d a i r w a y h y p e r r e s p o n s i v e n e s s , w h i l e o t h e r sa r e a c q u i r e d p r e c l i n i c a l f a c t o r s ( a l l e r g e n s , a i r p o l l u t a n t s ,p s y c h o s o c i a l s t r e s s i n c h i l d h o o d , c h a r a c t e r , a n d b e h a v i o r a lp r o b l e m s ) . T h e s e i n h e r e n t a n d a c q u i r e d f a c t o r s a r e t o -g e t h e r c a l l e d p r e p a r a t o r y c o n d i t i o n [ 1 3 ] , a n d a s t h m a d e -v e l o p s w h e n a n i n c i t i n g f a c t o r , s u c h a s e x p o s u r e t o a na l l e r g e n , c a t c h i n g a c o l d , o r p s y c h o s o c i a l s t r e s s , i s c o m -b i n e d . M a n i f e s t e d a s t h m a m a y p e r s i s t o r w o r s e n b y v a r i o u si n d i v i d u a l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g e m o t i o n a ls t a t e s , p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a n d b e h a v i o r a l p r o b l e m s , a sw e l l a s d a i l y l i f e p r o b l e m s c a u s e d b y t h e d i s e a s e . A s t h m as y m p t o m s c a n b e i m p r o v e d o r c u r e d b y r e d u c i n g t h e l o a do f s u c h p s y c h o s o c i a l f a c t o r s .

    I n t h e G l o b a l I n i t i a t i v e f o r A s t h m a ( G I N A ) , i n t e r -n a t i o n a l m e d i c a l g u i d e l i n e s f o r a s t h m a , i t i s s t a t e d t h a tp s y c h o s o c i a l f a c t o r s a r e i m p o r t a n t i n t h e c o n t r o l a n d

    C o r r e s p o n d e n c e : k y o s h i h a @ c e p h a l . m e d . k y u s h u - u . a c . j pD e p a r t m e n t o f P s y c h o s o m a t i c M e d i c i n e , G r a d u a t e S c h o o l o f M e d i c a lS c i e n c e s , K y u s h u U n i v e r s i t y , 3 - 1 - 1 M a i d a s h i , H i g a s h i k u , F u k u o k a 8 1 2 - 8 5 8 2 ,J a p a n

    2 0 1 5 Y o s h i h a r a ; l i c e n s e e B i o M e d C e n t r a l . T h i s i s a n O p e n A c c e s s a r t i c l e d i s t r i b u t e d u n d e r t h e t e r m s o f t h e C r e a t i v eC o m m o n s A t t r i b u t i o n L i c e n s e ( h t t p : / / c r e a t i v e c o m m o n s . o r g / l i c e n s e s / b y / 4 . 0 ) , w h i c h p e r m i t s u n r e s t r i c t e d u s e , d i s t r i b u t i o n , a n dr e p r o d u c t i o n i n a n y m e d i u m , p r o v i d e d t h e o r i g i n a l w o r k i s p r o p e r l y c r e d i t e d . T h e C r e a t i v e C o m m o n s P u b l i c D o m a i nD e d i c a t i o n w a i v e r ( h t t p : / / c r e a t i v e c o m m o n s . o r g / p u b l i c d o m a i n / z e r o / 1 . 0 / ) a p p l i e s t o t h e d a t a m a d e a v a i l a b l e i n t h i s a r t i c l e ,u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e s t a t e d .

    Y o s h i h a r a B i o P s y c h o S o c i a l M e d i c i n e (2015) 9:8 D O I 1 0 . 1 1 8 6 / s 1 3 0 3 0 - 0 1 5 - 0 0 3 6 - 2

  • m a n a g e m e n t o f a s t h m a [ 1 4 ] a n d t h a t p s y c h o s o c i a l p r o b -l e m s c a n b e c a u s a t i v e o f p o o r c o n t r o l a n d e x a c e r b a t i o n so f a s t h m a , e v e n i f s y m p t o m s a r e w e l l c o n t r o l l e d . H o w e v e r ,h o w p s y c h o s o c i a l p r o b l e m s s h o u l d b e a s s e s s e d a n d t r e a t e di s b a r e l y d e s c r i b e d . T h e g u i d e l i n e s c o n t a i n d e s c r i p t i o n ss u c h a s D r u g t r e a t m e n t a n d c o g n i t i v e b e h a v i o r t h e r a p yh a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s h a v i n g s o m e p o t e n t i a l i n p a t i e n t sw i t h a s t h m a , R e l a x a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s a n d b r e a t h i n g t e c h -n i q u e s m a y b e h e l p f u l , a n d P s y c h o l o g i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n sm a y b e h e l p f u l i n p a t i e n t s w i t h s e v e r e a s t h m a . T h e l a c ko f d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s i m p l i e s t h e f a c t t h a t p s y c h o -s o m a t i c t r e a t m e n t f o r a s t h m a p a t i e n t s h a s n o t y e t b e e n e f -f e c t i v e l y a c h i e v e d i n m o s t c o u n t r i e s .

    T o t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e J a p a n e s e G u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e D i a g -n o s i s a n d T r e a t m e n t o f P s y c h o s o m a t i c D i s e a s e s e n a b l et h e p h y s i c i a n t o a s s e s s t h e p s y c h o s o c i a l f a c t o r s o f a s t h m ap a t i e n t s b y u s e o f a s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s p e c i f -i c a l l y d e s i g n e d f o r p a t i e n t s w i t h a s t h m a : t h e P s y c h o -s o m a t i c Q u e s t i o n n a i r e R e l a t e d t o A s t h m a O c c u r r e n c e a n dP r o g r e s s i o n [ 1 5 , 1 6 ] . I t i s i n c l u d e d i n t h e g u i d e l i n e s , a n dt h e r e s u l t s c a n b e u s e d t o s e t u p a t r e a t m e n t s t r a t e g yb a s e d o n t h e a n s w e r s t o t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . M o r e o v e r , i nt h e g u i d e l i n e s p s y c h o s o m a t i c t r e a t m e n t s f o r s p e c i f i c p s y -c h o s o c i a l f a c t o r s a r e c o m p r e h e n s i b l y d e s c r i b e d i n s u c h aw a y t h a t a n y p r i m a r y p h y s i c i a n c a n e a s i l y d i a g n o s e a n d e f -f e c t i v e l y t r e a t a s t h m a p a t i e n t s w i t h p s y c h o s o m a t i c p r o b -l e m s . I n t h i s r e v i e w , t h e J a p a n e s e G u i d e l i n e s f o r t h eD i a g n o s i s a n d T r e a t m e n t o f P s y c h o s o m a t i c D i s e a s e s a n dr e c e n t r e s e a r c h p a p e r s a r e u t i l i z e d t o o u t l i n e t h e p r o c e -d u r e s f o r t h e a s s e s s m e n t a n d t r e a t m e n t f o r a s t h m a p a -t i e n t s w i t h p s y c h o s o m a t i c p r o b l e m s .

    P s y c h o s o m a t i c a s s e s s m e n tB a s i c g r o u p i n g o f t h e p s y c h o s o c i a l f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t op s y c h o s o m a t i c d i s o r d e r sP s y c h o s o c i a l f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n p s y c h o s o m a t i c d i s o r d e r sc a n b e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s : P r e p a r a t i o n , i n c i t -i n g , a n d c o n t i n u i n g a n d p r e c i p i t a t i n g f a c t o r s [ 1 7 ] .

    P r e p a r a t i o n f a c t o r sP r e p a r a t i o n f a c t o r s d o n o t d i r e c t l y c a u s e t h e d i s e a s e , b u tt h e y p r o d u c e p r e c l i n i c a l c o n d i t i o n s i n w h i c h t h e d i s e a s eo c c u r s w h e n i n c i t i n g f a c t o r s a r e a d d e d . T h e y i n c l u d ep r o b l e m s o f l i f e h i s t o r y , f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s , c h a r a c t e r ,a n d b e h a v i o r a l s t y l e s .

    I n c i t i n g f a c t o r sI n c i t i n g f a c t o r s a r e a c q u i r e d o n e s t h a t m a n i f e s t t h e d i s -e a s e i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h o n e o r m o r e o f t h e a b o v el i s t e d p r e p a r a t i o n f a c t o r s . I n t e n s e e m o t i o n a l s t r e s s o r st h a t c a u s e f e a r , a n g e r , o r s a d n e s s a r e e x a m p l e s o f i n c i t i n gf a c t o r s .

    C o n t i n u i n g a n d p r e c i p i t a t i n g f a c t o r sC o n t i n u i n g f a c t o r s o r p r e c i p i t a t i n g f a c t o r s a r e a l s o a c -q u i r e d o n e s t h a t p r o l o n g o r w o r s e n t h e c o u r s e o f t h ed i s e a s e . P s y c h o s o c i a l f a c t o r s t h a t c a n b e c o n t i n u i n g a n dp r e c i p i t a t i n g f a c t o r s i n c l u d e p r o b l e m s o f e m o t i o n , c h a r -a c t e r , b e h a v i o r , a n d d a i l y l i f e c a u s e d b y t h e d i s e a s e .

    T h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a n d a s s e s s m e n t o f p s y c h o s o c i a l f a c t o r sr e l a t e d t o a s t h m aI n t h e s e c t i o n b r o n c h i a l a s t h m a o f t h e J a p a n e s e G u i d e -l i n e s f o r t h e D i a g n o s i s a n d T r e a t m e n t o f P s y c h o s o m a t i cD i s e a s e s , p r o c e d u r e s f o r a s s e s s i n g a n d c l a r i f y i n g p r o b -l e m s r e l a t e d t o t h e p s y c h o s o c i a l b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e p a t i e n ta n d s t r a t e g i e s o f t r e a t m e n t a d j u s t e d t o t h o s e p r o b l e m s a r eg i v e n . P s y c h o s o c i a l p r o b l e m s a r e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h e f o l l o w -i n g f i v e g r o u p s .

    R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s t r e s s a n d a s t h m a o n s e t a n d p r o g r e s s i o nP s y c h o s o c i a l s t r e s s o r s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d a s i n c i t i n g ,c o n t i n u i n g , o r p r e c i p i t a t i n g f a c t o r s f o r a s t h m a [ 4 - 1 1 ] .M a n y o f t h e m a r e r e l a t e d t o m a j o r l i f e e v e n t s ( e n t e r i n gs c h o o l , b e i n g e m p l o y e d , h a v i n g a c h i l d , d i v o r c e , m o v i n g ,c h a n g i n g j o b s , a n d a c l o s e r e l a t i v e s s i c k n e s s o r d e a t h ) o rt o m i n o r s t r e s s o r s i n e v e r y d a y l i f e ( p r o b l e m s w i t h i n t e r -p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n f a m i l y , a t s c h o o l , o r a t w o r k -p l a c e a n d a h e a v y b u r d e n o f s t u d y o r w o r k ) . T h e s ep s y c h o s o c i a l s t r e s s o r s a r e o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e o n -s e t , c o n t i n u a t i o n , e x a c e r b a t i o n , o r r e c u r r e n c e o f a s t h m as y m p t o m s . P o s s i b l e m e c h a n i s m s l i n k i n g s t r e s s o r s a n da s t h m a o n s e t o r e x a c e r b a t i o n s a r e t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f c y -t o k i n e s , w h i c h c a n b e m o d i f i e d b y s t r e s s o r s a n d h e i g h t -e n e d s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o i n f e c t i o n r e l a t e d t o d e t e r i o r a t i o no f t h e i m m u n e s y s t e m t h r o u g h s t r e s s [ 1 8 , 1 9 ] .

    R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n e m o t i o n a n d a s t h m a s y m p t o m sA c l o s e r e l a t i o n h a s b e e n s h o w n b e t w e e n e m o t i o n ( a n x -i e t y , t e n s i o n , a n g e r , d e p r e s s i o n , e t c . ) a n d t h e e x a c e r b a -t i o n o r r e m i s s i o n o f a s t h m a s y m p t o m s [ 2 0 - 2 5 ] . A h i g hr a t e o f p a n i c d i s o r d e r h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d f o r a s t h m a t i c s ,w h i c h c a n w o r s e n a s t h m a t i c s y m p t o m s [ 2 2 , 2 3 ] . A p o s -s i b l e m e c h a n i s m i s d i s t a l a i r w a y c l o s u r e i n d u c e d b yp a r a s y m p a t h e t i c n e r v o u s a c t i v a t i o n a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n th i s t a m i n e r e l e a s e . D e p r e s s i o n h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d t o b e ar i s k f a c t o r f o r t h e d e a t h o f a s t h m a t i c s u b j e c t s [ 2 1 , 2 4 ] .

    P a t i e n t c h a r a c t e r a n d b e h a v i o r a l p r o b l e m sM o s t a s t h m a t i c p a t i e n t s w h o a r e s c r u p u l o u s o r p e r f e c -t i o n i s t i c a n d w h o s u p p r e s s t h e i r f e e l i n g s o r c o n f o r m t oo t h e r s o p i n i o n s t e n d t o h a v e s e v e r e s y m p t o m s b e c a u s et h e y b e c o m e f a t i g u e d b y n o t r e s t i n g e v e n i f t h e y a r et i r e d , t h e y c a n n o t r e f u s e w h e n a s k e d t o d o t h i n g s , t h e yc a n n o t s a y w h a t t h e y w a n t t o s a y , t h e y c a n n o t c o n s u l to t h e r s a b o u t t h e t h i n g s t h a t w o r r y t h e m , a n d t h e y c a n -n o t s e e k h e l p f r o m p e o p l e a r o u n d t h e m [ 1 0 ] .

    Y o s h i h a r a B i o P s y c h o S o c i a l M e d i c i n e (2015) 9:8 P a g e 2 o f 6

  • P r o b l e m s o f d a i l y l i f e a n d Q u a l i t y o f l i f e ( Q O L )A s t h m a p a t i e n t s w h o h a v e r e p e a t e d f l u c t u a t i o n s o fs y m p t o m s t e n d t o h a v e l i t t l e p r o s p e c t f o r i m p r o v e m e n t .I n a d d i t i o n , t h e y h a v e g r e a t p h y s i c a l , m e n t a l , a n d e c o -n o m i c b u r d e n s r e l a t e d t o t h e i r a s t h m a s y m p t o m s a n dt r e a t m e n t . T h e s e b u r d e n s c a n c a u s e r e m a r k a b l e p s y c h o -l o g i c a l d i s t r e s s a n d s o c i a l o r o c c u p a t i o n a l d y s f u n c t i o n ,a s w e l l a s s l e e p d i s t u r b a n c e , d i f f i c u l t i e s i n i n t e r p e r s o n a lr e l a t i o n s h i p s , s o c i a l w i t h d r a w a l , d e c r e a s e d a c h i e v e m e n to f s t u d y o r w o r k , d e p r e s s i v e m o o d , a n d a n x i e t y .

    P r o b l e m s r e l a t e d t o f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d l i f e h i s t o r yS o m e p e o p l e w h o h a v e h a d p r o b l e m s i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n -s h i p w i t h t h e i r p a r e n t s s i n c e c h i l d h o o d o r h a v e e x p e r i -e n c e d b u l l y i n g a t s c h o o l m a y h a v e a d i s t r u s t o f o t h e rp e r s o n s , a s e n s e o f a n x i e t y , a n d / o r s e l f - d e n i a l . A s t h e yg r o w u p , t h e y o f t e n r e t a i n s t r o n g c o n f l i c t s i n i n t e r p e r -s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d f e e l a n x i o u s o r s t r e s s f u l w h e nt h e y c o n f r o n t s u c h i s s u e s . T h e r e f o r e , m o s t a s t h m a p a -t i e n t s w h o h a v e p r o b l e m s i n t h e i r f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p sa n d l i f e h i s t o r y h a v e p o o r a s t h m a c o n t r o l .

    C h i d a e t a l . d e m o n s t r a t e d i n a n a n i m a l s t u d y t h a t p s y -c h o l o g i c a l s t r e s s i n c h i l d h o o d c a u s e s a i r w a y i n f l a m m a t i o na n d w o r s e n s t h e h y p e r r e s p o n s i v e n e s s o f a d u l t - o n s e ta s t h m a a n d r e p o r t e d a r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s y m p t o m e x a c e r -b a t i o n a n d d y s f u n c t i o n o f t h e h y p o t h a l a m i c - p i t u i t a r y -a d r e n a l a x i s [ 2 6 ] .

    P s y c h o s o m a t i c q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e l a t e d t o a s t h m ao c c u r r e n c e a n d p r o g r e s s i o nT h e P s y c h o s o m a t i c Q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e l a t e d t o A s t h m a t i c O c -c u r r e n c e a n d P r o g r e s s i o n i n t h e J a p a n e s e G u i d e l i n e s f o rt h e D i a g n o s i s a n d T r e a t m e n t o f P s y c h o s o m a t i c D i s e a s e s i sa h e l p f u l t o o l f o r p h y s i c i a n s w h e n t h e y q u e s t i o n a s t h m a p a -t i e n t s a b o u t t h e i r p s y c h o s o c i a l b a c k g r o u n d i n a m e d i c a li n t e r v i e w . T h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e i s u s e f u l f o r g e t t i n g t h e w h o l ep i c t u r e o f t h e p s y c h o s o c i a l b a c k g r o u n d o f a s t h m a t i c p a t i e n t sa n d f o r j u d g i n g i f t h e a s t h m a p a t i e n t h a s a p s y c h o s o m a t i cd i s o r d e r . T h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n s i s t s o f 2 5 i t e m s c l a s s i f i e di n t o f i v e s u b c a t e g o r i e s ; 1 ) R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s t r e s s a n d t h eo c c u r r e n c e a n d p r o g r e s s i o n o f a s t h m a , 2 ) R e l a t i o n b e t w e e ne m o t i o n a n d a s t h m a s y m p t o m s , 3 ) P a t i e n t c h a r a c t e r a n d b e -h a v i o r a l p r o b l e m s , 4 ) P r o b l e m s o f d a i l y l i f e a n d Q O L , a n d5 ) F a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d l i f e h i s t o r y p r o b l e m s . P a t i e n tp r o b l e m s a r e i n d i c a t e d b y h i g h s u b c a t e g o r y s c o r e s , w h i c hm a k e s i t p o s s i b l e t o u n d e r s t a n d e a c h p a t i e n t s p r o b l e m s t os o m e d e g r e e a n d t o i m p l e m e n t a n a p p r o p r i a t e p s y c h o -s o m a t i c t r e a t m e n t r e g i m e n t o d e a l w i t h t h e s e p r o b l e m s .

    P s y c h o s o m a t i c t r e a t m e n tB a s i s o f p s y c h o s o m a t i c t r e a t m e n tA g o s y s t e m a t i z e d p s y c h o s o m a t i c t r e a t m e n t i n t o f i v es t a g e s s o t h a t i t i s w e l l o r g a n i z e d a n d o n e c a n e a s i l yc o m p r e h e n d i t [ 2 7 ] . T h e f i v e s t a g e s a r e a s f o l l o w s .

    F i r s t s t a g e : a c h i e v e m e n t o f a t h e r a p e u t i cr e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h m u t u a l t r u s t a n d m o t i v a t i o n t ot r e a t m e n tS o m e p s y c h o s o m a t i c p a t i e n t s r e f u s e t o a d m i t t h a t t h e yn e e d p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n . I n s u c h c a s e s , f i r s t o f a l l ,s o m a t i c s y m p t o m s s h o u l d b e t r e a t e d . I n t e n s i v e p h y s i c a lc a r e f a c i l i t a t e s t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f m u t u a l t r u s t b e t w e e nt h e p a t i e n t a n d d o c t o r . I n p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e p h y s i c a l c a r e ,d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e m e d i c a l h i s t o r y r e l a t e d t ot h e o c c u r r e n c e a n d p r o g r e s s i o n o f t h e d i s e a s e s h o u l d b ec o l l e c t e d , f r o m b o t h t h e p h y s i c a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l a s -p e c t s . T h r o u g h t h e s e i n t e r v e n t i o n s s o m e p a t i e n t s r e a l i z et h e i m p o r t a n c e o f m i n d - b o d y c o r r e l a t i o n s a n d a r e m o t i -v a t e d t o a c c e p t t o t h e p s y c h o s o m a t i c t r e a t m e n t .

    S e c o n d s t a g e : r e l a x a t i o n a n d e x p e r i e n c i n g ar e d u c t i o n o r t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f s y m p t o m sP a t i e n t s p l a c e d i n a s t r e s s f u l e n v i r o n m e n t n e e d e n v i r o n -m e n t a l r e g u l a t i o n . A l t h o u g h i t i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t , s e p a r -a t i o n o f t h e p a t i e n t f r o m h i s / h e r s t r e s s f u l e n v i r o n m e n t i sd e s i r a b l e t o h e l p h i m / h e r a t t a i n m e n t a l a n d p h y s i c a l r e -l a x a t i o n . A u t o g e n i c t r a i n i n g i s a l s o e f f e c t i v e a s a r e l a x -a t i o n t e c h n i q u e . I n a d d i t i o n , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o g i v e t h ep a t i e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o e x p r e s s h i s o r h e r r e p r e s s e df r u s t r a t i o n s a n d n e g a t i v e f e e l i n g s d u r i n g i n t e r v i e w s e s -s i o n s . T h e d o c t o r s s y m p a t h e t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p a -t i e n t s p r o b l e m s a n d f e e l i n g s h e l p s t h e p a t i e n t r e l e a s e h i so r h e r r e p r e s s e d e m o t i o n . I n t h e c a s e o f s l e e p d i s t u r b -a n c e , a n x i e t y , d e p r e s s i o n o r s o m a t i c c o m p l a i n t s , m e d i c a -t i o n s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d . W h e n p a t i e n t s e x p e r i e n c et h e i m p r o v e m e n t o r d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f s y m p t o m s a n dh a v e n o r e l a p s e , t h e y o f t e n h a v e a s t r o n g d e s i r e f o r p s y -c h o s o m a t i c t r e a t m e n t .

    T h i r d s t a g e : u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e m i n d - b o d yc o r r e l a t i o n a n d m a k i n g a p p r o p r i a t e a d j u s t m e n t sI n t h i s s t a g e , t h e a p p r o a c h i s f o c u s e d o n e x t e r n a l f a c t o r st h a t c a n w o r s e n s y m p t o m s a n d o n t h e p a t i e n t s p a t t e r n so f t h i n k i n g a n d b e h a v i o r . T h e p a t i e n t s b e c o m e a w a r e o ft h e i r i n a p p r o p r i a t e p a t t e r n s f r o m a t h i r d p e r s o n p e r s p e c -t i v e . C o g n i t i v e - b e h a v i o r a l t h e r a p y a n d t r a n s a c t i o n a l a n a -l y s i s a r e e f f e c t i v e .

    F o u r t h s t a g e : a c q u i s i t i o n o f a m o r e a p p r o p r i a t ea d j u s t m e n t r e a c t i o nI t i s i m p o r t a n t t o s u p p o r t t h e p a t i e n t s i n c o r r e c t i n g t h e i rp a t t e r n s o f t h i n k i n g a n d b e h a v i o r t h a t a r e r e l a t e d t o t h eo c c u r r e n c e o r e x a c e r b a t i o n o f t h e i r s y m p t o m s a n d t o a s -s i s t t h e m i n a c q u i r i n g a p p r o p r i a t e n e w p a t t e r n s . F r o m t h i st h e y w i l l b e n e f i t b y l e a r n i n g t o r e g a r d e v e n t s o b j e c t -i v e l y , f o r g i v e t h e m s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s , a n d m a i n t a i n p r o p e ra s s e r t i o n s .

    Y o s h i h a r a B i o P s y c h o S o c i a l M e d i c i n e (2015) 9:8 P a g e 3 o f 6

  • F i f t h s t a g e : g r a d u a l d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e t h e r a p e u t i cr e l a t i o n s h i pW h e n t h e p a t i e n t s l e a r n m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e s t y l e s o ft h i n k i n g a n d b e h a v i o r a n d i t i s c o n f i r m e d t h a t t h e s y m p -t o m s n e i t h e r r e l a p s e n o r d e t e r i o r a t e e v e n i f m e d i c a t i o ni s t a p e r e d o f f a n d d i s c o n t i n u e d , t h e p s y c h o s o m a t i c t r e a t -m e n t i s c o m p l e t e d .

    P s y c h o s o m a t i c t r e a t m e n t f o r a s t h m aI n t h e J a p a n e s e g u i d e l i n e s , p s y c h o s o m a t i c t r e a t m e n t f o ra s t h m a c o n s i s t s o f a p p r o a c h e s t o p r o b l e m s r e l a t e d t oa s t h m a , s u c h a s e d u c a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g a s t h m a a n d l i f e s t y l eg u i d a n c e , C o m p r e h e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t I , a n d a p p r o a c h e s t oi n d i v i d u a l p r o b l e m s s u c h a s s t r e s s , c h a r a c t e r , a n d b e h a v -i o r a l p r o b l e m s , C o m p r e h e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t s I I a n d I I I . T h ed e t a i l s a r e a s f o l l o w s .

    C o m p r e h e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t IT h e k n o w l e d g e n e c e s s a r y t o c o n t r o l a s t h m a i s d e s c r i b e dp l a i n l y a n d p r o p e r l y i n s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e p a t i e n t c a ne a s i l y u n d e r s t a n d . P a t i e n t s a r e e d u c a t e d a b o u t t h e i rp a t h o p h y s i o l o g y , t h e i r m e d i c a t i o n ( i t s c o n t e n t s , d e s i r e de f f e c t s , a n d a d v e r s e e f f e c t s ) , a n d t h e p r e c i p i t a t i n g f a c t o r s( o v e r w o r k , s t r e s s , m e d i c i n e , s m o k i n g , d r i n k i n g , e t c . ) o fa s t h m a , t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f a s t h m a a t t a c k s , a v o i d a n c eo f a l l e r g e n s , a n d g o o d l i f e s t y l e a n d h a b i t s . I n a d d i t i o n , a sp r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d , t h e d o c t o r e n g a g e s i n t h e f i r s ts t a g e o f p s y c h o s o m a t i c t r e a t m e n t ; a c h i e v i n g a t h e r a -p e u t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h m u t u a l t r u s t a n d m o t i v a t i o n t ot r e a t m e n t . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e P s y c h o s o m a t i c Q u e s t i o n -n a i r e r e l a t e d t o A s t h m a O c c u r r e n c e a n d P r o g r e s s i o n i sa d m i n i s t e r e d .

    C o m p r e h e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t I II f a s t h m a s y m p t o m s d o n o t i m p r o v e , i t s h o u l d f i r s t b ed e t e r m i n e d i f t h e p a t i e n t h a s a d h e r e d t o t h e t r e a t m e n ta n d i f t h e p a t i e n t h a s m a d e a n e f f o r t t o r e d u c e t h e p r e -c i p i t a t i n g f a c t o r s . T h e d o c t o r s h o u l d c a r e f u l l y i n t e r v i e wt h e p a t i e n t a b o u t t h e c a u s e s o f h i s / h e r n o n - c o m p l i a n tb e h a v i o r s , t h e n e d u c a t e t h e p a t i e n t a b o u t t h e i m p o r t -a n c e o f a c o n s t r u c t i v e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e t r e a t m e n t .

    I f e n v i r o n m e n t a l c a u s e s o f a s t h m a e x a c e r b a t i o n a r ef o u n d i n t h e f a m i l y o r t h e w o r k p l a c e , c o u n s e l i n g w i t h f a m -i l y m e m b e r s o r s u p e r i o r s s h o u l d b e h e l d . I n t h e c a s e o fc h a r a c t e r o r b e h a v i o r a l p r o b l e m s [ 2 8 ] , t h e p a t i e n t s h o u l db e a d v i s e d a b o u t c o n c r e t e w a y s o f a c h i e v i n g g o o d a d h e r -e n c e . M o r e o v e r , w h e n t h e p a t i e n t h a s a n x i e t y o r d e p r e s -s i o n , m e d i c a t i o n s h o u l d b e c o m b i n e d w i t h p s y c h o t h e r a p y .

    C o m p r e h e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t I I II f t h e p a t i e n t s a d h e r e n c e t o t h e t r e a t m e n t i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t ,p s y c h o t h e r a p y t o r e d u c e t h e p a t i e n t s s t r e s s s h o u l d b ec o n s i d e r e d . H i g h s c o r e s o n s u b s c a l e s o f t h e P s y c h o -s o m a t i c Q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e l a t e d t o A s t h m a O c c u r r e n c e a n d

    P r o g r e s s i o n i n d i c a t e t h e n e c e s s i t y t o c l a r i f y t h e p a t i e n t sp r o b l e m s a n d t o a p p r o a c h t h e m w i t h s p e c i f i c m e t h o d s f o re a c h s u b c a t e g o r y , a s f o l l o w s .

    1) When the score for Relation between stress andasthma occurrence or progression is highAs patients become aware of the mind-body correl-ation, they begin to accept the psychosomatic treat-ment without difficulty. If the patient is overworked,has insomnia, or leads an unhealthy life when his/herasthma symptoms are developed or exacerbated, thecauses of those problems should be determined andresolved.Concerning environmental adjustments in the familyor the workplace, counseling with family membersor superiors at their workplace is necessary toreduce the patients burdens. If asthma symptomscannot be controlled in an outpatient setting, ahospitalization with the aim of taking the patient outof stressful situations may be required. Hospitaladmissions often bring the patient a significantdecrease in symptoms and can be a beneficialexperience that helps the patient recognize mind-body correlations and gain motivation to engage in abetter lifestyle.

    2) When the score for Relation between emotion andasthma symptoms is highIntense emotions are precipitating factors of asthma[29]. When the patient has anxiety or depression,medication and psychotherapy are conductedsimultaneously [30-33]. The symptoms of asthmamay continue or worsen according to the patientsability to suppress negative emotions such as anger,dissatisfaction, and sadness. In such cases, theexpression of suppressed emotions is essential.Moreover, the patients need to review how theycope with events that cause negative emotions.

    3) When the score for Patients character andbehavioral problems is highThe symptoms of asthma may worsen when thepatient overworks, has stressful interpersonalrelationships, or has problems coping with stress. Insuch cases, the patients problems and theirbackground should be clarified to help the patientrecognize and modify his/her problematic behaviors.Moreover, experience in reducing symptomsthrough better coping with stress leads to bettermodification of behaviors.Some patients with alexithymia [34] (inability torecognize or to express emotion) cannot engage inappropriate coping strategies because they are notaware of their condition when they are confrontedwith a stressful situation. They need to beencouraged to identify their feelings and to express

    Y o s h i h a r a B i o P s y c h o S o c i a l M e d i c i n e (2015) 9:8 P a g e 4 o f 6

  • their emotions. When patients have difficultyverbally expressing or describing their feelings, sand-play or art therapy may be effective.Some patients with alexisomia [35] (lacking inawareness of somatic sensations) have difficultyperceiving bodily states, such as shortness of breath,and they are likely to consult a physician only aftertheir asthma symptoms worsen. In this case,continuous monitoring of symptoms with a peakflow meter, which provides an objective measure oflung function, is helpful in training the patients tounderstand their physical condition.

    4) When the score for Problems of daily life andQuality of life is highIt has been reported that the worse the symptoms ofasthma, the lower the QOL of the patient.Therefore, it is necessary to treat asthma patientsfrom the perspective of both mind and body toimprove their QOL. Asthma symptoms disturbpatients activities at home and at their workplace.Disturbances in everyday life can induce a viciouscycle between symptoms and stress. Patients shouldbe instructed to keep in mind that they needunprejudiced cognition and timely relaxation in dailylife and not to overwork, even if they are afraid thattheir absence may inconvenience their familymembers or coworkers.

    5) When the score for Problems of familyrelationships and life history is highOnes life history is associated with his/her characterformation, ability to trust, cognition, and behavioralpatterns. A detrimental life history contributes tothe distortion of character, cognitive, and behavioralpatterns, which causes undeveloped and stressfulcoping. If the patients life history is related to theexacerbation of asthma symptoms, the sameapproaches as those for the above-mentioned char-acter and behavioral problems are chosen. If thereare any problems in the patients family, the patientshould be temporarily separated, through ahospitalization for example, from the stressful situ-ation. When the patient has problems with an inter-personal relationship and does not respond toindividual therapy, family therapy or interviews in-cluding family members may be effective.

    C o n c l u s i o n sW h e n p s y c h o s o c i a l f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e t h e o c c u r r e n c e o rp r o g r e s s i o n o f a l l e r g i c d i s e a s e , p s y c h o s o m a t i c t r e a t m e n t i sn e c e s s a r y . A s s e s s m e n t o f p s y c h o s o c i a l f a c t o r s a n d p s y c h o -s o m a t i c t r e a t m e n t t h a t f o l l o w t h e J a p a n e s e G u i d e l i n e s f o rt h e D i a g n o s i s a n d T r e a t m e n t o f P s y c h o s o m a t i c D i s e a s e s i s u s e f u l i n t h e u s u a l m e d i c a l s e t t i n g , a l t h o u g h t h e r e i sr e l a t i v e l y l i m i t e d e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e . I t

    w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o r e v i s e t h e g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e p s y c h o -s o m a t i c t r e a t m e n t o f p a t i e n t s w i t h a l l e r g i c d i s e a s e s b ya c c u m u l a t i n g h i g h - q u a l i t y e v i d e n c e a n d t o p u b l i s h i tw o r l d w i d e .

    A b b r e v i a t i o n sG I N A : G l o b a l I n i t i a t i v e f o r A s t h m a ; Q O L : Q u a l i t y o f L i f e .

    C o m p e t i n g i n t e r e s t sT h e a u t h o r d e c l a r e s t h a t h e h a s n o c o m p e t i n g i n t e r e s t s .

    A u t h o r s c o n t r i b u t i o n sT h e a u t h o r r e v i e w e d t h e p a p e r r e f e r e n c e d a n d w r o t e t h e m a n u s c r i p t .

    A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t sI w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k a l l s t a f f m e m b e r s o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f P s y c h o s o m a t i cM e d i c i n e , G r a d u a t e S c h o o l o f M e d i c a l S c i e n c e s , K y u s h u U n i v e r s i t y , F u k u o k a ,J a p a n .

    R e c e i v e d : 1 7 O c t o b e r 2 0 1 4 A c c e p t e d : 2 6 F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 5

    R e f e r e n c e s1 . C h r o u s o s G P . S t r e s s , c h r o n i c i n f l a m m a t i o n , a n d e m o t i o n a l a n d p h y s i c a l

    w e l l - b e i n g : c o n c u r r e n t e f f e c t s a n d c h r o n i c s e q u e l a e . J A l l e r g y C l i n I m m u n o l .2 0 0 0 ; 1 0 6 : S 2 7 5 9 1 .

    2 . L i e z m a n n C , K l a p p B , P e t e r s E M . S t r e s s , a t o p y a n d a l l e r g y : a r e - e v a l u a t i o nf r o m a p s y c h o n e u r o i m m u n o l o g i c p e r s e p e c t i v e . D e r m a t o e n d o c r i n o l .2 0 1 1 ; 3 : 3 7 4 0 .

    3 . M o n t o r o J , M u l l o l J , J a u r e g u i I , D a v i l a I , F e r r e r M , B a r t r a J , e t a l . S t r e s s a n da l l e r g y . J I n v e s t i g A l l e r g o l C l i n I m m u n o l . 2 0 0 9 ; 1 9 S u p p l 1 : 4 0 7 .

    4 . C h e n E , M i l l e r G E . S t r e s s a n d i n f l a m m a t i o n i n e x a c e r b a t i o n s o f a s t h m a . B r a i nB e h a v I m m u n . 2 0 0 7 ; 2 1 : 9 9 3 9 .

    5 . B l o o m b e r g G R , C h e n E . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p s y c h o l o g i c s t r e s s w i t hc h i l d h o o d a s t h m a . I m m u n o l A l l e r g y C l i n N o r t h A m . 2 0 0 5 ; 2 5 : 8 3 1 0 5 .

    6 . S a n d b e r g S , P a t o n J Y , A h o l a S , M c C a n n D C , M c G u i n n e s s D , H i l l a r y C R , e t a l .T h e r o l e o f a c u t e a n d c h r o n i c s t r e s s i n a s t h m a a t t a c k s i n c h i l d r e n . L a n c e t .2 0 0 0 ; 3 5 6 : 9 8 2 7 .

    7 . W r i g h t R J , R o d r i g u e z M , C o h e n S . R e v i e w o f p s y c h o s o c i a l s t r e s s a n d a s t h m a :a n i n t e g r a t e d b i o p s y c h o s o c i a l a p p r o a c h . T h o r a x . 1 9 9 8 ; 5 3 : 1 0 6 6 7 4 .

    8 . N a g a t a S , I r i e M , M i s h i m a N . S t r e s s a n d a s t h m a . A l l e r g o l I n t . 1 9 9 9 ; 4 8 : 2 3 1 8 .9 . S m y t h J M , S o e f e r M H , H u r e w i t z A , K l i m e n t A , S t o n e A A . D a i l y p s y c h o s o c i a l

    f a c t o r s p r e d i c t l e v e l s a n d d i u r n a l c y c l e s o f a s t h m a s y m p t o m a t o l o g y a n dp e a k f l o w . J B e h a v M e d . 1 9 9 9 ; 2 2 : 1 7 9 9 3 .

    1 0 . A g o Y , N a g a t a S , T e s h i m a H , M i y a t a M , N a k a g a w a T , S u g i t a M , e t a l .E n v i r o n m e n t a l S t r e s s F a c t o r s a n d B r o n c h i a l A s t h m a . I n : P i c h o t P , e d i t o r .P s y c h i a t r y t h e S t a t e o f t h e A r t . N e w Y o r k : P l e n u m P r e s s ; 1 9 8 5 . p . 4 1 5 2 1 .

    1 1 . L i e t z e n R , V i r t a n e n P , K i v i m a k i M , S i l l a n m a k i L , V a h t e r a J , K o s k e n v u o M .S t r e s s f u l l i f e e v e n t s a n d t h e o n s e t o f a s t h m a . E u r R e s p i r J . 2 0 1 1 ; 3 7 : 1 3 6 0 5 .

    1 2 . S h i n s h i n I g a k u n o A t a r a s h i i S h i n r y o u s h i s h i n ( N e w p r a c t i c e g u i d e l i n e s o fP s y c h o s o m a t i c M e d i c i n e ) . J p n J P s y c h o s o m 1 9 9 1 , 3 1 : 5 3 7 5 7 3 . ( J a p a n e s e )

    1 3 . S o g a w a H . K o k y u k i , A l l e r g y K e i n o S h i n s h i n s y o ( P s y c o s o m a t i c D i s o r d e r o fR e s i p r a t o r y S y s t e m o r A l l e r g i e s ) . I n : K u b o C , e d i t o r . S t a n d a r d T e x t b o o k o fP s y c h o s o m a t i c M e d i c i n e . 3 r d e d . T o k y o : I g a k u S h o i n ; 2 0 0 9 . p . 1 2 7 4 2( J a p a n e s e ) .

    1 4 . G l o b a l S t r a t e g y f o r A s t h m a M a n a g e m e n t a n d P r e v e n t i o n , G l o b a l I n i t i a t i v ef o r A s t h m a ( G I N A ) . A v a i l a b l e f r o m : h t t p : / / w w w . g i n a s t h m a . o r g ( 2 0 1 4 ) .A c c e s s e d 1 0 M a r c h 2 0 1 5 .

    1 5 . N a g a t a S , S o g a w a H , N i s h i m a S , Y o k o t a K . B r o n c h i a l A s t h m a ( A d u l t ) . I n :K o m a k i G , F u k u d o S , K u b o C , e d i t o r s . A g u i d e l i n e f o r t h e d i a g n o s i s a n dt r e a t m e n t o f p s y c h o s o m a t i c d i s e a s e . T o k y o : K y o w a K i k a k u ; 2 0 0 6 . p . 6 4 8 7 .J a p a n e s e .

    1 6 . S o g a w a H . J a p a n e s e g u i d e l i n e f o r t h e d i a g n o s i s a n d t r e a t m e n t o f a s t h m aa n d J a p a n e s e g u i d e l i n e f o r t h e d i a g n o s i s a n d t r e a t m e n t o f p s y c h o s o m a t i cd i s e a s e s . J p n J P s y c h o s o m . 2 0 1 3 ; 5 3 : 1 2 0 9 ( J a p a n e s e ) .

    1 7 . A r i m u r a T . I n t a k e M e n s e t s u ( I n t a k e I n t e r v i e w ) . I n : K u b o C , e d i t o r . S t a n d a r dT e x t b o o k o f P s y c h o s o m a t i c N e d i c i n e . 3 r d e d . T o k y o : I g a k u S h o i n ; 2 0 0 9 . p .7 7 8 3 ( J a p a n e s e ) .

    1 8 . C o h e n S , T y r r e l l D A , S m i t h A P . P s y c h o l o g i c a l s t r e s s a n d s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o t h ec o m m o n c o l d . N E n g l J M e d . 1 9 9 1 ; 3 2 5 : 6 0 6 1 2 .

    Y o s h i h a r a B i o P s y c h o S o c i a l M e d i c i n e (2015) 9:8 P a g e 5 o f 6

  • 1 9 . T r u e b a A F , R i t z T . S t r e s s , a s t h m a , a n d r e s p i r a t o r y i n f e c t i o n s : p a t h w a y si n v o l v i n g a i r w a y i m m u n o l o g y a n d m i c r o b i a l e n d o c r i n o l o g y . B r a i n B e h a vI m m u n . 2 0 1 3 ; 2 9 : 1 1 2 7 .

    2 0 . I s e n b e r g S A , L e h r e r P M , H o c h r o n S . T h e e f f e c t s o f s u g g e s t i o n a n de m o t i o n a l a r o u s a l o n p u l m o n a r y f u n c t i o n i n a s t h m a : a r e v i e w a n d ah y p o t h e s i s r e g a r d i n g v a g a l m e d i a t i o n . P s y c h o s o m M e d . 1 9 9 2 ; 5 4 : 1 9 2 2 1 6 .

    2 1 . M i l l e r B D . D e p r e s s i o n a n d a s t h m a : a p o t e n t i a l l y l e t h a l m i x t u r e . J A l l e r g y C l i nI m m u n o l . 1 9 8 7 ; 8 0 : 4 8 1 6 .

    2 2 . H a s l e r G , G e r g e n P J , K l e i n b a u m D G , A j d a c i c V , G a m m a A , E i c h D , e t a l .A s t h m a a n d p a n i c i n y o u n g a d u l t s : a 2 0 - y e a r p r o s p e c t i v e c o m m u n i t y s t u d y .A m J R e s p i r C r i t C a r e M e d . 2 0 0 5 ; 1 7 1 : 1 2 2 4 3 0 .

    2 3 . L e h r e r P M . E m o t i o n a l l y t r i g g e r e d a s t h m a : a r e v i e w o f r e s e a r c h l i t e r a t u r e a n ds o m e h y p o t h e s e s f o r s e l f - r e g u l a t i o n t h e r a p i e s . A p p l P s y c h o p h y s i o lB i o f e e d b a c k . 1 9 9 8 ; 2 3 : 1 3 4 1 .

    2 4 . W a l t e r s P , S c h o f i e l d P , H o w a r d L , A s h w o r t h M , T y l e e A . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i pb e t w e e n a s t h m a a n d d e p r e s s i o n i n p r i m a r y c a r e p a t i e n t s : a h i s t o r i c a l c o h o r ta n d n e s t e d c a s e c o n t r o l s t u d y . P L o S O n e . 2 0 1 1 ; 6 : e 2 0 7 5 0 .

    2 5 . v o n L e u p o l d t A , D a h m e B . E m o t i o n s a n d a i r w a y r e s i s t a n c e i n a s t h m a : s t u d yw i t h w h o l e b o d y p l e t h y s m o g r a p h y . P s y c h o p h y s i o l o g y . 2 0 0 5 ; 4 2 : 9 2 7 .

    2 6 . C h i d a Y , S u d o N , S o n o d a J , H i r a m o t o T , K u b o C . E a r l y - l i f e p s y c h o l o g i c a ls t r e s s e x a c e r b a t e s a d u l t m o u s e a s t h m a v i a t h e h y p o t h a l a m u s - p i t u i t a r y -a d r e n a l a x i s . A m J R e s p i r C r i t C a r e M e d . 2 0 0 7 ; 1 7 5 : 3 1 6 2 2 .

    2 7 . A g o Y . I w a y u r u N a n c h i s e i Z e n s o k u n i t a i s u r u S h i n s h i n i g a k u t e k i K e n k y u( P s y c h o s o m a t i c r e s e r c h o n s o - c a l l e d i n t r a c t a b l e a s t h m a ) . F u k u o k a a c t a m e d .1 9 7 9 ; 7 0 : 3 4 0 5 9 ( J a p a n e s e ) .

    2 8 . A x e l s s o n M , E m i l s s o n M , B r i n k E , L u n d g r e n J , T o r e n K , L o t v a l l J . P e r s o n a l i t y ,a d h e r e n c e , a s t h m a c o n t r o l a n d h e a l t h - r e l a t e d q u a l i t y o f l i f e i n y o u n g a d u l ta s t h m a t i c s . R e s p i r M e d . 2 0 0 9 ; 1 0 3 : 1 0 3 3 4 0 .

    2 9 . T h o m a s M , B r u t o n A , M o f f a t M , C l e l a n d J . A s t h m a a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a ld y s f u n c t i o n . P r i m C a r e R e s p i r J . 2 0 1 1 ; 2 0 : 2 5 0 6 .

    3 0 . B r o w n E S , V i g i l L , K h a n D A , L i g g i n J D , C a r m o d y T J , R u s h A J . A r a n d o m i z e dt r i a l o f c i t a l o p r a m v e r s u s p l a c e b o i n o u t p a t i e n t s w i t h a s t h m a a n d m a j o rd e p r e s s i v e d i s o r d e r : a p r o o f o f c o n c e p t s t u d y . B i o l P s y c h i a t r y .2 0 0 5 ; 5 8 : 8 6 5 7 0 .

    3 1 . D e s h m u k h V M , T o e l l e B G , U s h e r w o o d T , O G r a d y B , J e n k i n s C R . A n x i e t y ,p a n i c a n d a d u l t a s t h m a : a c o g n i t i v e - b e h a v i o r a l p e r s p e c t i v e . R e s p i r M e d .2 0 0 7 ; 1 0 1 : 1 9 4 2 0 2 .

    3 2 . P a r r y G D , C o o p e r C L , M o o r e J M , Y a d e g a r f a r G , C a m p b e l l M J , E s m o n d e L ,e t a l . C o g n i t i v e b e h a v i o u r a l i n t e r v e n t i o n f o r a d u l t s w i t h a n x i e t yc o m p l i c a t i o n s o f a s t h m a : p r o s p e c t i v e r a n d o m i s e d t r i a l . R e s p i r M e d .2 0 1 2 ; 1 0 6 : 8 0 2 1 0 .

    3 3 . R o s s C J , D a v i s T M , M a c D o n a l d G F . C o g n i t i v e - b e h a v i o r a l t r e a t m e n t c o m -b i n e d w i t h a s t h m a e d u c a t i o n f o r a d u l t s w i t h a s t h m a a n d c o e x i s t i n g p a n i cd i s o r d e r . C l i n N u r s R e s . 2 0 0 5 ; 1 4 : 1 3 1 5 7 .

    3 4 . S i f n e o s P E . T h e p r e v a l e n c e o f a l e x i t h y m i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n p s y c h o s o m a t i cp a t i e n t s . P s y c h o t h e r P s y c h o s o m . 1 9 7 3 ; 2 2 : 2 5 5 6 2 .

    3 5 . I k e m i Y , I k e m i A . A n o r i e n t a l p o i n t o f v i e w i n p s y c h o s o m a t i c m e d i c i n e .P s y c h o t h e r P s y c h o s o m . 1 9 8 6 ; 4 5 : 1 1 8 2 6 .

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    Y o s h i h a r a B i o P s y c h o S o c i a l M e d i c i n e (2015) 9:8 P a g e 6 o f 6